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Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2011  with  funding  from 

Princeton  Theological  Seminary  Library 


http://www.archive.org/details/dictionaryofbiOOdavi 


Dictionary  of  the  Bible 


BY 

/ 

JOHN    D.  DAVIS,  Ph.D.,  D.D. 

Professor  of   Semitic    Philology   and    Old    Testament    History   in   the   Theological 
Seminary    at    Princeton,   N.  J. 


With  Many  New  and  Original  Maps 
AND  Plans 


Amply  Illustrated 


PHILADELPHIA 

THE   WESTMINSTER    PRESS 

1898 


Copyright,  1898,  by  The  Trustees  of 
The  Presbyterian  Board  of  Publication  and  Sabbath- 
School  Work. 


PREFACE. 


This  Dictionary  covers  the  canonical  books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments, in  both  the  Authorized  and  Revised  Versions,  together  with  the  First 
Book  of  the  Maccabees  in  the  Revised  Version.  The  Cambridge  edition  of 
1857,  minion  24mo,  has  been  the  standard  of  reference  for  the  canonical 
books  of  the  Authorized  Version.  The  inclusion  of  one  book  of  the  Apoc- 
rypha, and  only  one,  was  determined  by  its  unique  intrinsic  worth,  the  First 
Book  of  the  Maccabees  being 'conspicuous  among  the  apocryphal  writings  for 
its  value  to  the  historian  and  the  biblical  student  as  throwing  much  light  upon 
an  important  period  of  Jewish  history  between  the  death  of  Ezra  and  Nehe- 
miah  at  the  close  of  the  Old  Testament  dispensation  and  the  birth  of  Christ, 
which  inaugurated  a  new  order  of  things.  The  other  books  of  the  Apocrypha 
have  by  no  means  been  neglected  :  they  have  been  laid  under  constant  con- 
tribution, and  their  available  material  has  been  employed;  but  it  was  not 
deemed  desirable  to  devote  an  article  to  every  proper  name,  or  to  register 
every  divergent  spelling,  which  occurs  in  these  writings.  To  have  done  so 
would  have  encumbered  the  pages  with  material  of  slight  value  at  most,  and 
of  no  use  to  the  student  of  the  Bible. 

The  book  aims  to  be  a  dictionary  of  the  Bible,  not  of  speculation  about 
the  Bible.  It  seeks  to  furnish  a  thorough  acquaintance  with  things  biblical. 
To  this  end  it  has  been  made  a  compendium  of  the  facts  stated  in  the  Scrip- 
tures, and  of  explanatory  and  supplementary  material  drawn  from  the  records 
of  the  ancient  peoples  contemporary  with  Israel ;  it  has  been  adequately  fur- 
nished with  authoritative  illustrations,  not  pictures  drawn  from  the  imagina- 
tion, but  actual  delineations  of  the  very  things  themselves;  and  it  has  been 
fully  equipped  with  accurate  maps,  all  recent,  and  most  of  them  drawn  spe- 
cially for  this  work  from  the  latest  authorities.  The  interpretation  of  Scrip- 
ture which  is  frequently  involved  in  the  statement  of  the  facts  will,  it  is 
believed,  be  found  to  be  sober,  fair,  and  just. 

The  variations  in  the  orthography  of  Scripture  proper  names  have  been 
noted   in  the  respective  articles.     Neither  the  Authorized  Version   nor  the 


IV  PREFACE. 

Revised  Veihion  is  thoroughly  consistent.  When  several  methods  of  spelling 
the  same  name  exist,  the  choice  will  depend  upon  individual  taste.  The 
writer  may  perchance  prefer  one  orthography,  the  reader  another.  There 
may  also  be  circumstances  which  make  a  rare  spelling  preferable  in  particular 
cases.  'I'he  reader  may  rest  assured  that  no  form  has  been  admitted  to  the 
pages  of  the  Dictionary  which  is  not  supported  by  authority.  What  that 
authority  is  may  be  seen  by  turning  to  the  proper  article. 

The  pronunciation  of  anglicized  Scripture  proper  names  is  still  in  a 
chaotic  state.  In  the  majority  of  names  the  syllabification  and  accentuation 
have  never  been  settled.  Even  the  systems  of  pronunciation  most  in  vogue 
are  unnecessarily  inconsistent.  A  chief  reason  for  this  is  that  the  pronuncia- 
tion has  been  so  largely  based  on  the  forms  which  the  Greek  and  Latin  trans- 
lators gave  to  the  Hebrew  names.  These  translators  did  not  transliterate  the 
names  in  accordance  with  any  fixed  rule ;  and,  as  a  result,  names  of  similar 
formation  and  pronunciation  in  Hebrew  appear  in  different  forms  in  the 
Greek  and  Latin ;  and  often,  when  quite  similar  in  appearance  in  English, 
retain  the  divergent  Greek  or  Latin  pronunciation.  In  many  cases  this  is 
intolerable.  The  present  work  follows  in  the  main  the  system  of  Webster  in 
the  division  into  syllables  and  the  position  of  the  accent.  The  departures  are 
confined  almost  exclusively  to  certain  classes  of  words.  The  pronunciation 
adopted  is  always  supported  by  good  authority,  and  is  in  the  interest  of  con- 
sistency. When  once  the  syllables  and  the  accent  of  the  anglicized  biblical 
name  have  been  determined,  its  correct  pronunciation  in  the  mouth  of  every 
])erson  of  true  English  instinct  follows  as  a  matter  of  course.  The  letters  are 
sounded  as  they  would  be  under  similar  circumstances  in  an  ordinary  English 
word.  The  exceptions  are  that  the  g  is  soft  in  only  one  name,  Bethphage 
(pronounced  Beth'pha-je),  and  ch  is  always  hard  and  sounded  like  k,  except  in 
Rachel  and  cherub.  The  latter  word  is  scarcely  an  exception,  for  it  is  not  a 
proper  name.  The  proper  name  Cherub,  a  place  in  Babylonia,  is  pronounced 
according  to  rule  (Ke'rub). 

The  meaning  of  proper  names  has  been  given  whenever  it  is  known.  The 
cases  are  many  where  it  has  been  necessarily  omitted  or  stated  cautiously. 
Even  where  there  is  no  note  of  caution,  the  reader  must  be  on  his  guard  ;  for 
although  the  general  signification  of  the  name  may  be  perfectly  clear,  the 
shade  of  meaning  which  lent  the  name  flavor  among  those  who  bestowed  it 
may  elude  discovery.  Judah  means  an  object  of  praise  ;  but  it  might  be  an 
expression  either  of  thankfulness  on  the  part  of  the  parents  to  God,  or  satis- 


PKEl-ACE.  V 

faction  in  the  child  ;  either  (iod  or  the  child  might  be  thought  of  as  praise- 
worthy. Jehovah-jireh  means  Jehovah  doth  see  ;  but  the  special  sense  may- 
be, Jehovah  doth  provide. 

In  regard  to  the  modern  names  of  places  in  Palestine,  the  orthography  of 
the  Palestine  Exploration  Fund  has  been  adopted,  except  that  the  elevated 
comma  is  employed  to  represent  the  Arabic  consonant  alif,  and  the  inverted 
comma  to  represent  the  guttural  ain  ;  compare  Alphabet.  This  is  the  rule  ; 
but  occasionally,  for  special  reasons,  the  etymology  is  more  fully  indicated  by 
the  diacritical  points  conventionally  used  by  Semitists.  These  points  will 
cau.se  no  inconvenience  to  the  uninitiated,  and  will  utter  their  own  voice 
to  the  philologist. 

Persons  are  genealogically  de.scribed  as  far  as  possible  according  to  the 
method  of  registration  which  was  employed  by  the  Hebrews,  namely,  by  the 
tribe,  family,  and  father's  house.  This  is  a  minor  feature,  but  it  is  a  novel 
one,  and  it  adds  materially  to  the  proper  identification  of  personages  and  to  a 
correct  understanding  of  the  genealogies. 

In  the  preparation  of  the  Dictionary  the  author  has  had  the  cooperation  of 

his  colleagues  the  Reverend  Professors  Benjamin  Breckinridge  Warfield,  D.  D., 

LL.  D.,  and  George  Tybout  Purves,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  who  have  furnished  the 

articles   pertaining  to  New  Testament    introduction    and  several    others   on 

important  related  subjects.     To  each  of  these  articles  the  initials  of  its  author 

are  appended. 

J.  D.  D. 

August  17,  1898. 


M  APS. 


The  World  as  known  in  the  Apostolic  A(;e Frontispiece. 

The  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  Powers facing  page    58 

Nineveh,  the  Great  City P^g^  S^l 

Arabia "       44 

Mount  Sinai "     690 

Egypt  and  Peninsula  of  Sinai "     183 

The  South  Country,  Edom,  and  Moab "         8 

Palestine,  as  divided  a.monc;  the  Twelve  Tribes   .    .    .  facing  page  108 

Palestine  in  the  Time  of  Christ "         "     536 

Hill  Country  of  Eastern  Judah  and  Benjamin      "         "     402 

Jerusalem , "         "•     356 

The  Shephelah  or  Low  Country,  Philistia,  and 

the  Plain  of  Sharon "         "     440 

Lower  Galilee  and  the  Plain  of  Esdraelon  .    .       "         "     378 

Sea  of  Galilee page  232 

Region  of  the  Decapolis "165 

Palestine  and  Adjacent  Countries,  illustrating  Mac- 

CAB.t:AN  and  Early  Apostolic  History  ....  facing  page  716 
Paul's  First  and  Second  Missionary  Journeys  ....  "  "  550 
Paul's  Third  Missionary  Journey  and  Journey  to  Rome      "        "     551 


A  DICTIONARY 


THE  BIBLE. 


Aa'ron  [etymology  doubtful.  The  name 
po.ssibly  means  bright,  shining]. 

The  brother  of  Moses  and  his  senior  by 
three  years  (Ex.  vii.  7).  He  was  a  descend- 
ant of  Levi  through  Kohath  and  Amram 
(Ex.  vi.  14-27).  As  we  do  not  read  of  perils 
attending  his  infancy,  it  may  be  inferred  that 
he  was  born  before  the  promulgation  of  the 
nefarious  Egyptian  edicts  dooming  the  He- 
brew male  children  to  death.  He  was 
younger  than  liis  sister  Miriam  (q.  v.).  He 
married  Elisheba,  daughter  of  Amminadab 
and  sister  of  Nahshon,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah, 
who  bore  him  four  sons,  Nadab,  Abihu.  Elea- 
zar,  and  Ithamar  (Ex.  vi.  23;  Num.  iii.  2). 
When  Moses  at  Horeb  was  called  to  stand 
forth  as  the  deliverer  of  his  oppressed  coun- 
trymen, and,  wishing  to  escape  the  mission, 
complained  that  he  was  "slow  of  speech,  and 
of  a  slow  tongue,"  God  repelled  the  objec- 
tion, and  said,  "Is  not  Aaron  the  Levite  thy 
brother?  I  know  that  he  can  speak  well." 
Aaron  was  forthwith  instructed  to  go  out 
and  meet  Moses  in  the  wilderness.  He  did 
so.  The  brothers  met  and  embraced  each 
other  (Ex.  iv.  10-16,  27).  Eeturning  to  Egypt, 
they  gathered  together  the  elders  of  Israel 
and  intimated  to  them  the  approaching  de- 
liverance (29-31 1.  The  wonder-working  rod 
of  Moses  was,  apparently  with  the  divine 
sanction,  transferred  to  Aaron,  and  is  hence- 
forth usually  known  as  Aaron's  rod  (Ex.  iv. 
17  :  vii.  9,  19 '.  Acts  of  smiting  with  this  rod 
brought  on  in  succession  the  ten  Egyptian 
plagues  (vii.  17,  19,  20  ;  viii.  5,  etc.).  At  the 
Red  .Sea,  Moses  was  directed  to  lift  up  the  rod 
(this  time  called  his)  and  the  waters  would 
be  divided  (xiv.  Ki).  Aaron  and  Hur  sup- 
ported Moses'  arms  during  the  battle  with 
Amalek  (xvii.  12).  Aaron  and  two  of  his 
sons.  Nadab  and  Abihu,  and  seventy  of  the 
elders  were  permitted  to  accompany  Moses 
into  the  mount  before  he  received  the  tables 
of  the  law,  and  to  behold  the  God  of  Israel 
(Ex.  xxiv.  1,  9.  10 1.  During  the  prolonged 
stay  of  Moses  in  the  mount,  the  people  became 
impatient  at  the  absence  of  their  leader  and 
turned  to  Aaron  with  the  demand  that  he 
make  them  gods  to  go  before  them.  Aaron 
weakly  yielded  and  made  the  golden  calf 
(Ex.  xxxii.).  According  to  instructions  which 


Mpses  received,  Aaron  and  his  sons  were  to 
till  the  office  of  i)riest.  Accordingly,  after 
the  tabernacle  had  been  completed,  and  was 
ready  for  actual  services  to  begin,  Aaron  and 
his  four  sons  were  solemnly  consecrated  to 
the  priesthood  by  being  anointed  with  oil  and 
clothed  in  splendid  typical  official  vestments 
(Ex.  xxviii. ;  xl.  13-16;  Lev.  viii.).  Aaron 
was  thus  the  first  high  priest,  an  office  which 
he  filled  for  nearly  forty  years.  Shortly  after 
leaving  Sinai,  he  joined  with  Miriam  in  find- 
ing fault  with  Mo.ses  for  having  married  a 
Cushite  woman  (Num.  xii.  1-16).  The  re- 
bellion of  Korah  was  directed  as  much 
against  the  exclusive  priesthood  of  Aaron 
and  his  sons  as  against  the  civil  authority 
of  Moses.  The  divine  apjiointment  of  Mo.ses 
and  Aaron  to  their  respective  offices  was  at- 
tested by  the  destruction  of  the  rebels ;  and 
Aaron's  right  to  the  priesthood  was  further 
and  specially  vindicated  by  the  budding  of  his 
rod  (Num.  xvi.  and  xvii.).  Toward  the  close 
of  the  journey  in  the  wilderness,  when  the 
people  were  encamped  for  the  second  time  at 
Kadesh,  Aaron  and  Moses  dishonored  God 
by  their  conduct  when  they  smote  the  rock. 
For  this  sin  they  were  denied  the  privilege 
of  entering  the  jn-omised  land.  Soon  after- 
wards by  divine  direction  Aaron  was  led  by 
Moses  up  mount  Hor  and  stripped  of  his 
sacred  vestments,  which  were  transferred  to 
his  son  Eleazar.  There  he  died,  at  the  age 
of  one  hundred  and  twenty-three  years.  The 
nation  publicly  mourned  for  him  thirty  days 
(Num.  XX.,  xxxiii.  37-39,  and  see  Priest). 

Aa'ron-ites,  in  the  Hebrew  text  simply 
Aaron,  the  name  being  used  collectively. 

The  priestly  descendants  of  Aaron  (1  Chron. 
xii.  27;  xxvii.  17,  A.  V.). 

A-bad'don  [destruction,  ruin]. 

1.  Destruction,  ruin  (Job  xxxi.  12) ;  the 
place  of  the  dead,  synonymous  with  the 
grave  (Ps.  Ixxxviii.  11),  Sheol  (Job.  xxvi.  6; 
Prov.  XV.  11,  R.  v.),  and  death  (Job  xxviii. 
22). 

2.  A  name  of  the  angel  of  the  abyss,  who 
is  called  in  Greek  Apollyon  (Rev.  ix.  11). 

A-bag'tha  [Persian  name]. 
One  of  the  seven  chamberlains  of  the  Per- 
sian king  Ahasuerus  (Esth.  i.  10). 

1 


Abanah 


Abel-beth-maacah 


Ab'a-nah,  E.  V..  in  A.  V.  Abana ;  in  mar- 
gin of  R.  V.  Amanah  (q.  v.),  of  A.  V.  Amana 
[The  name  pi'obably  means  stony]. 

One  of  tlie  two  rivers  of  Damascus;  pre- 
sumably the  more  important,  for  Naaman, 
of  that  city,  mentions  it  first  (2  Kin.  v.  12). 
It  is  probably  thfe  Barada,  the  Chrysorrhoas 
of  cla.ssical  writers,  which  rises  in  a  large  blue 
pool  of  unfathduiable  depth  on  the  high  plain 
south  of  Zehedany  on  Anti- Lebanon,  twenty- 
three  miles  from  Damascus,  rushes  in  a  south- 
easterly course  down  the  mountain,  and  then, 
turning  eastward,  runs  along  the  north  wall 
of  the  city,  to  be  lost  finally  in  an  inland 
lake,  the  middle  one  of  three  existing.  It 
flows  sluggishly  through  the  iilain,  but  on 
its  passage  through  Damascus  it  has  a  rapid 
course.  Not  less  than  nine  or  ten  branches 
are  taken  from  it,  yet  to  the  end  it  continues 
both  deep  and  broad.  It  is  the  chief  cause  of 
the  beauty  and  fertility  of  the  plain  of  Da- 
mascus. One  of  its  tributaries,  Nahr  Abanias, 
still  preserves  the  memory  of  its  old  name. 

Ab'a-rim  [those  beyond]. 

A  mountain  range  on  the  east  side  of  Jor- 
dan, sloping  abni])tly  from  the  plateau  of 
ISIoab  to  the  Dead  Sea  and  the  Jordan  valley. 
On  it  was  a  station  of  the  Israelites  just  be- 
fore they  reached  the  low  plains  of  Moab, 
opposite  Jericho  (Num.  xxxiii.  47,  48).  It 
was  from  mount  Abarim  and  the  peak  of  it 
called  Nebo  that  Moses  was  directed  to  look 
across  at  the  promised  land  (Num.  xxvii.  12  ; 
Deut.  xxxii.  49 ;  xxxiv.  1).  In  the  E.  V.  Aba- 
rim is  mentioned  in  Jer.  xxii.  20,  with  Leba- 
non and  Bashan  ;  in  the  A.  V.  it  is  rendered 
"passages." 

Ab'ba  [Aramaic,  father]. 

A  term  borrowed  from  childhood's  language 
to  express  filial  address  to  God  (Mark  xiv.  36  ; 
Eom.  viii.  15 ;  Gal.  iv.  6).  The  corresponding 
Hebrew  word  is  Ab  ;  it  is  common  in  com- 
pound proper  names  in  the  forms  Ab  and 
Abi,  as  Abimelech,  Abner  or  Abiner,  Eliab. 

Ab'da  [Aramaic,  servant,  probably  mean- 
ing servant  of  God]. 

1.  The  father  of  Adoniram  (1  Kin.  iv.  6). 

2.  A  Levite,  the  son  of  Shammua  (Neh. 
xi.  17). 

Ab 'de-el  [servant  of  God]. 
Tlie  father  of  Shelemiah  (Jer.  xxxvi.  26). 
Ab'di  [servant  of,  a  contraction  of  servant 
of  God]. 

1.  A  Levite  of  the  ftimily  of  Merari.  He 
was  the  son  of  Malluch,  and  father  of  Kishi 
(1  Chron.  vi.  44).  The  Abdi  of  2  Chron.  xxix. 
12  seems  to  be  the  same  man. 

2.  Son  of  a  certain  Elam  (Ezra  x.  26). 
Ab'di-el  [servant  of  God]. 

A  Gadite,  residentin Gilead  ( 1  f 'hron.  v.  15). 

Ab'don  [servile]. 

1.  The  son  of  Hillel,  a  native  of  Pirathon, 
in  the  tribe  of  Ephraim.  He  judged  Israel, 
or  a  portion  of  it,  eight  years,  and  is  the  elev- 
enth judge  in  the  order  of  enumeration.    He 


had  forty  sons  and  thirty  sons'  sons,  who  rode 
on  as  many  ass-colts — a  sign  of  rank  in  days 
when  the  Hebrews  did  not  yet  have  horses. 
He  was  buried  in  his  native  place  (Judg.  xii. 
13-15). 

2.  Head  of  a  father's  house  of  Benjamin,  a 
son  of  Shashak,  dwelling  in  Jerusalem  (1 
Chron.  viii.  23,  26,  28). 

3.  A  Benjamite,  the  fir.stborn  of  Jehiel  of 
Gibeon  and  an  ancestor  of  king  Saul  (1  CJhron. 
viii.  30  ;  ix.  35,  36). 

4.  An  official  of  king  Josiah  (2  Chron. 
xxxiv.  20) ;  see  Achbor. 

5.  A  town  in  the  territory  of  Asher,  given, 
with  its  suburbs,  to  the  Levites  of  the  Ger- 
shon  family  (Josh.  xxi.  30 ;  1  Chron.  vi.  74). 
Abdon  is  perhaps  identical  with  the  ruins  of 
'Abdeh,  ten  miles  north  of  Acre. 

A-bed'ne-go  [servant  of  Nego,  probably 
the  same  as  Nebo]. 

The  name  given  by  the  prince  of  the  eu- 
nuchs at  Babylon  to  Azariah,  one  of  the  three 
faithful  Jews,  afterwards  miraculously  saved 
from  the  fiery  furnace  (Dan.  i.  7;  iii.  12-30; 
1  Mac.  ii.  59).' 

A'bel,  I.  [breath,  vapor ;  applied  to  Abel 
apparently  from  the  shortness  of  his  life ;  or 
perhaps  the  name  means  son]. 

A  younger  son  of  Adam,  and  by  calling  a 
shepherd.  Abel  was  a  righteous  man  (Mat. 
xxiii.  35 ;  1  John  iii.  12) ;  one  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament worthies  whose  conduct  was  con- 
trolled by  faith  (Heb.  xi.  4).  He  offered  to 
God  a  lamb  from  his  flock,  which  was  ac- 
cepted. It  was  not  the  kind  of  ottering,  but 
the  character  of  the  otterer  that  God  re- 
spected. As  brought  by  Abel,  the  ottering 
showed  the  surrender  of  the  heart  to  God. 
The  offering  of  the  best  further  revealed  the 
sense  of  obligation  and  gratitude  to  God  as 
the  sole  bestowcr  of  the  good,  to  whom  all 
thanks  were  due.  It  expressed  the  conscious- 
ness in  the  offerer  of  entire  dependence  upon 
God  for  daily  blessing  and  the  desire  for 
the  continuance  of  God's  favor.  In  one  in 
whom  the  sense  of  sin  was  deep,  it  set  forth 
the  entire  dependence  of  the  sinner  upon 
God's  unmerited  mercy.  Cain's  character  was 
difierent  from  Abel's;  and  being  rejected  he 
at  the  promptings  of  envy  slew  Abel  (Gen.  iv). 
The  ultimate  ground  of  Abel's  acceptance  by 
God  was  the  atoning  blood  of  Christ. 

A'bel,  II.  [a  grassy  place,  a  meadow]. 

1 .  The  same  as  Abel-beth-maachah  (2  Sam. 
XX.  14,  15,  18). 

2.  In  1  Sam.  vi.  18  it  is  apparently  an  er- 
roneous reading  for  'Ebcn.  stone;  see  R.  Y. 

A'bel-beth-ma'a-cali  and  Abel  of  Beth- 
maacah,  in  A.  V.  written  Maachah  [Abel, 
?'.  e.  Meadow  near  Beth-maacah]. 

A  fortified  town  in  the  tribe  of  Naphtali 
(1  Kin.  XV.  20;  2  Kin.  xv.  29).  It  was  re- 
nowned for  wisdom  (2  Sam.  xx.  18).  During 
Sheba's  revolt  Joab  was  about  to  assault  it, 
hut  "a  wise  woman"  flung  the  rebel's  head 
over  the  wall,  and  saved  the  town  (14-22). 


Abel-cheramim 


Abiel 


It  was  one  of  the  places  cajiturcd  by  Ben-ha- 
dad  at  the  instance  of  Asa  (1  Kin.  xv.  20). 
Tiglath-pileser  II.  took  it  with  other  Naph- 
talitc  towns,  carryin};  the  inhabitants  captive 
to  Assyria  (2  Kin.  xv.  2it).  Its  site  was 
probably  at  Abil  el-Kamh,  a  small  Christian 
village  on  a  rising  ground  west  of  the  Jor- 
dan, about  twelve  miles  north  of  lake  Huleh 
and  almost  directly  o]iposite  Dan.  The  Der- 
dara  Hows  swiftly  along  at  the  bottom  of  the 
western  side  of  the  mound  on  which  the  vil- 
lage stands,  and  the  country  on  every  side  is 
well  watered  and  very  fertile.  In  2  Chrou. 
xvi.  4,  it  is  called  Abel-maim,  Abel  by  the 
water. 

A'bel-clier'a-mini  [meadow  of  vineyards]. 

A  place  east  of  the  Jordan  to  which  Jeph- 
thah  pursued  the  Ammonites  (Judg.  xi.  3.3, 
R.  v.). 

A'bel-ma'im.     See  Abel-beth-maacah. 

A'toel-me-ho'lali  [meadow  of  dancing]. 

A  town,  apparently  in  the  Jordan  valley, 
where  Elisha  was  born  (Judg.  vii.  22;  1  Kin. 
iv.  12;  xix.  16).  It  was  fixed  by  Jerome  ten 
Roman  miles  south  of  Scytho])olis,  the  Scrip- 
ture Bethshean.  Couder  places  it  at  'Ain 
Helwch. 

A'bel-miz-ra'im.     See  Atad. 

A'bel-sliit'tlm  [meadow  of  acacias].  See 
Shittim. 

A'bez,  in  R.  Y.  Ebez  [whiteness,  tin]. 

A  town  of  Issachar  (Josh.  xix.  20).  Not 
identified. 

A'bi.     See  Abijah  6. 

A-bi'a.     See  Abijah. 

A-bi'ah  [Jehovah  is  a  father].  The  Hebrew 
name  is  usually  rendered  Abijah  in  the  Eng- 
li.sh  version. 

Tlie  wife  of  Hezron.  a  man  of  the  tribe  of 
Judah  (1  Chron.  ii.  24).  For  others  who.se 
name  appears  in  A.  V.  as  Abiah,  see  Abijah, 

A-bi-al'bon  [father  of  strength]. 

One  of  David's  mighty  men  (2  Sam.  xxiii. 
31).  The  Septuagintsuj)portsthe  reading  Abiel 
in  this  passage,  which  is  the  name  he  bears  in 
1  Chron.  xi.  32. 

A-bi'a-saph,  or  Ebiasaph  [father  of  gath- 
ering, perhaps  in  the  same  sense  of  removing 
reproach]. 

A  descendant  of  Levi  through  Korah  (Ex. 
vi.  16,  18,  21.  24  ;  1  Chron.  vi.  23  ;  ix.  19). 

A-bi'a-thar  [father  of  abundance]. 

A  ])riest,  the  son  of  Ahimelech,  of  the  line 
of  Eli.  On  the  slaughter  by  Doeg  at  the  in- 
stance of  king  Saul  of  the  priests  at  Nob, 
Abiathar  escaped,  carrying  the  ephod  with 
him  :  and,  as  was  natural,  cast  in  his  lot  with 
David  (1  Sam.  xxii.  20-23).  When  David  at 
length  ascended  the  throne.  Zadok  and  Abia- 
thar apparently  shared  the  high-jiriesthood 
between  them  (cj).  1  Chron.  xv.  11, 12  ;  2  Sam. 
XV.  24  seq. ;  xv.  3."),  etc.).  The  mention  of 
Ahimelech,   son  of  Abiathar,  as  i)riest  with 


Zadok  in  2  Sam.  viii.  17,  is  regarded  by  some 
as  a  copyist's  error,  whereby  the  names  of 
father  and  son  were  transposed.  But  the 
nun)l)er  of  allusions  to  Ahimelech,  the  son  of 
Abiathar,  as  priest,  is  so  great  that  an  error  is 
improbable  (1  Chron.  xviii.  16,  Septuagint ; 
xxiv.  3,  6,  31).  A  simpler  exjilanation  is 
that,  since  Abiathar  was  becoming  quite  old 
(he  was  about  seventy  years  of  age  at  tlie 
time  of  Absalom's  revolt),  his  son  and  legal 
successor  assumed  the  burdensome  priestly 
functions  and  was  called  priest,  as  Phinehas 
served  during  the  lifetime  of  Eli  and  was 
called  priest  (1  Sam.  i.  3;  ii.  11).  The  aged 
Abiathar  remained  faithful  to  the  king  dur- 
ing Absalom's  rebellion,  and  rendered  the 
fugitive  monarch  great  service  (2  Sam.  xv. 
24,  29,  35,  36;  xvii.  15  ;  xix.  11)  ;  but  when 
later  Adonijah  sought  to  wrest  the  succession 
to  the  throne  from  Solomon,  Abiathar  cast 
his  priestly  influence  with  the  military  in- 
fluence of  Joab,  another  old  man,  in  favor  of 
the  attractive  aspirant  (1  Kin.  i.  .7).  Though 
this  attempt  failed,  he  again  favored  Adoni- 
jah after  David's  death  (1  Kin.  ii.  12-22). 
For  this  he  was  deposed  from  the  high-priest- 
hood, and  Zadok,  a  priest  of  approved  loyalty, 
but  of  the  other  branch  of  the  Aaronic  fam- 
ily, was  put  into  his  place  (1  Kin.  ii.  26,  35). 
His  deposition  involved  that  of  his  sons, 
Ahimelech  and  Jonathan  ;  and  thus  the  rule 
of  the  house  of  Eli  came  to  an  end,  according 
to  prophecy  (1  Sam.  ii.  31-.35).  The  passage  in 
1  Kin.  iv.  4  probably  refers  to  the  time  im- 
mediately prior  to  his  deposition.  Abiathar 
is  alluded  to  by  our  Lord  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment (Mark  ii."26). 

A'bib  [an  ear  of  corn]. 

The  month  which  the  Hebrews  were  di- 
rected to  make  the  first  of  the  year  in  com- 
memoration of  their  departure  from  Egypt 
(Ex.  xii.  1,  2;  xiii.  4).  Harvest  began  in  it. 
The  feast  of  unleavened  bread  or  the  iia.ss- 
over  fell  during  the  month  (Ex.  xii.  1  seq.  ; 
xxiii.  lo;  Dent.  xvi.  1).  The  Jewish  months 
following  the  moon,  and  ours  being  fixed,  the 
two  cannot  be  made  exactly  to  corres])ond. 
Abib  most  nearly  approaches  our  month  of 
March,  though  in  some  years  its  end  moves 
some  distance  into  our  April.  After  the  cap- 
tivity the  name  Abib  gave  place  to  Nism 
(Neh.  ii.  1 ;  Esth.  iii.  7).     See  Year. 

A-bi'da,  in  A.  Y.  once  Abidab  (Gen.  xxv. 
4)  an  inconsistency  from  which  the  original 
edition  of  A.  Y.  is  free  [father  of  knowledge]. 

A  descendant- of  Abraham  through  Midian 
(Gen.  xxv.  4  ;  1  Chron.  i.  33). 

A-bi'dan  [father  of  a  judge,  or  the  father 
judgeth]. 

The  representative  prince  of  the  tribe  of 
Benjamin  in  the  wilderness.  His  father's 
name  was  Gideoni  (Num.  i.  11  ;  ii.  22;  vii. 
60,  65  ;  X.  24). 

A-bi'el  [father  of  strength,  or  God  is  a 
father]. 

1.  A  Benjamite,   the  father  of    Kish  and 


Abiezer 


Abilene 


of  Ner,  and  the  grandfather  of  Saul  and  of 
Abner  (1  Sam.  ix.  1  ;  xiv.  51).     See  Kish  2. 

2.  An  Arhathite,  one  of  David's  mighty 
men  (1  C'hron.  xi.  32),  called  in  2  Sam.  xxiii. 
31  Abi-albon  (q.  v.). 

A-bi-e'zer  [father  of  help]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Manasseh  through 
Machir,  and  founder  of  a  family  (Josh.  xvii. 
2 ;  1  Chron.  vii.  18) ;  abbreviated  in  Num. 
xxvi.  130  to  lezer  (A.  V.  Jeezer).  The  judge 
( Jideon  belonged  to  this  family  (Judg.  vi.  11). 

2.  Collectively,  the  family  of  Abiezer 
(Judg.  vi.  34  ;  viii.  2). 

3.  One  of  David's  heroes  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  27 ; 
1  Chron.  xi.  28;  xxvii.  12). 

A-bi-ez'rite. 

One  belonging  to  the  family  of  Abiezer 
(Judg.  vi.  11,  24  ;  viii.  32).  In  Num.  xxvi. 
30  abbreviated,  and  K.  V.  has  lezerite.  A.  V. 
Jeezerite  ;  but  the  spelling  should  rather  be 
lezrite  to  accord  with  the  Hebrew  and  be  con- 
sisttnit  with  Abiezrite. 

Ab'i-gail  [perhaps,  father  of  exultation]. 

1.  The  wife  of  Nabal.  She  was  a  woman 
of  good  understanding,  and  of  a  beautiful 
countenance,  and  on  the  death  of  her  first 
lui.sl)and  became  one  of  David's  wives  (1  Sam. 
XXV.  3,  14-44;  xxvii.  3;  2  Sam.  ii.  2).  When 
the  Amalekites  captured  Ziklag  they  took 
her  captive,  but  .she  was  rescued  by  her  hus- 
band after  he  had  defeated  the  enemy  (1  Sam. 
xxx.  5,  18).  She  bore  to  him  a  son  called 
Chileab  (2  Sam.  iii.  3)  or  Daniel  (1  Chron. 
iii.  1). 

2.  A  sister  of  David  (1  Chron.  ii.  16) ;  not, 
however,  a  daugliter  of  Jesse,  but  of  Nahash 
(2  Sam.  xvii.  25).  She  was  the  mother  of 
Amasa. 

Ab-i-ha'il  [father  of  strength].  In  the 
Hebrew  text  the  /i  is  a  different  letter  in  the 
name  of  the  men  and  in  that  of  the  women. 
The  difrcrcnce  is  commonly  attributed  to  an 
early  misreading  of  the  text. 

1.  A  Levite  of  the  famiivof  Merari  (Num. 
iii.  35). 

2.  Wife  of  Abishur  (1  Chron.  ii.  29). 

3.  A  Gadite  (1  Chron.  v.  14). 

4.  Wife  of  king  Rehoboam  and  a  descend- 
ant of  Eliab,  David's  brother  (2  Chron.  xi.  18). 

5.  Father  of  queen  Esther  (Esth.  ii.  15). 
A-bi'hu  [He,  i.  e.  God,  is  fiither] . 

A  son  of  Aaron.  He  shared  in  the  privi- 
leges, in  the  sin.  and  in  the  fate  of  Nadab 
the  eldest  son,  and  like  him  died  childless 
(Ex.  vi.  23;  xxiv.  1  ;  xxviii.  1  ;  Lev.  x.  1-7; 
Num.  iii.  2). 

A-bi'bud  [probably,  father  of  praiseworthi- 
uess] . 

A  descendant  of  Benjamin  through  the 
family  of  Bela  (1  Chron.  viii.  3). 

A-bi'jah,  in  A.  V.  of  O.  T.  thrice  Abiab 
(1  Sam.  viii.  2;  1  Chron.  vi.  28;  vii.  8),  in 
A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Abia  [Jehovah  is  a  father]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Aaron.  His  family  had 
grown  to  a  father's  house  in  the  time  of  David, 


and  was  made  the  eighth  of  the  twenty-four 
courses  into  which  David  divided  the  priests 
(1  Chron.  xxiv.  1,  6,  10).     See  7  below. 

2.  A  descendant  of  Benjamin  through  Be- 
cher  (1  Chron.  vii.  8). 

3.  The  younger  son  of  Samuel,  appointed 
by  his  father  a  judge  in  Bcersheba,  but  who 
proved  corrupt  (1  Sam.  viii.  2 ;  1  Chron.  vi. 
28). 

4.  A  son  of  Jeroboam.  While  yet  a  child 
he  fell  dangerously  sick.  Jeroboam  sent  his 
queen  in  disguise  to  the  prophet  Ahijah,  who 
had  predicted  that  he  should  obtain  the  king- 
dom, to  inquire  what  the  issue  of  the  sick- 
ness would  be.  The  prophet  recognized  the 
queen,  notwithstanding  her  disguise,  de- 
nounced judgment  against  Jeroboam  for  his 
apostasy  from  Jehovah,  and  added  that  the 
child  would  die  at  ouce,  and  that  alone  of 
all  that  household  he  would  obtain  honor- 
able burial,  because  in  him  was  found  some 
good  thing  toward  the  Lord  God.  All  came 
to  pass  as  the  seer  had  foretold  (1  Kin.  xiv. 
1-18). 

5.  The  name  given  in  Chronicles  to  the  son 
and  successor  of  Rehoboam,  called  in  Kings 
Abijam  (2  Chron.  xii.  16  ;  xiii.  1-xiv.  1) ;  see 
Abijam. 

6.  The  mother  of  Hezekiah  (2  Chron.  xxix. 
1).  In  2  Kin.  xviii.  2  she  is  called  with 
great  brevity  Abi. 

7.  A  chief  of  the  priests  who  returned  with 
Zerubbabel  from  Babylon  (Neh.  xii.  4,  7). 
Possibly  he  was  a  representative  of  the  old 
course  of  Ahijah,  but  the  connection  cannot 
be  established,  and  in  view  of  Ezra  ii.  36  seq. 
is  not  probable.  In  the  next  generation,  a 
father's  house  among  the  priests  bore  this 
name  (Neh.  xii.  17).  The  father  of  John  the 
Baptist  belonged  to  this  family  (Luke  i.  5). 

8.  A  priest  who,  doubtless  in  behalf  of  a 
father's  house,  signed  the  covenant  in  the 
days  of  Nehemiah  (Neh.  x.  7). 

A-bi'jam  [possibly,  father  of  the  sea]. 

The  son  and  successor  of  Rehoboam  on  the 
throne  of  Judah.  His  mother's  name  was 
Maacah,  a  descendant  of  Absalom  (1  Kin. 
XV.  2  ;  2  Chron.  xiii.  2).  He  sinned  after  the 
manner  of  his  father,  and  had  not  a  heart 
true  to  Jehovah.  The  kings  of  Judah  had 
not  yet  become  reconciled  to  the  revolt  of  the 
ten  tribes,  and  Abijam  continued  the  war 
with  Jeroboam  which  his  father  had  waged 
(1  Kin.  XV.  6,  7).  According  to  2  Chron.  xiii. 
3,  compared  with  2  Sam.  xxiv.  9,  the  whole 
population  "able  to  go  forth  to  war"  was 
under  arms.  In  the  slaughter  which  accom- 
panied the  warfare,  half  a  million  men  of 
Israel  were  slain  (2  Chron.  xiii.  16-20).  Abi- 
jam had  fourteen  wives,  twenty-two  sons, 
and  sixteen  daughters  (2  Chron.  xiii.  21). 
He  reigned  three  years,  and  died,  leaving 
his  son  Asa  to  succeed  him  in  the  kingdom 
(1  Kin.  XV.  1-8;  2  Chron.  xiv.  1).  Abijam  is 
called  in  Chronicles  Ahijah. 

Ab-i-le'ne  [Greek  'Abilene,  so  called  from 


Abimael 


Abishai 


AbilH,  its  capital,  aud  that  agaiu  probably 
from  the  Semitic  'abel.  a  meadow]. 

A  totrarchy  near  Anti-Lchaiion.  Its  cap- 
ital Ahila  lay  upon  the  Haraila.  IS  or  'JO 
miles  N.  W.  from  Damascus,  in  part  upon 
the  site  of  the  modern  village  of  es-Suk, 
There  is  a  romantic  gorge,  with  a  Roman 
mad  cut  in  the  clitf,  a  cemetery,  a  number 
of  tall  i)illars,  a  stream  below  and  the  so- 
called  "tomb  of  Abel"  above.  The  local 
tradition  that  -Vbel  was  buried  here  doubtless 
originated  in  the  similarity  of  sound  between 
Abel  aud  Abila.  Of  the'  formation  of  the 
tetrarchy  Josephus  makes  no  mention.  In 
Luke  iii.  1  it  is  referred  to  as  separate  from 
the  tetrarchy  of  Philip,  and  as  governed  by 
LysJiuias  in  the  fifteenth  year  of  Tiberius. 
Some  ten  years  later  the  two  tetrarchies  are 
still  distinct;  for  t'aligula,  TOO  .v.  r.  c,  be- 
stowed the  "tetrarchy  of  Philip,"  now  dead, 
and  the  "tetrarchy of  Lysanias"  upon  Herod 
Agrippa,  the  Herod  of  the  book  of  Acts 
(Antiq.  xviii.  6,  10).  and  Claudius  confirmed 
to  him  "  Abila  of  Lysanias"  (xix.  5,  1). 

There  was  an  Abila  in  Persea,  east  of  Gad- 
ara,  but  it  is  not  mentioned  in  Scripture. 

A-bim'a-el  [composition  of  the  name  still 
unknown]. 

A  name  in  the  genealogy  of  Joktan.  It 
may  denote  a  person,  a  tribe,  or  a  locality, 
and  is  to  be  sought  in  Arabia  (Gen.  x.  28 ;  1 
Chron.  i.  22 1. 

A-bim'e-lech  [father  of  the  king]. 

1.  The  personal  name  or  official  title  of  a 
king  of  Gerar,  at  whose  court  Abraham  at- 
tempted to  pass  Sarah  off  as  his  sister  (Gen. 
XX.  1-18).  The  king  and  the  patriarch  at  a 
later  period  entered  into  a  covenant  with  each 
other  (xxi.  22-34). 

2.  A  king  of  the  Philistines  at  Gerar,  at 
who.se  court  Isaac  attempted  to  pass  off  Re- 

^bekah  as  his  sister,  and  with  whom  he  also, 
like  his  father,  at  last  formed  a  covenant 
(Gen.  XX vi.  1-33). 

3.  The  son  of  the  judge  Gideon  by  a  con- 
cubine. This  woman  was  a  native  of  She- 
chem,  where  her  fiimily  had  influence.  One 
natural  penalty  of  polygamy  is  that  the  sons 
by  one  mother  tend  fiercely  to  quarrel  with 
those  by  another  ;  and  Abimelech,  obtaining 
assistance  from  his  mother's  relatives,  killed 
seventy  sons  of  his  father  on  one  stone  at 
Ophrah.  the  native  city  of  the  family.  One 
son  only,  .Jotham.  escajied  from  the  massacre. 
Then  Abimelech  was  elected  king  of  Shechem. 
Before  he  had  ruled  three  years  he  and  his 
subjects  were  at  variance,  and  his  throne, 
founded  in  blood,  had  begun  to  totter.  A 
plot  against  him  was  formed  by  Gaal.  It 
came  to  the  ears  of  Zcbul,  Abiuielech's  sec- 
ond in  command,  tiaal  was  defeated  and 
driven  out  of  Shechem,  the  city  being  after- 
wards destroyed  and  sowed  with  siilt.  A 
thousand  men  and  women  who  had  taken 
refuge  in  its  tower  were  burnt  to  death. 
When  Abimelech  shortlv  afterwards  was  be- 


sieging TheV)c/.,  he  was  mortally  wounded  by 
a  millstone  dr(){>ped  on  his  head  from  the 
city  wall  by  a  woman.  Regarding  it  as  di.s- 
houorable  to  be  killed  by  a  female,  lie  or- 
dered his  armor-hearer  to  draw  his  sword 
and  slay  him,  which  he  did  (Judg.  ix.  1-57). 

4.  Sec  AcHiSH. 

5.  A  priest,  asonof  Ahiathar(l("hron.  xviii. 
16).  The  spelling  isdoulitlessa  copyist's  error 
for  Abimelech.  The  Sept  uagint  reads  .\hime- 
lech  ;  see  also  1  Chron.  xxiv.  (j,  etc. 

A-bin'a-dab  [father  of  liberality]. 

1.  A  man  of  Kirjath-jearim.  who  when  the 
ark  was  sent  l)ack  by  the  Philistines  gave  it 
accommodation  in  his  house  for  twenty  years, 
his  son  Eleazar  being  set  apart  as  a  priest  to 
act  as  its  custodian  (1  Sam.  vii.  1,2;  2  Sam. 
vi.  3;  1  Chron.  xiii.  7). 

2.  The  second  son  of  Jesse  and  an  elder 
brother  of  David  (1  Sam.  xvi.  8;  xvii.  13). 

3.  A  son  of  Saul,  killed  with  his  father  in 
the  battle  of  Gilboa  (1  Sam.  xxxi.  2). 

4.  Father  of  a  son-in-law  of  Solomon  and 
tax-gatherer  for  the  region  of  Dor  (1  Kin. 
iv.  11). 

A-bin'o-am  [father  of  sweetness  or  grace]. 
The  father  of  Barak  (Judg.  iv.  6 ;  v.  12). 
A-bi'ram    [legitimate  variant   of   Abram. 
For  meaning  see  Abr.\ham]. 

1.  f\  Reubenite,  a  brother  of  Dathan  and 
fellow  conspirator  with  Korah  (Num.  xvi.). 

2.  The  firstborn  son  of  Hiel,  who  rebuilt 
Jericho  (1  Kin.  xvi.  34).  His  death,  when 
its  foundations  were  laid,  in  j)art  fulfilled  a 
curse  pronounced  by  Joshua  (Josh,  vi,  26). 

A-bish'ag  [perhaps,  father  of  wandering]. 

A  beautiful  girl  from  Shunem,  employed  to 
attend  upon  king  David  when  he  was  old 
and  declining  in  vitality  (1  Kin.  i.  1-4). 
Adonijah  wished  to  marry  her  after  David's 
death,  and  made  application  for  the  needt'd 
permission  to  Solomon,  who  not  merely  re- 
fused his  request,  but  interpreted  it  to  mean 
an  insidious  claim  for  the  crown,  and  i)ut  him 
to  death  (1  Kin.  ii.  V.]-2o). 

A-bish'a-i  and  Abshai  (1  Chron.  xviii.  12 
margin)  [possessor  of  all  that  is  desirable]. 

A  son  of  David's  si.ster  Zerniah.and  brother 
of  Joab  and  Asahel  (2  Sam.  ii.  18;  1  Chron. 
ii.  13,  16).  When  David  found  Saul  and  his 
followers  asleep,  Abishai  asked  jiermission  to 
kill  the  king;  but  David  would  not  sanction 
his  doing  harm  to  "the  Lord's  anointed" 
(1  Sam.  xxvi.  .5-9).  He  served  under  Joab 
in  David's  army  (2  Sam.  ii.  18:  x.  10).  When 
Abner,  fleeing  from  the  battle  at  Gibet)n,  was 
compelled  to  kill  Asahel,  Joab  and  Abishai, 
his  two  brothers,  pursued  the  homicide, 
but  witliout  effect  (2  Sam.  ii.  18-24).  He 
was  loyal  to  David  during  the  revolts  of 
Absalom  and  Sheba  (2  Sam.  xvi.  and  xx.). 
He  desired  to  slay  Sliimei  for  cursing  David, 
even  when  Shimei  asked  forgiveness  (2  Sam. 
xvi.  9;  xix.  21).  He  was  one  of  Davifls 
mighty  men  who  had  lifted  ujt  his  spear 
against   three   hundred    and    slain   them    (2 


Abishalom 


Abraham 


Sam.  xxiii.  18  ;  1  Chrou.  xi.  20).  He  defeated 
the  Edomites  also  in  the  valley  of  Salt,  slay- 
ing eighteen  thousand  of  them  and  garrison- 
ing their  country  (1  Chron.  xviii.  12,  13). 
He  succored  David  in  the  light  with  Ishbi- 
beuob  (2  Sam.  xxi.  16,  17). 

A-bish'a-lom.     See  Abs.\lom. 

A-bish'u-a  [father  of  salvation]. 

1.  A  Beujamite  of  the  family  of  Bela  (1 
Chron.  viii.  4). 

2.  The  son  of  Phinehas  the  priest  (1  Chron. 
vi.  4,  5,  50;  Ezra  vii.  5). 

A-toi'shur  [father  of  a  wall]. 
A  man  of  Judah.  family  of  Hezrou,  house 
of  Jerahmeel  (1  Chron.  ii.'28,  29). 

A-bi'tal  [apparently,  father  of  dew,  perhaps 
in  the  sense  of  refreshment]. 

One  of  David's  wives.  Her  son  was  Sheph- 
atiah  (2  Sam.  iii.  4;  1  Chron.  iii.  3). 

A-bi'tub  [father  of  goodness]. 

A  Benjamite,  sou  of  Shaharaim  by  his  wife 
Hushim  (1  Chron.  viii.  8-11). 

A-bi'ud  [the  Greek  form,  probably,  of  He- 
brew Abihud]. 

A  member  of  the  royal  line  of  Judah  (Mat. 
i.  13).    The  name  is  omitted  in  1  Chron.  iii.  19. 

Ab'ner  [father  of  light].  A  legitimate  va- 
riant form,  Abiner,  is  used  in  the  Hebrew 
text  of  1  Sam.  xiv.  50,  and  in  the  margin  of 
some  editions  of  the  English  version. 

The  son  of  Ner,  king  Saul's  uncle.  During 
the  reign  of  that  monarch  Abner  was  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  army  (1  Sam.  xiv.  51). 
He  first  became  acquainted  with  David  when 
that  youth  ofiered  to  meet  Goliath  in  combat 
(1  Sam.  xvii.  55-58).  On  the  death  of  Saul, 
Abner  availed  him.self  of  the  tiibal  feeling 
adverse  to  Judah,  and  turned  it  to  the  ad- 
vantage of  the  house  to  which  he  was  related 
by  blood,  and  to  which  he  had  owned  allegi- 
ance. He  proclaimed  Saul's  son  Ish-bosheth 
king  at  Mahauaim  (2  Sam.  ii.  8).  During 
the  war  between  the  house  of  Saul  and  David 
which  followed,  iu  an  interview  which  he 
held  at  Gibeon  with  Joab,  David's  com- 
mander-in-chief, Abner  proposed  what  he 
seems  to  have  intended  for  a  tournament 
between  twelve  young  men  picked  from  Ish- 
bosheth's  supporters  and  as  many  taken  from 
the  followers  of  David,  but  mutual  animos- 
ities converted  the  mimic  combat  into  a  real 
battle  ;  and  the  two  armies  being  drawn  into 
the  struggle,  that  which  Abner  led  was  de- 
feated with  great  slaughter  (12-32).  During 
the  retreat  from  this  battle  Abner  was  perti- 
naciously followed  with  hostile  intent  by 
Asahel,  one  of  Joab's  brothers,  and  after  re- 
jieatedly  warning  him  oS',  had  at  last  to  strike 
him  dead  in  self-defence  (18-24).  Soon  after- 
wards Abner  had  a  serious  charge  brought 
against  him  by  Ish-bosheth,  which  .so  irritated 
him  that  he  intimated  his  intention  of  trans- 
ferring his  allegiance  to  David,  and  was  as 
good  as  his  word.  First  he  sent  messengers 
to  David,  and  then  sought  an  interview  with 


him,  and  was  graciously  received.  But  Joab, 
believing  or  pretending  to  believe  that  Ab- 
ner had  come  simply  as  a  spy,  went  after 
him,  invited  him  to  a  friendly  conversation, 
and  stabbed  him  dead.  The  ostensible  rea- 
son for  this  assa.ssination  was  revenge  for  the 
death  of  Asahel,  who,  however,  had  died  in 
fair  fight.  An  unavowed  motive  probably 
was  fear  that  Abner  might  one  day  displace 
him  from  the  command  of  David's  army. 
The  king  was  justly  incensed  against  the 
murderer,  and  conspicuously  showed  the  peo- 
ple that  he  had  no  complicity  in  the  crime. 
He  attended  the  funeral,  lamented  the  un- 
worthy fate  of  the  prince  and  great  man  who 
had  fallen  in  Israel,  and  finally  left  it  in 
charge  to  his  successor  to  call  Joab  to  ac- 
count for  the  crime  (iii.  6-39;  1  Kin.  ii.  5). 
Abner  had  at  least  one  son,  Jaasiel  (1  Chron. 
xxvii.  21),  and  seems  to  have  had  a  regard  for 
the  house  of  God,  for  he  dedicated  to  it  some 
of  the  spoils  which  he  had  taken  iu  battle 
(xxvi.  28). 

A-bom-i-na'tlon  of  Des-o-la'tion. 

Idolatry  with  its  blighting  eflect  upon  man, 
its  degradation  of  the  divine  ideal,  and  its 
violent  outward,  as  well  as  its  less  visible  in- 
sidious, opposition  to  the  kingdom  of  God. 
To  Daniel  was  revealed:  "For  the  half  of 
the  week,  he  shall  cause  the  sacrifice  and  the 
oblation  to  cease  ;  and  upon  the  wing  of  abom- 
inations shall  come  one  that  maketh  desolate  " 
(ix.  27,  R.  V.) ;  "and  they  shall  profane  the 
sanctuary,  even  the  fortress,  and  shall  take 
away  the  continual  burnt  oflering,  and  they 
shall  set  u])the  abomination  that  maketh  deso- 
late "  (xi.  31,  R.  V.)  ;  and  "  from  the  time  that 
the  continual  burnt  ofi'ering  .shall  be  taken 
away,  and  the  abomination  that  maketh  des- 
olate set  up,  there  shall  be  a  thousand  two  hun- 
dred and  ninety  days  "  (xii.  ll,R.y.).  These 
prophecies  depict  outstanding  features  of  the 
development  of  the  kingdom  of  God,  which 
are  typical  for  all  time.  A  notable  fulfillment 
of  xi.  31,  which  the  Jews  were  quick  to  dis- 
cern, was  the  stoppage  of  the  daily  sacrifice 
by  Antiochus  Epiphanes  in  June,  168  b.  c, 
and  the  erection  on  the  brazen  altar  of  an 
idolatrous  one,  on  which  sacrifices  were  of- 
fered to  Jupiter  Olympius  (1  Mac.  i.  54  ;  vi. 
7  ;  2  Mac.  vi.  2  ;  Antiq.  xii.  5,  4 ;  7,  6).  But 
the  prophecy  of  the  abomination  of  desola- 
tion was  not  exhausted  by  this  fulfillment. 
The  prophecy  belongs  to  Messianic  times  (Dan. 
ix.  27),  and  yet  more  generally  to  the  conflict 
of  the  kingdom  of  God  until  its  final  triumph- 
ant establishment  (xii.  7,  11  with  vii.  25-27; 
cp.  xii.  2).  Christ  reiterated  the  proi)hecy, 
enjoining  those  to  flee  to  the  mountains  who 
should  see  the  abomination  of  desolation, 
spoken  of  by  Daniel  the  prophet,  standing 
in  the  holy  place  (Mat.  xxiv.  15,  etc.). 

A'bra-ham,  at  first  Abram  [in  Hebrew, 
Abram  denotes  exalted  father:  the  change 
to  Abraham  appears  to  consist  merely  in 
strengthening  the  root  of  the  second  sylla- 


II 


Abraham 


Abraham 


ble,  iu  order  to  placo  increased  cnii)liasi,s  ou 
the  idea  of  exaltation]. 

Son  of  Terali,  in-o^cnitor  of  the  Hehrews, 
father  of  the  faithful,  and  the  friend  of  God 
(Geii.  xi.  2(i ;  Gal.  iii.  7  J» ;  Jas.  ii.  2:5). 

I.  Chronology. — 1.  His  life  before  his  arrival 
in  Canaan,  75  years.  In  his  early  life  Abra- 
liam  dwelt  with  his  father  and  his  I)rethren 
iu  Fr  of  the  Chaldees.  He  married  Sarai, 
his  half-sister.  After  the  death  of  his  l)rother 
Haran.  he,  his  wife,  and  Lot  his  nephew  nii- 
jjrated,  under  the  headship  of  Terah,  from 
Ur  to  fi<>  to  the  land  of  Canaan  (Gen.  xi.  27- 
31).  The  motive  whieh  led  the  family  to 
change  its  habitation  is  not  stated  in  Gen.  xi. 


and  Neh.  ix.  7 ;  although  these  passages  might 
refer  to  God's  i)roviilenee.  All  the  various 
causes  suggested  may  have  coclperated  ;  and 
the  Tiatural  motives  may  have  been  the 
means  providentially  employed  l)y  (Jod  to 
persuade  the  party  to  obey  the  heavenly 
vision.  The  family  dejiarted  from  Ur  and, 
taking  the  customary  route,  followed  the 
Euphrati'S  toward  the  nortliw<'st.  On  reach- 
ing Haran.  the  party  temporarily  abandoned 
the  purpose  of  journeying  to  Canaan  and 
took  up  residence  where  they  were.  When 
Abraham  was  75  years  old,  he  departed  from 
Haran  to  go  to  Canaan.  This  move  may  have 
been  due  to  God's  will  as  I'e  vealed  by  him  in  Ur, 


Traditional  Oali  of  Abraham  at  Mamre. 


Josephus  inferred  from  the  narrative  that 
Terah  was  actuated  by  a  desire  to  escape  from 
associations  which  reminded  him  of  the  son 
who  had  died  lAntiq.  i.  6,  5).  It  has  also  been 
suggested  that  the  migration  of  the  family 
may  have  been  prompted  by  the  wish  to  better 
their  condition  in  a  new  and  freer  country, 
or  have  been  incited  by  political  disturbances 
in  Chaldea,  such  as  an  invasion  of  the  Elam- 
ites.  Stephen  understood  Gen.  xii.  1  to  refer 
back  to  this  time,  and  to  be  the  initial  com- 
mand, given  while  the  family  was  yet  in  I'r, 
for  he  .says:  "God  appeared  unto  Abraham, 
when  he  was  in  Mesopotamia,  before  he  dwelt 
in  Haran  "  (Acts  vii.  2,  R.  V.).  Stephen's  in- 
terpretation  is  countenanced  by  Gen.  xv.  7 


or  to  a  command  now  first  received.  Stephen, 
as  already  said,  adopts  tlie  I'oriner  interpreta- 
tion and  the  wording  oftlie  details  in  f  ten.  xii.  1 
well  suits,  with  our  present  meager  knowledge 
of  the  community  at  Haran,  this  ex]danation. 
The  departure  is  related  after  the  record  of 
Terah's  death.  It  does  not  follow,  however, 
from  this  that  Abraham  tarried  at  Haran 
until  his  father  died.  The  narrator  as  usual 
concludes  what  he  has  to  say  of  Terah  before 
taking  up  the  detailed  history  of  Abraham. 
Still  it  is  a  plausil)le  conjecture  that  Abra- 
ham did  tarry  so  long;  for  the  same  party 
that  left  Ur  now,  with  the  exception  of 
Terah,  leaves  Haran :  and  this  also  is  the 
interpretation  of  Stephen.     Btit  if  so,  Abra- 


Abraham 


Abraham 


ham  was  born  when  Terah  was  at  least  130 
years  old,  and  not  70,  as  is  often  unneces- 
sarily inferred  from  Gen.  xi.26.  In  this  pas- 
sage Abraham  is  mentioned  first,  either  be- 
cause he  was  the  firstborn  and  born  in  Terah's 
70th  year,  or  else,  if  he  was  a  younger  sou 
and  born  after  Terah's  70th  year,  because  he 
was  the  progenitor  of  the  chosen  people  (,cp. 
Gen.  V.  32  with  ix.  22,  24).  From  Haran 
Abraham  went  to  Canaan.  What  route  did  he 
take '?  Probably  the  road  by  way  of  Damas- 
cus, for  a  great  highway  led  from  Mesopo- 
tamia past  that  city  to  Canaan ;  and  later 
mention  is  made  of  Abraham's  steward,  Eli- 
ezer  of  Damascus.  Abraham  did  not  stop 
long  at  any  place  along  the  way,  but  prop- 
erly speaking  journeyed  continuously;  for 
he  was  75  years  old  when  he  left  Haran,  and 
he  spent  ten  years  in  Canaan  before  he  took 
Hagar  to  wife  (Gen.  xvi.  3),  and  he  was  86 
years  old  when  Hagar  bore  Ishmael  (16)  ;  so 
that  not  more  than  a  year  elapsed  between 
the  departure  from  Haran  and  the  arrival  in 
Canaan. 

I.  2.  Unsettled  life  in  Cnnnnn,  at  most  10 
years.  He  encamped  at  Shechem  (Gen.  xii.  6), 
at  Beth-el  (8),  journeyed  to  the  south  country 
(9),  and  was  driven  by  famine  into  Egypt. 
In  Egypt,  through  fear  for  his  life,  he  repre- 
sented Sarah  merely  as  his  sister  (10-20). 
He  returned  to  the  south  country  (xiii.  1), 
was  again  at  Beth-el  (3).  He  and  Lot  now 
separated  on  account  of  their  increasing  pos- 
ses.sions.     Lot  chose  the  plain  of  the  Jordan 


Pfelr-a 

Afa'an. 


SOUTH  COUNTRY,EDOM*''°M0AB 


SeaU  o/M/es 


(5-12).     Abraham  afterwards  moved  his  tent 
to  the  oaks  of  Mamre  at  Hebron  (18). 

I.  3.  Residence  at  the  oalcs  of  Mamre,  at  least 
15,  perhaps  23  or  24  years.  Abraham  is  in 
treaty  with  the  Amorite  chieftains  of  the 
vicinity  (Gen.  xiv.  13),  pursues  Chedorlaomer 
(l-16),'is  blessed  by  Melchizedek  (17-24).  The 
promise  of  an  heir  is  given  him  and  is  be- 
lieved ;  and  the  ])romise  of  Canaan  as  an  in- 
heritance is  confirmed  by  covenant  (xv.). 
Birth  of  Ishmael  (xvi.).  After  an  interval 
of  13  years  (16;  xvii.  1),  the  promise  is  un- 
folded.    Man's  attempt  to  fulfill  God's  prom- 


Abraham 


Abraham 


ise  does  not  alter  ({od's  intention  ;  not  the 
bondwoman's  ehild,  l)ut  the  free  woman's; 
not  the  ehikl  of  the  tlesh,  Imt  the  chihl  of 
jn-omise.  On  tliis  oeeasii>n  tlie  covenant  sijjn 
of  eireumeisiou  is  appointed,  and  tiie  name 
Abram  is  changed  to  Abraham  (Gen.  xvii.). 
Sodom  is  destroyed  (xviii.  and  xix). 

I.  4.  Residence  in  the  south  conittri/,  some  lo 
years  durinfr  the  ehildliood  of  Isaae.  Sarah 
taken  to  the  eourt  of  Abimeleeh  (Gen.  xx.). 
When  Abraham  is  100  years  old.  Isaac  is  born, 
and  a  week  later  Ishmael  is  expelled  (xxi.  1- 
•21 ).  At  a  well  owned  by  Abraham.  Abimeleeh 
and  he  conclude  a  treaty,  and  Abraham  names 
the  well  Beer-sheba  (2J-34).  When  Isaac 
was  somewhat  grown  (xxii.  6  ;  Josephus  con- 
jectures 25  years,  Antiq.  i.  13.  2),  Abraham's 
faith  was  put  to  an  open  test  by  the  command 
to  .sacritice  his  only  son.  In  obedience  to  this 
commaiul,  he  and  Isaac  reyiaii-ed  to  the  moun- 
tains of  Moriah,  when  a  ram  was  graciously 
substituted  for  Isaac.  They  returned  to  Beer- 
sheba  (xxii.  1-19). 

I.  5.  Again  at  Hebron,  after  an  uneventful 
interval  of  20  years.  Here  Sarah  died,  aged 
127  years  (Gen.  xxiii). 

I.  6.  Probably  in  the  south  country  with  Isaac, 
about  38  years.  After  the  death  of  Sarah, 
when  Abraham  was  140  years  old  (xxi v.  67; 
XXV.  20),  he  sends  to  Mesopotamia  to  obtain 
a  wife  from  his  own  people  for  Isaac.  Re- 
bekah  is  brought  back  and  meets  Isaac  at 
Beer-lahai-roi,  perhaps 'Aiu  Muweileh  (xxiv). 
That  Abraham  took  Keturah  to  wife  is  next 
recorded.  Abraham  died,  aged  175  years, 
and  was  buried  in  the  cave  of  Machpelah 
(xxv.  1-9). 

II.  The  size  of  the  community  under  Abraham. 
Abraham  departed  from  Haran  with  his  wife, 
his  nephew,  and  the  souls  that  they  had  ac- 
quired (Gen.  xii.  5),  and  in  Gauaau  he  obtained 
additional  servants  by  purchase,  by  gift  and 
doubtless  by  birth  (xvi.  1 ;  xvii.  23,  27  ;  xviii. 
7;  XX.  14).  He  was  rich  in  flocks  and  herds 
and  their  necessiiry  accompaniment,  men- 
servants  and  maidservants  (xii.  16:  xiii.  2, 
7;  xxiv.  32,  '.i-'y.  59;  xxvi.  15).  He  led  318 
trained  men,  born  in  his  house,  to  the  rescue 
of  Lot  (xiv.  14).  He  was  recognized  by  the 
neighboring  chieftains  as  a  mighty  prince 
(xxiii.  6),  with  whom  they  do  well  to  make 
alliances  and  conclude  treaties  (xiv.  13  ;  xxi. 
22  seq.).  Yet  when  deprived  of  the  aid  of 
his  allies,  as  when  he  went  to  sojourn  in 
Egypt,  his  sense  of  in.security  triumphed 
over  his  better  self,  and  he  repressed  part  of 
the  truth  in  regard  to  Sarah.  He  desired 
peace  and  was  a  man  of  peace  (xiii.  8).  yet 
like  many  other  hardy  settlers  would  in  time 
of  need  brave  hardship  and  danger  and  do 
battle  for  relatives  and  friends  (xiv). 

III.  The  religions  belief  of  Abraham.  His 
nearer  ancestors  served  other  gods  (Josh. 
xxiv.  2).  Their  worship  was  at  least  cor- 
r\ipted  by  the  prevalent  animism  of  Baby- 
lonia, which  assigned  a  spirit  to  every  object 
in  nature,  and  which   led  to  the  conception 


of  eleven  great  gods  besides  innumerable 
minor  deities.  The  great  gods  were  the 
deities  of  the  majestic  and  imjjressive  objects 
in  nature:  of  the  sky,  of  eartli's  surface,  of 
the  ocean  and  all  subterranean  waters:  of 
the  moon,,,the  sun,  and  the  storm;  and  of 
the  five  planets  visible  to  the  naked  eye. 
The  gods  were  powi-rful.  were  active  in  na- 
ture, bestowed  siK'cial  care  on  favorite  indi- 
viduals and  comnuiuilies,  heard  and  an- 
swered prayer.  Abraham's  faitl)  was  distin- 
guished from  the  belief  of  the  great  majority 
of  his  contemporaries  of  whom  we  have  any 
knowledge,  in  that  Abraham  believed  in  (iod 
the  almighty  (Gen.  xvii.  1),  the  everhisting 
(xxi.  33),  the  most  high  ( xiv.  22),  the  possessor 
or  maker  of  heaven  and  earth,  i.  e.  the  actual 
and  lawful  Lord  of  all  (ibid.,  xxiv.  3),  the 
righteous  Judge,  i.  e.  the  moral  governor  of 
all  the  earth  (xviii.  25)  ;  and  in  accordance 
with  the  faith  of  his  contemporaries,  Abra- 
ham believed  in  this  God  as  the  dispo.ser  of 
events,  who  seeth  and  taketh  knowledge  of 
what  occurs  on  earth,  and  who  giveth  and 
withholdeth  as  he  will.  In  this  faith  Abra- 
ham obeyed,  worshiped,  and  guarded  the 
lionor  of  God.  How  came  Abraham  by  this 
faith?  1.  Reason  lent  its  aid,  as  it  still  helps 
the  intelligent  Christian.  Polytheists  have 
often  arrived  at  henotlieism ;  and  there  are 
traces  of  henotheism  among  Abraham's  coun- 
trymen in  Babylonia.  A  clear,  logical  mind, 
such  as  Abraham  exhibits,  would  tend  to  pass 
from  henotheism  to  monotheism.  Melchize- 
dek  had  come  to  worship  the  most  high  God, 
possessor  of  hea%-en  and  earth  ;  and  his  re- 
ligious couceptions  and  practices  called  forth 
profound  recognition  from  Abraham.  Monu- 
mental evidence  seems  to  show  that  occasion- 
ally an  individual  among  the  Assyrians  and 
Babylonians  arrived  at  a  siuculiitive  belief 
in  the  unity  of  God,  but  without  iulluencing 
the  people  at  large.  It  is  no  more  unique  for 
Abraham  to  believe  in  one  God,  Lord  over 
all,  than  for  Ho.sea  or  Amos  to  do  so.  2.  The 
religious  inheritance,  which  he  received  fnmi 
his  forefathers,  aided  Abraham.  In  su])])ort 
of  this  source  of  religious  information  may  be 
urged,  (a)  the  reascms  for  believing  in  a  primi- 
tive revelation:  (b)  the  existence  of  tlie  line 
which  began  with  Adam  and  included  such 
true  worshipers  of  God  as  Seth  (see  (ten.  iv. 
26),  Enoch,  and  Noah  ;  and  (c)  the  historical 
fact  of  the  transmission  to  the  Hebrews  of 
traditions  like  that  of  the  creation  and  the 
flood.  3.  Special  revelation  was  granted  to 
Abraham  by  dreams,  visions,  and  theojihanies 
(xii.  7 ;  XV.  1,  12,  17 ;  xvii.  1  ;  xviii.  1,  2 :  xxii. 
1,  2).  Theophanies  are  as  conceivable  in 
Abi-aham's  time  as  is  the  manifestation  of 
Christ  at  a  later  age. 

IV.  Harmony  between  the  Hebrew  record  and 
contemporary  history.  1.  The  language  of 
Canaan.  Before  the  conqtiest  of  tlu>  countrj' 
by  the  Israelites  under  Joshua  not  a  few  places 
and  persons  bore  Semitic  names.  Abimeleeh 
and  Urushalim,  /.  e.  Jerusjilem.  were  in  vogue. 


Abram 


10 


Absalom 


IV.  2.  The  narrative  of  Abraham  fits  hito  Egyp- 
tian history.  Biblical  chronological  data  place 
the  arrival  of  Abraham  in  Cauaan  about  645 
years  before  the  Exodus.  This  date  explains 
at  once  Abraham's  willingness  to  go  to  Egypt 
when  famine  prevailed  in  Canaan  and  his 
kindly  reception  by  Pharaoh,  for  the  date  of 
his  journey  falls  within  the  period  when 
Asiatics,  the  so-called  shepherd  kings,  held 
the  throne  of  Egypt.  The  biblical  data  place 
not  only  Abraham's  visit  to  the  Nile  country, 
but  also  the  descent  of  Jacob  and  his  sons  to 
Egj'pt,  Avithin  the  period  of  the  shepherd 
rule :  a  strong  confirmation  both  of  the 
chronological  data  and  of  the  authenticity 
of  the  narrative. 

IV.  3.  The  narrative  fits  into  Babylonian  his- 
tory. (1.)  About  the  time  assigned  by  the  He- 
brew record  to  Abraham  and  the  invasion  of 
the  west,  the  populous  plain  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Tigris  was  ruled  by  an  Elamite  dynasty. 
(2.)  Under  the  Elamite  sovereign  vassal  kings 
exercised  sway,  as  described  in  Genesis.  (3.) 
The  Babylonian  kings  of  this  period  made  ex- 
])editions  into  the  far  west  and  held  Canaan 
in  subjection  (cp.  Kudurmabug  and  Ammisa- 
tana).  (4.)  Chedorlaomei;,  the  name  assigned 
to  the  king  of  Elam,  is  a  genuine  Elamite 
name.  Chedor,  i.  e.  Kudur,  is  constantly 
used  in  the  composition  of  Elamite  royal 
names,  and  Laomer,  i.  e.  Lagamar,  is  the 
name  of  an  Elamite  god.  Thus  the  Hebrew 
record  gives  an  accurate  and  somewhat  de- 
tailed picture  of  the  political  condition  of 
Babylonia  as  well  as  of  Canaan.  It  may  be 
added  that  Cliedorlaomer's  own  name  and 
those  of  his  allies  have  been  recently  re- 
ported as  discovered  in  the  Babylonian  in- 
scriptions. 

A'bram  (Gen.  xi.  26-xvii.  5).     See  Abka- 

HAM. 

A-bro'nah,  in  A.  V.  Ebronah  [a  passage,  or 
opi)osite] . 

A  station  of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilder- 
ness, apparently  north  of  Ezion-geber  (Num. 
xxxiii.  34,  35). 

Ab'sa-lom  and  Abishalom  (1  Kin.  xv.  2, 
10)  [father  of  peace]. 

1.  The  third  son  of  David,  king  of  Israel. 
He  was  born  in  Hebron,  and  had  for  his 
mother  Maacah,  the  daughter  of  Talmai, 
king  of  Gcshur,  in  Aram  (2  Sam.  iii.  3).  He 
was  of  faultless  form,  and  had  long,  fine  hair, 
of  which  he  was  inordinately  vain.  His 
beauty  was  shared  by  his  sister  Tamar,  who 
so  fascinated  her  half-brother  Amnon  that 
he  criminally  dishonored  her,  for  which  two 
years  afterwards  he  was  treacherously  assas- 
sinated at  the  instance  of  Absalom,  whose 
guest  he  was  at  the  time.  Though  Absalom 
was  his  father's  favorite,  his  crime  was  too 
gross  to  be  overlooked  even  by  his  indulgent 
parent.  He  had  to  go  into  exile,  and  re- 
mained three  years  with  his  maternal  con- 
nections in  Geshur,  and  two  more  at  Jeru.sa- 
lem.  before  he  was  allowed  to  return  to  the 


court  or  see  his  royal  father.  He  soon  after- 
wards deliberately  set  himself  to  win  the 
hearts  of  the  people  away  from  the  king  his 
father,  and  when  the  plot  was  ripe,  repaired, 
under  false  pretences,  to  Hebron,  and  raised 
the  standard  of  rebellion.  The  perfection 
of  his  bodily  frame  marked  him  out  for  rule 
of  the  highest  kind.  Probably  he  had  heard 
that  Solomon  was  to  succeed  David,  and  con- 
sidered the  ari-augement  unfair  to  himself, 
as  he  was  the  elder  of  the  two  brothers,  and, 
unlike  Solomon,  was  by  the  mother's  as  well 
as  the  father's  side  of  royal  blood.  Whether 
or  not  he  was  aM'are  that  it  was  t)y  the  divine 
choice,  as  recorded  in  1  Chron.  xxii.  7-10, 
that  Solomon  was  designated  to  the  sove- 
reignty, is  less  certain  ;  if  he  did  know  it, 
then  in  a  theocracy  like  the  Jewish,  the 
enormity  of  his  rebellion  was  further  height- 
ened. It  is  noticeable,  in  connection  with 
this  point,  that  the  priests  and  Levites  sided 
with  David,  and  brought  him  much  moral 
as  well  as  material  support ;  but  the  mass  of 
the  people  seem  to  have  gone  against  him, 
and  he  had  to  escape  with  a  few  faithful  fol- 


Absalom's  Tomb. 

lowers  from  Jerusalem  to  save  his  life.  Of 
David's  two  chief  counselors,  the  abler  one, 
Ahithophel,  had  gone  over  to  Absalom ;  the 
other,  Hu.sliai,  was  faithful  to  David,  and 
went  after  the  fugitive  king.  David  sent 
him  back  to  Jerusalem  to  pretend  adherence 
to  Absalom,  and  thwart  the  counsel  of  Ahith- 
ophel. When  the  time  arrived  for  ofler- 
ing  advice  to  Absalom,  Ahithophel  astutely 
recommended  that  he  should  be  allowed  to 
take  12, 000  men  that  very  night  and  follow 
David  before  David  recovered  from  his  depres- 
sion. He  would  kill  only  the  king,  and  the 
people  would  then  come  over  to  Absalom. 
Before  the  scheme  was  carried  out,  Hushai 


I 


Abshai 


11 


Accho 


was  asked  if  he  adhered  to  it,  and  of  course 
he  raised  ohjeetions,  and  jirojjosed  a  rival 
scheme  of  his  own,  so  preposterous  that  it 
does  uot  say  much  for  Absalom's  penetration 
that  he  did  not  see  it  was  meant  to  efiect  his 
ruin.  Huslu^i  counseled  long  dehiy,  a  course 
which  would  really  tend  to  make  Absalom 
weaker  and  David  stronger.  He  flattered 
Absalom's  self-conceit  by  proposing  that  he 
should  be  commander,  which  would  give  the 
army  a  poor  leader.  When  victory  was 
achieved,  which  he  assumed  to  be  a  certainty, 
he  provided  that  there  should  be  extensive 
and  unnecessiiry  bloodshed,  a  serious  politi- 
cal blunder  as  well  as  a  great  crime.  Hushai's 
absurd  scheme,  however,  recommended  itself 
to  Absalom  and  the  people,  and  Ahithophel, 
seeing  that  it  was  all  over  with  the  rebellion, 
went  home  and  committed  suicide.  Hushai, 
understanding  that  the  danger  was  not  yet 
over,  sent  David  counsel  immediately  to  cross 
the  Jordan,  which  he  did.  Absalom  and  the 
rebel  army  were  beginning  to  revert  to  the 
policy  of  Ahithophel  ;  and  ultimately  a  com- 
promise was  made  between  his  plan  and  that 
of  Hushai.  ('.  e.  hostilities  should  be  immediate, 
but  Absalom  should  be  the  commander-in- 
chief.  The  battle  took  place  in  the  wood  of 
Ephraim,  apparently  near  Mahanaim,  where 
David  was  then  residing.  The  rebel  host, 
undisciplined  and  badly  led,  went  down  at 
once  before  David's  veterans,  handled  by 
three  skillful  commanders.  When  the  rout 
took  place,  Absalom,  riding  furiously  on  a 
mule,  got  his  head  entangled  among  the 
spreading  branches  of  an  oak,  great  disser- 
vice being  done  him  by  the  long  hair  of 
which  he  was  so  vain.  The  animal  ran 
away,  leaving  him  hanging  helplessly,  but 
alive.  Joab,  one  of  the  three  commanders, 
thrust  three  darts  through  the  heart  of  the 
unhappy  prince,  and  ten  of  Joab's  immediate 
followers  surrounding  him  completed  the 
slaughter.  David  had  given  express  direc- 
tions that  Absalom  should  not  be  injured,  and 
on  hearing  of  his  death  he  gave  himself  up  to 
excessive  grief  (2  Sam.  xiii.  1-xix.  8).  Ab- 
salom was  buried  near  the  place  where  he 
died,  in  a  pit  under  a  great  cairn  of  stones. 
He  had  reared  for  himself  a  pillar  at  Jerusa- 
lem to  keep  his  name  in  remembrance  (xviii. 
17.  IS).  What  is  now  called  Absalom's  tomb 
is  in  the  valley  of  the  Kidron.  The  decora- 
tions date  from  the  Greco-Roman  period,  but 
the  chamber  itself  may  be  older.  According 
to  the  title,  Ps.  iii.  was  composed  by  David 
during  Absalom's  rebellion  ;  perhaps  also  Ps. 
vii. 

2.  Father  of  Mattathias  and  probably  of 
Jonathan,  captains  of  the  Jewish  army  under 
the  Maccabees  Jonathan  and  Simon  (1  Mac. 
xi.  TO;  xiii.  11;  Antiq.  xiii.  5,  7;  6,  4). 

Ab'shal.    See  Abishai. 

A-ca'ci-a.     See  Shittah. 

Ac'cad. 

An  ancient  city  in  the  land  of  Shinar  and 


one  of  four  towns  which  constituted  the  orig- 
inal kingdom  of  Nimrod  (Gen.  x.  10).  It  is 
also  mentioned  by  Mebuchadnezzar  called  the 
First,  who  reigned  at  Babylon  about  11,50  B.  v. 
(VR  56,  50).  The  name  was  extended  to  denote 
a  district  called  the  land  of  Accad.  This  dis- 
trict, at  one  period  at  least,  embraced  northern 
Babylonia,  adjacent  to  Assyria,  and  included 
within  its  bounds  the  cities  of  Babylon  and 
Cutha. 

Ac'cho  [hot  sand]. 

A  city  on  a  small  promontory  of  the  coast 
of  Palestine,  about  25  miles  south  of  Tyre. 
The  town  looks  aci'oss  the  bay  of  its  own 
name  to  mount  Carmel,  about  8  miles  to  the 
south.  It  was  assigned  to  the  tribe  of 
Asher,  but  was  not  occupied  by  the  Hebrews 
(Judg.  i.  31).  In  the  time  of  Hoshea  it 
submitted  to  Shalmaneser,  king  of  Assyria 
(Antiq.  ix.  14,  2)  ;  and  it  suflered  from  the 
same  nation  in  the  reign  of  Ashurbanipal. 
A  century  or  so  before  Christ  its  name  was 
changed  to  Ptolemais,  in  honor  of  one  of  the 
early  Ptolemies.  It  acquired  importance  polit- 
ically as  the  key  of  Galilee  and  as  a  seaport  at 
the  end  of  commercial  routes  to  Decapolis  and 
Arabia  (1  Mac.  v.  15,  21,  55  ;  x.  1  ;  Antiq.  xiii. 
12,  2  seq.).  Jonathan  Maccabseus  was  treach- 
erously slain  there  (1  Mac.  xii.  48  ;  Antiq. 
xiii.  6,  2).  A  large  number  of  Jews  found  a 
home  within  its  walls  (War,  ii.  18,  5),  and 
a  Christian  community  early  grew  up  here. 
On  his  last  journey  to  Jerusalem,  Paul  spent 
a  day  here  with  the  brethren  (Acts  xxi. 
7).  Later  the  town  became  the  seat  of  a 
Christian  bishop.  The  Arabs  restored  the 
old  name,  which  the  Franks  corrupted  mto 
Acre.  It  was  taken  in  a.  d.  1191  by  Philip 
Augustus,  king  of  France,  and  Richard  I., 
king  of  England.  From  A.  d.  1229  it  was 
held  by  the  Knights  of  St.  John,  and  was 
often  called  in  consequence  St.  Jean  d'Acre. 
Prior  to  1799  it  was  strongly  fortified  by 
Jezzar  Pasha,  who  ruled  with  energy,  but 
with  such  cruelty  that  lie  was  nicknamed 
"  the  Butcher."  In  that  year  it  was  attacked 
by  Napoleon,  who  was  baifled,  and  at  once 
began  his  retreat  from  Syria.  Jezzar's  vic- 
tory was  largely  due  to  English  sailors,  who 
had  been  landed  to  give  him  aid.  In  1832  it 
was  wrested  from  the  Turkish  sultan  by  one 
of  his  subjects,  Ibrahim  Pasha,  son  of  Mo- 
hammed Ali,  the  ruler  of  Egypt.  On  No- 
vember 3,  1840,  it  was  bombarded  by  the 
British  and  Austrian  fleets,  until  the  day  was 
decided  by  the  ex]>losion  of  the  powder  mag- 
azine, which  caused  the  death  of  from  1700 
to  2000  Egyptian  soldiers.  The  place  was  given 
back  to  the  sultan,  under  who.se  rule  it  still 
remains.  It  is  now  a  walled  town,  with  a 
single  land  gate  at  the  southeast  angle  and  a 
sea  gate  leading  to  the  shipping  in  the  har- 
bor. Its  ramparts,  injured  by  the  bombard- 
ment of  1840,  have  not  been  repaired  :  its 
bazaars  look  deserted,  the  chief  support  of 
its  5000  to  8000  inhabitants  being  the  money 


Accursed 


12 


Achsah 


spent  by  the  garrison  or  obtained  by  tlie  ex- 
portation of  grain  and  cotton. 

Ac-cur'sed. 

Anything  on  which  a  curse  has  been  pro- 
nounced, devoting  it  todestriirtion  (Josh.  vi. 
18;  vii.  1, 11,13,15;  xxii.20j.  8ie  Anathema. 

A-cel'da-ma,  R.  V.  Akeldama  [field  of 
blood]. 

A  field  called  originally  the  Potter's  Field. 
Judas  hanged  himself,  apjiarently,  in  it,  and 
his  body,  for  some  cause,  fell  and  burst 
asunder.  The  chief  i)riests  purchased  the 
field  with  the  thirty  ])icces  of  silver  which 
Judas  had  cast  down  in  the  temple,  and  de- 
signed it  to  be  a  burial  place  for  strangers 
(Mat.  xxvii.  7,  8).  Peter  alludes  to  Judas  as 
acquiring  the  field  (Acts  i.  18, 19).  Probably 
he  does  not  mean  that  it  was  purchased  by 
Judas  in  person,  but  by  the  priests  with 
Judas'  ill-gotten  monej^.  The  traditional 
site,  dating  from  the  time  of  Jerome  in  the 
fourth  century,  is  on  the  southern  side  of  the 
valley  of  Hinuom.  This  identification  is  not 
improbable,  for  the  locality  is  one  which  can 
furnish  potter's  clay,  and  lias  long  been  sur- 
rendered to  burial  purposes.  Many  crusaders 
were  subsecjuently  buried  there.  Its  modern 
name  is  Hakk  ed-Dumm. 

A-cha'ia. 

Originally  a  state  of  Greece  situated  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  Peloponnesus  (now  the 
Morea),  and  comprehending  Corinth  and  its 
isthmus.  After  Greece  had  been  conquered 
by  the  Romans,  the  emperor  Augustus  Csesar 
divided  that  country  with  the  adjacent  re- 
gions into  two  provinces,  Macedonia  and 
Achaia.  The  latter  comprehended  the  whole 
of  the  Peloponnesus,  with  continental  Greece 
S.  of  Illyricum,  Epirus,  and  Thessaly.  Corinth 
was  the  capital,  and  was  the  residence  of  the 
proconsul  by  whom  the  province  was  ruled. 
It  is  in  the  second  or  comprehensive  sense 
that  the  word  Achaia  is  used  in  the  New 
Testament  (Acts  xviii.  12,  27;  xix.  21 ;  Rom. 
XV.  26  ;  2  Cor.  i.  1 ;  ix.  2;  1  Thess.  i.  7,  8). 

A-cha'i-cus  [belonging  to  Achaia]. 
A  Christian  who  came  with  two  others  from 
Corinth  to  Paul  (1  Cor.  xvi.  17). 

A'chan  and  Actiar  [trouble ;  or,  he  has 
troubled]. 

A  son  of  Carmi,  of  the  house  of  Zimri,  fam- 
ily of  Zerah,  tribe  of  Judah.  At  the  capture 
of  Jericho  he  appropriated  to  his  own  use  and 
hid  in  his  tent  a  Babylonish  garment  and  a 
wedge  of  gold,  part  of  the  spoil  of  Jericho, 
which  had  been  devoted  to  utter  destruction. 
He  thereby  troubled  Israel.  His  transgres- 
sion led  to  the  defeat  of  the  Israelites  before 
Ai.  Lots  were  then  cast  to  discover  the  cul- 
prit who  had  brought  on  the  catastrophe,  and 
Achan  was  jiointed  out  as  the  individual. 
He  made  confession  of  his  guilt,  but  this  did 
not  avert  his  fate.  He  was  stoned  to  death 
in  the  vallev  of  Achor  (Josh.  vii.  1-26 ;  xxii. 
20;  1  Chron.  ii.  7). 


A'char.    See  Achan. 
A'chaz.     See  Ahaz. 
Ach'bor  [a  mouse]. 

1.  The  father  of  Baal-hanan,  king  of  Edom 
(Gen.  xxxvi.  38;  1  Chron.  i.  49). 

2.  The  son  of  Michaiah  and  father  of 
Elnathan.  He  was  a  trusted  otficer  at  the 
court  of  Josiah  (2  Kin.  xxii.  12, 14  ;  Jer.  xxvi. 
22  ;  xxxvi.  12).  Called  Abdon  in  2  Chron. 
xxxiv.  20. 

A'chim  [Greek,  from  Hebrew  Jachiu  or 
Jakim,  Jehovah  will  establish]. 

An  ancestor  of  Jesus  in  the  line  of  Joseph, 
who  lived  after  the  exile  (Mat.  i.  14). 

A'cMsh  [Philistine  name,  meaning  is  un- 
known]. 

The  son  of  Maoch  and  the  king  of  Gath, 
to  whom  David  twice  fled  during  the  time 
that  he  was  persecuted  by  Saul  (1  Sam.  xxi. 
10-15;  xxvii.  1-12;  xxviii.  1,  2;  xxix.  1-11). 
He  is  ])robably  the  Achish  who  was  king  of 
Gath  at  the  beginning  of  Solomon's  reign : 
for  the  latter  was  the  son  of  Maachah,  a 
name  which  is  radically  identical  with  Maoch 
the  father  of  the  Achish  already  known.  The 
reign  of  about  fifty  years  required  by  this 
assumption  is  not  extraordinary  (cp.  among 
many  others  the  reigns  of  Uzziah  and  Ma- 
nasseh).  Achish  survived  his  contemporary, 
David,  at  least  three  years  (1  Kin.  ii.  39).  In 
the  title  of  Ps.  xxxiv.  he  is  called  Abimelech, 
which  appears  to  have  been  an  official  desig- 
nation of  the  Philistine  kings  as  Pharaoh  was 
a  title  of  the  Egyptian  monarchs. 

Ach'me-tlia  [Median  Hanqmntdna]. 

A  city  in  the  province  of  the  Medes.  When 
the  Jews  asserted  that  Cyrus  had  issued  a  de- 
cree permitting  them  to  build  the  temj^le, 
their  adversaries  sent  to  Babylon  to  inquire 
if  the  document  were  in  existence.  Darius 
ordered  an  investigation.  The  house  of  the 
archives  where  the  treasures  were  laid  up  in 
Babylon  was  first  searched,  but  in  vain.  The 
quest  was  continued  in  Achmetha  in  the 
province  of  the  Medes,  and  the  decree  was 
found  in  the  palace  (Ezra  v.  6-vi.  2).  There 
is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  Achmetha  was 
Ecbatana,  the  capital  of  Media,  the  summer 
residence  of  the  Persian  kings,  and  a  treasure 
city.     It  is  the  modern  Hamadan. 

A'chor  [trouble]. 

The  valley  near  Jericho  where  the  unhappy 
Achan  was  stoned  to  death  (Josh.  vii.  24-26; 
Is.  Ixv.  10;  Hos.  ii.  15).  It  lay  south  of 
Jericho,  for  it  formed  part  of  the  northern 
boundary  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  7),  whereas 
Jericho  was  a  city  of  Benjamin. 

Ach'sah,  in  A.  V.  once  Achsa  (1  Chron.  ii. 
49),  an  inconsistency  from  which  the  original 
edition  of  A.  V.  was  free  [a  leg-band,  an 
anklet] . 

A  daughter  of  Caleb,  son  of  Jephunneh, 
who  promised  her  in  marriage  to  anyone  who 
should  capture  Kirjath-sepher.  Othniel,  his 
younger   lirother   or   half-brother,   took   the 


i 


Achshaph 


13 


Acts  of  the  Apostles 


town,  aud  received  the  maiden.  At  her  re- 
quest her  father  gave  her  tlie  npijer  and 
uetlier  springs  (Josh.  xv.  KJ-IU  ;  Judg.  i.  12- 
Ir,;  1  fhron.'ii.  4!»). 

Ach'shapb  [fascination]. 

A  border  town  of  Asher,  originally  Ca- 
naanite,  with  a  king,  conquered  by  Joshua 
(Josh.  xi.  1 ;  xii.  20).  To  judge  from  Josh. 
xix.  25  it  lay  not  far  from  Accho. 

Ach'zib  or  Che'zib,  as  it  was  with  equal 
correctness  pronounced  by  the  Hebrews  [de- 
ceitful]. 

1.  A  town  of  southern  Palestine  eventually 
included  in  Judah  (Gen.  xxxviii.  5;  Josh. 
XV.  44  ;  Mic.  i.  14).  Probably  the  same  place 
as  Chozeba  (1  Chrou.  iv.  22).  It  is  commonly 
identified  with  ruins  at  the  spring  'Ain  Kez- 
beh,  which  is  appai'ently  a  corruption  of  the 
old  name. 

2.  A  town  on  the  seacoast  of  Asher  (Josh. 
xix.  29;,  but  from  which  the  people  of  that 
tribe  did  not  drive  out  the  Canaanite  inhabi- 
tants (Judg.  i.  31).  It  was  known  as  Ekdip- 
pa  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans  (War,  i.  13,  4) ; 
and  has  been  identified  as  Zib,  eight  aud  a 
half  miles  north  of  Acre. 

Acts  of  the  A-pos'tles,  The. 

The  fifth  book  of  the  X.  T.  The  common 
title,  which  is  as  old  as  the  second  century, 
does  not  mean  that  the  book  relates  all  the 
acts  of  the  apostles.  Its  purpose  was  to  show 
the  establishment  by  the  Spirit  through  the 
apostles  of  gentile  Christianity.  At  first 
Peter  and  afterwards  Paul  are  most  promi- 
nent ;  but  frequently  the  apostles  as  a  body 
are  represented  as  taking  action  (Acts  i.  23- 
26;  ii.  42  ;  iv.  33  ;  v.  12,  29;  vi.  2  ;  viii.  1,  14; 
XV.  6,  23).  The  book  is  addressed  to  a  cer- 
tain Theophilus,  probably  a  gentile  Cliris- 
tian  of  distinction.  The  author  refers  (i.  1) 
to  a  previous  treatise  by  him  concerning 
the  life  and  teachings  of  Christ,  which  was 
clearly  our  Third  Gospel,  because  (1)  it  was 
addressed  to  Theophilus;  (2)  it  consists  of  a 
narrative  of  Christ's  life  and  teaching  until 
his  ascension  (Luke  xxiv.  51) ;  (3)  it  presents 
the  ministry  of  Christ  with  special  reference 
to  its  universal  mission,  which  would  nat- 
urally be  the  point  of  view  adopted  by  the  au- 
thor of  The  Acts ;  (4)  the  vocabulary  and  .style 
of  the  two  books  are  notably  alike.  Further, 
while  the  author  does  not  name  himself  in 
either  book,  he  uses  the  first  person  plural 
in  certain  portions  of  the  narrative  of  Paul's 
journeys  (Acts  xvi.  10-15 ;  xx.  5-xxi.  18 ; 
xxvii.  1-xxviii.  16),  and  by  this  intimates  that 
he  was  a  companion  of  the  apostle  :  that  he 
joined  him  on  his  second  journey  at  Troas 
and  accompanied  him  to  Philippi,  again  re- 
joined him  at  Philijipi  in  the  third  journey 
and  went  with  him  to  Jerusalem,  and  trav- 
eled with  him  from  Csesarea  to  Eome.  The 
earliest  tradition  of  the  post-apostolic  age 
assigns  both  the  Third  Gospel  and  The  Acts  to 
Luke,  and  the  allusions  to  Luke  in  Paul's 
epistles  accord  with  the  above  references  to 


his  movements  in  The  .\cts,  while  no  other  of 
Paul's  known  companions  will  fit  into  them. 
From  Col.  iv.  14,  Philem.  24,  we  learn  that 
Luke  was  with  Paul  in  Rome,  and  no  men- 
tion of  him  occurs  in  ejjistles  written  when, 
according  to  The  Acts,  its  author  was  not  with 
the  apo.stle.  Moreover,  the  u.se  of  med- 
ical terms  (see  Hobart,  The  Medical  Laiuiuage 
of  St.  Luke)  and  the  classical  elements  in  his 
style,  as  well  as  his  evident  acquaintance  with 
the  Roman  world,  indicate  that  the  auth(jr 
was  an  eilucated  man  such  as  a  physician 
would  l)e  likely  to  be.  There  should  lie  no 
doubt,  therefore,  that  Luke  wrote  both  the 
third  Gosjjcl  and  The  Acts.  The  purpose  of 
The  Acts  has  been  already  .stated.  Chap.  i.  re- 
counts Christ's  last  interviews  with  the  apos- 
tles through  forty  days,  his  promise  of  the 
Spirit  and  his  command  to  preach  to  all  the 
world  (ver.  8),  followed  by  his  ascension  and 
the  actions  of  the  disciples  until  Pentecost. 
Then  follows  an  account  of  the  church  in 
Jerusalem  after  Pentecost  (ii.  1-viii.  3),  in 
which  certain  representative  facts  are  de- 
scribed (the  first  conversions,  the  first  oppo- 
sition, the  first  discipline,  the  first  persecu- 
tion, the  first  organization,  the  first  martyr- 
dom), and,  after  each,  a  brief  notice  of  its 
effect  upon  the  Church  (see  ii.  41-47;  iv.  23- 
37;  V.  11-16,  41,  42;  vi.  7;  viii.  1-3).  Here 
Peter  is  most  prominent,  though  the  first 
martyr  and  the  man  who  prepared  for  the  fol- 
lowing period  was  Stephen.  Next  we  have  an 
account  of  the  transition  of  the  Church  to  a 
missionary  religion,  otl'ering  salvation  by 
faith  alone  to  all  men  (viii.  4-xii.  25).  Here 
five  significant  events  are  described:  (1) 
Philip's  work  in  Samaria  and  the  Ethiopian 
steward's  conversion  (viii.  4-40) ;  (2)  Saul's 
conversion  and  earliest  preaching  (ix.  1-30)  ; 
(3)  Peter's  missionary  work  in  Syria,  leading 
to  the  conversion  of  Cornelius  and  the  con- 
viction of  the  Church  that  the  gospel  was  for 
gentiles  (ix.  31-xi.  18);  (4)  the  founding  of 
the  gentile  church  of  Antioch,  a  new  center 
for  further  gentile  work  (xi.  19-30)  ;  (5)  the 
Herodian  persecution  whereby  th<5  Jewish 
state  finally  repudiated  Christianity  (xii.). 
Then  follows  the  estal)lishnient  of  Christi- 
anity, chiefly  through  Paul,  in  the  principal 
centers  of  the  empire  (xiii.  to  the  end).  This 
was  done  in  three  great  journeys  :  the  first, 
to  Cyprus  and  the  interior  of  Asia  Minor 
(xiii. ;  xiv.),  led  to  the  Council  of  Jeru- 
salem (xv.  1-35),  when  the  standing  in  the 
Church  of  uncircumcised  gentiles  was  for- 
mally recognized  ;  tlie  second,  to  Macedonia 
and  Greece  (xv.  36-xviii.  22) ;  the  third,  to 
Ephesus  as  well  as  Greece  (xviii.  23-xx.  3), 
followed  by  Paul's  last  visit  to  Jerusalem 
(xx.  4-xxi.  26),  where  ho  was  arrested,  and, 
after  defending  himself  before  the  Jews, 
Felix,  Festus,  and  Agrippa,  and  after  two 
years'  imprisonment  iuCsesarea  (xxi.  27-xxvi. 
32)  was  sent,  on  his  appeal  to  the  emperor,  to 
Rome  (xxvii.  1-xxviii.  16),  where  he  preached 
for  two  years  (xxviii.  17-31).     Many  think 


Adadah 


14 


Adbeel 


that  The  Acts  was  written  just  at  the  close  of 
these  "two  years"  (i.  e.  A.  d.  63).  Others 
think  Luke  ended  there  because  his  object 
was  attained  in  ))ringing  I'aul,  as  an  apos- 
tolic i)r(;aclier,  to  Jvonie,  or  because  he  in- 
tended to  write  a  third  hook  descriptive  of 
hiter  events,  and  tliat  Tlic  Acts  should  be 
dated  a  few  years  later  than  (;3.  The  re- 
markable historical  accuracy  of  The  Acts  has 
been  proved  by  modern  research  (see  e.  <i. 
Ramsay's  Chid-ch  hi  the  Human  Empire).  Its 
harmony  with  Paul's  epistles  has  been  much 
del)aled  and  successfully  defended.  It  is 
written  witli  nnich  artistic  power,  and  sup- 
jilics  the  information  necessary  to  explain 
the  riseof  Christianity  as  a  universal  religion 
during  the  thirty-three  years  from  the  death 
of  Clirist  covered  by  its  narrative.    G.  x.  p. 

Ad'a-dah  [holiday,  festival]. 

A  town  on  the  extreme  south  of  the  tribe 
of  .Tudah  (Josh.  xv.  22).  It  has  not  been 
identified,  unless  Adada  is  a  misreading  of 
'Ar'ara  (cp.  Septuagint).     See  AitOEE  3. 

A'dah  [as  a  Hebrew  word,  means  adorn- 
ment, beauty]. 

1.  One  of  Lamech's  wives,  and  mother  of 
Jabal  and  Jubal  (Gen.  iv.  19-21,  23). 

2.  One  of  Esau's  wives,  daughter  of  Elon, 
the  Hittite  (Gen.  xxxvi.  2,  4)  ;  in  Gen.  xxvi.  34 
called  Bashemath.  Double  names  are  frequent 
among  men  ;  and  it  is  stated  that  women  in 
the  East  more  frequently  adopt  new  names 
than  do  men.  and  are  apt  to  alter  their  name 
if  thej'  re-marry  or  change  their  religion. 

A-da'iah  [.Tehovah  has  adorned]. 

1.  A  man  of  Bozkath,  father  of  Josiah's 
mother  (2  Kin.  xxii.  1,  R.  V.). 

2.  A  Le.vite  descended  from  Gershom  (1 
Chron.  vi.  41,  42). 

3.  A  priest,  descended  through  Jeroham 
from  Malchijah  (1  Chron.  ix.  12;  Neh.  xi.  12). 

4.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Shimhi  (1  Chron. 
viii.  21). 

5.  A  son  of  Bani.  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  liis  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  29). 

6.  The  son  of  another  Bani.  He  was  sim- 
ilarly persuaded  (Ezra  x.  39). 

7.  A  son  of  Joiarib  (Neh.  xi.  5). 

8.  Father  of  Maaseiah  (2  Chron.  xxiii.  1). 

A-da'li-a  [Persian  name]. 

One  of  Haman's  ten  sons  (Esth.  ix.  8). 

Ad'am  [human  being,  meaning  etymologi- 
cally  either  ruddy  or  formed]. 

1.  The  first  human  being.  Mankind  was 
made,  as  were  all  other  created  things,  by  God 
((ien.  i.  26)  ;  and  was  made  male  and  female 
(27;  Mat.  xix.  4-6),  the  man  being  first 
formed,  then  the  woman  (Gen.  ii.  7,  20-23;  1 
Tim.  ii.  13).  Like  other  animals  and  later  men, 
his  body  was  formed  of  tlie  ordinary  ma- 
terials of  the  universe  and  life  was  granted 
by  God  (Gen.  ii.  7  ;  cp.  19 ;  vi.  17 ;  vii.  22  ;  Job 
X.  8-12 ;  xxvii.  3  ;  xxxiii.  4).  He  was  made  in 
the  image  of  God  (Gen.  i.  26,  27).  Paul  de- 
scribes the  similarity  as  consisting  in  knowl- 


edge, or,  more  completely,  in  knowledge, 
righteousness,  and  true  holiness  (Eph.  iv.  22- 
25;  Col.  iii.  9,  10).  Mankind  was  invested 
with  dominion  over  tlie  inferior  animals  (Gen. 
i.  26-28)  ;  was  exhorted  to  be  fruitful  and  to 
multiply,  and  replenish  the  earth,  and  sub- 
due it  (28) ;  and  shared  in  the  approval  when 
God  pronounced  that  everything  which  he 
had  made  was  very  good  (31). 

Adam,  the  first  of  mankind,  was  placed 
with  Eve  in  the  garden  of  Eden  to  dress  it 
and  keep  it  in  order.  A  command  was  laid 
upon  him,  in  the  nature  of  a  covenant  of  life 
and  death  (Gen.  ii.  l(i,  17).  On  his  transgres- 
sion, sentence  of  death  was  passed  upon  him, 
toil  and  undesired  results  were  annexed  to 
labor,  and  he  was  expelled  from  the  garden 
(iii.  1-24 ;  2  Esdr.  iii.  4-7,  21.  22).  Afterwards 
he  had  children,  Cain.  Abel,  and.  when  he  was 
130  years  old,  Seth.  He  lived  800  years  more, 
at  last  dying  at  the  age  of  930.  See  Chronol- 
ogy. Paul  draws  a  double  parallel  between 
Adam  and  Christ,  calling  our  Lord  the  last 
Adam  (Rom.  v.  12-21 ;  1  Cor.  xv.  22,  45). 

2.  A  city  in  the  Jordan  valley  beside  Zare- 
than  (Josii.  iii.  16).  Its  identification  with 
ed-Damieh  on  the  western  bank  of  the  river, 
less  than  a  mile  below  the  mouth  of  the 
Jabbok  and  eighteen  miles  above  Jericho, 
must  be  received  with  caution. 

Ad'a-mah  [soil]. 

A  fenced  city  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  xix.  36). 
The  Palestine  explorers  place  it  at  ed-Damieh, 
five  miles  southwest  of  Tiberias. 

Ad'a-mant  [in  Greek,  unconquerable]. 

An  extremely  hard  metal  or  mineral,  espe- 
cially the  diamond.  It  is  the  traditional  ren- 
dering of  the  Hebrew  Shamir,  a  hard  sub- 
stance compared  with  flint  and  the  stony 
heart  (Ezek.  iii.  9 ;  Zech.  vii.  12),  and  used 
to  point  graving  tools  (Jer.  xvii.  1,  where  it 
is  rendered  "diamond"). 

Ad'a-mi  [human],  in  R.  Y.  Adami-nekeb 
[perhaps,  Adami  of  the  pass]. 

A  frontier  town  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  xix.  33). 
Conder  identifies  Adami  with  the  ruined  vil- 
lage of  Admah  on  the  table-land  southwest 
from  the  sea  of  Galilee.     See  Nekeb. 

A'dar,  I.  [perhaps,  amplitude]. 

A  town  of  Judah,  better  written  Addar 
(q.  v.). 

A'dar,  II.  [Assyro-babylonian  adarn  and 
addarti,  probably  dark,  cloudy]. 

The  later  name  of  the  twelfth  month  of 
the  Jewish  year,  borrowed  by  the  Jews  from 
the  Babylonian  calendar  during  the  exile 
(Ezra  vi".  15;  Esth.  iii.  7,  13;  ix.  15).  It  ex- 
tended from  the  new  moon  in  February  to 
that  in  March.     See  Year. 

Ad'a-sa. 

A  town  near  Beth-horon  (1  Mac.  vii.  40,  45, 
cp.  39;  Antiq.  xii.  10,  5),  at  the  junction  of 
the  two  main  lines  of  advance  5n  Jerusalem 
from  the  north. 

Ad'be-el  [perhaps,  a  miracle  of  God]. 


Addan 


15 


Adonijah 


A  son  of  Ishmael  (Gen.  xxv.  13  ;  1  Chron. 
i.  29). 

Ad'dan  or  Addon;  the  pronunciation  with 
a,  wliii'h  appears  to  he  Aramaic  or  BaV)y- 
lonian,  heinj<  exchanged  for  its  regiihir  He- 
hrew  modification  [Hahylonian,  native  form 
and  meaning  unl<no\vn]. 

A  i)lace  in  Bal).vh)nia  from  which  people 
who  couhl  not  i)rove  their  Israelitish  descent 
went  to  Pah^stine  after  the  captivity  (Ezra  ii. 
i)0  ;  Neh.  vii.  61). 

Ad'dar  [perhaps,  largeness]. 

1.  A  town  of  Judah,  on  the  southern  bound- 
ary line  of  Palestine  (Josh.  xv.  .3,  in  A.  V. 
written  Adar;  and  Num.  xxxiv.  4).  In  the 
latter  passage  it  is  called  Hazar-addar,  i.  e. 
village  of  Addar. 

2.  .\  Henjamite.     See  Ard. 
Ad'der. 

The  rendering  of  four  Hebrew  words,  re- 
ferring probably  to  four  distinct  species  of 
venomous  snake. 

1.  Sh'phiphon,  the  creeper.  Probably  the 
Vipera  ctrastes,  the  Horned  Sand-snake  of 
Arabia  and  Egypt.  At  Thebes  it  was  re- 
garded as  sacred  (cp.  Herod,  ii.  74).  It  is  a 
venomous  viper,  three  to  six  feet  long,  of  a 
gray  color,  and  with  a  horn  above  each  eye. 
It  hides  in  the  sand,  and  may  well  be  the 
serpent  which  bites  the  horses'  heels  so  that 
the  rider  falls  backward  (Gen.  xlix.  17). 

2.  Pethen,  a  species  of  serpent  incapable  of 
being  afiected  by  the  voice  of  the  snake- 
charmer,  and  therefore  called  the  deaf  adder 
(Ps.  Iviii.  4,  5).  It  is  very  venomous  (xci. 
13).  It  is  the  asp  of  Deut.  xxxii.  33;  Job 
XX.  14,  16 ;  and  Isaiah  xi.  8.  Probably  the 
Naja  haje  of  Egypt ;    see  Asp. 

3.  'Akshub  (Ps.  cxl.  3).  In  the  Septuagint 
and  in  the  quotation  in  Rom.  iii.  13  it  is 
translated  "asp."  Boehart  considers  it  the 
Common  Adder  (Pelias  bernn),  and  Colonel 
Hamilton  Smith  the  Puff  Adder  of  the  Cape 
Colonists,  Vipera  arietans,  but  there  is  as  yet 
no  certainty  as  to  the  identification. 

4.  Siph'oni  (Prov.  xxiii.  32),  translated  in 
Is.  xi.  8;  xiv.  29;  lix.  5,  cockatrice  or  basi- 
lisk ;  see  these  words. 

Ad'di  [Greek,  from  a  Hebrew  name  not  oc- 
curring in  the  ().  T.]. 

An  ancestor  of  Christ  who  lived  several 
generations  before  Zerubbabel  (Luke  iii.  28). 

Ad'don.     See  Addan. 

A'der.     See  Eder. 

Ad'i-da.     See  Adithaim  and  Hadid. 

A'di-el  [ornament  of  God]. 

1.  A  Simeouite  (1  Chron.  iv.  36). 

2.  A  priest,  son  of  Jahzerah  (1  Chron.  ix. 
12). 

3.  Father  of  the  supervisor  of  David's 
treasuries  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  2.5). 

A'din  [soft,  delicate]. 

Founder  of  a  family,  members  of  which 
returned    from    Babylon    with    Zerubbabel  J 


(Ezra  ii.  15)  and  Ezra  (viii.  6).  Its  chief 
signed  the  covenant  made  by  Nehemiah  to 
serve  Jehovah  (Neh.  x.  16 j. 

Ad'i-na  [delicate]. 

A  Reubenite,  one  of  David's  military  offi- 
cers (1  chron.  xi.  42). 

Ad'i-no. 

One  of  David's  mighty  men,  an  Eznite ; 
the  same  as  Josheb-basshebeth  (2  Sam.  xxiii. 
8  A.  v.,  and  A.  V.  margin  and  R.  V.).  The 
verse  as  it  stands  is  detective.  Luther  and 
most  modern  interpreters  change  the  text, 
altering  the  words  "Adino  the  Eznite"  to 
accord  with  1  Chron.  xi.  11. 

Ad-i-tha'im  [perhaps,  double  })Ooty-town]. 

A  town  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv. 
36).  Sometimes  identified  with  Adida,  but 
Adida  is  rather  Hadid. 

Ad'lai  [justice,  or  possibly  justice  of  Je- 
ho%-ah] . 

Father  of  a  herdsman  of  -David  (1  Chron. 
xxvii.  29). 

Ad'mah  [perhaps,  redness]. 

One  of  the  cities  of  the  plain  (Gen.  x.  19 ; 
xiv.  2, 8)  which  was  destroyed  with  Sodom  and 
Gomorrah  (Gen.  xix.  25,  28,  29;  Deut.  xxix. 
23  ;  Hos.  xi.  ?<). 

Ad'ma-tba  [Persian  name  of  doubtful 
meaning]. 

One  of  the  seven  princes  of  Persia  and 
Media  under  Ahasuerus  (Esth.  i.  14). 

Ad'na  [Aramaic,  pleasure]. 

1.  A  priest,  head  of  the  father's  house 
Harim  in  the  second  generation  after  the 
exile  (Neh.  xii.  15). 

2.  A  son  of  Pahath-moab,  induced  by  Ezra 
to  divorce  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  30). 

Ad'nah  [pleasure]. 

1.  A  Manas.site  who  joined  David  at  Ziklag 
(1  Chron.  xii.  20). 

2.  A  man  of  Judah,  of  high  military  rank 
under  Jehoshaphat  (2  Chron.  xvii.  14). 

A-do'ni-be'zek  [lord  of  Bezek]. 

A  king  of  Bezek,  conquered  by  the  war- 
riors of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  who  inflicted  on 
him  a  cruel  mutilation.  This  he  regarded  as 
a  divine  requital  for  similar  cruelties  perpe- 
trated by  him  on  seventy  kings  (Judg.  i. 
4-7). 

Ad-0-ni'Jah  [Jehovah  is  lord] . 

1.  A  son  of  David  by  Haggith,  one  of  his 
wives.  He  was  the  fourth  son  born  to  the 
king  at  Hebron  (2  Sam.  iii.  2,  4).  He  was  a 
goodly,  probably  meaning  a  handsome,  young 
man,  and  apparently  his  father's  next  favor- 
ite after  Absalom.  Blinded  by  this  foolish 
fondness,  David  never  displeased  him  at  any 
time  in  saying.  Why  hast  thou  done  so  ? 
When  David  was  stricken  in  years  Adonijah 
attempted  to  seize  the  throne.  He  won  to 
his  cause  Joab,  who,  he  hoped,  would  bring 
with  him  the  army  ;  and  Abiathar.  the  priest, 
who,  he  expected,  would  bring  with  him  the 
priests   and    the   Levites.      But   Zadok    the 


Adouikam 


16 


Adullam 


priest,  Benaiah,  commander  of  the  royal 
bodyguard,  and  Nathan  tlie  prophet  he  was 
unable  to  seduce  from  their  allegiance.  He 
invited  his  partisans  to  a  great  open-air  feast 
at  the  stone  of  Zoheleth  by  the  fountain  of 
Eogel,  and  had  himself  proclaimed  king. 
But  Solomon  had  been  divinely  chosen  to  be 
the  successor  to  David  ;  and  Bath-sheba,  Sol- 
omon's mother,  supported  by  Nathan  the 
prophet,  waited  on  the  aged  king  to  report 
the  proceedings  of  Adonijah  and  ask  instruc- 
tions. Promptly,  by  IX^vid's  order,  Solomon 
was  proclaimed  king  ;  the  open-air  feast  came 
to  an  abrupt  termination,  the  guests  took  to 
flight,  and  Adonijah  sought  asylum  at  the 
altar  (1  Kin.  i.  5-50).  Solomon  pardoned  him 
for  the  time,  but  tiuding  him  acting  in  such 
a  way  as  to  create  the  suspicion  that  he  was 
again  aiming  at  the  kingdom,  put  him  to 
death  (vs.  51-53  ;  ii.  13-25). 

2.  One  of  the  Levites  whom  Jehoshaphat 
sent  to  instruct  the  people  of  Judah  (2  Chron. 
xvii.  8). 

3.  For  Neh.  x.  16,  see  Adonikam. 
Ad-o-ni'kam  [the  Lord  arises]. 
Founder  of  a  family,  members  of  which 

returned  from  Babylon  both  with  Zerubbabel 
and  with  Ezra  (Ezra  ii.  13  :  viii.  13  ;  Neh.  vii. 
18).  The  head  of  this  family,  apparently, 
sealed  the  covenant  in  Nehemiah's  time  (Neh. 
X.  16),  but  is  called  Adonijah. 

Ad-o-ni'ram  [the  Lord  is  exalted]. 

An  officer  who  was  over  the  tribute  during 
the  reigns  of  David  and  Solomon.  He  was 
the  son  of  Abda,  and  was  called  also  Adoram 
{2  Sam.  XX.  24)  and  Hadoram  (2  Chron.  x. 
18).  When  the  ten  tribes  revolted,  Rehoboam 
sent  him  to  treat  with  the  rebels,  who,  how- 
ever, instead  of  listening  to  him,  stoned  him 
to  death  (2  Sam.  xx.  24  ;  1  Kin.  iv.  6  ;  xii.  18  ; 
2  Chron.  x.  18). 

A-do'ni-ze'dek,  in  A.  V.  Adonizedec  [lord 
of  righteousness]. 

A  king  of  Jerusalem  who,  on  learning  that 
Ai  had  been  captui-cd  by  the  Israelites,  and 
that  the  Gibeonites  had  made  peace  with 
Joshua,  formed  a  confederacy  with  four  other 
Aniorite  kings  to  punish  Gibeon.  He  and 
Lis  confederates  were  defeated,  taken,  and 
slain  (Josh.  x.  1-27).  In  the  Septuagint  called 
Adonibezek. 

A-dop'tion. 

The  act  of  taking  a  stranger  to  be  one's 
own  child,  as  in  the  case  of  Moses  and  Esther 
(Ex.  ii.  10;  Esth.  ii.  7). 

In  the  N.  T.  the  word  is  used  to  denote : 

1.  The  choice  by  Jehovah  of  the  Jewish 
nation  to  be  his  special  people  (Rom.  ix.  4). 

2.  The  reception  of  all  true  Christians  to 
be  in  a  special  sense  the  sons  of  God  (Gal.  iv. 
5;  Eph.  i.  4).  The  spirit  of  adoption  enables  us 
to  feel  to  God  as  children  to  a  loving  father. 
It  is  distinguished  from  the  spirit  of  bondage, 
which  compels  one  to  feel  to  him  as  a  slave 
to  a  master  (Kom.  viii.  14-21). 

3.  The  redemption  of  the  body  ;  its  deliv- 


erance from  sin,  pain,  and  death  in  the  glori- 
fied state  (Rom.  viii.  23). 

A-do'ra.     See  Adoraim. 

Ad-o-ra'im  [perhaps,  two  mounds]. 

A  city  of  Judah  fortified  by  Rehoboam  (2 
Chron.  xi.  9).  It  is  probably  identical  with 
Adora,  shortened  into  Dora,  a  town  of  the  in- 
terior, near  Idunuea,  and  after  the  exile  reck- 
oned as  belonging  to  the  latter  country  (An- 
tiq.,  xiii.  9,  1  ;  15,  4  ;  xiv.  5,  3;  War,  i.  2,  5 ; 
1  Mac.  xiii.  20).  Since  Robinson's  researches, 
it  is  identified  with  Dura,  a  village  on  a  hill- 
side five  miles  west  of  Hebron. 

A-do'ram.     See  Adoniram. 

A-dram'me-lecli  [god  Adar  is  king]. 

1.  A  deity  to  whom  the  colonists  of  Sa- 
maria, who  had  been  brought  from  Sephar- 
vaim,  burnt  their  children  in  the  fire  (2  Kin. 
xvii.  31).  The  god  Adar  was  the  sun  wor- 
shiped under  a  particular  attribute. 

2.  A  son  of  Sennacherib.  With  another 
brother  he  murdered  his  father,  and  after- 
wards escaped  to  Armenia  (2  Kin.  xix.  37  ;  Is. 
xxxvii.  38). 

Ad-ra-myt'ti-um. 

A  maritime  city  in  ^Eolia.  Under  the  Ro- 
mans it  belonged  to  the  province  of  Asia. 
The  vessel  in  which  Paul  embarked  at  Caesa- 
rea  for  Rome  was  a  ship  of  Adramyttium, 
about  to  sail  to  the  places  on  the  coast  of 
Asia  (Acts  xxvii.  2). 

A'dri-a. 

A  part  of  the  Mediterranean  (Acts  xxvii. 
27).  The  name  was  derived  from  the  com- 
mercial town  of  Adria  on  the  lower  Po,  and 
in  the  narrowest  sense  it  denoted  only  the 
neighboring  part  of  the  sea.  But  the  name 
was  extended  to  include  the  expanse  of  sea 
as  far  as  the  extreme  southern  points  of 
Greece  and  Italy  (Ptolemy  iii. ;  Pausanias, 
Eliac.  V.  ;  Procopius,  Bell.  Vand.  i.  14). 

A'dri-el  [flock  of  God]. 

A  Meholathite,  to  whom  Saul  gave  his 
daughter  Merab  in  marriage,  though  he  had 
previouslv  promised  her  conditionallv  to 
David  (1  Sam.  xviii.  19). 

A-dul'lam  [enclosure]. 

A  toM'n  in  the  Shephelah,  in  the  territory 
of  Judah,  mentioned  between  Jarmuth  and 
Socoh  (Josh.  XV.  35).  It  was  in  existence,  in- 
habited by  Canaanites,  as  early  as  the  time 
of  Jacob  (Gen.  xxxviii.  1,  2).  A  petty  king 
ruled  over  it  at  the  time  of  the  conquest 
(Josh.  xii.  15).  It  was  fortified  by  Rehoboam 
(2  Chron.  xi.  7),  continued  to  flourish  in 
the  time  of  Micah  the  prophet  (Mic.  i.  15), 
and  was  inhabited  after  the  exile  (Neh.  xi. 
30;  2  Mac.  xii.  38).  In  its  vicinity  was  the 
cave  which  David  at  one  period  of  his  wan- 
derings made  his  headquarters,  and  whither 
his  father  and  his  brethren  and  many  other 
adherents  went  down  to  join  him  (1  Sam. 
xxii. ;  2  Sam.  xxiii.  13;  Antiq.  vi.  12,  3).  M. 
Clermont-Ganneau  is  possibly  right  in  hear- 
ing an  echo  of  the  name  still  lingering  in 


Adultery 


17 


Agar 


'Aid  el-Miyeh.  This  name  belongs  to  a  hill 
which  is  crowned  with  a  fortress  and  has 
caves  in  its  sides.  The  hill  stands  on  the 
south  side  of  a  ravine  at  its  junction  with 
the  southern  extension  of  the  valley  of  Elah 
(es-Sunt),  and  is  about  two  miles  from  the 
place  where  the  fight  took  place  between 
David  aJid  Goliath. 
A-dul'ter-y. 

1.  In  a  special  sense,  sexual  intercourse  of 
a  married  man  with  a  female  not  his  wife,  or 
that  of  a  married  woman  with  a  man  not  her 
husband.  Polygamy,  with  inferior  wives  and 
concubines,  is  not  adultery.  Under  the  Mo- 
saic law  adultery  was  punished  with  death 
(Lev.  XX.  10). 

2.  In  a  general  sense,  all  sexual  impurity 
in  thought,  word,  or  deed,  or  whatever  tends 
thereto.  This  is  the  sense  in  the  seventh 
commandment,  interpreted  on  the  principles 
of  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  (Ex.  xx.  14 ; 
Deut.  v.  18 ;  Mat.  v.  27,  28). 

3.  Figuratively,  the  worship  of  false  gods 
or  other  infidelity  to  the  covenant  with  Jeho- 
vah (Jer.  iii.  8,  9;  Ezek.  xxiii.  37,  43;  Hos. 
ii.  2-13),  God  claiming  our  undivided  affec- 
tions, as  a  husband  does  the  undivided  re- 
gard of  the  woman  who  has  sworn  him 
fidelity. 

A-diun'mim  [red  objects]. 

The  ascent  of  Adummim  is  a  pass  leading 
up  from  the  Jordan  valley  to  the  hill  country. 
The  boundary  between  Judah  and  Benjamin 
passed  near  it  (Josh.  xv.  7;  xviii.  17),  and 
the  shortest  and  most  traveled  road  from 
Jerusalem  to  Jericho  ran  through  it.  Ac- 
cording to  Jerome,  the  name  belonged  to  a 
hamlet,  which  in  his  day  was  lying  in  ruins, 
and  which  was  still  called  Maledomim,  ap- 
parently the  full  Hebrew  phrase  Ascent  of 
Adummim.  Jerome  ascribes  the  origin  of  the 
name  to  the  blood  frequently  spilled  thereby 
robbers  (cp.  Luke  x.  30) ;  but  it  more  prob- 
ably arose  from  the  red  marl  of  the  neigh-  j 
borhood.  An  echo  of  the  name  is  still  heard 
in  Tala'at  ed-Dumm,  Ascent  of  Blood,  the 
name  given  to  a  hill  and  fortress  half  way  ! 
between  Jerusalem  and  Jericho,  and  to  the 
wady  which  the  road  follows  downward. 

.ffi'ne-as   [Latin  from  N.  T.  Greek  Aineas,    ' 
classic  Greek  Aineins;  the  name  of  a  Trojan 
hero] . 

A  man  at  Lydda  bedridden  eight  years  with  ! 
palsy.  His  restoration  by  the  power  of  the  ! 
risen  Jesus  resulted  in  large  increase  of  the  | 
Church  in  that  region  (Acts  ix.  32-35). 

.S'non  [Greek,  probably  from  Aramaic  I 
'enavan,  fountains].  ' 

A  village,  or  merely  a  locality  of  perennial 
springs,  near  Salim,  where  John  at  one  time 
at  least  baptized   because   there  was  there   j 
much  water  (or,  as  in  Greek,  many  waters)    I 
(John  iii.  23).     The  site  has  not  been  iden-    | 
tified.     But  according  to  Jerome,  ^Enon  and   ; 
Salim   were   situated  in  the  .Jordan  valley, 
eight  Roman  miles  south  of  Scythopolis.  The 


names  have  ceased  to  be  heard.  Measure- 
ment indicates  either  the  place  now  called 
ed-Deir,  in  the  neighborhood  of  which  are 
seven  springs  and  extensive  ruins,  or  Umm 
el-'Amdan,  hard  by  on  the  east,  or  the  ruins 
and  spriug  at  the  base  of  Tell  Ridghah, 
which,  however,  is  only  seven  Roman  miles 
from  Scythopolis. 

The  modern  map  can,  indeed,  show  villages 
bearing  the  names  of  'Aiuun  and  Salim.  A 
town  called  Salim  is  situated  four  miles  east 
of  Shechem,  on  an  extensive  plateau  south 
of  the  wady  Far'ah.  'Ainun  is  a  ruin  on  the 
eastern  slope  of  the  wady  Tubas,  about  ten 
miles  northeast  of  Shechem  and  four  miles 
north  of  the  Far'ah  valley.  The  objection  to 
identifying  'Ainun  with  ^Enon  mentioned  by 
John  is  that  'Ainun  is  not  near  Salim.  The 
villages  are  distant  from  each  other  about 
eight  miles,  and  the  great  wady  Far'ah  lies 
between.  'Ainun  is  but  little  farther  from 
the  important  city  of  Shechem  than  from 
Salim,  and  is  more  closely  connected  with 
Shechem  by  road.  Rejecting  'Ainuu,  one 
thinks  of  the  plentiful  waters  of  the  Far'ah 
valley  but  three  miles  distant  from  Salim,  or 
even  the  two  living  springs  which  supply 
Salim  with  water  ;  but  a  place  of  fountains 
near  this  Salim  would  be  in  Samaria,  and  it  is 
scarcely  probable  that  John  the  Baptist  was 
laboring  among  the  Samaritans  (cp.  Mat.  iii. 
5;  x.  5 ;  Luke  iii.  3). 

The  only  other  site  proposed,  which  offers 
any  attractions,  is  Shilhim,  in  the  Septuagint 
Seleeim,  in  the  wilderness  in  the  extreme 
south  of  Judah,  near  which  was  a  place  called 
Ain  (Josh.  xv.  32) ;  but  Aiu  is  constantly  con- 
nected with  Rimmou  and  not  with  Shilhim. 

Ag'a-bus  [meaning  is  uncertain]-. 

A  Christian  prophet  of  Jeru.salem.  He 
went  to  Antioch  and  predicted  a  great  famine 
which  took  place  in  the  days  of  the  emperor 
Claudius  (Acts  xi.  28;  see  Antiq.  xx.  2,  6  ;  5, 
2).  When  Paul  passed  through  Cfesarea  on 
his  last  journey  to  Jerusalem,  Agabus,  who 
was  there,  bound  his  own  hands  and  feet  with 
Paul's  girdle,  and  announced  that  this  would 
be  done  also  to  the  owner  of  the  girdle  when 
he  reached  the  capital  (Acts  xxi.  10,  11). 

A'gag  [perhaps,  flaming]. 

Whether  Agag  was  a  title  of  the  kings  of 
Amalek,  as  Pharaoh  was  for  those  of  Egypt, 
or  was  a  recurring  name  in  the  royal  line,  is 
unknown.     Specially 

1.  A  king  of  Amalek  whose  greatness  was 
alluded  to  by  Balaam  (Xum.  xxiv.  7). 

2.  The  king  of  Amalek  slain  by  Samuel, 
after  he  had  been  spared  bv  Saul  (1  Sam.  xv. 
9-33). 

A'gag-ite. 

An  appellation  given  to  Haman,  the  great 
enemy  of  the  Jews  (Esth.  iii.  1,  10 ;  viii.  3-5). 
Its  reference  to  his  Amalekite  descent  (An- 
tiq. xi.  6,  5,  and  see  Agag)  is  extremely 
doul)tful. 

A'gar.     See  H.\gar. 


Agate 


18 


Ahab 


Ag'ate  [named  from  a  river  in  Sicily  near 
•whieli  the  agate  abounded]. 

A  precious  stone  composed  of  various  kinds 
of  colored  quartz,  especially  of  amethyst, 
chalcedony,  and  jasper.  Two  Hebrew  words 
are  so  rendered  : 

1.  Kadkod,  which  means  sparkling  (Is.  liv. 
12  ;  Ezek.  xxvii.  IG,  in  A.  V.).  This  charac- 
teristic ill  accords  with  the  agate,  which  in 
its  natural  state  is  wanting  in  lustre  ;  hence 
the  R.  V.  translates  it  Ruby,  and  the  margin 
of  the  A.  V.  Chrysoprase. 

2.  Sh'bo ;  perhaps  from  shabah  to  lead  cap- 
tive, or  less  probably  from  Sheba,  from  which 
it  may  have  been  brought.  It  was  the  middle 
stone  in  the  third  row  of  gems  on  the  high 
priest's  bi'eastplate  (Ex.  xxviii.  19 ;  xxxix.  12). 

Age. 

1 .  The  time  counted  hy  yeai's,  or  more  pre- 
cisely by  years,  months,  and  days,  that  one 
has  lived  in  the  world.  Extraordinary  age 
is  ascribed  to  men  in  the  registers  of  Gen.  v. 
and  xi.,  dwindling  as  the  genealogy  becomes 
more  particular  as  it  approaches  Abraham  ; 
see  Chronology.  Abraham  died  at  the  age 
of  175  (Gen.  xxv.  7),  and  his  wife  Sarah  at 
127  (xxiii.  1),  Isaac  at  180  (xxxv.  28),  Jacob 
at  147  (xlvii.  28),  Joseph  at  110  (1. 26),  Moses  at 
120  (Dent,  xxxiv.  7),  and  Joshua  at  110  (Josh. 
xxiv.  29).  The  ordinary  length  of  human 
life  is  reckoned  at  70  years,  or,  by  reason  of 
strength,  80  years,  in  the  prayer  of  Moses  (Ps. 
xc.  10).  David  died  an  old  man  at  70  (2 
Sam.  V.  4  ;  1  Kin.  ii.  11).  Veneration  for  old 
age  is  inculcated  in  the  Bible  (Lev.  xix.  32  ; 
Prov.  XX.  29),  and  old  age  itself  is  considered 
a  blessing  (Ex.  xx.  12 ;  Deut.  v.  16). 

2.  A  frequent  rendering  in  the  N.  T.  of  the 
Greek  Aidn,  the  later  Latin  yEon  : 

(a)  A  certain  specified  period  of  the  world's 
history,  past  or  to  come  (1  Cor.  x.  11,  in  A.  V. 
world ;  Eph.  ii.  7 ;  iii.  9  ;  Col.  i.  26  ;  Heb.  vi. 
5 — all  R.  v.).  More  frequently  it  signifies  an 
indefinitely  long  period  of  time,  eternity  past 
or  to  come;  "  unto  the  ages"  being  equivalent 
to  "  forever  "  (cp.  text  and  margin  of  E.  V.  of 
Luke  i.  33;  Rom.  i.  25;  ix.  5;  xi.  36;  Heb. 
xiii.  8),  or  "for  evermore"  (2  Cor.  xi.  31). 
"  The  age  of  the  ages  ".is  "  for  ever  and  ever  " 
(Eph.  iii.  21).  "  Unto  the  ages  of  ages  "  is  also 
"  for  ever  and  ever"  (Gal.  1.  5  ;  Phil.  iv.  20; 
Rev.  i.  18). 

(b)  The  world  literally  (Heb.  i.  2,  R.  V. 
margin)  ;  or  figuratively  (Mat.  xiii.  22;  Luke 
xvi.  8;  XX.  34;  Rom.  xii.  2;  1  Cor.  i.  20;  ii. 
6,  7,  8  ;  2  Cor.  iv.  4  ;  Gal.  i.  4  ;  2  Tim.  iv.  10  ; 
Titus  ii.  12 — all  R.  V.,  margin).  The  con- 
necting link  between  <i  and  /;  is  when  the 
world  means  the  duration  of  this  world  (Mat. 
xii.  32 ;  xiii.  40 ;  xxiv.  3),  and  of  that  to  come 
(Mark  x.  30  ;  Luke  xviii.  30  ;  Heb.  ii.  5). 

(c)  The  course  of  the  world  (Eph.  ii.  2, 
R.  v.,  text  and  margin). 

Ag'e-e  [perhaps,  a  fugitive]. 
A   Hararite,  the  father  of  one  of  David's 
mighty  men  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  11). 


Ag'ri-cul-ture. 

Tlie  cultivation  of  the  soil.  The  word  does 
not  occur  in  Scripture,  but  the  idea  does ;  and 
the  analogous  term  husbandry  is  found  both 
in  the  O.  T.  and  N.  T.,  while  husbandman  is 
common.  Adam  was  expected  to  dress  the 
garden  of  Eden  (Gen.  ii.  15)  ;  Cain  cultivated 
the  soil  (iv.  2) ;  Noah  planted  a  vineyard  (ix. 
20) ;  and  Isaac  sowed  (xxvi.  12).  Agricul- 
ture was  in  an  advanced  stage  among  the 
ruling  race  in  the  delta  of  the  Nile  at  the 
time  of  the  sojourn  of  the  Israelites  in  Egypt. 
Cereals  of  various  kinds  were  cultivated  and 
exported  (Gen.  xii.  49,  57;  xliii.  2).  Wheat, 
rye,  or  rather  spelt,  and  barley,  are  men- 
tioned, besides  which  there  were  crops  of  flax 
(Ex.  ix.  31,  32).  The  crops  cultivated  by  the 
Israelites  were  sometimes  summed  up  as 
corn  and  wine  (Gen.  xxvii.  37;  Ps.  iv.  7). 
If  a  third  agricultural  product  was  named  it 
was  generally  olives  (Deut.  vi.  11).  When 
the  enumeratioti  was  more  ample,  the  list 
was  increased  to  "wheat,  barley,  vines,  fig- 
trees,  pomegranates,  and  olives"  (viii.  8),  not 
to  speak  of  honey,  which  was  from  wild  bees 
(cp.  also  xi.  14  ;  xii.  17).  To  this  list  Isaiah 
adds  fitches  (Is.  xxviii.  25,  27),  and  Ezekiel 
beans,  lentils,  and  millet  (Ezek.  iv.  9).  The 
Israelites  had  ploughs  drawn  1)y  oxen  (1  Kin. 
xix.  19;  Is.  ii.  4),  and  pruuiug-hooks,  sickles, 
etc.  (ibid.  ;  Deut.  xvi.  9 ;  Joel  iii.  13,  etc.). 
The  purpose  now  efiTectcd  by  rotation  of  crops 
was  carried  out  by  letting  the  land  lie  fallow 
during  the  seventh  year  (Ex.  xxiii.  10,  11). 
As  a  rule,  good  crops  were  reaped,  and  they 
would  have  been  so  to  a  larger  extent  had 
proper  attention  been  paid  to  the  storing  of 
water  in  reservoirs,  so  that  absence  of  rain 
should  not  result,  as  it  generally  did,  in  fam- 
ine. Agriculture  and  the  keeping  of  flocks 
and  herds  continued,  through  all  the  period 
of  scriptural  history,  the  .staple  industries 
of  Palestine,  which  was  not  to  any  consider- 
able extent  a  commercial  land. 

A-grip'pa.     See  Herod. 

A'gur  [garnered,  hired,  or  collector]. 

Son  of  Jakeh,  and  author  of  the  maxims 
contained  in  Proverbs  xxx.  (see  ver.  1). 

A'hab  [a  father's  brother]. 

1.  A  king  of  Israel,  and  son  and  successor 
of  Omri.  He  began  to  reign  about  874  r.  c, 
in  the  thirty -eighth  year  of  Asa,  king  of 
Judah  (1  Kin.  xvi.  29).  He  married  an  idol- 
atress of  masculine  temperament.  Jezebel,  the 
daughter  of  Ethbaal,  king  of  Sidon.  She 
worshiped  Baal,  and  her  husband  being  weak 
and  irresolute,  she  ruled  over  him,  and  made 
him  also  a  Baal-worshiper  (30-33).  This  was 
a  revolution  in  the  national  religion  of  Israel. 
When  Jeroboam  set  up  the  two  golden  calves, 
he  still  desired  to  worship  Jehovah  nominal- 
ly, using  them  as  helps  for  the  purpose.  But 
Ahab,  under  Jezebel's  influence,  wholly  gave 
up  the  adoration  of  Jehovah,  Baal  being  a 
rival  god.  The  intolerant  Jezebel  did  not 
stop  with  Ahab's  perversion,  but  attempted 


Ahab 


19 


Ahava 


to  force  the  whole  people  to  adopt  her  faith. 
Tlie  prophets  of  Jehovah  were  sought  out 
auil  slain.  Only  a  rcnuiant  escaiied,  being 
hidden  in  a  cave  by  a  high  functionary, 
Obatliah.  Now,  however,  ajipeared  the  most 
formidable  prophet  known  in  the  history  of 
Israel,  Elijaii  the  'rishl)ite.  He  was  .sent  to 
Ahab  to  jirediit  years  ^)f  drought  and  famine 
as  the  punishment  of  .\lial)'s  sin.  'i'oward 
the  close  of  the  drought,  which  lasted  three 
years  and  six  months  (1  Kin.  xviii.  1 ;  Luke 
iv.  2r>;  Jas.  v.  17),  Elijah,  by  the  divine  com- 
mand, again  confronted  .\hab,  and  demanded 
that  the  ])rophets  of  Baal  and  he  should  meet 
on  the  toj)  of  mount  Carmel  and  sul)mit  the 
question  between  them  to  a  decisive  test. 
The  meeting  took  place  ;  Jehovah  vindicated 
himself  by  sending  fire  from  heaven  to  con- 
sume Elijah's  sacrifice,  and  the  jirojjhet  took 
the  450  prophets  of  Baal  and  400  prophets  of 
the  Ashera  down  to  the  brook  Kishon,  and 
slew  them.  Then  he  prayed  that  the  drought 
might  cease,  and  raiu  was  immediately  sent. 
Jezebel,  on  learning  what  had  been  done, 
uttered  imprecations  against  her.self  if  Elijali 
were  alive  by  the  morrow.  The  prophet, 
fearing  for  his  life,  fled  to  mount  Horeb,  from 
which  he  was  divinely  brought  back  again  to 
anoint  as  king  of  Israel  Jehu,  designed  to  be 
the  relentless  avenger  on  the  house  of  Ahab 
of  all  the  sins  which  it  had  committed.  Ex- 
ecution of  the  sentence  was,  however,  de- 
layed, for  the  cup  of  iniquity  of  Ahab  and 
Jezebel  was  not  yet  full.  Soon,  however,  it 
was  made  full  to  overflowing  by  the  affair  of 
Naboth's  vineyard.  About  this  time  Ahab 
had  won  a  victory  over  Ben-hadad  of  Damas- 
cus, king  of  Syria,  and  had  permitted  that 
potentate,  who  had  been  captured,  to  escape 
with  a  treaty.  The  approach  of  Shalmaneser, 
king  of  Assyria,  led  to  an  alliance  between 
Ben-hadad  of  Damascus,  Ahab  of  Israel,  and 
other  neighboring  kings,  to  resist  the  in- 
vader. Ahab  furnished  2000  chariots  and 
10,000  infantry.  The  allies  were  defeated  at 
Karkar,  in  the  district  of  Hamath.  in  854 
B.  c.  The  war  with  Damascus  was  soon  after- 
wards renewed,  and  Ahab,  taking  advantage 
of  a  visit  from  Jehoshaphat,  king  of  Judah, 
proposed  a  joint  expedition  for  the  recovery 
of  JJaiiiotli-gilead,  beyond  Jordan.  The 
pro])hets  of  Baal  sjjoke  well  of  the  enterprise. 
Micaiah,  the  only  prophet  of  Jehovah  ob- 
tainable, foreboded  the  death  of  Ahab.  The 
man  of  doom  resolved  to  go  into  the  battle 
disguised,  while  proposing  that  the  king  of 
Judah  should  put  on  his  royal  robes,  thus 
becoming  a  mark  for  every  missile.  But 
a  certain  man  drew  a  bow  at  a  venture 
and  smote  Ahab  between  the  joints  where 
the  plates  of  his  armor  met.  Ahab  died 
that  evening,  and  the  siege  of  Ramoth-gilead 
was  raised.  Ahab's  chariot  and  armor  were 
washed  in  the  pool  of  Samaria,  the  dogs, 
as  Elijah  had  predicted,  licking  his  blood. 
Ahab  died  after  a  reign  of  twenty-two 
years,  and   was  succeeded    by  his  son  Aha- 


ziah  (1  Kin.  xvi.  2y-xxii.  40;  2  Cliron.  xviii. 
1-34). 

2.  A  lying  and  immoral  prophet,  a  son  of 
Kolaiah.  Jeremiah  predicted  that  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, king  of  Babylon,  would  roast 
him  in  the  fire  (Jer.  xxix.  21-23). 

A-liar'ah. 

A  son  of  Benjamin,  probably  the  founder 
of  a  family  (1  (,'hron.  viii.  1),  who  is  called 
Ehi  (Gen.  xlvi.  21)  and  Ahiram  (Num.  xxvi. 
38). 

A-har'hel  [possibly,  strength  hath  tarried]. 

A  son  of  Haruna,  founder  of  a  family  which 
Vi'as  enrolled  in  the  tribe  of  Judah  (1  Chron. 
iv.  8). 

A'has-ai.     See  \uzxi. 

A-has'bai  [perhaps  a  foreign  uamt^]. 

A  Maacathite,  tlie  father  of  Eliphelet,  one 
of  David's  heroes  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  34). 

A-has-u-e'rus  [from  Persian  Khshuya, 
king]. 

1.  The  father  of  Darius  the  Mede  (Dan. 
ix.  1).     See  Darius. 

2.  A  Persian  king,  the  husband  of  Esther 
(Esth.  i.  2,  19;  ii.  16,  17).  Ahasuerus  is 
Khshayarsha,  whom  the  Greeks  called 
Xerxes.  The  book  of  Esther  tells  of  his 
sensuality,  his  fickleness,  his  lack  of  fore- 
thought, his  despotism,  and  his  cruelty. 
Greek  history  presents  essentially  the  same 
picture  of  Xerxes  (Herod,  vii.  35,  37  ;  ix.  107). 
He  was  the  son  of  Darius  Hystaspis,  whom 
he  succeeded  on  the  Persian  throne,  486  B.  c. 
His  mother  was  Atossa,  the  daughter  of 
Cyrus.  In  the  second  year  of  his  reign  he 
subdued  the  Egyptians,  who  had  revolted 
against  his  father  Darius.  After  about  four 
years'  preparation,  he  led  an  immense  host 
to  invade  Greece  ;  but  fled  back  to  Per.sia  on 
seeing  his  great  fleet  defeated  (480  b.  c.  )  by  a 
much  smaller  number  of  Greek  .ships  at 
Salamis.  The  next  year  (479  b.  o.)  his  gen- 
eral, Mardonius,  whom  he  had  left  behind 
with  an  army,  allowed  his  camp  at  Platsea  to 
be  forced  by  the  Greeks,  when  such  a  slaugh- 
ter ensued  as  rendered  the  Persian  invasion 
hopeless.  In  466,  after  a  reign  of  twenty 
years,  Xerxes  was  murdered  by  two  of  his 
courtiers,  and  was  succeeded  on  the  throne 
by  his  .son,  Artaxerxes  Longimanus.  Xerxes 
is  probably  again  mentioned  as  Ahasuerus  in 
Ezra  iv.  6,  where  the  author  completes  the 
historj'  of  Samaritan  machinations  at  the 
Persian  court  against  the  Jews,  resuming  in 
ver.  24  the  narrative  which  he  interrupted  at 
ver.  5.  The  older  interpreters  thought  that 
Ahasuerus  in  this  passage  referred  to  (Jam- 
byscs,  son  of  Cyrus  ;  but  there  is  no  evidence 
that  Cambyses  was  ever  called  Ahasuerus. 

A-ha'va. 

A  locality  in  Babylonia,  doubtless  to  the 
north  of  Babylon  (Ezra  viii.  15).  It  .serves 
to  indicate  the  river  or  canal  in  its  vicinity 
on  which  Ezra  assembled  the  j)eoi>le  who  pro- 
posed to  go  to  Jerusalem  with  him   (vii.  28 


Ahaz 


20 


Ahijah 


with  viii.  31).  It  appears  to  have  been  dis- 
tant about  nine  days  from  Babylon  (.vii.  9  ; 
viii.  15,  31).  On  mustering  the  Jews  who 
were  present  and  finding  no  Levites,  except 
priests,  among  them,  Ezra  sent  for  and  se- 
cured a  number  of  the.se  ministers  for  the 
house  of  Uod.  Here  also  a  fast  was  kept,  and 
the  protection  of  God  supplicated  for  the 
journey. 

A'haz,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Acbaz  [he  has 
sustained]. 

A  king  of  Judah  who  was  probably  pro- 
claimed king  about  741  B.  c,  when  20  years 
old,  and  who  succeeded  his  father  Jotham 
about  734  B.  c.  He  was  an  idolater,  causing 
his  son  to  pass  through  the  fire,  and  sacri- 
ficing and  burning  incense  on  high  places 
and  under  green  trees  (2  Kin.  xvi.  3,  4).  He 
was  unsuccessfully  l)esieged  in  Jerusalem  by 
Eezin,  king  of  Syria,  and  Pekab,  king  of 
Israel  (5  ;  Is.  vii.  1).  In  connection  with  this 
crisis  Isaiah  was  sent  to  exhort  him  to  rely 
upon  Jehovah  and  not  call  in  foreign  aid. 
He  did  not  believe,  and  refused  to  ask  a  sign. 
Thereupon  the  prophet  uttered  the  celebrated 
prophecy  relative  to  the  birth  of  Immanuel 
(Is.  vii.  1-16) ;  see  Immanuel.  Ahaz  turned 
to  Tiglath-pileser,  king  of  Assyria,  and  pur- 
chased his  aid  with  the  treasures  of  the  tem- 
ple and  the  palace.  Tiglath-pileser  marched 
to  his  assistance.  The  approach  of  the  Assyr- 
ians seems  to  have  led  Rezin  and  Pekah  to 
raise  the  siege  of  Jerusalem.  Tiglath-pileser 
attacked  Philistia,  overran  Samaria,  took 
Damascus  and  slew  Rezin,  and  connived  at 
the  murder  of  Pekah  and  enthronement  of 
Hoshea  as  king  of  Israel.  With  other  vas- 
sals of  Assyria,  Ahaz  went  to  Damascus  to  do 
homage  to  Tiglath-pileser  (2  Kin.  xvi. ;  2 
Chron.  xxviii.  ;  Assyrian  inscriptions).  While 
there  he  admired  a  heathen  altar,  and  had  a 
facsimile  of  it  made  at  Jerusalem.  Ahaz 
died  about  the  year  726  b.  c,  after  reigning 
16  years,  and  left  his  son  Hezekiah  to  a.scend 
the  throne.  Hosea,  Micah,  and  Isaiah  proph- 
esied during  the  whole  of  Ahaz's  reign,  zeal- 
ously witnessing  for  Jehovah  (Is.  i.  1 ;  vii. 
1-16;  Ho,s.  i.  1). 

Ahaz  is  mentioned  on  the  Assyrian  monu- 
ments by  the  name  Yauhasi,  corresponding 
to  the  Hebrew  Jehoahaz,  the  full  form  of 
Ahaz.  Ahaz  means  "He  has  sustained," 
while  Jehoahaz  signifies  "  Jehovah  has  sus- 
tained." 

A-ha-zi'ah  [Jehovah  hath  sustained]. 

1.  A  king  of  Israel  who  was  ap]>arently 
placed  on  the  throne  when  his  fatlier  Ahab 
marched  with  the  allies  against  Shalmaneser 
in  854  B.  c.  He  succeeded  his  father  on  the 
latter's  death.  His  entire  reign  lasted  only 
two  years  (1  Kin.  xxii.  40,  51).  He  joined 
with  Jehoshaphat  in  fitting  out  ships  of  Tar- 
shish  to  go  to  (Jphir  for  gold  ;  but  the  vessels 
were  wrecked  at  Kzion-geber.  Ahaziah  pro- 
po.sed  a  .second  attempt;  but  Jehoshaphat, 
warned  by  a  prophet,  declined  (1  Kin.  xxii. 


48,  49  ;  2  Clhnm.  xx.  35-37).  After  the  death 
of  Ahab,  Moab  rebelled ;  but  Ahaziah  took 
no  steps  to  reduce  it  to  subjection  (2  Kin.  i. 
1 ;  iii.  5).  Ahaziah  fell  through  a  lattice  in 
his  palace,  and  was  seriously  injured.  He 
sent  to  consult  Baal-zebub.  the  god  of  Ekron. 
as  to  the  result.  Elijah  intercepted  the  mes- 
sengers, and  sent  them  back  with  the  mes- 
sage that  the  injurj'  would  prove  fatal  (2  Kin. 
i.  2-17).  Ahaziah  left  no  son  to  succeed  him, 
so  the  throne  passed  over  to  his  brother  Je- 
horam  (17). 

2.  A  king  of  Judah,  who  began  to  rule  the 
kingdom  in  843  B.  c.  (2  Kin.  ix.  29),  apparently 
during  his  father's  sickness  (2  Chron.  xxi. 
18,  19),  and  succeeded  his  father  Joram  or 
Jehoram  the  next  .year  (2  Kin.  viii.  25). 
He  was  then  twenty-two  years  old,  and 
reigned  only  a  year.  His  mother,  Athaliah, 
was  his  evil  genius  (2  Chron.  xxii.  3).  He 
went  with  Joram,  king  of  Israel,  to  fight  with 
the  Syrians  at  Ramoth-gilead.  Joram  re- 
turned to  Jezreel  wounded,  Ahaziah  paid 
him  a  visit,  was  with  him  during  the  revolt 
of  Jehu,  and  was  killed  with  him  by  that 
ruthless  soldier  (2  Kin.  viii.  25-29  ;  ix.  16-29  ; 
2  Chron.  xxii.  1-10).  By  a  reversal  of  the 
constituent  parts  of  his  name,  he  is  called 
Jehoahaz  in  2  Chron.  xxi.  17.  "  Azariah  "  in 
2  t'hron.  xxii.  6  has  probably  arisen  from 
Ahaziah  through  corruption  of  the  text. 

Ah'ban. 

A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Hezron,  house 
of  Jerahmeel  (1  Chron.  ii.  29). 

A'her  [another]. 

A  Benjamite  (1  Chron.  vii.  12).  R.  V.  mar- 
gin identifies  him  with  Ahiram.  See  Aharah. 

A'hi  [brother  of,  or  a  brother  is  (Jehovah)]. 

1.  Chief  of  the  Gadites  in  Gilead  in  Bashau 
(1  Chron.  v.  15). 

2.  An  Asherite,  son  of  Shamer,  of  the  fam- 
ily of  Beriah  (1  Chron.  vii.  34). 

A-hi'ah.     See  Ahljah. 

A-hi'am. 

One  of  David's  mighty  men  (2  Sam.  xxiii. 
33). 

A-M'an  [perhaps,  brotherly]. 

A  Manassite  of  the  family  of  Shemida  (1 
Chron.  vii.  19). 

A-M-e'zer  [brother  of  help]. 

1.  Son  of  Ammishaddai,  and  head  of  the 
tribe  of  Dan  in  the  wilderness  (Num.  i.  12; 
ii.  25;  vii.  66). 

2.  A  man  of  Gibeah  who  joined  David  at 
Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  3). 

A-M'hud  [i)r(>bal)ly,  brother  of  praise- 
worthiness,  or  a  brother  is  the  praiseworthy 
one]. 

1.  The  x>rince  representing  the  tribe  of 
Asher  on  the  commission  to  divide  the  land 
(Num.  xxxiv.  27). 

2.  Head  of  a  father's  house  in  Geba  of 
Benjamin  (1  Chron.  viii.  7). 

A-hi'jah,  in  A.  V.  sometimes  Ahiah  (viz. 
1,  3,  6)  [brother  of,  or  a  brother  is  Jehovah]. 


Ahikam 


21 


Ahishahar 


1.  A  Beujamitc  aiiparently,  who  assisted 
Gera  in  carrying  ofl'  inhabitants  of  Geba  (1 
Chron.  viii.  7). 

2.  A  man  of  Judah  descended  through 
Jerahuieel  (1  Chron.  ii.  25). 

3.  A  son  of  x\hitnb,  and  great-grandson  of 
Eli.  He  at  one  time  in  the  reign  of  Saul  per- 
formed the  functions  of  high  priest  at  Gibeah 
(1  Sam.  xiv.  3.  18).  He  was  elder  brother  of 
Ahimelech,  or  possibly  that  priest  himself 
under  another  name. 

4.  A  Pelonite,  one  of  David's  mighty  men 
(1  Chron.  xi.  SG). 

5.  A  Levite  who  in  David's  reign  was  over 
the  treasures  of  the  tabernacle  and  the  dedi- 
cated offerings  (1  Chron.  xxvi.  20;  but  see 
E.  V.  margin). 

6.  A  scribe  in  Solomon's  reign  (1  Kin.  iv.  3). 

7.  A  prophet  belonging  to  Shiloh,  who,  meet- 
ing Jeroboam,  rent  his  own  garment  in  twelve 
pieces,  and  directed  Jeroboam  to  take  ten,  as 
an  indication  that  he  should  be  king  over  ten 
tribes  (1  Kin.  xi.  29-39).  After  Jeroboam  had 
become  king,  he  sent  his  queen  disguised  to 
the  now  aged  and  half-blind  prophet  to  in- 
quire whether  their  child  who  was  sick  would 
recover.  Ahijah  recognized  her  under  her 
disguise,  and  predicted  that  the  child  would 
die  (xiv.  1-18).  He  committed  his  prophecies 
to  writing  (2  Chron.  ix.  29). 

8.  The  father  of  Baasha,  king  of  Israel  (1 
Kin.  XV.  27,  33). 

A-M'kam  [brother  of  him  who  riseth,  or  a 
brother  hath  appeared] . 

Son  of  Shaphan  and  a  prince  of  Judah  (2 
Kin.  xxii.  12).  He  protected  Jeremiah  when 
priests  and  false  prophets  demanded  Jere- 
miah's death  (Jer.  xxvi.  24).  He  was  the 
father  of  Gedaliah  (2  Kin.  xxv.  22). 

A-M'lud  [perhaps,  brother  of  one  born,  or 
brother  of  the  son]. 

Father  of  the  recorder  Jehoshaphat  (2  Sam. 
viii.  16  ;  xx.  24;  1  Kin.  iv.  3). 

A-Mm'a-az  [brother  of  irascibility]. 

1.  Father  of  Ahinoam,  Saul's  wife  (1  Sam. 
xiv.  50). 

2.  A  son  of  Zadok,  high  priest  in  David's 
time.  He  and  Jonathan,  Abiathar's  son, 
maintained  communication  between  David 
and  the  loyal  party  in  Jerusalem  during  Ab- 
salom's rebellion  (2  Sam.  xv.  27,  36  ;  xvii.  20). 
He  was  the  first  to  bring  David  intelligence 
of  the  victory  over  Absalom  (xviii.  19-30).  It 
may  have  been  he  who  was  afterwards  Sol- 
omon's purveyor  in  Naphtali  (1  Kin.  iv.  15). 

A-hi'man  [brother  of  a  gift] . 

1.  A  son  of  Anak,  and  probably  founder  of 
a  family  of  Anakim  (Num.  xiii.  22)  driven 
from  Hebron  by  Caleb  (Josh.  xv.  14 ;  Judg. 
i.  10). 

2.  A  Levite  who  acted  as  porter  of  the 
house  of  God  (1  Chron.  ix.  17). 

A-him'e-lecli  [brother  of  a  king]. 
1.  A    sou   (tf  Ahitub,    and   chief  priest   at 
Nob.    David,  fleeing  from  Saul,  but  pretend- 


ing to  be  on  the  king's  business,  being  in 
great  want  of  food,  received  from  him  the 
show-bread,  which,  by  the  law,  was  a  per- 
quisite of  the  priests.  He  also  obtained  the 
sword  which  had  formerly  belonged  to  Goliath 
(1  Sam.  xxi.  1-9  ;  in  Mark  ii.  26  the  event  is 
dated  in  the  time  of  Abiathar,  Ahimelech's 
son).  Doeg  the  Edomite  reported  the  occur- 
rence to  Saul,  who,  interpreting  it  as  a  proof 
that  Ahimelech  and  the  other  priests  were 
treacherous,  gave  orders  that  they  .should  be 
slain.  One  inhabitant  of  Nob — Abiathar,  a 
son  of  Ahimelech — escaped  from  the  mas.sa- 
cre  (1  Sam.  xxi.  7  ;  xxii.  7-23  ;  title  of  Ps.  Hi.). 

2.  The  son  of  the  Abiathar  who  escaped 
from  the  slaughter  at  Nob,  and  the  grandson 
of  Ahimelech,  son  of  Ahitub.  He  was  one 
of  two  high  priests  during  David's  reign  (2 
Sam.  viii.  17  ;  1  Chron.  xxiv.  3,  6,  31).  Ahim- 
elech in  1  Chron.  xviii.  16  is  probably  a  copy- 
ist's error  for  Ahimelech. 

3.  A  Hittite,  and  follower  of  David  (1  Sam. 
xxvi.  6). 

A-M'moth  [brother  of  death]. 

A  Levite,  a  son  of  Elkauah  (1  Chron.  vi. 
25). 

A-hin'a-dab  [brother  of  liberality]. 

Solomon's  purveyor  in  Mahanaim  (1  Kin. 
iv.  14). 

A-Mn'o-am  [brother  of  grace]. 

1.  Saul's  wife,  a  daughter  of  Ahimaaz  (1 
Sam.  xiv.  50). 

2.  A  woman  of  Jezreel,  one  of  David's 
wives  (1  Sam.  xxv.  43 ;  xxvii.  3),  taken  cap- 
tive at  Ziklag  by  the  Amalekites  (xxx.  5). 
She  was  the  mother  of  Amnon  (2  Sam.  iii.  2). 

A-hi'o  [fraternal] . 

1.  A  son  of  Abinadab  and  brother  of  Uzzah. 
The  two  drove  the  cart  on  which  David  was 
taking  the  ark  to  .Jerusalem  (2  Sara.  vi.  3,  4). 

2.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Elpaal  (1  Chron. 
viii.  14). 

3.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Jehiel  by  his  wife 
Maachah  (1  Chron.  viii.  29,  31 ;  ix.'sS,  37). 

A-M'ra  [brother  of  evil]. 

A  son  of  Enan,  and  head  of  the  tribe  of 
Naphtali  during  the  early  journeyings  in  the 
wilderness  (Num.  i.  15  ;  ii.  29;  vii.  78;  x.  27). 

A-hi'ram  [exalted  brother,  or  brother  of 
the  high  one]. 

A  Benjamite,  founder  of  a  family  (Num. 
xxvi.  38).  Aharah  (1  Chron.  viii.  1)  doubt- 
less represents  the  same  name  ;  and  Ehi  (Gen. 
xlvi.  21)  is  either  an  abbreviation  or  more 
probably  a  corruption,  as  the  last  syllable  of 
Ahiram  was  easily  overlooked  by  a  copyist 
by  reason  of  the  recurrence  of  similar  Hebrew 
letters  in  the  two  following  names. 

A-his'a-macli  [brother  of  support]. 
A    Danite,    the   father    of    the    craftsman 
Aholiab  (Ex.  xxxi.  6). 

A-hish'a-har  [brother  of  the  dawn]. 
A  man  descended  froui  Benjamin  through 
Jediael  and  Bilhan  (1  Chron.  vii.  10). 


Ahishar 


22 


Aijalon 


A-hi'shar  [l)iotli(!r  of  a  singer]. 

An  orti(i;il  wlio  was  over  Solomon's  house- 
hold (1  Kin.  iv.  (i). 

A-hith'o-pliel  [brother  of  folly]. 

A  resident  of  tiiloli  in  southwestern  Judah, 
one  of  David's  counselors  (2  Sam.  xv.  12), 
father  of  one  of  David's  mighty  men  (xxiii. 
34),  and  perhaps  the  grandfather  of  Bath- 
sheba  (xi.  3  with  xxiii.  34).  So  unerring  was 
his  .sagacity  that  his  advice  was  "as  if  a  man 
had  iiHjuired  at  the  oracle  of  God"  (2  Sam. 
xvi.  23),  but  he  was  morally  untrustworthy. 
Absalom  found  him  ready  to  betray  David, 
and  to  point  out  how  he  might  be  destroyed. 
When  Absalom  preferred  the  ab.surd  counsel 
of  Hushai,  who  was  .secretly  in  David's  in- 
terest, Ahithophel,  foreboding  that  it  was 
therefore  all  over  with  the  rebellion,  com- 
mitted suicide  (2  Sam.  xv.  12,  31-34 ;  xvi.  15 ; 
xvii.  23),  offering  thus  a  strange  O.  T.  type 
of  Judas,  both  in  his  treachery  and  his  fate. 

A-M'tub  [brother  of  benevolence] . 

1.  A  son  of  Phinehas,  and  grandson  of  Eli 
(1  Sam.  xiv.  3),  and  father  of  Ahimelech,  the 
priest  (xxii.  9). 

2.  A  son  of  Amariah,  and  father  of  Zadok, 
the  priest  (2  Sam.  viii.  17;  1  C'hron.  vi.  7,  8). 

3.  A  later  priest  in  the  same  family,  son  of 
another  Amariah,  and  grandfather  of  another 
Zadok.  also  a  priest  (1  Chron.  vi.  11,  12;  Neh. 
xi.  II). 

Ah'lab  [a  fat,  fertile  place]. 

A  town  within  the  territory  of  Asher,  but 
from  which  that  tribe  did  not  drive  out  the 
Canaanite  inhabitants  (Judg.  i.  31).  Not 
identified.  Gush  Halab  of  the  Talmud,  the 
Giscala  of  .Josephus,  five  miles  northwest  of 
Safed  on  the  road  to  Tyre,  lies  too  far  east- 
ward to  have  been  within  the  territory  of 
Asher. 

Ah'lai  [O  that!]. 

1.  A  descendant,  namely  a  daughter  of 
She-shan  (1  Chron.  ii.  31,  34). 

2.  The  father  of  Zabad  (1  Chron.  xi.  41). 
A-ho'ah  [heat]. 

A  Benjamite  of  the  family  of  Bela  (1  Chron. 
viii.  4) ;  perhaps  Ahijah  (7).     See  Ahohite. 

A-ho'Mte. 

A  descendant  of  Ahoah  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  9, 
28  ;  1  C^hron.  xi.  12,  29). 

A-holah.     See  Oholah. 

A-ho'li-ab.     See  Oholiab. 

A-hol'i-bah.     See  Oholibah. 

A-hol-i-ba'mab.     See  Oholibamah. 

A-hu'mai  [perhaps,  brother  of  water]. 

A  man  of  .ludah,  family  of  Hezron,  house 
of  Caleb  (1  Chron.  iv.  2  with  ii.  18,  19,  .50). 

A-huz'zam,  in  A.  V.  Ahuzam  [possession]. 

A   man   of  .Judah,   son   of  Assliur,   of  the 

family  of  Hezron  (1  Chron.  iv.  5.  6  with  ii.  24) 

A-huz'zatli  [possession]. 
A   friend   of  Ahimelech.  king  of  Gerar,  in 
I.sjiae's  time  {Gen.  xxvi.  2(i). 


Ah'zai,  in  A.  V.  Ahasai  [possession,  or 
perhaps  clear-sighted]. 

A  ])riest  descended  from  Inmier  through 
Meshillemoth  (Neh.  xi.  13)  ;  prol)ablynot  the 
person  called  Jahzerah  in  1  Chron.  ix.  12,  but 
a  dilferent  link  in  the  genealogy. 

A'i,  in  A.  V.  in  Genesis  Hai,  with  retention 
of  the  Hebrew  article  [ruins].  Aija  and  Aiath 
(Neh.  xi.  31 ;  Is.  x.  28)  are  feminine  forms  of 
the  word. 

1.  A  town  ea.st  of  Bethel  and  near  Beth- 
aveu,  with  a  valley  on  its  north  (Gen.  xii.  8; 
Josh.  vii.  2;  viii.  11).  It  lay  north  of  Mich- 
mash,  if  Aiath  is  the  same  as  Ai,  as  is  in 
every  way  probable  (Is.  x.  28)  ;  a  location 
which  excludes  such  .sites  as  el-Hai,  half  a 
mile  southeast  of  Michmash,  and  a  name, 
moreover,  radically  ditlerent  from  Ai.  Its  site 
was  apparently  near  the  modern  Deir  Diwan, 
on  the  ancient  road  between  Michmash  and 
Bethel,  about  midway  between  the  two  places. 
Three-quarters  of  a  mile  northwest  of  Deir 
Diwan  is  the  ruin  et-Tell.  the  heap  (cp.  Josh, 
viii.  28) ;  and  one-third  of  a  mile  south,  and 
less  definitely  in  the  gardens  extending  one- 
half  mile  southvvestwardly  to  el-Kadeirah, 
is  the  ruin  el-Haiyan.  Each  of  these  three 
sites  has  its  advocates.  The  name  Haiyan,  it 
may  be  noted,  is  an  entirely  diflerent  word 
from  Ai,  and  Josephus'  name  for  Ai  scarcely 
forms  the  connecting  link,  for  the  Greek 
texts  of  the  historian  do  not  show  the  nomi- 
native case  Aina.  At  first  Ai  was  unsuccess- 
fully attacked  by  Joshua  (Josh.  vii.  2-5). 
When  it  was  found  that  the  defeat  was  caused 
by  the  sin  of  Achan.  and  when  he  had  suffered 
for  it,  Ai  was  again  attacked,  and  this  time 
was  taken  by  stratagem.  Its  inhabitants,  num- 
bering about  12,000,  were  slaughtered,  its 
king  was  hanged  on  a  tree,  and  the  city  was 
burned  (vii.-viii.).  It  lay  in  ruins  until  some 
time  after  the  account  in  Joshua  was  writ- 
ten (viii.  28),  but  ultimately  was  rebuilt  (Is. 
X.  28  ;  Ezra  ii.  28). 

2.  A  city  of  the  Ammonites,  apparently  not 
far  from  Heshbon  (Jer.  xlix.  3). 

A-i'ab,  in  A.  V.  once  Ajab  [bird  of  prey]. 

1.  A  Horite,  son  of  Zibeon  and  brother  of 
Anah  (Gen.  xxxvi.  24  ;  1  Chron.  i.  40). 

2.  The  father  of  Rizjiah,  Saul's  concubine 
(2  Sam.  iii.  7;  xxi.  8,  10,  11). 

A-i'atb.     See  Ai. 

A-i'ja.     See  Ai. 

Ai'ja-lon,  in  A.  V.  occasionally  Ajalon 
[place  of  harts]. 

1.  A  village  of  the  Shcphelah,  near  a  val- 
ley (Josh.  X.  12;  2  Chron.  xxviii.  18).  It 
corresponds  to  Yalo,  a  village  thirteen  miles 
northwest  of  Jerusalem,  on  a  low  spur,  look- 
ing northward  over  a  beautiful  plain.  It  was 
assigned  t<^  the  tribe  of  Dan,  but  they  did 
not  expel  the  Amorite  inhabitants  (Judg.  i. 
34,  35).  Aijalon  was  designated  to  be  a  Levit- 
ical  city  for  the  Kohathites  ( Jo.sh.  xxi.'20,  24  ; 
1  Chron.  vi.  69).     After  the  secession  of  the 


Aijeleth 


23 


Aleph 


ten  tribes,  it  was  intliuUd  in  Boiijanuii,  and 
was  fortified  by  Keliol)oaui  (1  Chron.  viii.  13  ; 
2  Clirou.  xi.  10) ;  but  in  the  time  of  Aliaz  it 
was  captured  by  the  Piiilistines  (xxviii.  18). 

2.  A  phice  in  tlie  tril)e  of  Zebuhm,  where 
the  jndge  Elon  was  buried  (Judg.  xii.  12). 
Exact  site  unknown.  The  ruin  Jallun,  nine 
antl  a  half  miles  east  of  Acre  and  one  and  a 
half  miles  southwest  of  Mejd  el-Kerum,  seems 
too  far  north  for  Zebulun,  and  like  'Ailut, 
another  projjo-sed  site  two  and  a  half  miles  by 
road  northwest  of  Nazareth,  is  a  radically 
tlifferent  word. 

Ai'je-leth  hash- Sha  bar,  in  A.  V.,  with 
omission  of  the  Hebrew  article,  Aijeleth 
Shahar  [hind  of  the  dawn]. 

Probably  a  tune,  to  which  the  chief  musi- 
cian was  directed  to  set  the  twenty-second 
Psalm  (Ps.  xxii.  R.  V.,  title). 

A'in  [an  eye,  and  a  natural  spring]. 

1.  The  sixteenth  letter  of  the  Hebrew  al- 
phabet, originally  in  outline  an  eye.  English 
0  comes  from  the  same  source,  but  is  used  as 
a  vowel,  whereas  aiu  is  a  consonant  of  pecu- 
liar guttural  sound.  In  anglicizing  Hebrew 
names  which  contain  ain,  the  letter  is  some- 
times not  represented  at  all,  at  other  times  it 
appears  as  g,  rarely  through  the  Greek  as  h. 
In  the  original,  aiu  stands  at  the  beginning 
of  the  words  Amalek,  Eli,  Gomorrah,  and  per- 
haps Heli.  It  heads  the  sixteenth  section  of 
Ps.  cxix.,  in  which  section  each  verse  of  the 
Hebrew  begins  with  this  letter. 

2.  A  place  on  the  northern  boundary-line 
of  Palestine  west  of  Riblah  (Num.  xxxiv.  11). 

3.  A  town  in  the  territory  of  Judah,  toward 
Edom  and  near  Rimmou  (Josh.  xv.  32 ;  1 
Chron.  iv.  32),  and  as  it  were  forming  one 
town  with  it  (Neh.  xi.29).  It  was  transferred 
with  Rimmon  to  Simeon,  and  assigned  to  the 
priests  who  resided  with  that  tribe  (Josh.  xix. 
7;  xxi.  Ifi;  but  see  ASHAN).  It  is  identified 
with  extensive  ruins  at  Bir  Khuweilfeh,  a 
large  well  of  perennial  water  about  three- 
quarters  of  a  mile  north  of  the  probable  site 
of  Rimmon. 

A'jah.     See  Ai.\h. 
Aj'a-lon.     See  Aij.\lon. 
A'kan.     See  Jaakan. 
Ak'kuh  [cunning,  artful]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Shecauiah  through 
Elioenai  (1  Chron.  iii.  21,  24). 

2.  A  Levite  who  founded  a  family  of  tem- 
ple porters  known  by  his  name  (1  Chron.  ix. 
17;  Ezra  ii.  42  ;  Neh.  viii.  7 ;  xi.  19;  xii.  25). 

3.  One  of  the  Nethinim  (Ezra  ii.  45). 
Ak-ra-bat-ti'ne. 

A  place  in  Idumtea  (1  Mac.  v.  3),  probably 
Akrabbim. 

A-krah'bim,  in  A.  V.  once  Acrabhim  (Josh. 
XV.  3)  [scorpions]. 

An  ascent  on  the  southeast  frontier  of 
Judah  near  the  southern  point  of  the  Dead 
Sea,  and  not  far  from  the  desert  of  Zin  (Num. 
xxxiv.    4;    Josh.    xv.  3;    Judg.   i.   36).     Ap- 


parently, the  boundary  between  Canaan  and 
Edom  on  leaving  the  Dead  Sea  followed  wady 
el  Fikreh. 

Al'a-bas-ter  [without  a  handle  (labas)  ;  or 
else  derived  from  a  place  called  Alabastrum]. 

The  material  of  which  the  cruse  was  made 
from  which  Jesus  was  anointed  at  Bethany 
(Mat.  xxvi.  7;  Mark  xiv.  3;  Luke  vii.  37). 
Alabaster  commonly  tlenotes  massive  gypsum 
of  a  fine-grained  variety,  white  in  color,  and 
delicately  shaded.  Being  more  easily  worked 
than  marble,  it  can  be  made  into  columns  or 
turned  on  the  lathe  into  cups,  boxes,  basins, 
or  vases.  Anciently,  alabaster  denoted  any 
stone  suitable  for  working  into  such  utensils. 
Most  of  the  extant  ancient  ointment  fiasks 
are  made  of  a  light  gray,  translucent  lime- 
stone. 

A-la'meth.     See  Alemeth. 

A-lam'me-lech  [perhaps,  king's  oak]. 

A  frontier  village  of  Asher  (Josh.  xix.  26) ; 
site  unknown. 

Ara-moth  [maidens] . 

A  musical  term  (1  CJhron.  xv.  20;  Ps.  xlvi. 
title).  It  probably  refers  to  maiden  or  treble 
voices. 

Al'ci-mus. 

A  high  priest  appointed  by  Antiochus  Eu- 
pator  (2  Mac.  xiv.  3,  7  ;  Antiq.  xii.  9,  7),  con- 
firmed by  Demetrius  I.  in  162  B.  c.  (1  Mac. 
vii.  5-9),  and  installed  by  Bacchides  at  the 
head  of  an  army  (10-20).  He  was  entirely 
Greek  in  sympathy,  and  was  abhorred  by  the 
Jews.  He  was  driven  out  of  Palestine  by 
Judas  Maccabgeus  (21-25)  ;  but  was  brought 
back  by  Bacchides  (ix.  1),  and  destroyed  the 
inner  wall  of  the  temple,  160  b.  c.  (54).  His 
sudden  death  soon  afterwards  was  regarded 
by  the  Jews  as  a  punishment  for  the  impious 
act  (55,  56). 

Al'e-ma. 

A  town  in  Gilead  (1  Mac.  v.  26),  conjectured 
to  be  Bcer-elim  (Is.  xv.  8). 

Al'e-meth,  in  A.  V.  once  Alameth,  the 
Hebrew  ju'onunciation,  in  this  instance,  due 
merely  to  the  position  occupied  by  the  name 
in  the  sentence  (1  Chron.  vii.  8)  [covering]. 

1.  A  Benjamite.  descended  through  Becher 
(1  Chron.  vii.  8).  ' 

2.  A  descendant  of  king  Saul  (1  Chron.  viii. 
36  ;  ix.  42). 

3.  A  town  (1  Chron.  vi.  60).     See  Almox. 
Al'eph. 

The  first  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet. 
The  English  letter  A  has  the  same  origin  ; 
but  the  Hebrew  letter  is  a  consonant,  hav- 
ing no  representative  in  the  speech  of  the 
English  people.  In  the  spelling  of  Hebrew 
names  in  the  English  versions  it  does  not 
appear.  It  is  the  initial  letter,  for  example,  in 
the  original  of  the  words  Edom,  Ophir,  and  Ur. 

Aleph  stands  at  the  head  of  the  fii-st  sec- 
tion of  Ps.  cxix.  in  many  versions,  since  in 
the  original  each  verse  of  the  section  begins 
with  this  letter. 


Alexander 


24 


Alexandria 


Al-ex-an'der  [<lcfending  men]. 

1.  AU'xander  the  Great,  kiug  of  Macedonia, 
who  followed  his  father  Philij)  {1  Mac.  i.  1). 
He  began  to  reign  3:5H  B.  c.  After  quelling 
some  disturbances  at  home,  he  crossed  the 
Hellespont  to  attack  the  Persians,  whom  he 
met  and  defeated  at  Grauicus,  and  again  at 
Issus  on  the  northeastern  corner  of  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea.  After  the  battle  of  Issus,  Alex- 
ander took  Damascus,  which  contained  great 
treasure,  and  Sidon,  and  laid  siege  to  Tyre. 
From  there  he  sent  to  the  Jewish  high  priest 
Jaddua,  demanding  his  allegiance  and  sup- 
l)lics  for  his  army.  Jaddua  refused  on  the 
ground  of  being  subject  to  the  Persian  king. 
Angry  at  this  answer,  Alexander  set  out  in 
person  for  Jerusalem  as  soon  as  he  bad  re- 
duced Tyre.  According  to  Josephus,  the 
Jews  were  in  terror  at  his  ajjproach,  but  Jad- 
dua threw  open  the  gates  and  went  in  full 


Head  of  Alexander  the  Great. 

priestly  robes  to  meet  the  conqueror,  who  fell 
at  bis  feet  in  worship  of  the  God  whom  Jad- 
dua represented.  He  explained  that  before  he 
left  Macedonia  he  had  seen  in  a  dream  the 
Deity  in  the  garb  of  this  high  priest,  and  had 
been  promised  victory  over  Persia.  He 
granted  the  Jews  many  special  privileges 
(Antiq.  xi.  8,  5).  From  Palestine  he  went 
on  to  Egypt,  where  he  founded  Alexandria  ; 
he  then  returned  through  Palestine  to  Persia, 
where  he  overthrew  the  Persian  king  Darius. 
After  further  conquests  be  died  in  Babylon  in 
323  B.  c,  aged  33.  After  his  death,  his  gen- 
erals made  some  show  of  holding  the  empire 
for  his  infant  son,  his  widow  and  brother 
being  set  up  as  regents.  But  dissensions  .soon 
arose  among  the  generals.  All  the  members 
of  Alexander's  family  were  made  away  with, 
and  the  ruling  generals  were  i-educed  from 
seven  to  four  ;  these  four  then  assumed  the 
title  of  king,  and  founded  four  royal  houses — 
Ptolemy  in  Egypt,  Seleucus  in  Syria,  Antipater 
in  Macedonia,  and  Philetierus  in  Asia  Minor. 
In  the  first  division  of  Alexander's  empire. 


before  the  final  reduction  to  four  kingdoms, 
Syria  and  Palestine  formed  an  independent 
satrapy  under  Laomedon,  but  they  were  soon 
annexed  to  Egypt  by  Ptolemy  Lagus.  This 
rich  province  was  coveted  also  by  others,  and 
was  twice  taken  by  Autigonus,  another  of 
Alexander's  generals,  who  was  then  master 
of  the  greater  part  of  Asia  Minor,  but  in  the 
final  partition  into  four  kingdoms  after  the 
battle  of  Ipsus  it  passed  into  Egyptian  hands, 
and  remained  so  from  that  time,  320  b.  c, 
until  203  B.  c,  when  it  became  part  of  the 
Syrian  kingdom  of  Antiochus  the  Great. 

2.  Alexander  Balas,  a  pretender,  who  claim- 
ed to  be  the  son  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes.  By 
the  help  of  Ptolemy,  king  of  Egypt,  whose 
daughter  Cleopatra  he  married,  he  reigned 
over  Syria  150-146  B.  c.  He  proved  incapa- 
ble of  holding  the  kingdom  and,  betrayed  by 
Ptolemy,  was  easily  driven  out  by  Demetrius 
II.  He  made  treaties  with  Jonathan  Mac- 
cabseus,  and  sued  for  the  help  of  the  Jcm'S 
(1  Mac.  X.  1,  18-20;  Antiq.  xiii.  2,  1;  4,  8). 

3.  A  son  of  Simon  of  C'yrene  (Mark  xv.  21). 

4.  A  leading  man  at  Jerusalem  when  Peter 
and  John  were  tried  there  (Acts  iv.  6). 

5.  A  Jew  who  was  involved  in  danger 
during  the  tumult  at  Ephesus  (Acts  xix.  33). 

6.  One  who  made  shipwreck  of  his  faith, 
blasphemed,  and  was  excommunicated  by 
Paul  (1  Tim.  i.  19,  20)  He  perhaps  was  the 
same  as  Alexander  the  coppersmith,  who  did 
the  apostle  and  his  associates  much  injury 
(2  Tim.  iv.  14,  15). 

Al-ex-an'dri-a  [named  after  its  founder]. 

A  city  founded  by  Alexander  the  Great,  in 
the  year  332  B.  c,  on  the  north  coast  of 
Egypt,  of  which  it  was  designed  to  be  the 
Greek  metropolis.  A  site  was  fortunately 
selected  west  of  the  mouths  of  the  Nile,  and 
the  Mediterranean  current  which  sweeps 
from  the  west  carries  the  mud  of  the  river 
away  from  the  harbor  and  prevents  silting. 
The  city  was  built  on  a  tongue  of  land  lying 
between  the  Mediterranean  Sea  and  lake 
Mareotis,  and  connected  by  a  mole  with  the 
isle  of  Pharos,  on  which  there  was  a  cele- 
brated lighthouse.  The  city  was  admirably 
situated  for  commercial  purjioscs.  It  became 
the  great  port  for  the  export  of  Egyptian 
wheat,  cargoes  destined  for  Rome  being  car- 
ried direct  to  Puteoli,  unless  unfavorable 
winds  compelled  the  vessels  to  coast  along 
Asia  Minor  (Acts  xxvii.  6  ;  xxviii.  11-13  ; 
Philo,  in  Flac.  v.).  It  was  also  the  mai-t  of 
interchange  between  the  Orient  and  the  Occi- 
dent. The  city  flourished  greatly  under  the 
Ptolemies,  and  subsequently  under  the  Ro- 
mans, until  it  extended  along  the  coast  fifteen 
miles  by  a  breadth  of  one.  During  the  time 
that  the  old  Roman  emjiire  was  dominant. 
Alexandria  was  considered  the  second  city 
of  the  empire,  having  a  poi)ulation  of  600,000 
or  700.000.  Its  inhabitants  were  drawn  from 
many  nationalities,  Greeks.  Egyptians,  Jews, 
Romans,  who  used  the  Greek  language  as  the 


Algum 


25 


Almug 


medium  of  communication.  The  different 
peoples  occupied,  as  a  rule,  different  quarters 
of  the  city.  The  Jews  resided  in  the  north- 
eastern part,  enjoyed  equal  rights  with  the 
other  citizens,  and  were  governed  by  their 
own  ethnarch  (Antiq.  xix.  5.  '2:  War.  ii.  1^, 
7).  The  Ptolemies  founded  a  museum  with 
a  renowned  library  of  2(M).0uO  volumes,  and 
the  city  was  looked  upon  as  one  of  the  great- 
est intellectual  centers  in  the  world.  The 
translation  of  the  Hebrew  Sc-riptures  into  the 
Greek  language  was  begun  here  iu  the  third 
century,  and  completed  by  the  second  cen- 
tury, before  Christ.  Here,  too,  the  spirit  of 
Greek  ])hilosophy  permeated  Judaism,  and 
esegetes  like  Philo  arose  who  exces.si vely  alle- 
gorized Scripture.  The  Jews  of  Alexandria 
had  their  own  synagogue  in  Jerusalem,  and 
were  among  the  persecutoi-s  of  Stephen  (Acts 
ii.  10  ;  vi.9):  butthe  teaching  of  John  the  Bap- 
tist and  the  knowledge  of  Jesus  also  gained 
entrance  into  Alexandria,  and  under  God  pro- 
duced such  men  as  Apollos  (Acts  xviii.  24,  25). 
Tradition  ascribes  the  planting  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church  in  Alexandria  to  the  evangeli-st 
Mark.  In  the  early  Christian  ages  the  city 
was  the  seat  of  a  celebrated  Christian  cate- 
chetical school  with  such  teachers  as  Clement 
and  Origen,  and  the  home  of  bishops  like 
Hesychius  and  Athana.sius.  In  a.  d.  616, 
Chosroes  II..  king  of  Persia,  took  Alexandria, 
and  in  640,  after  an  obstinate  defence,  it  was 
captured  by  Amrou,  the  general  of  Omar  I., 
the  Arab  caliph,  and.  with  the  exception  of 
two  or  three  brief  intervals,  has  since  re- 
mained under  the  blighting  influence  of  Mo- 
hammedan government.  The  French,  under 
Napoleon  I.,  captured  it  in  1798,  but  were 
driven  out  by  the  British  in  ISOl,  after  which 
it  reverted  to  the  Mohammedans.  On  July 
11,  1882,  the  Alexandrian  forts  were  bom- 
barded and  taken  by  the  British  fleet,  and 
that  temporary  occupation  of  Egypt,  which 
still  continues,  began.  In  that  year  Alexan- 
dria contained  227.064  inhabitants. 

Al'gtun.     See  Almug. 
A-li'ah.     See  Alvah. 
A-li'an.     See  Alvax. 
Al-le-lu'ia.    See  Hallelujah. 
Al-le'meth.     See  Almox. 

Al'lon  [an  oak]. 

Not  a  proper  name,  as  in  A.  V.  of  Josh.  xix. 
33,  but  a  common  noun,  the  oak  or  terebinth 
of  Bezaanannim  (Judg.  iv.  11,  E.  V.  :  where 
in  A.  V.  plain  should  be  oak).     See  Zaaxax- 

XI M. 

Al'lon-bac'uth,  in  A.  Y.  AUon-bachuth 
[oak  of  weeping]. 

An  oak  near  Bethel  under  which  Deborah, 
Rebekah's  nurse,  was  buried  (Gen.  xxxv.  8). 

Al-mo'dad. 

A  people  descended  from  Shem  through 
Joktan  (Gen.  x.  26:  1  Chron.  i.  20).  They 
doubtless  settled  in  the  south  of  Arabia. 


Al'mon  [something  hidden]. 

A  village  within  the  territory  of  Benjamin, 
assigned  to  the  priests  (Josh.  xxi.  18).  In  1 
Chron.  vi.  60  it  is  called  Alemeth,  or,  follow- 
ing the  traditional  Hebrew  pronunciation 
more  closely,  AUemeth.  Both  names  have 
the  same  origin  and  meaning,  and  difler 
merely  iu  outward  form.  Its  .site  is  the  ruin 
'Almit.  a  low,  naked  mound  between  Geba 
and  Anathoth. 

Al'mon-dib-la-tlia'iin  [probably  the  dis- 
trict included  between  Almon  and  Dibla- 
thaim]. 

A  station  of  the  Israelites  between  the  Ar- 
non  and  Shittim  (Num.  xxxiii.  46) ;  probably 
identical  with  Beth-diblathaim. 

Alm'ond. 

A  tree  and  its  fruit  (Gen.  xliii.  11  ;  Ecc. 
xii.  5),  called  in  Jlehrevf  Shaked.  the  awaker, 
probably  because  it  is  the  flrst  tree  to  blossom 
in  the  spring.  It  is  the  Amygdalufi  communis  of 
botanists,  a  tree  about  20  feet  high,  originally, 
it  is  believed,  from  Barbary,  but  now  intro- 
duced into  many  lands.  In  Palestine  it  is 
found  on  Lebanon,  Hermou,  and  in  most  of 
the  region  beyond  Jordan.  The  town  of  Luz 
in  the   hill  country  of  Ephraim  derived  its 


Almond  Tree. 

name  from  the  almond.  The  tree  grew  also 
in  Mesopotamia  (Gen.  xxx.  37,  R.  V.).  There 
are  two  varieties,  the  bitter  and  the  sweet ;  the 
former  has  white  flowers,  the  latter  roseate. 
Almonds  were  sent  by  Jacob  to  the  Egyptian 
dignitary  ((ien.  xliii.  11).  The  cups  on  the 
branches  of  the  golden  candlestick  were 
modeled  after  almond  blos,soms  (Ex.  xxv.  33, 
34).  When  Aaron's  rod  budded  it  brought 
forth  almond  blossoms  (Num.  xvii.  8).  The 
rod  of  an  almond  tree,  which  Jeremiah  saw 
in  his  earliest  vision,  signified  Jehovah's 
wakefulness  (Jer.  i.  11,  12).  The  white  hairs 
on  the  head  of  the  aged  are  probably  com- 
pared to  the  white  flower  of  the  bitter 
almond  tree  (Ecc.  xii.  .5). 

Al'mug,  in  2  Chron.  Algum  [perhaps  from 
Sanscrit  valgit,  valgum  (Lassen,  Max  Miiller)]. 


Aloes 


26 


Alphseus 


A  timber  brought  in  abundance  by  sea 
from  Opliir  during  the  roign  of  Solomon.  It 
was  used  to  make  pillars  or  balustrades,  as 
also  haqis  and  jisalteries  (1  Kin.  x.  11.  12;  2 
C'hron.  ix.  10,  11).  Awording  to  Josephus,  it 
resembles  the  wood  of  the  fig  tree,  but  is 
whiter  and  shines  more  (Antiq.  viii.  7,  1). 
It  is  commonly  believed  to  be  sandal  wood, 
the  Saiitdlnm  (dhnm  of  botanists,  and  the  type 
of  the  oi'der  Hdntcdace.ie.  The  tree  is  small, 
much-branched,  in  aspect  somewhat  resem- 
bling a  myrtle,  a  native  of  India  and  the 
eastern  islands.  If  found  on  Lebanon  (2 
Chron.  ii.  8)  it  must  have  been  introduced 
there.  The  wood,  which  is  odoriferous,  is 
burnt  to  perfume  temples  and  private  houses 
both  in  India  and  China.  It  is  well  adapted 
for  the  purpose  for  which  it  was  used  by 
Solomou. 

Al'oes. 

Not  the  botanical  genus  Aloe,  consisting  of 
succulent  plants  belonging  to  the  order  Lilia- 


Lign-aloes  {Aquilaria  acjallocha). 

ceie.  and  furnishing  a  bitter  purgative  medi- 
cine. The  chief  value  of  the  scriptural  plant 
is  evidently  its  fragrance  (Ps.  xlv.  8  ;  Prov. 
vii.  17;  Song  iv.  14).  It  seems  to  he  Agal- 
locha,  called  in  various  Indian  dialects  afiar, 
aijnru,  and  nffra,  of  which  the  Hebrew  words 
'"halim  and  ^'^haloth  are  probably  a  corrup- 
tion. The  species  Aquilaria  agallocha  grows  in 
.Sylhet,  in  the  east  of  Bengal,  and  at  Tennas- 
serim.  in  the  Eastern  Peninsula.  It  is  a  large 
tree,  having  alternate  lanceolate  leaves,  a 
leathery  calyx,  no  petals,  ten  stamens,  and 
a  two-celled  seed-vessel.  The  wood  contains 
a  resin,  and  an  essential  oil,  which  constitutes 
the  perfume  for  which  it  is  prized  iu  the  East. 
It  is  the  ligu-iiloes  of  Num.  xxiv.  6,  and  the 
aloes  of  .lohn  xix.  39,  one  of  the  kinds  of 
si)ice  with  which  Nicodemus  designed  to 
anoint  the  body  of  our  Lord. 

A'loth  [yielding  milk]. 

A  place  of  which,  according  to  the  Hebrew 
text,  the  name  may  just  as  well  be  Bealoth, 
known  only  as  constituting  with  Asher  one 


of  the  twelve  districts  from  which  Solomon 
drew  provisions  (1  Kin.  iv.  16). 

Al'pha. 

The  first  letter  in  the  Greek  alphabet ;  de- 
rived from  the  Phcenician,  and  correspond- 
ing to  the  Hebrew  letter  Aleph.  Omega  is 
the  last  letter  of  the  (ireek  alphabet.  "  I  am 
Alpha  and  Omega"  means  "I  am  the  first 
and  the  last"  of  beings  (Rev.  1.  8,  11 ;  xxi.  6 ; 
xxii.  lo;  C]i.  Is.  xliv.  6). 

Al'pha-bet  [from  Greek  Alpha,  Beta,  the 
first  two  letters  of  the  Greek  alphabet]. 

The  letters  used  in  writing  or  printing  a 
language,  these  being  arranged  iu  a  ccmven- 
tional  order.  The  English  alphabet  is  bor- 
rowed from  the  I^atin,  which  in  turn  came 
from  the  Greek.  The  Greek  was  derived 
from  the  Plurnician  ;  the  tradition  that  Cad- 
mus brought  letters  into  Greece,  if  not  ti-ue 
in  its  details,  being  yet  essentially  histori- 
cal. The  Phoenicians,  Hebrews,  Moabites, 
and  Aramseans  used  a  common  alphabet  at 
least  as  early  as  the  eighth  century  B.  c.  The 
same  alphabet,  in  more  primitive  form,  was 
employed  centuries  earlier  by  the  Minjeans 
of  southern  Arabia.  In  their  original  form 
these  letters  were  pictures  of  familiar  ol)jects, 
bore  the  names  of  these  objects,  and  had  the 
initial  sound  of  these  words ;  thus,  Gimel 
had  the  sound  of  g  and  depicted  a  camel, 
which  was  called  fiamalu.  The  names  of  the 
several  letters  in  the  Hebrew  alphabet  and 
the  order  in  which  they  are  arranged  have 
long  been  familiar  to  the  English  reader, 
from  their  having  been  used  to  mark  the 
divisions  of  the  119th  Psalm.  The  E.  V.  gives 
in  addition  the  later  forms  of  the  letters 
themselves,  /.  e.  the  square  characters  intro- 
duced after  the  beginning  of  the  Christian 
era.  It  will  be  seen  that  they  are  twenty- 
two  in  number.  The  Hebrew  Bible  has  other 
alphabetical  jisalms  than  the  119th,  though 
the  fact  is  not  ascertainable  from  the  English 
versions ;  see  Psalms  and  Lamentations. 
To  transliterate  the  Hebrew  letters  is  to  sub- 
stitute for  them  as  nearly  as  jiossible  the 
equivalent  Eomau  characters.  There  are 
difi'erent  methods  of  transliterating  some  of 
the  letters.  In  the  present  work  Aleph  is 
represented  by  the  smooth  breathing  '  and 
Ain  by  the  rough  breathing  ',  Heth  by  h, 
Teth  by  t,  Jod  when  a  consonant  by  y, 
Tzaddi  "by  s,  Koph  by  k,  Shin  by  sh.  The 
other  letters  require  neither  explanation  nor 
diacritical  point.  In  the  N.  T.  two  letters 
of  the  Greek  alphabet  are  mentioned.  Alpha, 
the  first,  and  Omega,  the  last.  In  translating 
this  alphabet,  Epsilon  is  represented  by  e, 
Eta  by  e,  Theta  by  th,  Xi  by  x,  Omikron  by 
o,  Upsilon  by  u,  Phi  by  ph,  Chi  by  ch,  Psi  by 
ps,  and  Omega  l)y  6. 

Al-phse'us  [perhaps,  transient]. 

1.  Tlic  husband  of  one  of  the  Marys,  and 
father  of  .Tames  the  less  and  .loses  {I\Iat.  x.  3  ; 
Mark  xv.  40).  He  was  probably  Clopas.  in 
A.  V.  Cleo])has  (John  xix.  25,  with  ]Mark  xv. 


Altar 


Alush 


tO),  for  Clopas  and  Alphjeus  are  merely  dif- 
ferent Greek  modifications  of  the  Hebrew 
name  Halpai/.    See  James  2. 

2.  Tiie  father  of  Levi  or  Matthew  ( Mark  ii. 
14  :  cp.  Mat.  ix.  9). 

Al'tar. 

An  elevated  structure  on  wliich  incense  is 
burned  or  siicrificc  offered  to  the  deity.  It 
might  be  a  mound  of  earth  :  or  a  huge  stone 
or  a  platform  built  of  several  stones,  dressed 
or  undressed  :  or  an  object  of  similar  shape 
made  of  metal.  In  patriarchal  times,  wor- 
shipers reared  altars  wherever  they  pitched 
their  tents  or  had  special  occasion  to  sacrifice 
to  God  ( Gen.  viii.  20 :  xii.  7  ;  xxii.  9 ;  xxxv.  1.  7; 
Ex.  xvii.  1.5  :  xxiv.  4i.  The  fundamental  law 
of  the  Hebrew  altar,  which  was  embodied  in 
the  theocratic  covenant  and  was  given  at 
8iuai  before  the  tabernacle  was  built,  enjoined 
the  erection  of  an  altar  of  earth  or  stone 
wherever  Jehovah  should  manifest  himself. 
This  law  was  the  primary  warrant  for  the 
altars  at  the  tabernacle  and  temple,  where 
.Jehovah's  presence  continually  was,  and  for 
the  transient  altars  and  sacrifices  on  occasions 
of  theophanies  (Judg.  ii.  5,  etc.). 


^"Xo*^j^' 


Ancient  Assyrian  >^tone  Altar. 


The  tabernacle  had  two  altars :  1.  The 
brazen  altar  or  altar  of  burnt  offering,  which 
stood  in  the  outer  court  and  directly  in  front 
of  the  door  of  the  tabernacle.  It  was  .5  cubits 
square  and  3  high.  It  consisted  of  a  hollow 
frame  of  acacia  wood  overlaid  with  brass,  and 
it  was  furnished  with  rings  and  staves  that  it 
might  be  transported  from  i)lace  to  place.  On 
its  upper  corners  were  projections  called 
horns.  It  was  without  steps,  but  had  a  ledge 
round  about  it,  midway  between  the  bottom 
and  the  top,  for  the  priests  to  stand  on.  It 
was  probably  intended  to  be  filled  with  earth. 
All  sacrifices  were  offered  at  this  altar.  Its 
position  at  the  very  threshold  taught  dis- 
tinctly that  man  has  no  access  to  .Jehovah 
except  as  a  sinner  atoned  for  by  blood  (Ex. 
xxvii.  1-8  ;  xxx.  28  :  xxxviii.  30;  cp.  1  Kin. 
i.  50 ;  Ps.  cxviii.  27).  2.  The  golden  altar,  or 
altar  of  incen.ie.  which  stood  in  the  holy 
l>laee  before  the  veil  that  hung  before  the 
mercy  seat.     It  was  a  cubit  square  and  two 


cubits  high,  and  was  made  of  acacia  wood 
overlaid  with  gold,  with  a  border  of  gold 
about  its  to]),  horns  at  its  corners,  and  two 
golden  rings  at  each  side  for  staves.  Incense 
of  prescribed  ingredients,  lighted  by  fire  from 
the  brazen  altar,  was  burned  on  it  morning 
and  evening  when  the  light  of  the  candle- 
stick was  seen  to.  It  symbolized  the  obliga- 
tory and  acceptable  adoration  of  God  by  his 
people  (Ex.  xxx.  1-10,  28.  34-37;  xl.  5;  cp. 
Heb.  ix.  4  and  1  Kin.  vi.  22  ;  Lev.  xvi.  18, 19). 
When  Solomon's  temple  was  built,  the  new 
brazen  altar  had  nearly  four  times  the  di- 
mensions of  the  old  (1  Kin.  viii.  ti4  :  2  Cliron. 
iv.  1).  A  new  golden  altar  was  also  made 
(1  Kin.  vii.  48  ;  2  Chron.  iv.  19). 

These  were  the  only  permanent  altars  on 
which  sacrifices  or  incense  could  be  accepta- 
bly offered  (Deut.  xii.  2,  5,  6,  7).  But  the 
rearing  of  altars  and  offering  of  sacrifice  in 
other  places  where  God  manifested  himself 
was  authorized  by  the  fundamental  law  ;  and 
the  privilege  was  embraced,  as  for  example, 
by  the  Israelites  at  Bochim,  by  Gideon,  by 
Manoah  (Judg.  ii.  1-5  ;  vi.  20-25;  xiii.  15-23). 
The  law  of  the  altar  was  necessarily  in  abey- 
ance twice.  1.  When  God  forsook  the  taber- 
nacle and  the  ark  was  in  the  hands  of  the 
Philistines,  or  in  dreaded  seclusion  at  Kirjath- 
jearim,  there  was  no  place  where  Jehovah 
manifested  himself  (Ps.  Ixxviii.  60-64  ;  1  Sam. 
vi.  20-vii.  4).  Samuel,  as  the  prophet  and 
representative  of  Jehovah,  erected  an  altar 
at  Eamah  and  sacrificed  in  several  places  (1 
Sam.  vii.  9,  17).  Out  of  the  confusion  of 
worship  caused  by  the  capture  of  the  ark, 
the  domination  of  the  Philistines,  and  the 
political  complications  connected  with  Saul 
and  David,  there  arose  and  continued  for  a 
time  two  high  priests  and  two  altars,  the  orig- 
inal altar  at  the  original  tabernacle  and  a 
new  altar  near  the  ark  in  Jerusalem  (1  Kin. 
iii.  2,  4.  15 ;  2  Chron.  i.  3-6).  2.  When  the 
Ten  Tribes  revolted,  the  pious  Israelites  of 
the  north  who  were  debarred  the  pilgrimage 
to  Jerusalem  were  compelled  either  to  abstain 
from  worshiping  Jehovah  by  sacrifice,  or  else 
to  erect  local  altars.  They  chose  in  some  in- 
stances the  latter  alternative  (1  Kin.  xAiii. 
30,  32  ;  xix.  10).  Altars  were  not  always  in- 
tended for  sacrifices  or  for  the  burning  of  in- 
cense :  the  two  and  a  half  tribes  who  settled 
east  of  the  Jordan  built  an  altar  designed  to 
be  a  memorial  of  their  affinity  in  blood  to  the 
other  tribes,  who  crossed  the  river  (Josh.  xxii. 
10-34). 

Al-tash'heth,  in  A.  Y.  less  accurately  Al- 
taschith  [do  not  destroy]. 

A  compound  word  occurring  in  the  titles 
of  Psalms  Ivii.,  Iviii..  lix..  and  Ixxv..  all  R.  Y. 
It  probably  refers,  like  Aijeleth  Shahar.  to  the 
name  of  some  Hebrew  melody  to  the  tune  of 
which  those  psalms  were  to  be  sung. 

A'lush  [tumult  of  men]. 
An  encampment  of  the  Israelites  between 
Egypt  and  mount  Sinai  (Xum.  xxxui.  13,  14). 


Alvah 


28 


Amasa 


Al'vah  or  A-li'ah  [high,  tall,  thick].  For 
variation  in  spelling  perhajis  cp.  Vau. 

A  duke  of  Edoin,  descended  from  Esau 
(Gen.  xxxvi.  40;  1  Chron.  i.  51).  He  prob- 
ably bears  the  name  of  his  district  (43). 

Al'vaiKtr  A-li'an  [high,  tall].  For  variation 
in  form  i)erhaps  cp.  Vau. 

A  Horite  (Uen.  xxxvi.  23;  1  Chron.  i.  40). 

A'mad  [people  of  duration  or,  better,  sta- 
tion, domicile]. 

A  frontier  village  of  Asher  (Josh.  xix.  26). 
Not  identified. 

A'mal  [labor,  sorrow]. 

An  Asherite,  sou  of  Helem  (1  Chron.  vii. 
35). 

Am'a-lek. 

Son  of  Eliphaz,  Esau's  son,  by  his  concu- 
bine Timna  (Gen.  xxxvi.  12) ;  or,  collectively, 
the  Amalekites  (Ex.  xvii.  8  ;  Num.  xxiv.  20; 
Dent.  XXV.  17;  Judg.  v.  14,  etc.). 

Am'a-lek-ites. 

The  descendants  of  Esau  (Gen.  xxxvi.  12). 
For  a  long  time  they  were  centered  about 
Kadesh-barnea.  In  this  neighborhood  they 
dwelt  at  the  time  of  the  exodus  (Num.  xiii. 
29 ;  xiv.  25).  The  territory  occupied  by  them 
was  visible  from  the  mountains  of  Abarim 
(Num.  xxiv.  20 ;  Deut.  xxxiv.  1-3).  They 
were  among  the  foremost  peojile  of  their  time 
in  that  part  of  the  world  (Num.  xxiv.  20).  A 
writer  after  the  era  of  the  exodus,  refer- 
ring to  ancient  events  which  occurred  in  that 
region,  could  speak  proleptically  of  the  coun- 
try of  the  Amalekites.  Hence  in  the  narra- 
tive of  the  campaign  of  Chedorlaomer  and 
his  allies  in  this  region,  it  is  said  that  these 
eastern  invaders  "came  to  Kadesh  and  smote," 
not  the  Amalekites  (as  one  would  expect  the 
writer  to  say,  after  the  manner  of  his  con- 
text, had  that  people  been  in  existence),  but 
in  guarded  phrase  "all  the  country  of  the 
Amalekites"  (Gen.  xiv.  7).  From  their  cen- 
ter near  Kadesh,  the  people  roamed  and  their 
camps  radiated.  They  harassed  the  rear  of 
the  Israelites  soon  after  the  Hebrews  had  left 
Egypt  and  entered  the  wilderness;  and  at 
Eephidim  on  the  west  of  Sinai  they  engaged 
with  Israel  in  battle  and  were  defeated.  Be- 
cause of  their  hostility  to  Israel,  their  utter  de- 
struction was  authorized  (Ex.  xvii.  8-16;  Deut. 
XXV.  17-1!>).  A  year  later,  when  Israel  had 
reached  Kadesh,  and  in  defiance  of  God  at- 
tempted to  push  northward  into  Canaan,  the 
Amalekites  opposed  and  repulsed  them  (Num. 
xiv.  43-45).  About  that  date  perhaps  or  later, 
their  name  became  attached  to  a  hill  district 
in  Ephraim  (Judg.  xii.  15;  cp.  v.  14).  Soon 
after  the  time  of  Moses  and  Joshua,  they 
aided  Eglou,  king  of  Moab,  to  wrest  Jericho 
from  the  Israelites ;  and  a  few  generations 
later  they  were  allied  with  the  Midianites  in 
oppressing  northern  Israel  (Judg.  iii.  13  ;  vi. 
3,  33).  Evidently  they  had  been  working 
their  way  eastward,  in  friendly  intercourse 
with  other  inhabitants  of  the  desert  ;    and 


in  Saul's  time  their  bauds  were  found  roam- 
ing through  a  stretch  of  perhaps  five  or  six 
hundred  miles  of  wilderness  from  the  border 
of  Egypt,  near  their  original  seat,  to  Havilah, 
a  designation  which  includes  northern  cen- 
tral Arabia  (1  Sam.  xv.  7  ;  xxvii.  8).  They 
sufi'ered  crushing  defeat  from  Saul,  their  king 
was  captured  and  slain,  and  they  presently 
disappear  from  Hebrew  history. 

A'mam  [perhaps, collection  or  conjunction]. 
A  village  of  Judah  in  the  southland  (Josh. 
xv.  26). 

Am'a-na  [firmness,  a  treaty]. 

The  mountains  of  Anti-Lebanon,  doubtless 
those  in  which  the  Abanah  or,  as  it  is  also 
called,  Amanali  takes  its  rise  (Song  iv.  8). 

Am-a-ri'ah  [Jehovah  hath  said  or  prom- 
ised] . 

1.  Son  of  Meraioth,  a  priest  descended  from 
Phinehas  (1  Chron.  vi.  7). 

2.  A  priest  in  the  same  high-priestly  line  of 
descent,  a  son  of  Azariah  (1  Chron.  vi.  11 ; 
Ezra  vii.  3). 

3.  A  chief  of  the  priests,  who  returned  from 
Babylon  with  Zerul)babel  (Neh.  xii.  2.  7).  A 
father's  house  bore  his  name  in  the  next  gen- 
eration (ver.  13). 

4.  A  priest,  doubtless  head  of  a  father's 
house,  who  sealed  the  covenant  in  Nehemiah's 
time  (Neh.  x.  3). 

5.  A  man  who  had  taken  a  foreign  wife, 
whom  Ezra  made  him  divorce  (Ezra  x.  42). 

6.  A  man  of  Judah.  family  of  Perez  (Neh. 
xi.  4)., 

7.  A  son  of  Hezekiah,  and  an  ancestor  of 
the  prophet  Zephaniah  (Zeph.  i.  1,  R.  Y.). 

8.  A  chief  priest  in  Jehoshaphat's  time  (2 
Chron.  xix.  11). 

9.  A  Levite,  descended  through  Kohath 
and  Hebron  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  19;  xxiv.  23). 

10.  An  assistant  distributor  of  the  freewill 
oflferings  of  God  in  Hezekiah's  time  (2  Chron. 
xxxi.  14,  15). 

Am'a-sa  [a  burden]. 

1.  The  son  of  David's  half-sister  Abigail 
and  Jether  an  Ishmaelite  (1  Chron.  ii.  17). 
He  was  Joab's  cousin  (2  Sam.  xvii.  25).  Ab- 
salom appointed  Amasa  captain  of  his  army 
(ibid.).  After  Absalom's  defeat  and  death. 
Amasa  was  forgiven  by  David  and  appointed 
commander-in-chief  in  supersession  of  Joab 
(2  Sam.  xix.  13).  On  the  breaking  out  of 
the  revolt  headed  by  Sheba,  Amasa  received 
orders  to  have  an  army  in  readiness  to  start 
in  three  days.  He  was  behind  his  time  ;  and 
Abishai  was  sent  with  troops,  among  whom 
Joab  was,  after  Sheba.  The  two  companies 
united  at  Gibeon  ;  and  Joab,  under  pretext 
of  greeting  Amasa  with  a  kiss,  stabbed  him 
(2  Sam.  XX.  1-13). 

2.  A  prince  of  Ephraim  and  son  of  Hadlai. 
When  captives  from  Judah  were  being  car- 
ried otF  by  the  Israelite  army  under  Pekah, 
he  aided  in  securing  their  release  (2  Chron. 
xxviii.  12). 


Amasai 


29 


Amiuiliud 


Am'a-sal  [burdensome]. 

1.  A  Levlte  of  the  Koliathite  family,  de- 
scended through  Abiasapli  and  an  ancestor 
of  Heman  the  singer  (1  Chrou.  vi.  35).  Ama- 
sai in  ver.  25  is  perhaps  a  ditterent  person  of 
the  same  family  and  name,  but  descended 
from  the  brother  of  Abiasiiph  (Ex.  vi.  24). 

2.  A  Levite  who  blew  a  trumpet  in  David's 
reign  (1  Chron.  xv.  24). 

3.  A  Kohathite  who  aided  in  the  religious 
revival  in  Hezekiah's  reign  (2  Chron.  xxix. 
12). 

Am'a-sliai,  in  R.  V.  Amashsai  [perhaps, 
two  variant  spellings  of  Amasai  combined]. 

A  priest,  son  of  Azareel.  He  lived  in 
Jerusalem,  at  Nehemiah's  request  (Neh.  xi. 
13). 

Am-a-si'ah  [Jehovah  hath  borne]. 
A  son  of  Zichri.  and  high  militaiy  officer 
under  Jeho^haphat  (2  Chron.  xvii.  16). 

Am-a-zi'ah  [.Tehovah  is  strong]. 

1.  A  kingof  Judah.  who  succeeded  his  father 
Joash  when  twenty-five  years  old.  When  he  [ 
found  himself  firm  on  the  throne,  he  put  to 
death  the  murderers  of  his  father,  but  spared 
their  children,  in  conformity  with  the  prin- 
ciple laid  down  on  the  subject  in  the  Mo.saic 
law  (Deut.  xxiv.  16).  He  hired  100,000 
Israelitish  mercenaries  to  accompany  him  on 
an  expedition  against  the  Edomites,  but  at 
the  command  of  a  man  of  God  he  dismissed 
them  and,  taking  the  forces  of  Judah  alone, 
defeated  the  Edomites  in  the  Valley  of  Salt  j 
and  captured  their  capital,  Selah.  But  he  { 
brought  back  idols  of  the  Edomites,  and  set 
them  up  for  his  gods.  The  dismissed  Israel-  1 
ites  on  their  way  home  plundered  the  cities 
of  Judah  north  of  Beth-horon.  Amaziah, 
following  bad  advice,  challenged  Jehoash, 
king  of  Israel,  to  fight,  but  he  was  defeated 
in  a  battle  at  Beth-.shemesh.  taken  prisoner, 
and  carried  to  Jerusalem.  Part  of  the  wall 
of  Jerusalem,  his  capital,  was  broken  down 
by  Jehoash,  and  treasure  and  hostages  were 
taken  by  him  to  Samaria.  A  conspiracy  was 
formed  against  Amaziah  in  Jerusalem.  He 
fled  to  Lachish,  but  was  followed  thither 
and  murdered.  He  reigned  twenty-nine  years 
(2  Kin.  xiv.  1-20  ;  2  Chron.  xxv.  1-27). 

2-4.  See  1  Chron.  iv.  34 ;  vi.  45 ;  Amos  vii.  10). 

Am'ber. 

The  hardened  or  fossilized  resin  of  a  now 
extinct  pine-tree  iPinns  succinifer)  allied  to 
the  Norway  spruce  or  to  the  Silver  fir.  That 
it  was  originally  fluid  is  plain  from  the  fact 
that  it  is  found  to  enclose  numerous  remains 
of  plants  and  of  insects.  The  pines  pro- 
ducing it  grew  in  the  southeastern  part  of 
what  is  now  the  bed  of  the  Baltic  .Sea,  and  it  is 
still  picked  up  on  the  southern  shore  of  that 
sea.  It  was  regarded  as  a  gem,  and  early  be- 
came an  object  of  commerce  over  regions  very 
remote  from  the  Baltic  Sea.  It  is  generally 
yellow,  and  that  is  the  color  of  amber  referred 
to  in  Ezek.  i.  4,  27  :  viii.  2. 


A'men'  [firm,  established]. 

1.  Jesus,  as  the  faithful  and  true  One  (Rev. 
iii.  14;  cp.  Is.  Ixv.  16,  R.  V.  margin). 

2.  An  interjection,  "  So  be  it,"  "  May  it  be  " 
as  has  been  asked,  said,  promised,  or  threat- 
ened (Mat.  vi.  13  ;  Deut.  xxvii.  16-26  ;  2  Cor.  i. 
20).  To  render  it  more  emphatic,  it  is  s(mie- 
times  redoubled  (Num.  v.  22).  .lesus  begins 
many  of  his  sayings  with  this  word,  which 
is  then  translated  "verily."  This  idiom  is 
peculiar  to  him. 

Am'e-tliyst  [the  Hebrew  name  suggests 
dream-stone]. 

A  precious  stone,  believed  to  be  intended 
by  the  Hebrew  name  for  the  last  gem  in  the 
third  row  on  the  Jewish  high  priest's  breast- 
plate (Ex.  xxviii.  19  ;  xxxix.  12).  The  ame- 
thyst formed  the  twelfth  foundation  of  the 
New  Jerusalem  (Rev.  xxi.  20).  It  is  a  glassy, 
clear,  purple  or  bluish  violet  variety  of 
quartz,  the  color,  it  is  believed,  being  pro- 
duced by  manganese.  The  Hebrews  could 
obtain  it  in  Edom,  Egypt,  Galatia,  or  Cyprus  ; 
but  finer  specimens  came  from  India  and 
Spain. 

A'mi.     See  Amox  I,  3. 

A-min'a-dab.     See  Amminadab. 

A-mit'tai  [truthful]. 

The  father  of  Jonah  the  prophet  (2  Kin. 
xiv.  25  ;  Jonah  i.  1). 

Am'mah  [mother  of  anything  in  a  figura- 
tive sense  ;  beginning,  foundation]. 

A  hill  near  Giah,  on  the  road  from  Gibeon 
through  the  wilderness  to  the  Jordan  (2 
Sam.  ii.  24;  cp.  16,  29).  Exact  situation  un- 
known. 

Am'nii  [my  people]  (Hos.  ii.  1). 

Am'mi-el  [one  of  the  family,  or  a  devoted 
ally,  is  God] . 

1.  Son  of  Gemalli.  and  i-epresentative  of  the 
tribe  of  Dan  on  the  commission  to  spy  out 
Canaan  (Num.  xiii.  12). 

2.  A  man  of  Lo-debar.  and  father  of  Machir 
(2  Sam.  ix.  4,  5;  xvii.  27). 

3.  A  sou  of  Obed-edom  (1  Chron.  xxvi. 
5). 

4.  Father  of  Bath-sheba  (1  Chron.  iii.  5) ; 
see  Eliam. 

Am-mi'liud  [kinsman  of  praiseworthiness, 
or  an  ally  is  the  praiseworthy  one]. 

1.  An  Ei)hraimite,  descended  through  Ta- 
han.  and  father  of  Elishama  (Num.  i.  10;  1 
Chron.  vii.  26). 

2.  A  man  of  Simeon,  and  father  of  Shemuel 
(Num.  xxxiv.  20). 

3.  A  man  of  Naphtali,  and  father  of  Peda- 
hel  (Num.  xxxiv.  28). 

4.  Father  of  Talmai,  king  of  Geshur  (2 
Sam.  xiii.  .37).  In  the  Hebrew  text  the  name 
is  written  with  h  and  r  in.stead  of  h  and  d, 
but  is  traditionally  pronounced  Ammihud. 

5.  A  descendant  of  Judah  through  Perez 
(1  Chron.  ix.  4,  R.  V.). 


Ammihur 


30 


Amon 


Am-mi'hur  [perhaps,  kinsman  of  nobility] . 
Sec  Ammiiiud  4. 

Am-min'a-dal),  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Amina- 
dab  [tlu'  p('()]ile  or  kinsman  is  generous]. 

1.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Hezron, 
house  of  Ram  (1  C'hron.  ii.  10).  He  was  the 
father  of  Nahshon,  the  ])rince  of  Judah  (Num. 
i.  7),  father-in-hiw  of  Aaron  the  priest  (Ex. 
vi.  23),  and  an  ancestor  of  David  (Ruth  iv. 
19;  Mat.  i.  4  ;  Luke  iii.  33). 

2.  A  Lcvite,  family  of  Kohath,  house  of 
Uz/.iel.  He  was  head  of  his  father's  house 
in  David's  reign  (1  Chron.  xv.  10,  11 ;  cp.  Ex. 
vi.  18,  22). 

3.  A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath  (1  Chron. 
vi.  22).  The  genealogies  of  Kohath,  how- 
ever, regularly  have  the  name  Izhar  in  this 
place  (vs.  37,  38;  Ex.  vi.  IS,  21,  24),  so  that 
Amminadab  is  probably  either  another  name 
of  Izhar  or  a  corruption  of  the  genealogy. 

Am-min'a-dib  [my  princely  willing  people, 
or  the  people  is  generous]. 

If  a  proper  name,  which  is  doubtful,  then 
it  is  some  one  famous  for  his  chariots  (Song 
vi.  12;  cp.  text  and  margin). 

Am'mi-shad'dai  [an  ally  or  kinsman  is  the 
Almighty]. 

A  Danite,  father  of  Ahiezer  (Num.  i.  12  ;  ii. 

25). 

Am-miz'a-bad  [the  kinsman  hath  en- 
dowed]. 

A  son  of  David's  mighty  man  Beuaiah  (1 
Chron.  xxvii.  fi). 

Am'mon  [pertaining  to  the  nation]. 

An  adjective  which  paraphrases  the  name 
of  Ben-ammi,  Lot's  younger  son,  ancestor  of 
the  Ammonites  (Gen.  xix.  38). 

Am'mon-ites. 

A  peoi)le  descended  from  Ben-ammi,  Lot's 
second  son  (Gen.  xix.  38).  They  disposses,sed 
the  Zamzummim  of  the  territory  between  the 
Arnon  and  the  Jabbok  (Dent.  ii.  20,  21  ;  iii. 
11) ;  but  were  in  turn  driven  out  by  the 
Amorites  and  compelled  to  keep  on  the  bor- 
der of  the  eastern  desert,  with  the  upper 
Jabbok  as  their  western  boundary  (Num.  xxi. 
24  ;  Deut.  ii.  37  ;  Judg.  xi.  13,  22).  For  hav- 
ing joined  the  Moabites  in  hiring  Balaam 
to  curse  the  Israelites,  they  were  excluded 
from  the  congregation  of  the  Lord  to  the  tenth 
generation  (Deut.  xxiii.  3-6).  They  aided 
Eglon,  king  of  Moab,  in  subjugating  a  por- 
tion of  the  Israelites  (Judg.  iii.  13).  In  the 
time  of  Jephthah  they  again  oppressed  the 
Israelites  east  of  Jordan  (Judg.  x.  fi,  9,  18). 
Just  before  Saul  became  actual  king,  Nahash, 
the  Ammonite  king,  besieged  Jabesh-gilead. 
Saul  came  to  the  assistance  of  tlu'  beleaguered 
citizens,  and  totally  defeated  Nahash  (1  Sam. 
xi.  1-11).  Nahash  befriended  David  ;  doing 
this,  perhaps,  because  both  were  enemies  of 
Saul.  On  the  death  of  Nahash,  David  sent 
an  embassy  to  his  son,  Hanun ;  but  the  am- 
bassadors were  insulted,  and  war  supervened. 


In  the  first  campaign,  the  confederate  Syrians 
and  Ammonites  were  defeated  by  the  Israel- 
ites, led  by  Joab  and  Abishai  (2  Sam.  x.  1-19  ; 
1  Chron.  xix.  1-19).  In  the  second,  the  Israel- 
ites captured  Rabbah,  the  Ammonite  capital 
(2  Sam.  xi.,  xii. ;  1  Chron.  xx.  1-3).  Solo- 
mon took  several  Ammonite  women  as  wives 
(1  Kin.  xi.  1).  In  the  time  of  Jehoshaphat 
Moabites,  Ammonites,  and  Edomites  unsuc- 
cessfully invaded  Judah  (2  Chron.  xx.  1-30). 
To  Uzziah  and  Jotham  the  Ammonites  sent 
tribute  (xxvi.  8 ;  xxvii.  5).  Ammonites  joined 
with  others  in  vexing  Jehoiakim  (2  Kin. 
xxiv.  2)  ;  and  after  the  fall  of  Jerusalem, 
they  frustrated  the  attempt  of  the  Jews  to 
form  a  new  community  (xxv.  25  ;  Jer.  xl.  11- 
14).  As  inveterate  enemies  of  Israel,  they 
were  denounced  by  the  prophets  (Jer.  xlix. 
1-8  ;  Ezek.  xxi.  20;  xxv.  1-7  ;  Amos  i.  13-15  ; 
Zeph.  ii.  8-11).  They  opposed  the  rebuilding 
of  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  by  the  returned  ex- 
iles (Neh.  iv.  3, 7) ;  yet  intermarriages  between 
them  and  the  Israelites  took  place,  which 
were  censured  by  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  (Ezra 
ix.  1,  2;  Neh.  xiii.  23-31).  Judas  Maccabseus, 
under  strong  provocation,  made  war  against 
them  (1  Mac.  v.  1-8).  They  are  mentioned 
as  late  as  the  second  Christian  century.  Their 
chief  deity  was  Milcom,  another  designation 
of  Molech  (1  Kin.  xi.  7,  33).  In  the  time  of 
Jephthah  they  were  worshiping  Chemosh, 
the  Moabite  god  (Judg.  xi.  24). 

Am'non  [faithful]. 

A  son  of  David  by  Ahinoam,  the  Jezreel- 
itess ;  born  at  Hebron  while  that  was  his 
father's  capital.  He  behaved  scandalously  to 
Tamar,  his  half-sister,  and  was  in  consequence 
murdered  by  her  fuU-ln-other  Absalom  (2 
Sam.  xiii.  and  1  Chron.  iii.  1). 

A'mok  [deep]. 

A  chief  of  the  priests  who  returned  from 
Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Neh.  xii.  7).  In 
the  next  generation  a  father's  house  bore  this 
name  (ver.  20). 

A'mon,  I.  [security  or  handicraftsman]. 

1.  Governor  of  the  citv  of  Samaria  under 
Ahab  (1  Kin.  xxii.  10.  26). 

2.  A  king  of  Judah  who  at  the  age  of 
twenty-two  succeeded  his  father  Manasseh. 
He  followed  his  father's  bad  example.  In 
two  years  his  servants  murdered  him  in  his 
palace.  The  people  of  the  land  put  the  mur- 
derers to  death,  and  placed  his  son  Josiah  on 
the  throne  (2  Kin.  xxi.  19-26  ;  2  Chron.  xxxiii. 
21-25). 

3.  One  of  "the  children  of  Solomon's  ser- 
vants" (Neh.  vii.  59) ;  called  Ami  in  Ezra  ii. 
57. 

A'lnoii,  II.  [Egyptian  Amen,  thi;  hidden  one, 
the  unseen  being]. 

The  chief  divinity  of  Thebes,  named  after 
him  No-amon,  the  capital  of  Upper  Egypt 
(Jer.  xlvi.  25,  R.  V.  ;  Nah.  iii.  8,  R.  V.].  the 
Hyksos  were  ex]>elled  from  Egypt  under  his 
ensign,  and  he  consequently  became  head  of 


Amorites 


31 


Amphipolis 


the  pantheon,  and  was  called  the  successor 
of  Ea.     He  was  represented  as  wearing  two 


The  Egyptian  God  Amon. 

plumes  of  hawk's  feathers,  a  disk,  and  a  red 
cap. 

Am'o-rites  [commonly  explained  as  "moun- 
taineers," but  this  explanation  is  question- 
able]. 

One  of  the  tribes  who  occupied  Canaan  be- 
fore the  conquest  of  the  country  by  the  He- 
brews (Gen.  X.  16  ;  xv.  21 ;  Ex.  iii.  8).  At  the 
time  of  Abraham,  they  dwelt  at  least  on  the 
western  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  back  on  the 
mountain  (Gen.  xiv.  7,  13).  Even  then  they 
were  the  most  powerful  tribe  in  the  hill  coun- 
try, and  their  name  was  used  as  .synonym  for 
the  inhabitants  of  that  region  generally  (xv. 
Ifj),  if  not,  as  later  when  their  power  had 
further  increased,  for  the  inhabitants  of 
Canaan  generally  (xxxiv.  2  with  xlviii.  22; 
Josh.  vii.  7;  ix.  7  and  xi.  19  with  2  Sam.  xxi. 
2;  Judsi.  vi.  10;  Amos  ii.  10).  At  the  time 
of  the  exodus  they  were  still  in  the  hill 
country  (Num.  xiii.  29:  Deut.  i.  7,  19,20,  44; 
they  could  of  course  be  called  Canaanites, 
Num.  xiv.  45)  ;  but  before  this  date  they  had 
carried  their  conquests  to  the  east  of  the 
Jordan  (Num.  xxi.  26-30),  and  taken  i)Osses- 
sion  of  the  land  from  the  Arnon  to  mount 
Hermon  and  from  the  wilderness  to  the  Jor- 
dan (Deut.  iii.  8;  iv.  48;  Josh.  ii.  10;  ix.  10; 
Judg.  xi.  22).  At  this  time  they  occujjied  the 
entire  hill  country  west  of  Jordan  from  Jeru- 


salem to  Hebron,  and  westward  to  and  iuclu- 
siveof  theShephelah  (Josh.  x.  5,  6)  as  far  north 
as  Aijalon  and  even  the  territory  of  Ephraim 
(Judg.  i.  35;  Josh.  xi.  3;  xiii.  4).  For  their 
wickedness  they  were  devoted  to  destruc- 
tion ;  but  a  strong  remnant  remained  in  the 
land  after  tiie  conquest  (Judg.  i.  3');  iii.  5), 
with  whom  in  Samuel's  day  there  was  peace 
(1  Sam.  vii.  14),  and  who  with  other  survivors 
of  the  earlier  races  were  made  bondservants 
by  Solomon  (1  Kin.  ix.  20,  21  ;  2  Chron. 
viii.  7). 

A'mos  [burden;  burden-bearer]. 

A  prophet  born  at  Tekoa,  in  the  territory 
of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  about  six  miles  south 
of  Bethlehem  (Amos  i.  1).  He  was  originally 
a  herdsman  and  a  dresser  of  sycomore  trees 
(i.  1 ;  vii.  14,  15).  Although  a  man  of  Judah, 
he  was  called  to  prophesy  in  the  kingdom  of 
the  ten  tribes.  He  appeared  at  Bethel,  then 
the  king's  sanctuary  and  a  royal  house,  which 
still  had  within  it  one  of  the  two  golden 
calves  reared  by  Jeroboam  I.  as  objects  of 
worship.  Amos  spoke  with  such  freedom  and 
faithfulness  against  the  sins  of  the  king  and 
the  people  that  Amaziah,  the  idolatrous  priest 
at  Bethel,  sent  word  to  king  Jei'oboam  II. 
that  Amos  was  conspiring  against  him  in  his 
own  kingdom  (vii.  10).  The  time  and  cir- 
cumstances of  Amos'  death  are  unknown. 

The  book  of  Amos  is  the  third  of  the  minor 
prophets.  Amos  i)ro])hesied  in  the  days  of 
Uzziah,  king  of  Judah,  and  in  the  days  of 
Jeroboam,  son  of  Joash,  king  of  Israel,  two 
years  before  the  earthquake  (Amos  i.  1;  cp. 
Zech.  xiv.  5),andprobably  while  the  kingdom 
was  at  its  greatest  extent  (Amos  vi.  14  ;  cp.  2 
Kin.  xiv.  25).  The  literary  form  of  chapters 
i.-vi.  is  literal,  of  vii.-ix.  allegorical.  The 
theme  of  the  prophecy  is  the  judgment  of 
the  Lord  (i.  2  ;  cp.  Joel  iii.  16).  The  prophecy 
consists  of  three  parts  :  1.  Introduction:  judg- 
ment upon  the  nations,  the  series  leading  up 
to  I.srael  (i.  3-ii.  16).  2.  Denunciation  of 
Israel  (iii.  1-ix.  10) :  three  discourses,  each 
beginning  with  the  words  "  Hear  this,"  fol- 
lowed by  five  visions,  exhibiting  {a)  The  in- 
strument of  judgment :  devouring  locusts, 
symbol  of  foreign  foes.  (6)  Source  of  the 
judgment:  fire,  symbol  of  God's  wrath,  (c) 
Character  of  the  judgment:  plumb  line,  sym- 
bolizing righteous  retribution,  (d)  Nearness 
of  the  judgment :  ripe  fruit.  (e)  Infliction 
of  the  punishment:  the  Lord  smiting  down 
and  slaying.  3.  Promises  (ix.  8-15)  :  the  ex- 
ile only  a  sifting  (8-10)  ;  restoration  of  the 
royal  house  of  l^avid  to  its  former  glory  (11); 
extension  of  the  kingdom  over  Edom  and 
other  heathen  nations  (12) ;  restoration  of 
Israel  from  captivity  (13-15). 

A'moz  [powerful,  brave]. 

The  prophet  Isaiah's  father  (Is.  i.  1,  etc.). 

Am-phip'o-lis  [a  city  pressed  on  all  sides]. 

A  city  of  Thrace,  situated  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Strymon  on  a  bend  of  the  river.  It  was 
founded  by  the  Athenians  in  the  fifth  cen- 


Amplias 


32 


Ananias 


tury  B.  C,  and  called  Amphipolis  because 
nearly  surrounded  by  the  river.  Under  the 
Romans  it  was  the  chief  town  of  Macedonia 
prima.  It  was  on  the  Via  Egnatia,  thirty- 
three  miles  southwest  of  Philippi,  and  Paul 
accordingly  pas.sed  through  it  while  traveling 
by  that  road  from  Philippi  to  Thessalonica 
(Acts  xvii.  1).  It  is  now  called  Empoli  or 
Yamboli,  is  about  three  miles  from  the  sea, 
and  has  a  village,  Neokhorio  or  Jeui  Keui 
(New  Town),  on  part  of  its  site. 

Am'pli-as. 

A  Christian  of  Rome  to  whom  Paul  sent 
salutation  (Rom.  xvi.  8). 

Am'ram,  I.  (1  Chron.  i.  41).   See  Hemdan. 

Am 'ram,  II.  [perhaps,  inexperience]. 

1.  A  Levite,  son  of  Kohath,  husband  of 
Jochebcd  and  founder  of  the  father's  house 
of  the  Amramites,  who  in  the  time  of  Moses 
numbered  approximately  two  thousand  males 
(Num.  iii.  17,  19,  27, 28).  He  was  an  ancestor 
of  Aaron  and  Moses,  and  lived  to  the  age  of 
137  years  (Ex.  vi.  20 ;  for  form  of  expression 
cp.  Gen.  xlvi.  16-18,  19-22,  23-25 ;  Mat.  i.  5, 
6,  8,  II). 

2.  A  son  of  Bani,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  34). 

Am'ram-ites. 

The  descendants  of  Amram,  constituting  a 
subdivision  of  the  Levites  (Num.  iii.  27 ;  1 
Chron.  xxvi.  23). 

Am'ra-phel. 

King  of  Shinar,  ally  of  Chedorlaomer  in 
the  invasion  of  the  west  (Gen.  xiv.  I,  9). 
Evidence  exists  that  goes  far  to  identify 
him  with  Hammurabi,  king  of  Babel. 

Am'u-let. 

Anything  worn  as  a  protection  against 
sorcery.  It  often  serves  at  the  same  time  as 
an  ornament  (Is.  iii.  20,  R.  V.  ;  cp.  Gen. 
XXXV.  4). 

Am'zi  [robust]. 

1.  A  Levite,  a  descendant  of  Merari  (I 
Chron.  vi.  46). 

2.  A  priest  of  the  course  of  Malchijah  (Neh. 
xi.  12,  R.  v.). 

A'nab  [probably,  fruitful  in  grape.s] . 

A  town  in  the  mountains  of  Judah  (Josh, 
xi.  21 ;  XV.  50).  Two  ruins  still  bear  the 
name ;  one  is  twelve  miles  southwest  of  He- 
bron, and  the  more  extensive  is  one  and  a 
half  miles  farther  southwest. 

A'nah  [perhaps,  hearkening  to,  granting]. 

A  tribe  of  Horites  (Gen.  xxxvi.  20,  R.  V.), 
organized  under  a  chief  (29).  The  tribe  bore 
the  name  of  its  progenitor,  who  was  descended 
from  Zibeon  and  expanded  to  a  branch  tribe 
(20,  24).  He  di.scovercd  warm  springs  in  the 
wilderness  (24).  From  this  circumstance  he 
probably  received  the  name  Beeri,  man  of 
the  well  (2  with  xxvi.  34,  where,  if  Hittite 
does  not  include  Hivite,  the  two  names  may 
be  confused  ;  for  in  the  Sei)tuagiut  of  xxvi.  34 
Elon  is  a  Hivite,  but  in  the  Hebrew  text  a 


Hittite).  A  daughter  of  the  tribe,  traced  back 
also  to  Zibeon,  became  a  wife  of  Esau  (xxxvi. 
2, 14, 25).  Many  interpreters,  however,  discern 
three  persons  of  the  name — a  woman  (2,  14) 
and  two  men  (20,  25,  29  and  24). 

An-a-ha'rath  [possibly,  nostril  or  pass]. 

A  frontier  village  of  Issachar  (Josh.  xix. 
19).  The  position  of  en-Na'urah  (possibly  a 
corruption  of  the  old  name),  Ave  miles  north- 
east of  Jezreel,  suits  for  the  site. 

A-na'iah  [Jehovah  hath  answered]. 

One  who  stood  by  Ezra  when  he  read  the 
book  of  the  law  to  the  people  (Neh.  viii.  4), 
and  who  afterwards  sealed  the  covenant  to 
serve  God  (x.  22). 

A'nak  [the  long  neck  (with  definite  article, 
Num.  xiii.  22,  28,  but  not  33)]. 

Collective  name  of  the  Anakim  (Num.  xiii. 
22  with  Deut.  i.  28),  who  possibly,  though  not 
necessarily,  were  descended  from  Arba  (Josh. 
xiv.  15  with  XV.  13). 

An'a-kim  ;  A.  Y.  has  Anakims,  using  both 
the  Hebrew  and  the  English  plural  ending. 

A  stalwart  race,  connected  with  the  Reph- 
aim  (Num.  xiii.  33;  Deut.  ii.  10,  11,  21). 
Three  families  of  them  settled  at  Hebron 
(Num.  xiii.  22),  and  others  were  found  in 
neighboring  towns  and  elsewhere  throughout 
the  hill  country  (Josh.  xi.  21  ;  xv.  14  ;  cp.  Reph- 
aim,  xvii.  15,  R.  V.).  They  were  cut  ofl'  by 
the  Israelites  in  the  general  campaign  under 
Joshua  (Josh.  x.  36,  39  ;  xi.  21),  and  particu- 
larly at  Hebron,  on  the  allotment  of  the  land, 
by  Judah  under  Caleb  (xiv.  12;  xv.  13-19; 
Judg.  i.  10-15).  A  remnant  was  left  in  Gaza, 
Gatii,  and  Ashdod,  in  the  Philistine  country 
(Josh.  xi.  22).  .The  giant,  Goliath  of  Gatli, 
was  probably  one  of  the  Anakim. 

An'a-mim. 

An  Egyptian  tribe,  of  which  nothing  is 
known  (Gen.  x.  13;  1  Chron.  i.  11). 

A-nam'me-lech  [god  Ann  is  king,  or  Auu- 
king]. 

One  of  the  deities  worshiped  bj^  the  people 
of  Sepharvaim,  a  city  of  Babylonia  (2  Kin. 
xvii.  31).  Ann  was  god  of  the  sky.  When 
Sepharvites  were  brought  to  colonize  Samaria, 
they  burnt  their  children  in  the  fire  to  him, 
worshiping  Ann  as  Molech  was  worshiped. 

A'nan  [a  cloud,  or  he  hath  covered]. 

One  who  with  Nehemiah  sealed  the  cove- 
nant to  worship  Jehovah  (Neh.  x.  26). 

A-na'ni  [cloudy,  or  covered  hath  (God)]. 

A  son  of  Elioenai  (1  Chron.  iii.  24). 

An-a-ni'ali  [Jehovah  hath  covered]. 

1.  The  father  of  Maaseiah  (Neh.  iii.  23). 

2.  A  town  of  Benjamin  (Neh.  xi.  32).  De- 
spite the  diflerence  in  spelling,  it  is  counnonly 
identified  with  Beit  Hanina,  about  three 
miles  north  of  Jerusalem  toward  (iibeon. 

An-a-ni'as  [Greek  form  of  Hananiah,  Je- 
hovah hath  been  gracious]. 

1.  A  disciple  of  Jerusalem  who,  with  his 
wife  Sapphira,  .sold  a  piece  of  land,  and  taking 


Anath 


33 


Anem 


a  portion  of  the  price,  laid  it  at  the  apostles' 
feet  (Aets  v.  1  seq.).  The  Christian  eom- 
nninity  held  all  things  common.  There  was 
none  among  them  that  lacked  :  for  as  many 
as  were  i>oftsessors  of  hinds  or  houses  sold 
thom  and  laid  the  price  at  the  apostles'  feet, 
and  distril)ution  was  made  unto  each,  accord- 
ing as  any  one  had  need.  No  one  was  under 
ohligation  to  do  this  (ver.  4),  and  the  end  pro- 
jiosed  did  not  demand  that  all  property  be 
sold,  but  forbade  it.  Projjerty  was  sold  as 
need  re<iuired.  Ananias  brouglit  part  of  the 
proceeds,  and  laid  it  at  the  apostles"  feet  os- 
tensibly as  the  whole.  Peter  rebuked  him 
for  having  lied  unto  the  Holy  Ghost,  and 
he  fell  down  and  expired  ;  as  did  his  wife 
Sapphira.  when,  coming  in  three  hours  after- 
Avards,  in  ignorance  of  what  had  taken  place, 
she  repeated  her  husband's  falsehood,  and 
had  the  same  doom  foretold  her  by  Peter. 

2.  A  Christian  at  Damascus  who  was  in- 
formed in  a  vision  of  Saul's  conversion,  and 
sent  to  restore  his  sight  and  admit  him  to 
the  Christian  Church  by  baptism  (Acts  ix. 
10-18). 

3.  A  high  priest  appointed  by  Herod,  king 
of  Chalcis,  about  A.  D.  48  (Antiq.  xx.  5,  2). 
Four  years  later  he  was  sent  to  Rome  by 
the  governor  of  Syria  to  answer  for  vio- 
lence done  by  the  Jews  to  the  Samaritans, 
but  he  was  acquitted  through  the  influence 
of  Agrippa,  and  returned  to  Jerusalem  (An- 
tiq. XX.  6,  2  and  3  :  War  ii.  12,  6  and  7).  Jona- 
than, former  high  priest,  was  politically  asso- 
ciated with  him.  In  the  year  58,  Paul  was 
arraigned  before  Ananias,  and  he  appeared 
against  the  apostle  before  the  procurator  Felix 
(Acts  xxiii.  2 :  xxiv.  1).  Jonathan,  his  col- 
league, was  now  murdered,  and  about  the 
year  .59.  toward  the  close  of  Felix's  admin- 
istration. Ananias  himself  was  deposed  by 
Agrippa  (Antiq.  xx.  8,  5  and  8;  War  ii.  13, 
3).  He  appears  to  have  resided  on  the  south- 
western hill  of  Jerusalem,  in  the  upper  city, 
near  the  palace  of  the  Asmonseans.  He  was 
murdered  in  the  year  67  (War  ii.  17,  6  and  9). 

A'nath  [a  hearkening,  a  granting]. 
Father  of  the  judge  Shamgar  (Judg.  ill.  31 ; 
V.  6). 

A-nath'e-ma  [anything  devoted]. 

In  the  X.  T..  a  person  or  thing  devoted  to 
destruction.  It  corresponds  to  the  Hebrew 
Herem  (Rom.  ix.  3,  R.  V. ;  1  Cor.  xii.  3.  R.  V. 
and  margin  of  A.  V.  ;  Gal.  i.  8,  9,  R.  V. ;  see 
Lev.  xxvii.  28,  29 ;  Josh.  vi.  17 ;  vii.  1,  R.  V.). 

A-nath'e-ma  Mar-an-ath'a  [Greek,  one 
devoted  to  destruction,  and  Aramaic  Maran 
'atha.  the  Lord  cometh]. 

One  accursed  at  the  coming  of  the  Lord 
(1  Cor.  xvi.  22,  A.  V.).  R.  V.  regards  Maran 
atha  as  a  di.stinct  sentence. 

An'a-thoth  [answered  prayers]. 

1.  Head  of  a  father's  house  of  Benjamin, 
family  of  Becher  (1  Chron.  vii.  8). 

2.  Head  and  representative  of  the  men  of 

3 


Anathoth,  who  in  their  name  sealed  tlie  cove- 
nant to  worship  .Ichiivali  (Xcli.  x.  19). 

3.  A  city  in  tlie  territory  of  Henjamin,  as- 
signed to  the  priests  (Josh.  xxi.  18:  1  Chron. 
vi.  (iO).  It  was  the  home  of  Abiathar  tlie 
high  priest  (1  Kin.  ii.  2fi),  and  the  birtli- 
place  of  Jeremiah,  and  the  i)ropliet's  life  was 
also  endangered  here  (Jer.  i.  1  ;  xi.  21).  'J'lic 
town  was  re-peopled  after  the  exile  (Ezra  ii. 
23).  Its  site  is  represented  by  the  modern 
'Anatp.,  which  is  about  3  miles  northeast  of 
Jerusalem.  It  was  once  a  fortified  town. 
Portions  of  the  wall  still  remain,  built  of 
large  hewn  sttine,  apparently  ancient. 

An'a-thoth-ite,  in  A.  Y.  Anethothite,  Ane- 
tothite,  and  Antothite. 

A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Anathoth  (2  Sam. 
xxiii.  27;  1  Chron.  xi.  28;  xxvii.  12). 

An'drew  [manliness]. 

Brother  of  Simon  Peter,  born  at  Bethsaida, 
on  the  lake  of  Galilee  (John  i.  44).  By  vo- 
cation he  Avas  a  fisherman  like  his  brother 
(Mat.  iv.  18;  Mark  i.  16-18),  and  with  his 
brother  had  a  house  at  Capernaum  (Mark  i. 
29).  He  was  a  disciple  of  John  the  Baptist, 
but  being  directed  by  John  to  Jesus  as  the 
Lamb  of  God,  he  obtained  an  interview  with 
Jesus  and  became  convinced  that  Jesus  was 
the  Messiah.  Forthwith  he  found  his  brother 
and  induced  him  to  visit  Jesus  (John  i.  '.ir>- 
42).  He  was  afterwards  called  to  permanent 
fellowship  with  Jesus  (Mat.  iv.  18,  19 ;  Mark 
i.  16,  17;  cp.  John  vi.  8).  and  appointed  an 
apo.stle  (Mat.  x.  2;  Mark  iii.  18  ;  Luke  vi.  14  ; 
Acts  i.  13).  He  joined  with  his  brother  and 
James  and  John  in  inquiring  regarding  the 
destruction  of  the  city  and  temple,  and  the 
second  advent  of  Christ  (Mark  xiii.  3,  4),  and 
with  Philip  he  presented  the  request  of  the 
Greeks  to  Jesus  (John  xii.  22).  Nothing  trust- 
worthy is  known  of  his  subsequent  life.  Ac- 
cording to  tradition,  he  suffered  martyrdom 
in  Achaia  by  crucifixion  on  a  cross  shaped 
like  the  letter  X.  This  is  now  called  St.  An- 
drew's Cross.  It  is  also  related  that  a  ship 
bearing  two  relics  of  him  was  wrecked  in  a 
bay  of  Scotland,  afterwards  called  St.  An- 
drew's Bay.  The  mariners  who  reached  the 
shore  introduced  the  gospel  into  the  region. 
St.  Andrew,  therefore,  became  the  patron 
saint  of  Scotland,  and  gave  name  to  St.  An- 
drew's town.  His  festival  is  kept  by  the 
Greek  and  Roman  churches  on  the  .30th  of 
November.  In  the  Church  of  England  it  has 
become  customary  on  that  day  to  preach  on 
the  subject  of  missions.  The  Acts  of  St.  An- 
drew, an  alleged  gospel  from  his  pen,  is 
spurious. 

An-dro-ni'cus  [conquering  men]. 

A  Jewish  Christian,  and  once  fellow-pris- 
oner of  Paul,  to  whom  at  Rome  Paul  sent 
greeting  (Rom.  xvi.  7). 

A'nem  [two  fountains]. 

A  town  in  the  territory  of  Is.sachar,  given 
with  its  suburbs  to  the  sons  of  (iershora  (1 
Chron.  vi.  73).     Probably  a  corruption  of  the 


Aner 


34 


Annas 


text  out  of  En-gauuim  (Josh.  xxi.  29;   cp. 
xix.  21). 
A'ner. 

1.  An  Amorite,  resident  at  Mamre,  and  one 
of  Abraham's  confederates  in  the  battle  with 
with  the  eastern  kings  (Gen.  xiv.  1.3.  24). 

2.  A  town  of  Manasseh  west  of  the  Jordan. 
It  was  given  with  its  suburbs  to  the  Kohath- 
ites  (1  Chron.  vi.  70).  In  Josh.  xxi.  25,  K.  V., 
Taanach  appears  in  its  stead.  Either  name,  as 
it  stands  in  the  text,  might  easily  be  misread 
as  the  other. 

An'e-thoth-ite  or  Anetothlte.     See  Ana- 

THOTHITE. 

An'gel  [messenger,  envoy]. 

1.  A  celestial  being  a  little  higher  in  dig- 
nity than  man  (Ps.  viii.  5;  Heb.  ii.  7).  They 
are  spiritual  beings  (Heb.  i.  14),  and  they 
neither  marry  nor  are  given  in  marriage 
(Mat.  xxii.  30).  From  their  worship  of  God 
as  well,  probably,  as  from  their  nature  they 
are  called,  at  least  in  poetry,  sons  of  God 
(Job  i.  6  ;  xxxviii.  7) ;  and  from  their  charac- 
ter, holy  ones  (Job  v.  1,  E.  V. ;  Ps.  Ixxxix.  5,  7, 
E.  v.).  Their  office  is  denoted  by  the  term 
angel.  In  the  later  books  differences  among 
angels  in  rank  and  dignity  are  implied,  for 
there  are  archangels  (chief  angels),  as  well 
as  those  of  a  more  ordinary  kind  (1  Thess. 
iv.  16 ;  Jude  9).  This  twofold  distinction 
does  not  seem  to  be  all.  Both  among  fallen 
angels  and  angels  unfallen  there  are  thrones, 
dominions,  principalities,  and  powers  (Eom. 
viii.  38  ;  Eph.  i.  21  ;  iii.  10  ;  Col.  i.  16  ;  ii.  15). 
Cherubim  and  Seraphim  seem  also  to  belong 
to  the  angelic  order.  The  inanimate  powers  of 
nature,  by  which  the  ordinary  economy  of  the 
universe  is  carried  on,  are  God's  messengers 
(Ps.  civ.  4,  E.  V.) ;  but  pestilence  and  death, 
when  acts  of  the  divine  government,  are  rep- 
resented as  under  angelic  charge  (2  Sam.  xxi  v. 
16;  2  Kin.  xix.  25;  Zech.  i.  7-17).  Un.seen 
they  encamj)  round  about  them  that  fear  God 
(Ps.  xxxiv.  7;  Gen.  xxviii.  12;  xlviii.  16;  2 
Kin.  vi.  17 ;  Is.  Ixiii.  9).  The  angel  of  the 
Lord  came  in  human  form  to  Abraham, 
Hagar,  and  Lot,  to  Moses  and  Joshua,  to  the 
Israelites  at  Bochim.  to  Gideon  and  Manoah. 
An  angel  came  to  Elijah  and  to  Daniel.  An- 
gels are  fittingly  prominent  in  the  history  of 
Jesus,  announcing  his  birth  and  that  of  his 
forerunner,  heralding  his  advent  to  the  shep- 
herds, ministering  unto  him  after  his  victory 
over  temptation  and  in  the  garden  (Luke 
xxii.  43,  a  jiassage  omitted  in  many  old  copies), 
and  beariiig  tidings  to  his  disciples  at  the 
resurrection  and  ascension.  An  angel  also 
aided  Peter  and  stood  by  Paul.  The  names 
of  some  angels  or  archangels  are  mentioned, 
namelv,  Gabriel  (Dan.  viii.  16;  ix.  21;  Luke 
i.  19,  26),  and  MiclKU-l  (Dan.  x.  13,  21 ;  xii.  1 ; 
Jude  9 ;  Eev.  xii.  7).  In  the  Apocrypha 
Eaphael  is  mentioned  (Tobit  v.  4).  The  old 
Persians  and  the  modern  Parsees  have  recog- 
nized the  existence  of  angels  of  difterent  rank 
and  assigned  names  to  some  of  them. 


2.  The  representative  of  a  church ;  but 
whether  this  is  the  board  of  elders  which 
directed  the  affairs  of  the  local  church,  or  the 
pastor,  or  a  celestial  being  of  the  angelic  order 
watching  over  the  church,  is  by  no  means 
clear  (Eev.  i.  20;  ii.  1,  8,  12,  18;  iii.  1,  7,  14). 

A'ni-am  [sighing  of  the  people]. 

A  Manassite,  family  of  Shemida  (1  Chron. 
vii.  19 ;  cp.  Num.  xxvi.  32). 

A'nim  [a  contraction  of  '"yanim,  fountains]. 

A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah,  men- 
tioned immediately  after  Eshtemoh  (Josh.  xv. 
50).  It  is  apparently  identical  with  the  ruin 
Ghuwein,  about  eleven  miles  south  of  Hebron 
and  three  south  of  Semiia,  i.  e.  Eshtemoh. 

An'ise. 

An  umbelliferous  plant  (PimpineUn  anisum) 
somewhat  like  caraway  in  appearance,  occa- 
sionally cultivated  in  the  East  for  its  seeds, 
which  are  used  as  a  seasoning  and  as  a  car- 
minative. The  English  versions  render  the 
Greek  word  anethou  (Mat.  xxiii.  23)  in  the 
text  by  anise,  on  the  margin  by  dill.  The 
latter  is  Anethum  graveolens  of  the  .same  order 
(umbelliferous)  as  anise,  resembles  anise  in 
appearance  and  properties,  and  is  more  com- 
monly grown  in  gardens. 

An'kle  Chain. 

A  chain  binding  together  the  two  ankles 
of  a  female,  so  as  to  compel  her  to  take  short 
steps,  and,  especially  when  they  were  com- 
bined with  anklets,  to  make  a  tinkling  sound 
when  she  walked  (Num.  xxxi.  50;  Is.  iii.  20, 
both  E.  V. ;  in  A.  Y.  called  simply  chains  and 
ornaments  of  the  legs). 

Ank'let. 

An  ornament  for  the  ankles,  consisting  of 
metallic  or  glass  rings,  and  corresponding  to 
bracelets  on  the  wrists.  Anklets  are  often 
worn  by  boys  as  well  as  women  in  the  East 
(Is.  iii.  18,  E.  V. ;  in  A.  Y.  called  tinkling  orna- 
ments about  the  feet) :  see  Ankle  Chain. 

An'na  [Greek  form  of  Hannah,  grace]. 

A  widow,  daughter  of  Phanuel  of  the  tribe 
of  Asher.  Her  married  life  had  lasted  seven 
years.  At  the  age  of  eighty-four  she  visited 
the  temple  daily,  and  was  there  when  the  in- 
fant Jesus  was  brought  to  be  dedicated.  A 
prophetess,  she  recognized  and  proclaimed 
him  to  be  the  Messiah  (Luke  ii.  36-38). 

An'nas  [a  Greek  form  of  Hananiah,  Jeho- 
vah hath  been  gracious]. 

A  high  priest  at  Jerusalem,  as  was  Caiaphas, 
in  the  year  when  John  the  Baptist  began  his 
ministry  (Luke  iii.  2),  it  is  thought  about 
A.  D.  26.  He  is  called  Auanos  by  Josephus, 
which  is  nearer  the  Hebrew  form  of  the 
name  than  is  Annas.  He  was  appointed  high 
priest  about  a.  d.  7  by  Quirinius,  governor 
of  Syria,  and  was  deposed  by  the  procurator 
of  Judea,  Yalerius  Gratus,  about  A.  d.  16. 
Each  of  his  five  sons  became  high  priest,  and 
he  was  father-in-law  of  the  high  priest  Caia- 
phas ( Antiq.  xviii.  2,  1  and  2  ;  John  xviii.  13). 
Although   Annas  was   no   longer  officiating 


Anoint 


35 


Anticlirist 


high  priest  when  Jesus  was  arrested,  he  was 
yet  the  most  iiiHuential  i)riest  and  still  bore 
the  title  (Luke  iii.  '2;  Acts  iv.  6),  and  to  him 
Jesus  was  first  taken  (John  xviil.  i;5),  and 
after  being  examined  by  him  was  sent  bound 
to  Caiaplias  (24).  When  Peter  and  John  were 
subsequently  arrested,  Annas  was  prominent 
among  their  examiners  (Acts  iv.  6). 

A-noint'. 

To  i)our  oil  upon  the  head,  or  in  any  other 
way  apply  it  to  a  person,  or  to  a  thing.  Among 
the  Jews  there  were  an  ordinary,  a  sacred  or 
official,  and  a  medical  or  surgical  anoint- 
ing. The  ordinary  one  was  simply  a  matter 
of  the  toilet  (2  Sam.  xii.  20  ;  Dan.'x.  3  :  Mat. 
vi.  17).  The  anointing  of  the  head  with  oil 
in  the  time  of  Jesus  was  extended,  as  an  act 
of  courtesy,  also  to  guests  (Luke  vii.  46).  The 
official  anointing  was  conferred  on  prophets, 
priests,  and  kings.  Elijah  the  prophet  was 
directed  to  anoint  Elisha,  his  successor  (1  Kin. 
xix.  Ki).  Aaron  the  high  priest,  and  those 
who  followed  him  in  the  same  office,  were 
anointed  with  a  holy  consecrating  oil  (Ex. 
xxviii.  41  ;  xxix.  7  ;  xxx.  30  ;  xl.  13, 15).  Saul 
(1  Sam.  ix.  IH;  x.  1),  David  (xvi.  1,  12,  13;  2 
Sam.  ii.  7;  iii.  39,  etc.),  Solomon  (1  Kin.  i. 
34),  Hazael  of  Syria  (xix.  15),  Jehu  (16), 
Jehoash  (2  Kin.  xi.  12),  and  others,  were 
anointed,  kings.  Messiah  and  Clirist  mean 
the  Anointed  One.  Jesus  the  Christ  was 
anointed  by  the  Spirit  to  be  prophet,  priest, 
and  king.  Of  things,  the  altar  (Ex.  xxix. 
36  ;  xl.  10),  and  the  tabernacle  (xxx.  26  ;  xl. 
9),  the  laver,  etc.  (xl.  9-11),  were  also  anointed. 
The  medicinal  or  surgical  anointing,  not 
necessarily  with  oil,  was  a  customarj-  remedy 
applied  to  the  sick  and  wounded  (Is.  i.  6 ; 
Luke  X.  34;  Eev.  iii.  18).  The  Chri.stian 
places  reliance,  not  in  the  natural  means  in 
themselves,  but  in  God  who  works  through 
the  means  and  renders  them  effectual  (Jas.  v. 
14,  l.'>). 

Ant. 

Any  hymenopterous  insect  of  the  family 
Formicidse.  They  are  social  insects  like  bees 
and  wasps,  to  which  they  are  not  remotely 
akin.  The  species  are  numerous  and  widely 
difl'used,  the  larger  members,  however,  oc- 
eurring  in  the  tropics.  The  ant  is  held  up  as 
an  example  of  industry  and  forethought,  in- 
dnstriously  providing  food  in  summer  and 
gathering  grain  in  harvest  (Prov.  vi.  6-8 ;  xxx. 
24,  25).  That  the  ants  of  Palestine  store  food 
on  which  to  live  in  winter  is  not  expressly  as- 
serted in  Proverbs,  but  it  is  clearly  stated  in 
similar  Arabic  maxims.  Dr.  Thomson  states 
that  the  ants  of  Palestine  are  great  robbers  of 
grain  in  harvest.  Sykes  in  1829  found  an  ant 
in  India,  at  Poonah,  storing  grain,  and  called 
it  Atta  proridens.  Moggridge  witnessed  similar 
forethought  exercised  by  certain  ants  in  the 
south  of  Europe,  and  McCook  by  ants  in  Texas. 

An'te-lope. 

An  animal,  believed  to  be  mentioned  in 
Deut.  siv.  5  and  Is.  li.  20,  E.  V.  It  was  captured 


in  nets,  and  was  ceremonially  fit  for  food. 
Targum,  followed  by  A.  V.,  renders  wild  ox; 
probably  meaning  the  bubale,  AntilopehnhaUs, 
of  Egypt  and  Arabia,  classed  by  the  Arabs  with 
wild  oxen.  In  the  Greek  versions  and  the 
Vulgate,  the  word  is  generally  rendered  oryx, 
which  refers  to  the  Antilope  leucoryx.  This 
animal  has  horns  whicli  are  long,  slender, 
conical,  and  with  ringlike  ridges  round.  The 
animal  is  white,  with  the  exception  of  a  long 
tuft  of  hair  under  the  throat,  which  is  black. 
It  is  a  native  of  Sennaar,  Upper  Egypt,  and 
Arabia,  and  is  said  to  be  found  in  Syria. 

An-tho-thi'jah,  in  A.  V.  AntotMjah  [an- 
swers of  Jehovah]. 

A  Benjamite  descended  through  Shashak 
(1  Chron.  viii.  24). 

An'ti-christ  [Greek  antichristos,  against  or 
instead  of  Christ]. 

The  word  antichrist  may  mean,  as  the  ety- 
mology shows,  an  enemy  of  Christ  or  a  usur- 
per of  Christ's  name  and  rights.  The  former 
was  probably  its  primary  meaning,  though 
the  other  idea  was  also  attached  to  it.  In  the 
N.  T.  St.  John  alone  uses  the  term  (1  John  ii. 
18,  22;  iv.  3;  2  John  7).  From  1  John  ii.  18, 
E.  v.,  we  learn  that  the  Christians  had  been 
taught  that  '"Anticlirist"  would  appear  in 
"  the  last  hour,"  ;.  e.  before  the  second  advent 
of  Christ.  While  not  denying  that  Antichrist 
would  be  a  single  person,  John  lays  stress  on 
the  spirit  to  be  embodied  in  him,  and  declares 
that  already  many  antichrists  had  come.  The 
substance  of  the  antichristiau  spirit,  he  says, 
is  denial  that  Jesus  is  the  Christ  or  the  real 
incarnation  of  the  Son  of  God,  by  which  is 
meant  not  only  denial  of  the  doctrine,  but 
moral  antagonism  to  its  religious  implica- 
tions. This  opposition  was  already  appear- 
ing in  the  Church  in  the  persons  of  false 
teachers  and  false  disciples,  for  Antichrist 
arises  out  of  nominal  Christianity  itself.  But 
while  John  alone  uses  the  term,  the  doctrine 
it  taught  elsewliere.  Jesus  himself  not  only 
warned  his  apostles  of  "  false  Christs"  (Mat. 
xxiv.  5,  23,  24  ;  Mark  xiii.  21,  22)— by  which, 
however,  he  meant  primarily  Jewish  Mes- 
sianic pretenders — but  plainly  intimated  that 
apostasy  would  arise  within  the  Church  (see 
parables  of  tares,  ten  virgins,  Aiat.  vii.  22, 
23  ;  xxiv.  12,  etc.).  Paul  more  fully  teaches 
(2  Thes.  ii.  3-12)  that  before  the  second  ad- 
vent "the  man  of  lawles.sness "  (E.  V.)  must 
be  revealed,  "who  oppo.seth  and  exalteth 
himself  above  all  that  is  called  God,  or  that 
is  worshiped,''  and  "  in  the  temple  of  God  " 
(=  probably  the  Church)  claims  to  be  God  (to 
usurp  the  place  of  God).  Paul,  too,  like  John, 
represents  this  as  the  culmination  of  a  process 
of  apostasy  (ver.  7;  see,  too,  1  Tim.  iv.  1). 
Many  intei-preters  also  see  in  the  "beast"  of 
Eev.  xiii.  a  further  description  of  Antichrist. 
Thus  the  N.  T.  declared  that  Christian  his- 
tory would  not  be  a  pure  development  of  good- 
ness and  truth,  but  that  within  Christendom 
apostasy  would   arise,   develop,  have   many 


Antiocli 


36 


Antioch 


representatives,  and  finally  culminate  in  An- 
ticlirist  proper  {=  either  a  jierson  or  an  insti- 
tution, perhaps  hoth),  of  which  the  essential 
spirit  would  be  anlufionisni  to  ( 'hrist  and  the 
impious  claim  of  that  aUegiance  tVoni  man's 
mind  and  life  which  is  alone  due  to  God  and 
his  Son.  In  different  periods,  various  apos- 
tasies have  seemed  to  believers  to  be  Anti- 
christ, and  have  more  or  less  embodied  the 
antichristian  pi'inciple  ;  but  doubtless  the  full 
manifestation  of  Antichrist  is  yet  to  come, 
and  will  precede  and  be  destroyed  at  the 
second  advent  of  the  Lord.  g.  t.  p. 

An'ti-och  [pertaining  to  Antiochus]. 

1.  The  metropolis  of  Syria  under  the  Mace- 
donian Greek  dynasty  (1  Mac.  iii.  37  et  passim), 
founded  about  ;300  K.  c.  by  Seleucus  Nicator, 
and  named  by  him  after  Antiochus,  his  father. 
It  was  situated  on  the  southern  side  of  the 
Orontes,  about  twenty  miles  from  its  mouth, 


he  fetched  as  a  coadjutor  Paul  from  Tarsus. 
For  a  whole  year  these  two  great  evangelists 
made  the  city  the  sphere  of  their  labors  and 
taught  much  peojile.  The  disciples  were  called 
Christians  first  in  Antioch  (Acts  xi.  19-2G). 
Further  reinforcements  arrived  in  the  per- 
sons of  prophets  (27).  From  Antioch  Paul 
and  Barnabas  were  sent  on  a  missionary  jour- 
ney (xiii.  2).  On  its  completion  they  returned 
to  the  city  (xiv.  26).  The  disciples  at  An- 
tioch kept  up  active  intercourse  with  the 
brethren  at  Jerusalem.  In  time  of  famine, 
they  sent  relief  to  them  (xi.  2«-30),  and  they 
submitted  the  question  regarding  the  cir- 
cumcision of  gentile  converts  to  a  council 
at  Jerusalem  (xv.).  The  second  missionary 
journey  of  Paul,  like  the  first,  commenced 
with  a  departui-e  from  Antioch  (35,  36),  to 
which  Paul  returned,  this  time  by  the  way 
of  Casarea  (xviii.  22).  At  A7atioch  Paul  with- 
stood Peter  to  the  face  because  of  his  vacil- 


Antioch  of  Syria. 


the  riverbeing  navigable  up  to  the  city.  Mount 
Casius  approached  it  closely  on  the  south,  and 
the  Amanus  mountains  were  not  far  off  on 
the  west,  whilst  in  front  lay  the  valley  of  the 
Orontes,  five  or  six  miles  across.  The  city 
became  large  and  numerously  inhabited.  It 
remained  the  capital  when  the  Eoman  prov- 
ince of  Syria  was  erected  in  64  b.  c.  Its 
population  was  a  mixed  one,  chiefly  gentile, 
but  also  with  not  a  few  Jews  (War  vii.  3,  3). 
Christians  who  fled  from  Jerusalem  to  avoid 
the  jiersccution  which  arose  U]K>n  the  martyr- 
dom of  Stejjhen  preached  the  gospel  here,  ad- 
dressing at  first  only  Jews  who  spoke  the 
Aramaic  tongue,  then  those  who  spoke  Greek. 
Barnabas  was  despatched  from  Jerusalem  to 
aid  the  work.  After  laboring  there  for  a  while 


lating  conduct  with  regard  to  the  gentile 
converts  (Gal.  ii.  11).  The  city  remained 
great,  and  the  Church  went  on  to  develo]> 
w'hile  the  Eoman  empire  stood.  In  a.  d.  538 
Chosroes,  the  Persian  king,  took  and  de- 
stroyed it.  It  was  rebuilt  by  the  Eoman  em- 
peror Justinian.  In  a.  d.  635  it  was  taken 
by  the  Saracens,  from  whom  it  passed  in  1084 
to  the  Turks.  Except  between  1098  and 
1269,  when  it  was  the  seat  of  a  Christian 
kingdom  founded  by  the  crusaders,  it  has 
remained  in  Mohammedan  hands.  It  has 
been  all  along  very  liable  to  earthquakes, 
one  of  which,  occurring  in  1822,  damaged 
Justinian's  walls.  The  place,  still  called 
'Antakia,  is  now  unimportant. 
2.  A  tow'n  in  Asia  Minor,  also  founded  by 


Antiochus 


37 


Antipatris 


Scleucus  Xicator  and  named  after  his  father, 
Antioehus.  Thoiio;h  situated  in  Pliryjiia,  it 
lu'canie  the  eajiital  of  the  Roman  ])rovince  of 
I'isidia.  Harnahas  and  Paul  visited  it  on  their 
lirst  missionary  journey  (Acts  xiii.  1-1-52  ;  xiv. 
l!i-21 :  2  Tim.  iii.  11).  In  1>%33  Arundel 
identified  the  ruins  of  this  Autioch  near  the 
modern  town  of  Yalabatch. 
An-tl'o-clius  [withstander,  eudurer], 
1.  AxTiociirs  III.,  surnamed  the  Great, 
kintr  of  Syria  and  sixtli  ruler  of  the  Sfleuei- 
ilan  dynasty,  father  of  Seleucus  IV.  and  An- 
tioehus Eiiii)lianes  (1  Mac.  i.  10;  viii.  6-8).  He 
reij;ned  from  2-23  to  187  B.  c.  He  attempted 
to  wrest  C'celesyria,  Phcenicia,  and  Palestine 
from  Ptolemy  iV.,  but  was  defeated  at  Raphia 
217  B.  c.  After  the  death  of  Ptolemy  he  re- 
newed the  attempt  and  was  successful,  gain- 
ing the  decisive  battle  of  Paueas  in  198.  He 
invaded  Europe,  but  his  victorious  career  was 
ternnnated  at  Thermoiiyhe.  On  his  retreat 
he  was  decisively  defeated  at  Magnesia  in  Asia 
in  190.  By  the  terms  of  peace  he  was  obliged 
to  send  twenty  hostages  to  Rome,  including 
his  son,  and  pay  an  enormous  tribute.  While 
plundering  a  temple  in  Susiaua  he  was  mur- 
dered by  a  mob.  The  Seleucidan  Hue  was 
continued  as  follows : 

Autiochus  the  Great. 


merely  as  a  cloak  for  liis  own  ambition,  and 
slew  him  as  soon  as  he  felt  himself  established, 
142  B.  c.  U  Mac.  xi.  39,  40,  54 ;  xiii.  31,  32). 


Seleucus  lY. 


Demetrius  I. 


Antioehus  Epiphanes. 

I 
Autiochus  Eupator. 

I 
Alexander  Balas. 


Demetrius  II. 


Antioehus  VI. 
Antioehus  VII. 

2.  Antiochus  E-piph'a-nes,  the  eighth 
ruler  of  the  house  of  Seleucidte,  175-164  B.  c. 
(1  Mac.  i.  10  ;  vi.  16).  He  passed  fifteen  years 
of  his  life  as  a  hostage  at  Rome  (1  Mac.  i.  10). 
He  was  an  euergetic  prince  who  extended 
and  strengthened  his  kingdom,  but  enraged 
his  subjects  by  religious  intolerance.  He 
stirred  up  the  Jews  by  robbing  the  temple 
and  setting  up  a  statue  of  Jupiter  in  the  holy 
of  holies.  He  also  pulled  down  the  walls  of 
Jerusalem,  commanded  the  sacrifice  of  swine, 
forbade  circumcision,  and  destroyed  all  the 
sacred  books  that  could  be  found.  It  was 
these  outrages  which  induced  the  revolt  of 
the  Maccabees  (1  Mac.  i.  41-53).  He  died  be- 
tween Elymais  and  Babylon,  shortly  after  re- 
ceiving news  of  the  Jewish  revolt  (vi.  1-16). 

3.  AxTiocHUS  Eu'PA-TOR,  SOU  of  the  above. 
As  a  minor  he  reigned  two  years  under  the 
regency  of  Lysias  (1  Mac.  vi.  17-63).  He  was 
slain  and  succeeded  by  Demetrius  Soter. 

4.  Antiochu.s  VI..  "the  young  child  of  the 
pretender  Alexander  Balas.  He  was  set  up  as 
king  by  the  general  Tryphon,  who  used  him 


Head  of  Antioehus  Epiphanes. 

5.  Antiochus  VII.,  brother  of  Demetrius 
II.,  who  reigned  in  the  stead  of  Demetrius 
during  his  imprisonment  by  Arsaces,  138-128 
B.  C.  He  defeated  Tryphon  (1  Mac.  xv.  1, 
10-14),  made  first  a  treaty  with  Simon  Mac- 
cabseus,  but  afterwards  repudiated  his  help 
and  tried  to  rob  the  temple.  His  attempt 
was  frusti-ated  bv  John  and  Judas  Maccabseus 
(1  Mac.  xvi.  1-10). 

An'ti-pas  [contraction  of  Antijjater], 

1.  A  Christian  who  suffered  martyrdom  at 
Pergamos,  in  Asia  Minor  (Rev.  ii.  12,  13). 

2.  Son  of  Herod  the  Great ;  see  Herod  2. 
An-tip'a-ter  [in  place  of  or  like  the  father]. 

1.  A  Jew,  son  of  Jason.  He  was  one  of 
two  amba.ssadors  sent  by  Jonathan  and  the 
elders  to  Rome  to  renew  the  alliance  (1  Mac. 
xii.  16).  His  father  was  perhaps  the  Jason 
who  had  formerly  gone  on  a  similar  mission 
(viii.  17). 

2.  Father  of  Herod  the  Great  (Antiq.  xiv. 
7,3). 

An-tip'a-tris  [belonging  to  Antipater]. 

A  town  founded  by  Herod  the  Great,  in 
the  fertile  plain  of  Caphar  Saba,  on  the  site 
of  that  village,  near  the  mountains,  and  called 
after  Antipater,  his  father.  It  was  surrounded 
by  a  river  (Antiq.  xiii.  15,  1;  xvi.  5.  2;  War 
i.  4,  7 ;  21,  9).  It  lay  on  the  Roman  military 
road  between  Jerusalem  and  Ca?sarea.  forty- 
two  Roman  miles  from  the  former  city  and 
twenty-six  from  the  latter.  The  old  name  lin- 
gers under  the  modern  form  Kefr  Saba,  and 
its  site  is  commonly  souglit  at  this  village ;  but 
the  conditions  of  the  site  are  in  all  other  re- 
spects fulfilled  by  Wilson  and  Conder's  location 
of  it  at  Ras  el  'Ain,  at  the  junction  of  the  old 
Roman  road  from  Jerusalem  with  that  from 


Antonia 


38 


Aphek 


Eamleh  through  Lydda  to  Csesarea.  The 
large  mound  is  covered  with  ruins,  from  the 
sides  of  which  on  the  north  and  west  the 
river  'Aujah  gushes  forth  a  full-sized  stream. 
It  was  the  limit  of  Paul's  journey  the  first 
niglit  while  he  was  being  taken  as  a  jirisoner 
from  Jerusalem  to  Csesarea  (Actssxiii.  31). 

An-to'ni-a,  Tow'er  of  [jiertaiuing  to  An- 
tonius]. 

A  castle  connected  with  tlie  temple  at  Jeru- 
salem. It  presumably  occui>ied  the  site  of  the 
stronghold  Birah,  which  ai)pertaiued  to  the 
temple  and  was  restored  by  Nehemiah  (Neh. 
11.  8).  John  Hyrcanns  built  the  tower,  and  he 
generally  dwelt  in  it  and  kept  the  priestly 
vestments  there,  for  he  was  entitled  to  wear 
them  (Antiq.  xv.  11,  4  ;  xviii.  4,  3).  Until  the 
time  of  Herod  the  Great  it  was  known  as  the 
Baris,  but  Herod  repaired  it  at  vast  expense, 
and  fortified  it  more  firmly  than  before  in 
order  that  it  might  guard  the  temple,  and 
named  it  Antonia  in  honor  of  Marc  Antony 
(Antiq.  xviii. ;  War  i.  21,  1 ;  v.  5,  8  ;  Tacitus, 
Hist.  V.  11).  It  was  situated  at  the  north- 
western corner  of  the  temple  area,  on  a  rock 
fifty  cubits  in  height,  the  highest  point  in  the 
neighborhood  (War  vi.  1,  5).  Its  presence  there 
prevented  the  area  from  being  foursquare 
(War  vi.  5, 4).  The  fortress  had  the  amplitude 
and  form  of  a  palace,  with  chambers,  courts, 
barracks,  and  baths.  Its  walls  rose  forty  cubits 
above  the  rock  on  which  they  rested.  At  the 
corners  were  turrets,  three  of  which  were 
fifty  cubits  high,  while  the  fourth,  which  over- 
looked the  temple,  was  seventy  cubits  (cp.  An- 
tiq. XX.  5,  3  ;  War  vi.  2,  5).  It  was  separated 
by  a  deep  trench  from  the  hill  Bezetha  (War  v. 
4, 2),  but  was  connected  with  the  northern  and 
western  cloisters,  at  the  junction  of  which  it 
stood,  with  gates  for  the  guards  and  a  stair- 
case (Acts  xxi.  3.5  with  37  ;  40  with  xxii.  24), 
and  with  the  inner  temple  at  its  eastern  gate 
by  a  subterranean  passage  (Antiq.  xv.  11,  7), 
which  seems  to  have  existed  in  the  Baris  as 
built  by  Hyrcanus  (Antiq.  xiii.  11,  2).  Over 
the  temple  end  of  this  underground  passage 
Herod  erected  a  tower.  The  arrangement 
was  intended  to  aflbrd  him  a  way  of  escape 
in  case  of  a  popular  sedition.  In  the  castle  a 
Roman  legion  was  stationed,  which  stood  on 
guard  in  the  cloisters,  especially  during  the 
Jewish  festivals,  to  jirevent  any  excesses  on 
the  part  of  the  populace  (Antiq.  xviii.  4,  3 ; 
War  V.  5,  8).  The  castle  was  finally  demol- 
ished by  order  of  Titus  in  A.  D.  70  (War  vii. 
1,  1 ;  cp.  vi.  2,  7 :  5,  4  ;  9,  1  and  4). 

The  most  tragic  event  in  the  history  of  the 
castle  occurred  during  the  reign  of  Aristobu- 
lus,  son  of  Hyrcanus.  The  king  lay  sick  in 
one  of  its  chambers.  His  beloved  brother 
Antigonus,  returning  from  the  war,  hastened 
clad  in  armor  and  accompanied  by  his  mili- 
tary escort  to  the  temple  to  ofter  prayers  for 
the  recovery  of  the  king.  The  act  was  mis- 
represented to  Aristobulus  ;  but  he  summoned 
his  brother  to  his  bedside,  with  the  request 


that  he  come  unarmed,  and  ordered  soldiers 
to  lie  in  the  underground  passage  and  slay 
him  if  he  appeared  in  armor.  The  queen 
suppressed  the  message  in  part,  and  contrived 
to  have  Antigonus  informed  that  the  king 
desired  to  see  his  splendid  armor.  Suspect- 
ing nothing,  he  entered  the  passage  clad  in 
mail  and  was  murdered.  The  deed  was  re- 
ported to  the  king,  and  the  shock  brought  on 
a  hemorrhage.  A  slave  bore  away  the  vessel 
in  which  the  blood  had  been  caught,  but 
stumbled  on  the  spot  where  Antigonus  had 
been  slain.  The  blood  of  the  tw-o  brothers 
mingled  on  the  floor.  A  cry  of  horror  ran 
through  the  palace,  and  roused  the  king  to 
inquire  the  cause.  When  he  learned  what 
had  occurred  he  was  filled  with  an  agony  of 
remorse  and  instantly  expired  (Antiq.  xiii. 
11). 

Paul,  when  rescued  from  the  infuriated 
mob  who  had  dragged  him  out  of  the  temple, 
was  carried  into  this  castle,  and  on  the  way 
was  allowed  to  address  the  people  from  the 
stairs  (Acts  xxi.  30  seq.). 

An-to-tM'jah.     See  Anthothijah. 

An'toth-ite.     See  Anathothite. 

A'nub  [joined  together]. 

A  man  of  Judah,  son  of  Hakkoz  (1  Chron. 
iv.  8,  E.  v.). 

Ape. 

A  quadrumanous  animal.  The  Hebrew 
word  Koph,  which  is  rendered  ape,  is  probably 
generic  and  includes  apes,  which  are  without 
tails,  and  monkeys,  which  possess  them.  In 
Greek  Icepos  denotes  a  monkey  of  Ethiopia. 
In  Malabar  and  Sanscrit  knpi  or  Icefi  signifies 
a  monkey.  There  is  no  genuine  ape  either 
in  Malabar  or  in  any  other  part  of  India.  If 
the  animals  which  were  brought  to  Palestine 
by  the  vessels  that  went  to  Ophir  for  gold 
(i  Kin.  X.  22 ;  2  Chron.  ix.  21)  came  from  In- 
dia, they  were  a  tailed  monkey,  perhaps 
that  called  Hanuman  (Semnopithems  enteUtm), 
which  is  common  throughout  India,  and  is 
worshiped  as  a  god. 

A-pel'les. 

An  approved  Christian  at  Rome  to  whom 
Paul  sent  a  salutation  (Rom.  xvi.  10). 

A-phser'e-ma. 

A  government  district  which  in  the  time 
of  Jonathan  Maccabeus  was  separated  from 
Samaria,  annexed  to  Judaea,  and  placed  under 
the  authority  of  the  high  priest  (1  Mac.  xi. 
34  ;  cp.  X.  30,  38).  The  name  is  thought  to  be 
a  Greek  corruption  of  Ephraim,  and  to  desig- 
nate the  most  southern  part  of  Samaria  (cp. 
John  xi.  54). 

A-phar'sach-ites  or  Apharsathchites. 

A  tribe  from  beyond  the  Euphrates,  settled 
by  Asnapper  in  Samaria  (Ezra  iv.  9;  v.  6). 

A-phar'sites. 

An  eastern  tribe,  transplanted  by  Asnapper 
to  Samaria  (Ezra  iv.  9). 

A'phek  [strength]. 

1.  A  city  apparently  north  of  Zidon  (Josh. 


Aphekah 


39 


Apocrypha 


xiii.  4),  and  hence  commonly  identified  with 
the  ancient  Aphaca,  a  place  northeast  of 
Beirut  and  famous  for  its  temple  of  Venus. 
It  is  now  known  as  Afka.  The  situation  of 
this  town  so  far  north  renders  questionable 
its  identity  with  Aphek,  variant  Aphik,  which 
was  situated  within  the  territory  of  Asher, 
but  not  cleared  of  its  Canaanite  inhabitants 
(Josh.  xix.  30;  Judjj.  i.  31). 

2.  A  place  near  Ebenezer,  not  too  far  from 
Shiloh,  and  probably  near  Mizpah  (1  Sam. 
iv.  1,  12;  vii.  11;  perhaps  Josh.  xii.  17,  18). 
The  Philistines  pitched  here  before  the  battle 
in  which  they  captured  the  ark. 

3.  A  town  apparently  between  Shunem  and 
Jezreel.  The  Philistines  pitched  at  Shunem, 
but  soon  discovered  that  the  Israelites  had 
occupied  the  heights  of  Gilboa.  From  Shu- 
nem they  advanced  to  Aphek,  and  thence  to 
Jezreel,  where  they  attacked  the  Israelites 
who  had  descended  to  the  spring  at  Jezreel, 
forcing  them  back  to  their  former  position 
on  Gilboa  and  completing  the  slaughter  on 
that  mountain  (1  Sam.  xxviii.  4 ;  xxix.  1,  11 ; 
xxxi.  1).  Probably  it  is  the  town  Apku  men- 
tioned by  A.shurbanipal,  king  of  Assyria,  as 
"on  the  border  of  Samaria,"  and,  by  implica- 
tion, on  the  military  road  to  Egypt.  It  may 
also  be  the  town  of  Aphek  to  which  Ben- 
hadad  advanced  with  the  intention  of  giving 
battle  to  Ahab,  and  to  which  he  and  his  army 
retreated  after  his  defeat,  and  where  a  wall 
fell  and  killed  27,000  of  his  soldiers  (1  Kin. 
XX.  26-30) ;  and  it  may  also  be  the  town 
where  Joash.  king  of  Israel,  should,  according 
to  jirophecy,  smite  the  Syrians  till  they  were 
consumed  (2  Kin.  xiii.  14-19).  The  situation 
presupposed  in  the  narratives  is  fully  met  by 
a  town  west  of  the  Jordan  in  the  plain  of 
Jezreel.  Still  the  Aphek  referred  to  in  these 
two  passages  may  be  the  town  of  that  name 
beyond  Jordan,  about  three  miles  east  of  the 
sea  of  Galilee,  on  the  highway  between  Da- 
mascus and  Beth-sheau,  and  now  represented 
by  the  village  of  Fik. 

A-phe'kah  [strong  place,  fortification]. 

A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  53)  ;  probably  not  the  same  as  Aphek  2. 

A-pM'ah  [perhaps,  refreshed,  revivified]. 

An  ancestor  of  king  Saul  (1  Sam.  ix.  1). 

A'phik.     See  Aphek  1. 

Aph'rah,  in  E.  V.  Beth-le-Aphrah  [dust]. 

A  town  (Mic.  i.  10),  site  unknown. 

Aph'ses.     See  Happizzez. 

A-poc'a-lypse  [disclosure,  revelation], 

A  name  frequently  given  to  the  last  book 
of  the  Bible.     See  Eevelation. 

A-poc'ry-pha  [Greek  apokruphn,  hidden 
things,  used  by  ecclesiastical  writers  for  (1) 
forged,  spurious;  (2)  unrecognized,  uncanoni- 
?al]. 

The  name  generally  given  to  the  following 
sixteen  books :  1  and  2  Esdras,  Tobit,  Judith, 
The  Eest  of  Esther,  The  Wisdom  of  Solomon, 
Ecclesiasticus,  Baruch,  with  the  Epistle  of 


Jeremiah,  The  Song  of  the  Three  Holy  Chil- 
dren, The  History  of  Susanna,  Bel  and  the 
Dragon,  The  Prayer  of  Manasses,  1,  2,  3,  and 
4  Maccabees.  Sometimes  the  number  is  lim- 
ited to  fourteen,  3  and  4  Maccabees  being 
omitted. 

Unlike  the  books  of  the  O.  T.,  which  are 
in  Hebrew,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  verses 
in  Aramaic,  the  apocryphal  i)roductions  are 
in  Greek,  though  doubtless  Judith,  Ecclesi- 
asticus, Baruch  i.-iii.  8,  and  1  Maccabees  were 
originally  written  in  Aramaic.  The  Jewish 
church  considered  them  uninsjiired,  and  some 
of  their  writers  disclaim  inspiration  (Prologue 
to  Ecclesiasticus ;  1  Mac.  iv.  46  ;  ix.  27 ;  2  Mac. 
ii.  23;  xv.  38).  They  are  not  found  in  the 
Hebrew  canon  ;  they  are  never  quoted  by 
Jesus;  and  it  cannot  with  certainty  be  af- 
firmed that  the  apostles  ever  directly  allude 
to  them.  The  early  churches  permitted  them 
to  be  read  for  edification,  and  recommended 
them  to  the  catechumens  for  study,  but  re- 
jected them  from  the  canon,  their  decision 
carrying  authority  during  the  middle  ages, 
as  it  does  now  with  the  various  Protestant 
churches.  Thus  the  Church  of  England  iu 
the  sixth  of  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  pub- 
lished in  1.562  calls  the  apoci-yphal  ti'eatises 
books  which  "  the  Church  doth  read  for  ex- 
ample of  life  and  instruction  of  manners ;  but 
yet  doth  it  not  apply  them  to  establish  any 
doctrine."  The  Westminster  Confes.sion  of 
1643  declares,  as  a  matter  of  creed,  that  "The 
books,  commonly  called  Apocrypha,  not  being 
of  divine  inspiration,  are  no  part  of  the 
canon  of  Scripture,  and  therefore  are  of  no 
authority  in  the  Church  of  God,  or  to  be 
any  otherwise  approved  or  made  use  of  than 
other  human  writings."  The  Council  of 
Trent  at  its  sitting  on  April  1.5, 1546,  declared 
eleven  of  the  sixteen  apocryphal  books  to  be 
canonical,  enumerating  Tobit,  Judith,  Wis- 
dom, Ecclesiasticus,  Baruch,  and  the  two 
books  of  Maccabees,  and  adding  The  Rest  of 
Esther  to  the  canonical  Esther,  and  incoi'po- 
rating  the  History  of  Susanna,  the  Story  of 
the  Three  Holy  Children,  and  the  History  of 
Bel  and  the  Dragon  with  Daniel.  The  Council 
pronounced  an  anathema  against  anyone  who 
ventured  to  difl'er  from  it  in  opinion.  This 
has  since  regulated  the  belief  of  the  Eomau 
Catholic  Church.  The  Apocrypha  was  intro- 
duced into  the  English  version  by  Coverdale 
in  1535,  and  was  included  in  king  James'  ver- 
sion, but  began  to  be  omitted  as  early  as  1629. 
When  inserted,  it  was  placed  between  the  O. 
T.  and  N.  T.  A  con  trove  rssy  on  the  subject 
was  carried  on  between  the  years  1821  and 
1826,  which  resulted  in  the  exclusion  of  the 
Apocrypha  from  all  Bibles  issued  by  the 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society. 

1.  1  E.s'deas.  Esdras  is  simply  the  Greek 
form  of  Ezra,  and  the  book  narrates  the  de- 
cline and  fall  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah  from 
the  time  of  Josiah,  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem, the  Babylonian  captivity,  the  return 
of  the  exiles,  and  the  share  taken  by  Ezra  in 


Apocrypha 


40 


Apocrypha 


reorganizing  tlie  Jewish  polity.  In  some  re- 
spects it  iinijilififs  tlie  biblical  narrative,  but 
the  additions  are  of  doubtful  authority.  It 
is  followed  l)y  .losephus,  A.  D.  ff.i  (cp.  1  Esdras 
iii.  l-iv.44,  with  Antiq.  xi.  3,  2-8,  etc.).  How 
much  earlier  than  his  time  it  existed,  there 
is  no  evidence  to  show.  Nor  is  its  author 
known. 

2.  2  Es'dras.  This  is  in  quite  a  different 
style  from  1  Esdras,  and  the  two  can  scarcely 
have  had  the  same  author.  It  is  not  a  his- 
toric book,  but  is  a  religious  treatise,  much 
in  th(>  style  of  the  Hebrew  prophets.  Its  au- 
thor is  unknown,  and  its  date  has  been  placed 
about  5U-43  k.  c,  or  2S-25  B.  C,  or  from  about 

A.  0.  8h  to  about  A.  D.  117.  Whenever  pub- 
lished, it  was  subsequently  interpolated  by 
some  Christian.  Thus  Jesus  is  mentioned  by 
name  (vii.  2b),  and  is  called  by  God,  "  my  son 
Christ "  (29,  cj).  also  xiii.  37,  52  ;  xiv.  9) ;  the 
Holy  (thost  is  expressly  named  (xiv.  22). 
Crod  compares  his  care  in  gathering  his  peo- 
ple together  to  that  of  a  hen  gathering  her 
chickens  under  her  wings  (2  Esd.  i.  30  with 
Mat.  xxiii.  37),  and  there  are  many  other  re- 
semblances to  the  N.  T.  But  the  thinking 
of  the  book  is  Jewish,  and  the  distinctively 
Christian  passages  are  wanting  in  the  Arabic 
and  the  Ethiopic  versions,  a  strong  proof 
that  thej'  did  not  emanate  from  the  original 
writer. 

3.  To'bit.  This  is  a  narrative  of  a  certain 
pious  Naphtalite,  Tobit  by  name,  who  has  a 
son  Tobias.  The  father  loses  his  eyesight. 
The  son,  dispatched  to  obtain  payment  of  a 
debt  to  Rages  in  Media,  is  led  on  by  an  angel 
to  Ecbatana,  where  he  makes  a  romantic 
marriage  with  a  widow,  who  still  remained 
a  virgin,  though  she  had  been  married  to 
seven  husbands,  all  of  whom  had  been  killed 
by  Asmodeus,  the  evil  spirit,  on  their  mar- 
riage day.  Tobias,  however,  is  encouraged 
by  the  angel  to  become  the  eighth  husband 
of  the  virgin-widow,  and  escapes  death  by 
burning  the  inner  parts  of  a  fish,  the  smoke 
of  which  puts  the  evil  spirit  to  flight.  Then 
he  cures  his  father's  blindness  by  anointing 
the  darkened  eyes  with  the  gall  of  the  fish 
which  had  already  proved  so  useful.  Tobit 
is  manifestly  a  tale,  and  not  a  sei'ious  narra- 
tive. The  mo.st  ])robable  date  of  the  publica- 
tion is  about  350  b.  c,  or  from  250  to  200 

B.  C. 

4.  Ju'dith.  This  is  a  narrative  professing 
to  be  a  history  of  the  way  in  which  Judith, 
a  Jewish  widow  of  masculine  temperament, 
insinuated  herself  into  the  good  graces  of 
Holofernes,  an  Assyrian  commander-in-chief, 
then  besieging  Bethulia,  and  seizing  his 
sword  when  he  was  asleep,  cut  ofi'  his  head. 
The  narrative  is  full  of  misstatements,  ana- 
chronisms and  geographical  absurdities.  It 
is  doubtful  if  there  is  any  truth  in  the 
story,  which  may  possibly  have  been  sug- 
gested to  the  author  by  the  narrative  of  Jael 
and  Sisera  (Judg.  iv.  "l7-22).  The  first  dis- 
tinct reference  to  the  book  is  in  an  epistle  of 


Clement  of  Eome,  about  the  end  of  the  first 
century  a.  d.,  but  it  may  have  existed  as 
early  as  175  to  100  B.  c,  say  four  or  six  hun- 
dred years  after  the  event  it  professed  to 
record.  By  that  time  to  say  that  Nabuchodo- 
nosor,  apparently  Nebuchadnezzar,  reigned 
in  Nineveh,  instead  of  Babylon  (Judith  i.  1). 
would  not  look  so  erroneous  as  it  would  to  a 
contemporary  of  the  great  king. 

5.  The  Kest  of  the  Chapters  of  the 
Book  of  Es'ther,  which  are  found  neither 
in  the  Hebrew  nor  in  the  Chaldee.  The 
canonical  Esther  ends  with  a  short  tenth 
clia])ter  of  three  verses.  The  apocryphal  i>ro- 
ductiou  adds  ten  verses  more,  and  six  chap- 
ters (xi.-xvi.).  In  the  yeptuagint  this  sup- 
plementary matter  is  distributed  in  seven 
portions  through  the  text,  and  does  not  in- 
terrupt the  history.  It  ami)lifies  parts  of  the 
Scripture  narrative,  without  furnishing  a  new 
fact  of  value,  and  it  often  contradicts  the  his- 
tory as  contained  in  the  Hebrew.  The  com- 
mon opinion  is  that  the  biwk  was  the  work 
of  an  Egyptian  Jew,  and  that  he  wrote  about 
the  time  of  Ptolemy  Philometor,  181-145  B.  c. 

G.  The  Wis'dom  of  Solo-mon.  This  is 
an  ethical  treatise  in  commendation  of  wis- 
dom and  righteousness,  and  in  denunciation 
of  iniquity  and  idolatry.  The  passages  which 
point  out  the  sin  and  folly  of  image-woi-ship 
recall  those  on  the  same  theme  in  the  Psalms 
and  Isaiah  (cp.  Wisd.  xiii.  11-19  with  Ps. 
cxv.  ;  cxxxv.  15-16;  and  Is.  xl.  19-25;  xliv. 
9-20).  It  is  remarkable  to  what  extent  the 
author,  in  referring  to  historical  incidents  il- 
lustrative of  his  doctrine,  limits  himself  to 
those  recorded  in  the  Pentateuch.  He  writes 
in  the  person  of  Solomon  ;  says  that  he  was 
chosen  by  God  as  king  of  his  people,  and  was 
by  him  directed  to  build  a  temple  and  an 
altar,  the  former  on  the  model  of  the  taber- 
nacle. He  was  a  man  of  genius  and  of  piety, 
his  religious  character  being  sustained  by  liis 
belief  in  immortality.  He  lived  apparently 
between  150  and  50  b.  c  and  possibly  be- 
tween 120  and  80  b.  c.  Though  never  for- 
mally quoted  or  in  any  way  referred  to  in 
the  N.  T.,  yet  occasionally  both  the  language 
and  the  trains  of  thought  in  the  N.  T.  some- 
what resemble  those  in  the  book  of  Wisdom 
(Wisd.  V.  18-20  with  Eph.  vi.  14-17  :  Wisd. 
vii.  2Gwith  Heb.  i.  2-6  ;  and  Wisd.  xiv.  13-31 
with  Rom.  i.  19-32). 

7.  Ec-cle-si-as'ti-ci;s,  called  also  the  Wis- 
dom of  Jesus,  the  son  of  Sirach.  This  is  a 
comparatively  long  work,  extending  to  fifty- 
one  chapters.  Its  author  was  a  Hebrew  called 
Jesus,  son  of  Sirach  (1.  27).  In  chap.  1.  1-21 
he  greatly  commends  Simon,  the  high  priest, 
the  son  of  Onias,  probably  the  pontifi'of  that 
name  who  lived  between  370  and  300  B.  c. 
The  work  may,  therefore,  have  been  pub- 
lished between  290  and  280  b.  c.  The  pro- 
logue implies  that  it  was  originally  in  He- 
brew, from  which  it  was  translated  into  Greek 
by  a  grandson  of  the  author,  unnamed  in  the 
prologue,  but  called  Jesus  in  the  unauthentic 


Apocrypha 


41 


ApoUos 


and  late  preface.  Tlie  translation  was  made 
in  Egypt  "in  the  eight-and-thirtieth  year" 
"when  Euergetes  was  king."  The  reference 
is  either  to  Ptolemy  III.,  surnamed  Euergetes, 
who  was  king  of  Egypt  from  "247  to  222  B.  c, 
or  to  Ptolemy  Physcon,  who  was  likewise 
surnamed  Euergetes,  and  who  reigned  from 
169  to  1(>.")  and  146  to  117  B.  c".  The  great 
theme  of  the  work  is  wisdom.  It  is  a  valua- 
ble ethical  treatise,  in  i)laces  reminding  one 
of  the  books  of  Proverbs,  Ecclesiastes,  and 
parts  of  Jot),  iu  the  canonical  Scriptures,  and 
of  the  Wisdom  of  Solomon  in  the  Apocrypha. 
It  is  generally  quoted  as  Ecclus.,  to  distin- 
guish it  from  Ecc. — that  is,  Ecclesiastes. 

8.  Ba'kuch,  with  the  Epistle  of  Jeremiah. 
Baruch  was  Jeremiah's  friend.  The  first  five 
chapters  are  made  nominally  to  emanate  from 
Baruch,  while  the  sixth  is  headed  "  The  Epis- 
tle of  Jeremiah."  The  first  is  intended  to 
comfort  the  Jews  during  the  Babylonian  cap- 
tivity by  a  promise  that  they  should  ulti- 
mately return  to  their  own  land  ;  the  second, 
to  warn  them  against  Babylonian  idolatry 
(cp.  with  Baruch  i.,  Dan.  ix. ;  with  Baruch  ii. 
and  iii..  Lev.  xxvi.  and  Deut.  xxviii.).  The 
book  is  of  comparatively  late  date.  Ewald 
argues  that  the  first  part  was  penned  in  the 
Persian  period,  when,  on  the  occasion  of  re- 
volt against  their  oppressors,  the  Babylonian 
Jews  did  not  share  the  struggles  and  hopes 
of  the  Jews  in  Palestine.  The  Epistle  of 
Jeremy  was  probably  written  about  the  same 
date,  or  even  a  century  later. 

9.  The  Song  of  the  Three  Ho'ly  Chil'- 
DREN  was  designed  to  fit  into  the  canonical 
Daniel  between  iii.  23  and  24.  Its  author  and 
exact  date  are  unknown.  (Cp.  verses  35-63 
with  Ps.  cxlviii.) 

10.  The  History  of  Su-s.^n'na.  This  is 
also  an  apocryphal  addition  to  Daniel,  show- 
ing how  the  prophet  sagaciously  discovered  an 
accusation  against  Susanna,  a  godly  woman, 
to  be  a  malignant  slander.  Its  author  and 
date  are  unknown. 

11.  The  Idol  Bel  AND  the  Drag'on.  Yet 
another  apocryphal  addition  to  the  canonical 
book  of  Daniel.  The  prophet  proves  that  the 
priests  of  Bel  and  their  families  ate  the  food 
offered  to  the  idol  ;  and  he  kills  a  dragon,  for 
which,  a  second  time,  he  is  put  into  a  lions' 
den.     Author  and  date  unknown. 

12.  The  Prayer  of  Ma-nas'ses,  king  of 
Judah,  when  he  was  holden  captive  in  Baby- 
lon (cp.  2  Chron.  xxxiii.  12,  13).  Author 
unknown ;  date  probably  the  first  century 

B.  C. 

13.  The  First  Book  of  the  Mac'ca-bees. 
A  historical  work  of  great  value,  giving  an 
account  of  the  Jewish  war  of  independence, 
under  the  Maccabee  family  of  Levites  in  the 
second  century  b.  c.  ;  see  Antiochus  2  and 
Maccabee.  its  author,  whose  name  is  un- 
known, was  evidently  a  Jew  belonging  to 
Palestine.  Two  opinions  exist  as  to  its  date  : 
the  one  places  it  between  120  and  106  B.  c, 
the  other,  on  better  grounds,  between  105  and 


64  B.  c.     It  was  doubtless  translated   into 
Greek  from  a  Hebrew  original. 

14.  The  Second  Book  of  the  Mac'c.^- 
BEES  is  iirofcssedly  an  abridgment  of  the 
large  work  of  Jason  of  (,'yrene.  It  is  con- 
cerned chiefly  with  Jewish  history  from  the 
reign  of  Seleucus  IV.,  175  b.  C,  to  the  death 
of  Nicauur  in  161  B.  c.  It  is  much  less  val- 
uable than  the  first  b(jok,  and  the  author  has 
a  love  of  the  marvelous  which  diminishes 
the  credibility  of  his  narrations,  though  they 
contain  a  good  deal  of  truth.  The  book  was 
written  after  125  B.  c,  and  before  the  de- 
struction of  Jerusalem  in  a.  d.  70. 

15.  The  Third  Book  of  the  Mac'ca-bees 
refers  to  events  before  the  war  of  independ- 
ence. The  leading  incident  is  the  attempt 
of  Ptolemy  IV.  Philopator  in  217  B.  c.  to 
penetrate  into  the  holy  of  holies,  and  his 
subsequent  persecution  of  the  Jews  iu  Alex- 
andria. It  was  written  shortly  before  or 
shortly  after  the  beginning  of  the  Christian 
era.  It  has  even  been  dated  as  late  as  a.  d. 
39  or  40. 

16.  The  Fourth  Book  of  the  Mac'ca- 
bees  is  a  moral  treatise  advocating  the  mas- 
tery of  the  passions,  and  illustrating  its  teach- 
ing by  examples  of  constancy  under  suflfering, 
drawn  from  Maccabsean  times.  It  was  written 
after  2  Maccabees  and  before  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem. 

Ap-ol-lo'ni-a  [pertaining  to  Apollo,  the 
youthful  god  of  music,  song,  soothsaying, 
archery,  etc.]. 

A  town  of  Macedonia,  on  the  Egnatian 
Way,  thirty  Eoman  miles  west  of  Amphipolis. 
Paul  passed  through  it  as  he  journeyed  to 
Thessalonica  (Acts  xvii.  1;. 

Ap-ol-lo'ni-us  [pertaining  to  Apollo.] 

1.  An  official  under  Antiochus  Epiphanes, 
who  was  sent  to  Judsea  to  collect  tribute,  and 
who  treacherouslv  ordered  a  massacre  at  Je- 
rusalem (1  Mac.  "i.  29-32 ;  2  Mac.  v.  24-26 ; 
cp.  iv.  21).  He  became  governor  of  Samaria 
(Antiq.  xii.  5.  5).  He  was  defeated  and  slain 
by  Judas  Maccabseus  (1  Mac.  iii.  10;  Antiq. 
xii.  7.  1). 

2.  Governor  of  Coelesyria.  whom  Deme- 
trius II.  made  general  of  his  army.  He  was 
defeated  iu  battle  by  Jonathan  Maccabanis 
at  Ashdod  (1  Mac.  x.  69-85).  Less  credibly, 
Jo.sephus  speaks  of  him  as  on  the  side  of 
Alexander  Balas  (Antiq.  xiii.  4,  3  and  4). 

A-pol'los  [a  modification  of  Apollonius  or 
Apollodorus]. 

A  Jew  born  at  Alexandria,  eloquent  and 
learned,  and  deeply  versed  in  the  O.  T. 
Scriptures.  He  became  a  disciple  of  John 
the  Baptist,  and  zealously  taught  concerning 
the  Messiah,  though  knowing  only  the  bap- 
tism of  repentance.  While  itinerating  in 
Asia  Minor  for  this  purpose,  he  met  at  Ephe- 
sus,  Aquila  and  Priscilla,  who  instructed  him 
more  fully :  and  the  brethren  wrote  letters 
of  introduction  for  him  to  the  brethren  in 
Achaia.     On  arriving  in  Greece,   he  helped 


Apollyon 


42 


Apostle 


the  Christians,  publicly  confutiug  the  Jews, 
aucl  showing  from  the  Scriptures  that  Jesus 
is  the  Christ  (Acts  xviii.  24-28).  The  dis- 
ciples with  whom  Paul  soou  afterwards  fell  iu 
at  Ephesus,  who  knew  only  John's  baptism, 
and  had  never  heard  that  tliere  was  a  Holy 
Ghost,  were  probably  converts  of  Apollos  (xix. 
1-7).  Apollos'  jireaching  at  Corinth  raised 
a  party  in  the  church  at  that  place  (1  Cor.  i. 
12;  iii.  4,  5,  6,  22;  iv.  6).  But  Paul  had  all 
coutidence  in  him,  and  urged  him  to  revisit 
Corinth  (xvi.  12).  He  also  enjoined  Titus  to 
help  Apollos,  apparently  then  in  or  on  his 
way  to  Crete  (Titus  iii.  13).  It  is  thought  by 
many  scholars  that  Apollos  was  the  writer 
of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 

A-pol'ly-on  [destroying,  a  destrover]. 
The  angel  of  the  abyss  (Eev.  ix.  il).     The 
Greek  synonym  of  Abaddon. 

A-pos'tle  [one  sent  forth,  a  messenger,  an 
ambassador  (John  xiii.  16,  E.  V.  margin)]. 

1.  One  of  the  men  selected  by  Jesus  to  be 
eye-witnesses  of  the  events  of  his  life,  to  see 
him  after  his  resurrection,  and  to  testify  to 
mankind  concerning  him  (Mat.  x.  2-42;  Acts 
i.  21,  22 ;  1  Cor.  ix.  1).  They  were  chosen  in 
succession  at  a  very  early  period  of  the 
Saviour's  public  life.  First  came  Andrew 
and  his  brother  Simon,  the  well-known  Simon 
Peter  (Mat.  iv.  18-20 ;  x.  2 ;  Mark  i.  16-18 ; 
Luke  vi.  14  ;  John  i.  35-42) ;  then  apparently 
James  and  John,  sons  of  Zebedee  (Mat.  iv. 
21,  22;  X.  2;  Mark  i.  19,  20;  Luke  vi.  14); 
then  seemingly  Philip  and  Nathanael,  named 
also  Bartholomew  (John  i.  4.3-51) ;  and  sub- 
seciuently  six  more,  viz.,  Matthew,  called 
also  Levi  (Mat.  ix.  9-13;  Mark  ii.  14-17; 
Luke  V.  27-32) ;  Thomas  ;  James  the  son  of 
AlphfEUS ;  Simon  the  Zealot  or  Canauivan  ; 
Judas,  the  brother  of  James ;  and  Judas 
Iscariot  (Mat.  x.  1-4;  Mark  iii.  16-19;  Luke 
vi.  13-16  ;  Acts  i.  13,  all  E.  V.).  The  apostles 
were  regarded  as  illiterate  men  by  the  higher 
Jewish  dignitaries  who  had  before  them 
Peter  and  John  (Acts  iv.  13).  All  they  seem 
to  have  meant  was  that  the  apostles  had  re- 
ceived elementary  rather  than  higher  educa- 
tion. Jesus  gave  great  attention  to  their 
spiritual  training :  yet  to  the  last  they  failed 
to  understand  his  mission,  believing  that  he 
was  about  to  set  up  a  temporal  rather  than  a 
spiritual  kingdom  (Mat.  xx.  20-28 ;  Mark  x. 
35-45  ;  Acts  i.  6)  ;  they  slept  in  the  hour  of 
his  agony  in  the  garden  (Mat.  xxvi.  40),  and 
held  aloof  all  the  day  of  his  death  on  the 
cross  (Mat.  xxvi.  56;  Mark  xiv.  50).  They 
were  often  called  discix>les  or  pupils  (Mat.  xi. 
1 ;  xiv.  26  ;  xx.  17  ;  John  xx.  2).  Peter,  James 
the  son  of  Zebedee,  and  John,  seem  to  have 
possessed  a  clearer  comprehension  of  the 
teacher's  instructions  and  a  higher  apprecia- 
tion of  him  than  the  others.  On  three  ditler- 
ent  occasions  they  were  singled  out  from  the 
rest  for  special  privilege.  They  were  in  the 
room  at  the  raising  from  the  dead  of  Jairus' 
daughter  (Mark  v.  37 ;  Luke  viii.  51) ;  they 


were  present  at  the  transfiguration  (Mat. 
xvii.  1 ;  Mark  ix.  2;  Luke  ix.  28),  and  were 
in  the  garden  of  Gethsemane  during  the 
agony  (Mat.  xxvi.  37  ;  Mark  xiv.  33).  Peter, 
though  rash  and  impetuous  in  speech,  was 
constitutionally  the  best  fitted  U)  lead.  He 
is  generally  mentioned  first,  but  not  always 
(Gal.  ii.  9).  John  was  the  disciple  whom 
Jesus  peculiarly  loved  (John  xix.  26;  xx.  2; 
xxi.  7,  20).  Thomas  was  scrupulous  as  to 
evidence,  but  yielded  when  the  proof  he 
sought  was  complete.  Judas  proved  a  traitor, 
who,  betraying  his  divine  Lord  to  death  for 
lucre's  sake,  and  then  repenting,  committed 
suicide.  The  step  taken  to  fill  his  place 
showed  that  the  number  of  the  apostles, 
fixed  originally  at  twelve,  required,  for  a 
time  at  least,  to  be  kept  at  that  figure  ;  the 
reason  probably  was  that  there  might  be  as 
many  apostles  as  there  were  tribes  of  Israel. 
Two  men  possessing  the  necessary  qualifica- 
tions were  put  forward,  the  one  Joseph,  called 
Barsabas  and  Justus,  and  the  other  Matthias. 
The  lot  fell  upon  Matthias,  who  was  conse- 
quently elected  iu  Judas'  room  (Acts  i.  15- 
26;  cp.  with  ver.  20,  Ps.  cix.  8).  The  descent 
of  the  Holj'  Spirit  on  the  day  of  Pentecost 
produced  a  spiritual  transformation  of  the 
apostles,  fitting  them  for  the  great  work  to 
which  they  were  called,  the  evangelization 
of  the  world  (Acts  ii.  1-47).  To  this  they  at 
once  addressed  themselves,  Peter  and  John 
taking  the  lead  (iii.  1-v.  42 ;  ix.  32-xii.  18). 
James  was  also  zealous,  for  he  became  .so  ob- 
noxious to  the  Jewish  authorities  that  they 
slew  him  with  the  sword  (Acts  xii.  2).  Paul 
was  divinely  chosen  and  called  for  the  ar- 
duous work  of  preaching  the  gospel  to  the 
gentiles  (Acts  ix.  1-31 ;  xxii.  5-16 ;  xxvi. 
1-20).  He  had  not  itinerated  with  Jesus 
whilst  our  Lord  was  on  the  earth ;  but  he 
possessed  the  apostolic  qualification  of  having 
seen  Jesus  after  his  resurrection.  On  the  way 
to  Damascus  Jesus  appeared  to  him  and  spoke 
to  him,  changing  his  hostility  into  passionate 
devotion.  He  was  able  to  say  "  Am  I  not  an 
apostle?  Have  I  not  seen  Jesus  Christ  our 
Lord?"  (1  Cor.  ix.  1).  Paul  was  a  highly 
educated  man,  and  able  to  address  cultured 
audiences  of  the  gentiles  at  Athens,  Eome, 
and  elsewhere.  Nor  did  his  intellectual  ac- 
quirements lead  him  away  from  his  proper 
work.  His  labors  were  so  abundant  that 
the  record  of  them  fills  about  half  the  book 
called  The  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  Where  the 
several  apostles  labored,  how  they  lived,  and 
how  they  died,  is  in  most  cases  known  only 
by  the  doubtful  evidence  of  tradition.  One 
matter,  however,  and  an  all-important  one, 
is  placed  by  tradition  on  a  secure  founda- 
tion, namely,  that  no  second  Judas  appeared 
among  them  ;  all  were  faithful  to  the  end  ; 
and  some  at  least,  if  not  even  the  majority, 
sealed  their  testimony  to  Jesus  with  their 
blood. 

2.  The  word  is  occasionally  applied  in  a 
less  restricted  sense  in  the  N.  T.  to  men  of 


Appaim 


43 


Arabia 


apostolic  sifts,  graces,  labors,  and  successes.  It 
is  so  notably  of  Barnabas,  who  was  sent  forth 
with  Paul  (Acts  xiii.  ;};  xiv.  4,  14).  Similarly 
cue  still  meets  with  such  expres-sions,  as  Jud- 
son  the  Apostle  of  Burniah.  The  name  is 
applied  also  to  Jesus,  in  Hi'b.  iii.  1. 

Ap'pa-im  [the  nostrils]. 
A  man  i>f  Judali,  family  of  Hezron,  house 
of  Jerahmeel  (1  t'bron.  ii.';50,  31). 

Ap'phi-a. 

A  Christian  woman,  probably  the  wife  of 
Philemon  (  Philemon  2). 

Ap'pi-i  Fo'rum  [market  place  of  Appius]. 

A  town  in  Italy,  about  forty-three  Roman, 
or  thirty-nine  and  a  half  English,  miles  from 
Rome,  on  the  celebrated  Appiau  Way  from 
Rome  to  Capua.  Its  ruins  exist  near  Triponti. 
Paul  was  met  at  this  town  by  Christians  from 
Rome,  when  he  was  being  brought  a  prisoner 
to  the  capital  (Acts  xxviii.  15). 

Ap'ple. 

A  tree  and  its  fruit  (Song  ii.  3 ;  viii.  5 ; 
Prov.  XXV.  11),  the  rendering  of  the  Hebrew 
Tappicah.  Tappuah  seems  akin  to  the  Arabic 
fiiffdh,  meaning  an  apple,  and  the  one  re- 
ferred to  in  the  O.  T.  is  probably  our  English 
apple  tree  Pijriis  mains,  which  Thomson  found 
growing  splendidly  at  Askelon  in  the  Philis- 
tine country.  The  name  may  have  included 
the  quince  as  well.  Tristram  believes  that 
the  apricot  is  meant.  The  apple  tree  is  enu- 
merated with  the  vine,  the  fig  tree,  the  pome- 
granate, and  the  palm  tree,  as  one  of  the 
chief  trees  cultivated  (Joel  i.  12).  Thei-e  were 
several  towns  called  Tappuah — in  the  lowland 
(Josh.  XV.  34),  near  Hebron  (53),  and  on  the 
border  of  Ephraim  and  Manasseh  (xvii.  8), 
where  doubtless  many  apple  trees  grew. 

The  apple  of  the  eye  is  the  eyeball  or  pupil 
(Deut.  xxxii.  10 ;  Ps.  xvii.  8 ;  Lam.  ii.  18 ; 
Zech.  ii.  8).     For  apple  of  Sodom,  see  Vine. 

Aq'ui-la  [eagle]. 

A  Jew,  born  in  Pontus,  who  with  his  wife. 
Priscilla,  lived  for  a  time  at  Rome,  but  had 
to  leave  that  city  when  the  emperor  Claudius 
commanded  all  its  Jewish  inhabitants  to  de- 
part. He  removed  to  Corinth,  where  he 
worked  at  his  craft,  tentmaking.  Paul,  who 
was  of  the  same  occupation,  lodged  ■oath  him 
at  Corinth,  and  formed  a  high  opinion  of  him 
and  his  wife  (Acts  xviii.  1-3).  They  were 
his  fellow-passengers  ft-om  Corinth  as  far  as 
Ephesus,  on  his  way  to  Syria  (Acts  xviii.  18, 
19).  In  the  First  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians, 
the  two  join  Paul  in  sending  salutations  from 
Asia,  i.  e.  probably  from  Ephesus  (1  Cor.  xvi. 
19).  At  Ephesus  they  met  Apollos,  and  in- 
structed him  more  completely  in  Christian 
doctrine  (Acts  xviii.  26).  Afterwards  they 
seem  to  have  returned  to  Rome,  for  Paul  sends 
them  salutations  in  his  letter  to  that  church 
(Rom.  xvi.  3).  But  they  must  again  have 
left  it,  for  in  the  apostle's  second  Epistle  to 
Timothy,  written  from  Rome,  salutations  are 
sent  them  anew  (2  Tim.  iv.  19). 


At  [city]. 

One  of  the  chief  cities  of  Moab,  more  fully 
called  Ar  of  Moab  (Isa.  xv.  1).  It  lay  on  the 
northern  boundary  of  Moab  (Num.  xxi.  15; 
Deut.  ii.  18),  in  the  midst  of  the  Arnon  valley 
(Num.  xxii.  3();  Deut.  ii.  3f) ;  Josh.  xiii.  9). 

The  Greeks  connected  the  name  with  Ares, 
the  god  of  war,  the  Roman  Mars,  and  called 
it  after  him  Areopolis,  city  of  Mars.  The 
Jews  and  others  in  the  early  Christian  cen- 
turies named  it  Rabbath  Moab,  or  simply 
Rsibbah,  /.  e.  capital,  of  Moab.  It  was  de- 
stroyed by  earthquake,  probably  in  A.  D.  342, 
and  the  name  Areopolis  was  transferred  to 
another  Rabbah,  about  ten  miles  south  ou 
the  plateau. 

A'ra. 

A  man  of  Asher  (1  Chron.  vii.  38). 

A'rab  [ambuscade]. 

A  village  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  52). 

Ar'a-bah  [arid  region,  desert]. 

1.  The  geographical  name  of  that  great  de- 
pression of  the  land  in  which  are  found  the 
sea  of  Galilee,  the  Jordan,  and  the  Dead  Sea 
(Josh.  xi.  2  ;  xii.  3,  R.  V.).  The  name  ap- 
parently belonged  also  to  the  extension  of  the 
valley  to  the  Red  Sea  (Deut.  ii.  8,  R.  V.).  In 
A.  Y.  the  word  is  translated,  being  generally 
rendered  by  plain,  but  also  by  wilderness  or 
desert  (Amos  vi.  14 ;  Ezek.  xlvii.  8). 

2.  The  same  as  Beth-arabah  (Josh,  xviii.  22). 
A-ra'bi-a    [Greek   form   of  Arabic   'arab, 

arid  region]. 

In  modern  geography  the  most  westerly  of 
the  three  great  peninsulas  in  southern  Asia. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Persian  Gulf 
and  the  Gulf  of  Oman,  on  the  south  by  the 
Indian  Ocean,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Red 
Sea.  Northward  it  projects  triangularly  and 
passes  insensibly  into  the  Syrian  desert.  Its 
length  from  north  to  south  is  about  1500 
miles ;  its  average  breadth  from  east  to  west, 
about  800  ;  its  area  about  1,1.39,000  square 
miles.  It  consists  mainly  of  an  elevated 
table-land  called  Nejd,  highest  along  the  west 
and  south  near  the  coast,  and  sloping  on  the 
north  toward  the  Syrian  desert.  It  is  sep- 
arated from  the  coast  by  a  low-lying  sandy 
region,  the  western  portion  of  which  is  called 
Hejaz,  the  southwestern  and  southern  Yemen, 
and  the  eastern,  Oman,  Hejr,  and  Bahrein. 
Arabia  lies  athwart  the  enormous  belt  of 
desert,  commencing  near  the  Atlantic  Ocean 
with  the  Sahara,  and  extending  through 
Chinese  Tartary,  almost  to  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
Arabia  is  consequently  largely  desert.  Among 
the  Hebrews  the  name  Arabian  denoted  the 
inhabitants  of  the  desert  portion  (Jer.  iii.  2), 
whether  near  Babylonia  or  Ethiopia  (Is.  xiii. 
20 ;  2  Chron.  xxi.  16),  often  as  distinguished 
from  the  prominent  settled  tribes  (Jer.  xxv. 
24 ;  Ezek.  xxvii.  21).  Eventually  Arabia 
came  to  denote  the  entire  peninsula  (Acts  ii. 
11;  Gal.  i.  17;  iv.  25;  cp.  2  Chron.  ix.  14). 
Ptolemy,  the  geographer  of  Alexandria  who 


Arabia 


44 


Arabia 


wrote  in  the  second  century  A.  D.,  divided 
the  country  into  throe  regions  :  Arabia  Felix, 
the  Hai)])y  or  Fertile;  Arabia  Petnea,  the 
Stony; and  Arabia  Deserta,  the  Desert.  Ara- 
bia Felix  was  of  indefinite  extent.  Arabia 
Petnea,  having  for  its  cajjital  Petra,  was  the 
district  between  the  Red  and  the  Dead  Seas; 
and  Arabia  Deserta  the  projecting  angle  on 
the  northern  Ijoundary,  soiiietiines  called  the 
Syrian  desert.  The  streams  are  few  and 
small,  none  navigable.     The  geology  is  little 


existed  in  southern  Arabia  a  civilized  power, 
the  Mina?an  kingdom,  with  its  capital  at 
Ma'in,  about  thirty  miles  to  the  north  of 
Mariaba.  The  names  of  thirty-three  Minsean 
kings  have  been  recovered.  Even  the  Min- 
seans  used  the  familiar  Semitic  alphabet. 
The  Minsean  kingdom  was  ultimately  super- 
seded by  the  Sabsan,  the  scriptural  kingdom 
of  Sheba.  Arab  tribes  often  came  into  con- 
tact with  the  Hebrews  (Gen.  xxxvii.  28,  36; 
Judg.  vi.-viii.).  Solomon  bought  from  the 
Arabs  gold,  silver,  and 
spices  (2  Chron.  ix.  14). 
Jehoshaphat  received 
tribute  from  them  in 
flocks  of  sheep  and  goats 
(xvii.  11).  In  the  reign 
of  Jehoram,  Arabs  with 
other  marauders  plun- 
dered Jerusalem  (xxi. 
16).    They  were  after- 


known,  but  gold  and  precious  stones  were 
obtained.  The  feature  of  the  botany  is  the 
prevalence  of  aromatic  plants,  some  of  them 
furnishing  valuable  spices.  Of  its  birds  the 
most  noted  is  the  ostrich  ;  of  its  quadrupeds 
the  camel,  the  Arab  hor.se,  and  the  wild  ass. 
The  country  was  .settled  by  Semites  (Gen.  x. 
26-29;  XXV.  2-4;  13-15),  as  physiognomy, 
traits,  and  language  evidence  ;  in  part  also  by 
Hamites  (Gen.  x.  6, 7).  As  early  as  the  time  of 
the  sojourn  of  the  Israelites  in  Egypt,  there 


wards  defeated  by  Uzziah  (xxvi.  7).  Isaiah 
and  Jeremiah  denounced  judgments  against 
their  race  (Is.  xxi.  13-17;  Jer.  xxv.  24),  and 
both  used  the  wandering  Arab  in  their  poetic 
illustrations  (Is.  xiii.  20;  Jer.  iii.  2).  Arabs 
were  hired  allies  of  the  Syrians  against  Judas 
Maccabffius  (1  Mac.  v.  39).  There  were  Arabs 
present  on  the  day  of  Pentecost  (Acts  ii.  11), 
and  Paul  sojourned  for  a  time  in  Arabia,  be- 
fore commencing  his  apostolic  work  (Gal.  i. 
17).     The  scantiness  of  water,  the  courage  of 


Arabian 


45 


Aram 


the  Amhs,  and  their  waudoriiig  life,  pre- 
vented even  the  j^reatest  of  the  ancient  em- 
pires from  conquering  Arahia  and  holding  it 
in  subjection.   Both  Judaism  and  Christianity 


Bedouin  Arab. 

had  rooted  themselves  in  Arabia  when,  in  the 
seventh  century  of  the  Christian  era,  Moham- 
med arose.  Before  his  death  (a.  d.  6.32)  his 
faith  was  everywhere  dominant  throughout 
the  peninsula,  and  in  a  century  more  the 
Saracens,  issuing  thence,  had  put  in  danger 
the  civilization  and  faith  of  the  whole  Chris- 
tian World. 

A-ra'bi-an. 

One  of  the  Arab  race  ;  a  native  or  inhabi- 
tant of  Arabia  (2  Chrou.  xvii.  11). 

A'rad  [wild  ass]. 

1.  A  town  on  the  border  of  the  south  coun- 
try and  the  wilderness  of  Judah  (Num.  xxi. 
1  ;  Josh.  xii.  14 ;  .Tudg.  i.  16).  The  site  is 
marked  by  Tell  'Arad,  on  a  barren-looking 
eminence  sixteen  miles  south  of  Hebron. 
Its  king  fought  against  the  Israelites  when 
they  were  at  mount  Hor  and  took  some  of 
them  captive  ;  but  the  Israelites  roused  them- 
selves to  new  trust  in  God,  and  devastated 
the  territory  of  the  king,  and  eventually  he 
himself  or  his  succes.sor  was  vanquished  by 
Joshua  (ibid.). 

2.  A  Benjamite,  descended  through  Beriah 
(1  Chron.  viii.  1.5). 

Ar'a-dus.     See  Arvad. 
A'rah  [wayfarer]. 

1.  Founder  of  a  family,  members  of  which 
returned  from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra 
ii.  5  ;  Neh.  vii.  10). 

2.  An  Asherite,  a  son  of  Ulla  (1  Chron.  vii. 
39). 

A'ram. 

1.  A  person,  or  collectively  a  people,  de- 


scended from  Shem,  who  inhabited  the  region 
known  as  AVam  (Gen.  x.  22,  23 ;  1  Chrou.  i. 
17). 

2.  The  plain  occupied  by  the  Aranueans, 
extending  from  the  Lebanon  mountains  to 
beyond  tlie  Euphrates,  and  from  the  river 
Sagur  on  the  north  to  Damascus  and  beyond 
on  the  south.  The  prophet  Amos  speaks  of 
the  Aramaeans  as  dwelling  from  Damascus  to 
Beth-eden  ;  in  other  words,  from  Lebanon  on 
the  southwest  to  mount  Masius  on  the  north- 
east (i.  5).  Several  districts  were  distin- 
guished : 

(1)  A'ram-na-h.-v-ea'im,  i.  e.  Aram  of  the 
two  rivers,  referring  either  to  the  Euphrates 
and  Tigris,  or,  more  probably,  to  the  Euphrates 
and  Chabur.  It  is  commonly  believed  that 
in  this  region  Paddan-aram  was  situated, 
Paddan  being  identified  with  the  place  near 
Haran  called  Tell  Faddan  (Gen.  xxviii.  5  and 
xxiv.  10, 47,  R.  v.).  This  is  the  Aram  where  the 
patriarchs  dwelt  before  they  went  to  Canaan, 
where  the  ancient  cities  of  Haran  and  Nisibis 
stood,  where  later  Edessa  the  noted  seat  of 
Syrian  culture  arose ;  the  Aram  which  the 
Hebrews  speak  of  as  "  beyond  the  river  "  (2 
Sam.  X.  16). 

(2)  A'ram-da-mas'cus.  The  Hebrews  dur- 
ing almost,  if  not  quite,  the  entire  period  of 
their  kingdom,  found  Aramaeans  in  Damascus 
(2  Sam.  viii.  5,  R.  V.  margin  ;  1  Kin.  xv.  18). 
The  city  became  eventually  the  center  of 
Aramaean  intluence  west  of  the  Euphrates, 
and  waged  intermittent  warfare  with  the 
northern  Israelites  during  their  entire  ex- 
istence as  a  separate  kingdom. 

(3)  A'ram-zo'bah.  In  the  days  of  Saul, 
David,  and  .Solomon,  another  powerful  Aram- 
aean kingdom  flourished  west  of  the  Euphra- 
tes, namely  the  kingdom  of  Zobah  (1  Sam.  siv. 
47  ;  2  Sam.  viii.  3  ;  cp.  2  Chron.  viii.  3),  called 
Aram-zobah  by  Hebrew  writers  (2  Sam.  x.  6). 
At  one  time  its  dominion  extended  as  far  as 
the  borders  of  Hamath  on  the  northwest  (1 
Chron.  xviii.  3 ;  2  Sam.  viii.  10)  ;  had  Damas- 
cus to  the  south  or  southwest,  for  one  of  its 
towns,  Berothai,  was  situated  between  Ha- 
math and  Damascus  (2  Sam.  viii.  5  and  8  with 
Ezek.  xlvii.  16),  and  during  this  prosperous 
period  probably  exercised  sway  well  toward 
the  Euphrates  on  the  east  and  the  Hauran  on 
the  south. 

(4)  A'r.\m-ma'.\-cah  lay  east  of  the  Jordan 
within  the  contemplated  bounds  of  Israel, 
hard  by  mount  Hermon  (Josh.  xii.  5  ;  xiii. 
11).  From  the  description  of  Abel,  which 
belonged  to  the  tribe  of  Naphtali,  as  "Abel 
[in  the  neighborhood]  of  Beth-maacah,''  it 
may  be  inferred  that  Maacah  extended  as  far 
west  as  the  Jordan. 

(5)  Ge'shur  in  Aram  was  a  .small  kingdom 
not  far  from  Maacah,  and  like  it  east  of  the 
Jordan,  near  mount  Hermon,  and  within  the 
territory  allotted  to  Mana.sseh  (Deut.  iii.  14; 
2  Sam.  XV.  8,  R.  V.  margin,  with  xiii.  37). 

(6)  A'r.\>i-beth-re'hob  (2Sam.  X.  6).  The 
location  is  uncertain.     If  identical  with  the 


Aramaic 


46 


Ararite 


place  mentioned  in  Num.  xiii.  21  and  Judg. 
xviii.  28,  it  adjoined  Maaeah,  probably  on  the 
north. 

3.   A  descendant  of  Asher  (1  Cliron.  vii.  34). 

Ar-a-ma'ic  or  the  Ar-a-mae'an  or  Ara- 
mean  Language. 

A  Semitic  language  spoken  in  Aram.  It 
was  written  with  the  .same  alphabet  as  the 
Hebrew,  and  differs  from  this  language  chiefly 
in  the  system  of  vocalization  and  in  the 
structure  of  a  few  grammatical  forms.  Be- 
fore the  inscriptions  revealed  that  the  Baby- 
lonian vernacular  was 
As.syrian,  Aramaic  was 
incorrectly  called 
<_'haldee.  a  term  not 
yet  obsolete.  Aramaic 
was  used  by  Laban 
(Gen.  xxxi.  47,  R.  V. 
margin)  ;  it  is  seen  in 
the  proper  names  Tab- 
rimmon,  Hazael  (1 
Kin.  XV.  18,  R.  V. ; 
xix.  15),  and  Mari'  ; 
it  is  found  in  inscrip- 
tions as  early  as  the 
time  of  Shalmaneser 
and  Sargon,  showing 
that  it  was  used  by 
tradcrsat  Nineveh  ;  it 
became  the  interna- 
tional language  of 
business  and  diploma- 
cy (2  Kin.  xviii.  26,  R. 
V.  margin);  it  was 
used  by  .Jeremiah  to 
state  an  address  to 
idols  (x.  11,  R.  V.  mar- 
gin),  and   by   Daniel 

and  Ezra  for  certain  portions  of  their  books ; 
it  was  adopted  by  the  Jews  who  returned  from 
Babylonia,  and  in  the  time  of  Christ  was 
spoken  by  large  numbers  of  the  Jews  collo- 
quially (see  Hebrew),  and  also  by  neighbor- 
ing nations.  The  Hebrew  Scriptures  were 
translated  into  it ;  the  Targum  of  Onkelos,  a 
pupil  of  Gamaliel,  comprising  the  Law  and 
the  Prophets,  was  the  first  work  of  the  kind 
and  a  fine  version.  Syriac  is  a  dialect  which 
developed  out  of  the  Aramaic. 

A'ram-betli-re'liol).     See  Aram  2  (6). 

A'ram-i'tess. 

A  woman  of  Aram  (1  Chron.  vii.  14). 

A'ram-ma'a-cali.     See  Aram  2  (4). 
A'ram-na-ha-ra'im.     See  Aram  2  (1). 
A'ram-zo'bah.     See  Aram  2  (3). 

A'ran  [wild  goat]. 

A  descendant  of  Dishan  or  offshoot  of  that 
Horite  tribe  (Gen.  xxxvi.  28:  1  Chron.  i.  42). 

Ar'a-rat. 

A  mountainous  country  north  of  Assyria, 
centering  about  the  elevated  plateau  of  the 
Araxes.  In  the  time  of  Jeremiah  it  was  the 
seat  of  a   kingdom  apparently  adjacent  to 


those  of  Minni  and  Ashkenaz  (Jer.  li.  27). 
When  the  sons  of  Sennacherib  killed  their 
father  they  escaped  into  the  land  of  Ararat, 
which  the  A.  V.  happily  identifies  with  Ar- 
menia (2  Kin.  xix.  :i7 ;  Is.  xxxvii.  38).  On 
one  of  the  mountains  of  Ararat,  it  is  not 
stated  which,  the  ark  of  Noah  rested  (Gen. 
viii.  4).  The  Assyrian  cuneiform  account  of 
the  flood  implies  a  mountain  near  the  coun- 
try of  Urtu,  northeast  of  Babylonia.  Per- 
haps the  name  Ararat  (Urartu)  and  Urtu 
have  been  confounded.     Traditions  with  r'e- 


The  Mountain  known  as  Ararat. 


spect  to  the  resting  place  of  the  ark  attach 
themselves  to  various  mountains  in  western 
Asia  ;  but  by  mount  Ararat  is  now  meant  a 
noble  mountain  almost  midway  between  the 
Black  Sea  and  the  Caspian,  and  not  far  from 
the  boundary  line  between  Russia  and  Tur- 
key. It  has  two  peaks,  one  higher  than  the 
other.  The  loftier  one  rises  17,260  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  ocean,  more  than  10,000  feet 
above  the  table-land  on  which  it  stands,  and 
3000  above  the  line  of  perpetual  snow.  The 
ascent  is  so  difficult  and  laborious  that  the 
Turks  call  Ararat  Aghri  Dagh,  or  the  Painful 
Mountain.  Its  summit  was  long  deemed  in- 
accessible, but  it  was  at  length  reached  by 
Parrot  in  1829,  and  in  1850  by  Col.  Khoelzko 
and  his  party  of  sixty,  while  they  Avere  en- 
gaged on  the  ti-igonometrical  survey  of  Trans- 
Caucasia. 

A-ra'thes,  in  A.  V.  Ariarathes. 
King  of  Cappadocia  from  162  to  131  B.  c, 
surnamed  Philopator  (1  Mac.  xv.  22). 

A'ra-rite. 

So  R.  v.,  following  the  present  Hebrew 
text,  once  in  2  Sam.  xxiii.  33,  where  A.  V. 
has  Hararite  as  in  the  corresponding  passage, 
1  Chron.  xi.  35. 


Araunah 


47 


Archippus 


A-raunai. 

A  Jebusite  who  possessed  a  threshing  floor 
on  mount  Moriah.  David  purchased  the  floor 
in  order  to  erect  there  an  altar  to  Jehovah 
that  the  plague  then  raging  might  be  stayed 
(2  Sam.  sxiv.  1^25  :  1  Chron.  xxi.  15-2Sj. 
The  place  afterwards  became  the  site  of  S<j1o- 
mon"s  temple  (2  Chron.  iii.  Il  Araunah  is 
called  Oman  in  Chronicles.  Umah  or  Omah 
in  the  Hebrew  text  of  2  Sam.  xxiv.  16.  and 
yet  differently  in  ver.  IS.  It  is  difficult  to 
determine  which  was  the  original  form  of  the 
name.     Araunah  has  the  most  foreign  look. 

Ar'ba,  in  A.  V.  once  Arbali  [four.  or.  per- 
haps, the  croucher  iwiih  article.  Cjen.  xxxv. 
27)]. 

Father  or  greatest  man  of  Anak  (Josh.  xiv. 
15:  XV.  13).  He  founded,  or  gave  name  to, 
Kiijath-arba.  the  city  later  known  as  Hebron, 
or  else  he  derived  his  title  from  the  town 
(Josh.  xiv.  1.5  ;  Judg.  i.  lOj.    See  Hebeox. 

Ar'bath-ite. 

An  inhabitant  of  Beth-arabah  (2  Sam.  xxiii. 
31;  1  Chron.  xi.  32 1. 

Ar-bat'ta,  in  A.  V.  Arbattis. 

A  l(X?ality  near  C4alilee  1  Mac.  v.  23  >.  The 
readings  of  the  name  vary  greatly  in  the 
manuscripts,  and  it  is  uncertain  what  place 
is  meant. 

Ar-bela. 

A  place  il  Mac.  ix.  2l :  according  to  Jo- 
sephus.  the  well-kuown  town  of  the  name  in 
Cialilee  (Antiq.  xii.  11.  IK  now  Irbid.  See 
Beth-arbel. 

Ar'bite. 

A  native  of  Arab,  in  the  hill  country  of 
Judah  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  .35.  possibly  a  variant 
reading  of  1  Chron.  xi.  37). 

Ar-che-la'tis  [leading  the  people,  a  chief]. 

The  elder  one  of  two  sons  whom  a  Samari- 
tan wife  bore  to  Herod  the  Great,  the  younger 
one  being  Antipas.  afterwards  Herod  the  Te- 
trarch  (Antiq.  xvii.  1.  3  .  With  his  brother 
Antipas  and  his  half-brothers  Herod  and 
Philip,  he  received  his  education  at  Eome. 
While  there  Antipater.  a  half-brother  of  his, 
falsely  accused  him  and  Philip  of  plotting  to 
murder  their  common  father ;  but  Archelaus 
and  Philip  were  acquitted,  and  the  crime 
which  the  accuser  had  alleged  against  others 
being  brought  home  to  himself,  he  was  put  to 
death  (Antiq.  xvi.  4.  3 :  xvii.  7.  1 :  War.  i. 
31,  2  to  32. 7l.  Herod  died  immediately  after- 
wards. 4  B.  c. :  and  when  his  will,  which  had 
been  altered  a  few  days  previously.  wTis 
opened,  it  wiis  found  that  the  greater  part  of 
the  kingdom  was  left  to  Archelaus,  though 
tetrarchies  had  been  cut  out  of  it  for  Antipas 
and  Philip,  and  some  cities  reserved  to 
Herod's  sister  Salome  '  Antiq.  xvii.  S,  1 1.  But 
at  that  time  the  Jewish  kingdom  stood  to 
imperial  Eome  in  the  relation  of  a  protected 
state.  Archelaus  therefore  prudently  ab- 
stained from  ascending  the  throne  till  he  had 
solicited  permission  from  Augustus,  the  Ro- 


man emperor,  and  he  resolved  to  start  at 
once  for  the  metropolis  to  urge  his  suit  in 
person  iS,  4).  But  before  he  could  leave,  an 
unhappy  incident  occurred.  A  number  of 
people,  who  conceived  that  they  had  a  griev- 
ance, wished  it  redressed  by  strong  measures 
then  and  there.  Their  demand  was  clearly 
premature,  but  they  would  take  no  denial ; 
and  when  they  could  not  have  their  way, 
they  rioted  at  the  passover.  till,  sorely  against 
his  will,  for  he  wished  to  gain  popularity.  Ar- 
chelaus had  to  put  down  the  sedition  by  mili- 
tary force,  3<XH3  people  losing  their  lives.  In 
consequence  of  this,  a  deputation  of  Jews  was 
dispatched  to  Eome.  to  urge  the  emperor  not 
to  allow  Archelaus  to  obtain  the  kingdom. 
His  younger  brother.  Herod  Antipas.  also  ap- 
peared as  his  rival,  petitioning  that  he,  in 
place  of  Archelaus,  might  be  made  king. 
The  emperor  confirmed  Heri:>d's  will  in  its 
essential  provisions.  Archelaus  obtained  the 
larger  portion  of  the  kingdom,  but  only  with 
the  title  of  ethnarch  or  ruler  of  a  people,  which 
was  inferior  to  that  of  kiug  (Antiq.  xvii.  S.  1 ; 
9,  7 :  11.  5).  His  rival  Antipas  was  given  only  a 
tetrarchy.  S<x)n  after  this.  Joseph  and  Mary 
returned  with  the  infant  Jesus  from  Egypt. 
They  might  consider  that  the  queller  of  the 
passover  riot  was  not  a  man  over-tender  of 
human  life,  and  that  it  was  only  common 
prudence  for  them  to  turn  aside  to  Gralilee  so 
as  to  keep  out  of  his  jurisdiction  I  Mat.  ii.  22(. 
A  parable  of  our  Lord  himself  seems  to  refer 
to  the  circumstances  attending  the  accession 
of  Archelaus.  "A  certain  nobleman."  we 
read.  "  went  into  a  far  country  to  receive  for 
himself  a  kingdom,  and  to  return "  (Luke 
xix.  12).  "But  his  citizens  hated  him.  and 
sent  a  message  after  him.  saying.  We  will 
not  have  this  man  to  reign  over  us"  (14i. 
If  the  reference  is  really  to  Archelaus,  then 
another  verse  may  be  history  rather  than 
parable.  "  But  those  mine  enemies,  which 
would  not  that  I  should  reign  over  them, 
bring  hither,  and  slay  them  before  me  "  (27). 
Quite  in  keeping  with  this  view.  Josephus 
says  that  Archelaus  used  not  only  the  Jews 
but  the  Samaritans  barbarously,  out  of  resent- 
ment for  their  old  quarrels  with  him.  B<5th 
nationalities,  therefore,  sent  embassies  to 
Rome  to  complain  of  his  cruelty.  They  suc- 
ceeded in  their  object.  In  the  ninth  year  of 
his  government,  about  a.  d.  6.  he  was  de- 
posed, and  banished  to  Vienne.  in  Oaul. 
while  his  wealth  was  put  into  the  emperors 
treasury  (War  ii.  7,  3). 

Ar'che-vites. 

Babylonians,  inhabitants  of  Erech.  A  bixly 
of  them  were  settled  byAsnapper  in  Samaria 
after  the  ten  tribes  had  been  carried  captive 
( Ezra  iv.  9). 

Ar'chi.     See  Aechite. 

Ar-cMp'ptis  [ma.ster  of  the  horse]. 
A  Christian  at  Colosse  who  approved  him- 
self as  a  champion  of  the  gospel,  was  intimate 


Archite 


48 


Argob 


with  Philemou,  and   an  office-bearer  in  the 
church  (Col.  iv.  17;  Phileni.  2). 

Ar'chite,  in  A.  V.  once  Archi,  the  Hebrew 
form. 

A  member  of  a  Canaanite  tribe  of  the  same 
name,  or  else  a  native  or  inhabitant  of  a  vil- 
lage known  as  Erech.  The  tmrder  of  the  Ar- 
chiteswason  the bonndary between  Ephraim 
and  Benjamin,  west  of  Bethel,  where  the 
fountain  'Arik  and  the  wady  "Arik  are  found 
(Josh.  xvi.  2).  Hushai,  David's  faithful  coun- 
selor, was  an  Archite  (2  Sam.  xv.  32). 

Arc-tu'rus  [the  Bear-ward]. 

A  large  and  bright  star,  which  the  Greeks 
and  Romans  called  by  this  name,  meaning 
the  keeper  of  the  Bear,  because  in  its  course 
through  the  heavens  it  always  kept  behind 
the  tail  of  Ursa  Major,  or  the  Great  Bear.  In 
the  A.  V.  of  Job.  ix.  9  and  xxxviii.  32  it  is  the 
translation  of  the  Hebrew  'Ash  or  'Ayish.  But 
'Ash  is  not  Arcturus,  which  looks  very  soli- 
tary in  the  sky,  while  the  'Ayish  of  Job 
(xxxviii.  32)  has  sons  or  bright  stars  near  it 
in  the  heavens.  It  is  not  the  Bear-keeper 
but  probably  the  Bear  itself,  and  is  so  ren- 
dered in  the  R.  V.  The  Arabs  call  it  Na'sh, 
a  bier.  There  are  in  it  seven  bright  stars. 
The  four  constituting  the  irregular  diamond 
seem  to  the  Arabs  to  resemble  a  bier  carry- 
ing a  corpse,  while  the  three  stars  constitut- 
ing the  Bear's  tail  appear  to  them  to  be  the 
children  of  the  deceased  per.son,  walking  be- 
hind the  bier  to  the  place  of  interment. 

Ard. 

A  son  of  Bela  and  grandson  of  Benjamin 
(Gen.  xlvi.  21  ;  Num.  xxvi.  38  and  41  with  40). 
He  gave  name  to  a  family  of  the  tribe  of  Ben- 
jamin (ibid.).  The  person  called  Addar  in 
1  Chron.  viii.  3  is  probably  he.  The  varia- 
tion in  form  is  probably  due  to  a  copyist's 
transpositif)n  of  two  letters  very  similar  in 
Hel  irew,  or  to  his  confusion  of  Hebrew  d  and 
r.  The  latter  error  is  especially  frequent, 
and  is  quite  intelligible  ;  see  under  Daleth. 

Ar'don. 

A  man  of  Judah.  family  of  Hezron,  house 
of  Caleb  (1  Chron.  ii.  18). 

A-re'li. 

A  son  of  Gad,  and  founder  of  a  family 
(Gen.  xlvi.  16  ;  Num.  xxvi.  17). 

Ar-e-op'a-gite. 

A  judge  of  the  court  of  Areopagus  (Acts 
xvii.  34). 

Ar-e-op'a-gus  [hill  of  Ares]. 

1.  One  of  the  lower  hills  on  the  west  of  the 
acropolis  of  Athens.  It  was  consecrated  to 
Ares,  the  god  of  war,  and  was  crowned  by 
his  temple.  Robinson  {Bibl.  Resear.,  i.  10,  11) 
describes  it  as  a  narrow,  naked  ridge  of  lime- 
stone rock,  rising  gradually  from  the  north- 
ern end,  and  terminating  abruptly  on  the 
south,  over  against  the  .acropolis,  or  citadel 
of  Athens.  Its  southern  end  is  50  or  60 
feet  above  the  valley  .separating  it  from  the 
acropolis,  which  is  much  the  higher  of  the 


two  hills.  Ares  corresponding  to  the  Roman 
Mars.  Areopagus  is  the  same  as  Mars"  hill. 

2.  The  supreme  court  of  Athens,  which 
met  on  the  hill  called  Areopagus  to  pass  sen- 
tence. The  seats  of  the  j  udges  and  others  con- 
nected with  the  court  are  still  seen  hewn  in 
the  rock  ;  and  toward  the  southwest  there  is  a 
flight  of  steps  descending  to  the  market  place. 
It  was  before  the  Areopagus  that  Paul  pleaded 
his  own  cause  and  that  of  Christianity,  and 
the  philosoi)hic  character  of  his  discourse 
arose  from  his  vivid  consciousness  that  he 
was  addressing  some  of  the  most  intellectual 
men  in  the  most  intellectual  city  on  the 
globe. 

During  judicial  trial  the  court  sat  in  its 
othcial  chamber  on  the  market  place,  and  ad- 
journed to  the  hill  to  pass  formal  sentence. 
It  has  been  argued  that  Paul  made  his  de- 
fence in  the  chamber  of  justice  and  not  on 
the  hill,  before  the  Areojiagus  and  not  on  the 
Areopagus  (Curtius).  Recent  studies  of  Aris- 
totle, however,  lead  to  the  conclusion  that 
cases  of  heresy  were  not  subject  to  the  ju- 
risdiction of  this  court  (Manatt),  and  the  nar- 
rative in  The  Acts  militates  against  the  sup- 
position that  Paul's  discourse  was  a  formal 
defence  in  a  trial  before  the  court  (Conybeare 
and  Howson).  It  appears,  therelure,  that 
Paul  addressed  an  informal  gathering  of 
philosophers  on  the  Areopagus  (Acts  xvii. 
16  seq.). 

Ar'e-tas  [Greek  form  of  Har'thnth]. 

ISIore  than  one  king  of  Arabia  Petrtea.  dur- 
ing the  time  that  it  was  occupied  by  the 
Nabathfean  Arabs,  bore  this  name.  Among 
others, 

1.  A  contemporary  of  the  high  priest  Jason, 
about  170  B.  c.  (2  Mac.  v.  8). 

2.  Father-in-law  of  Herod  the  Tetrarch. 
When  Herod  prepared  to  divorce  his  daugh- 
ter in  order  to  marry  Herodias,  Aretas  de- 
clared war  against  Herod  and  totally  de- 
feated his  army  in  A.  D.  36.  The  Romans 
took  Herod's  part,  and  Vitellius  was  dis- 
patched to  chastise  Aretas,  but  the  death  of 
the  emperor  Tiberius  put  an  end  to  the  ex- 
pedition (Antiq.  xviii.  5,  1-3).  It  was  about 
A.  D.  39  or  40,  during  the  reign  of  Caligula, 
or  perhaps  in  36,  that  Aretas  for  a  brief  j^eriod 
held  Damascus  (2  Cor.  xi.  32). 

A-re'us.     See  Akius. 

Ar'gob  [a  heap  of  stones  or  clods]. 

1.  A  region  of  Bashan,  included  within  the 
dominions  of  Og.  and  marching  on  Geshur 
and  Maacah.  It  contained  sixty  fenced  cities, 
besides  the  nomad  encampments  taken  by 
Jair  (Deut.  iii.  4,  13,  14  ;  Josh.  xiii.  30  :  1  Kin. 
iv.  13) ;  see  Havvoth-jair.  Tlie  Targum 
indicates  the  district  of  Trachonitis.  but  tiiis 
region  lies  too  far  to  the  east.  Josephus 
identifies  a  portion  of  it  with  Gaulonitis 
(Antiq.  viii.  2,  3  with  1  Kin.  iv.  13).  It  prob- 
ably corresponded  in  part  to  the  region  be- 
tween the  eastern  slope  of  northern  mount 
Gilead  and  the  Lejjah. 


Ariarathes 


49 


Ark 


2.  A  man  assassinated  along  with  Peka- 
liiah,  king  c)f  Israel,  by  Pekah,  who  aspired 
to  the  throne  (2  Kin.  xv.  25). 

A'ri-a-ra'thes.     See  Ar.vthes. 

A-ri'dai. 

A  son  of  Ilaman  (Esth.  ix.  9). 

A-rid'a-tha. 

A  son  of  Haman  (Esth.  ix.  8). 

A-ri'eh  [lion]. 

A  man  assassinated  along  with  king  Peka- 
hiah,  Argob,  and  others,  by  Pekah,  the  son 
of  Remaliah  {2  Kin.  xv.  25). 

A'ri-el  [lion  of  God]. 

1.  A  figurative  name  given  by  Isaiah  to  Je- 
rusalem in  consideration  of  the  valor  of  its 
inhabitants  [Is.  xxix.  1,  2,  7). 

2.  A  chief  of  the  Jews  who  were  with  Ezra 
at  the  river  Ahava  (Ezra  viii.  Ki). 

Ar-i-ma-thse'a  [Latin  and  Greek  modifi- 
cation of  Kaniah,  height]. 

The  town  from  which  the  councilor  Joseph 
came,  who  obtained  permission  of  Pilate  to 
take  away  the  body  of  Jesus  and  give  it  hon- 
orable interment  in  his  own  new  sepulcher 
(Mat.  xxvii.  57-60;  Mark  xv.  43  ;  Luke  xxiii. 
51-53 ;  John  xix.  38).  Arimathsea  is  the  Greek 
form  of  Ramah,  but  which  town  of  that  name 
is  intended  is  uncertain.  Ramlehnear  Lydda 
is  out  of  the  question  ;  for  it  was  not  built 
until  the  beginning  of  the  eighth  century 
A.  D.  The  name  occurs  in  1  Mac.  xi.  34  (cp. 
Antiq.  xiii.  4,  9)  as  belonging  at  that  period 
to  Samaria. 

A'ri-och  [servant  of  the  moon-god]. 

1.  King  of  Ellasar,  who  was  confederate 
with  Chedorlaomer  on  his  invasion  of  the 
Jordan  valley  (Gen.  xiv.  1,  9).  A  king  of 
Larsa  called  Eriaku,  son  of  Kudurmabug,  is 
mentioned  in  Babylonian  inscriptions.  Larsa, 
probably  Ellasar,  his  capital,  is  now  repre- 
sented by  the  mounds  of  Senkerah,  a  little 
to  the  east  of  Erech. 

2.  Captain  of  the  king's  guard  at  Babylon 
under  Nebuchadnezzar  (Dan.  ii.  14,  15).  It 
pertained  to  the  office  to  execute  sentences  of 
death  (24). 

A-ri'sai. 

A  son  of  Haman  (Esth.  ix.  9). 

Ar-is-tar'chus  [best  ruling]. 

A  Macedonian  of  Thessalonica  who  was 
with  Paul  at  Ephesus,  and  in  the  riot  was 
dragged  into  the  theater,  but  does  not  appear 
to  have  been  seriously  injured  (Acts  xix.  29^. 
On  the  apostle's  return  from  Greece,  whither 
he  had  gone  from  Ephesus,  Aristarchus  ac- 
companied him  from  Troas  to  Asia  (Acts  xx. 
4,  6).  He  was  subsequently  his  fellow-voyager 
to  Rome  i  xxvii.  2;  cp.  Philem.  24),  as  also 
at  one  time  his  fellow-prisoner  (Col.  iv.  10). 

Ar-is-to-bu'lus  [best  advising]. 

1.  A  celebrated  Jewish  philosopher  at  Alex- 
andria (2  Mac.  i.  10). 

2.  A  Christian,  to  whose  household  at  Rome 
Paul  sent  salutations  (Rom.  xvi.  10). 

4 


A-ri'us,  in  A.  V.  Areus. 

King  of  Sparta  (1  Mac.  xii.  20 ;  Antiq.  xiii. 
5,  8),  probably  the  tirst  of  the  name,  who 
reigned  from  309  to  265  b.  c. 

Ark. 

A  chest,  box,  or  vessel  of  similar  shape. 

1.  Noah's  ark  was  the  rude  vessel  which 
Noah  was  divinely  ordered  to  construct,  and 
in  which  he  floated  about  when  the  deluge 
was  on  the  earth.  If  the  cubit,  in  terms  of 
which  the  dimensions  of  the  ark  are  stated, 
was  the  ordinary  cubit  of  18  inches,  then 
the  length  of  the  ark  was  450  feet,  the 
breadth  75  feet,  and  the  height  43  feet.  The 
Great  Eastern  steamship  was  674  feet  long,  77 
feet  broad,  58  feet  deep,  and  had  a  gross  ton- 
nage of  22,500  tons.  The  ark  was  made  of 
gopher,  probably  cypress,  wood,  and  rendered 
watertight  by  being  daubed  inside  and  out- 
side with  bitumen.  It  had  lower,  second, 
and  third  stories.  A  door  in  the  side  afforded 
ingress  and  egress.  A  window,  probably  a 
cubit  in  height,  extended,  with  slight  inter- 
ruptions, all  around  the  vessel.  A  rooflike 
covei'ing  protected  the  inmates  from  rain 
and  sun  (Gen.  vi.  14-viii.  19;  Mat.  xxiv.  38; 
Luke  xvii.  27;  Heb.  xi.  7 ;  1  Pet.  iii.  20).  The 
ark  was  designed  for  the  accommodation  of 
Noah,  his  family,  and  the  animals  which  were 
selected  to  be  preserved. 

Dr.  Howard  O.sgood,  in  The  Sunday  School 
Times  for  Feb.  6,  1892,  discusses  the  question 
whether  every  species  of  animals,  as  they  are 
now  classified  by  naturalists,  could  have  found 
accommodation  in  the  ark.  The  highest  es- 
timate of  the  number  of  species  of  land  mam- 
malia is  290  above  the  size  of  tbe  sheep,  757 
from  the  sheep  to  the  rats,  and  1359  of  the 
rats,  bats,  and  shrews.  The  average  size  is 
about  that  of  the  common  cat.  Allowing  five 
square  feet  of  deck  room  as  amply  sufficient 
for  a  cat,  two  of  each  species  of  mammalia 
could  find  room  on  two-thirds  of  one  deck  of 
the  ark,  with  its  33,750  square  feet  of  surface. 
The  representatives  of  10,000  species  of  birds, 
979  of  reptiles,  1252  of  lizards,  and  100,000 
of  insects  could  easily  be  placed  on  the  re- 
maining third  of  the  deck,  leaving  the  other 
two  decks  for  storing  food. 

2.  The  infant  Moses'  ark,  made  for  his 
reception  when  he  was  exposed  upon  the 
Nile,  was  a  basket  composed  of  papyrus 
leaves  or  stems,  or  both,  plaited  together,  and 
rendered  watertight  by  a  coat  of  bitumen 
(Ex.  ii.  3-6). 

3.  The  Ark  of  the  Covenant  or  Testimony 
was  the  central  object  of  the  tabernacle.  It 
was  a  chest  2V  cubits  long,  IJ  cubits  broad, 
and  the  same  in  depth  ;  made  of  acacia  wood, 
and  overlaid  within  and  without  with  jnire 
gold.  A  rim  or  moulding  of  gold  encircled 
it  at  the  top.  At  the  bottom  were  two  gold'en 
rings  on  each  side,  through  which  poles  of 
acacia  wood  overlaid  with  gold  were  put  for 
the  purpose  of  carrying  the  ark  about.  It 
was  covered  by  a  lid  of  solid  gold  which  was 


Ark 


50 


Armor 


called  the  mercy  seat.  Two  clierubim  of  gold 
stood  on  this  cover,  of  one  piece  with  it,  one 
at  each  end,  spreading  their  wings  on  high  so 
as  to  overshadow  it.  and  facing  each  other, 
but  looking  down  toward  the  mercy  seat. 
They  were  sjonbols  of  the  presence  and  un- 
approachableuess  of  Jehovah  who.  as  King 
of  Israel  in  the  midst  of  his  i)eople,  dwelt  be- 
tween the  cherubim,  uttered  his  voice  from 
between  them,  and  met  the  representative  of 
Lis  people  there  (Ex.  xxv.  10  seq.  ;  xxx.  fJ ; 
Num.  vii.  89 ;  1  Sam.  iv.  4).  It  was  made 
specially  for  the  reception  of  the  Testimony, 
on  the  two  tables  of  stone  (Ex.  xxv.  21 ;  xxxi. 
18),  and  it  was  placed  in  the  holy  of  holies 
(xxvi.  34).  Afterwards  a  pot  of  mauna,  Aaron's 
rod  that  blossomed,  and  the  book  of  the  law 
were  put  beside  the  ark  (Ex.  xvi.  34 ;  Num. 
xvii.  10 ;  Deut.  xxxi.  26 ;  Heb.  ix.  4),  but 
were  removed  during  the  times  of  confusion 
(1  Kin.  viii.  9).  The  ark  was  placed  in  charge 
of  the  Kohathite  Levites  (Num.  iii.  29-31 ;  iv. 
4-15).  The  priests,  who  were  Levites  and  of 
the  family  of  Kohath,  bore  it  themselves  on 
occasions  of  special  solemnity  (Josh.  iii.  3; 
vi.  6 ;  viii.  33 ;  2  .Sam.  xv.  24,  29;  1  Kin.  viii. 
3).  It  stood  in  the  midst  of  Jordan  till  the 
Israelites  had  done  crossing  the  river  (Josh. 
iv.  9-11).  It  was  carried  for  seven  days  round 


Egyptian  Ark  or  Sacred  Chest. 


Jericho  before  the  walls  of  the  city  fell  down 
(vi.  1-20).  Having  been  taken  in  Eli's  time 
to  the  field  of  battle,  as  a  talisman  which  was 
expected  to  work  wonders  in  the  contest  with 
the  Philistines,  it  was  captured  by  the  enemy 
(1  Sam.  iv.  1-22),  but  was  soon  afterwards  sent 
back  into  the  Hebrew  territory  (v.  1-vi.  11). 
It  was  successively  at  Beth-shemesh,  where 
the  inhabitants  looked  into  it  and  were  pun- 
ished (vi.  12-20)  ;  at  Kirjath-jearim  (vii.  1, 2)  ; 
and  at  Perez-uzzah,  where  Uzzah  was  struck 
dead  for  touching  it  when  it  seemed  to  tot- 
ter. Thence  it  was  taken  by  David  to  Jeru- 
salem (2  Sam.  vi.  1-23).  It  was  placed  in  the 
holy  of  holies  in  Solomon's  temple  (1  Kin. 


viii.  1-9).  Mauasseh  substituted  an  image  for 
it,  but  Josiah  restored  it  to  its  place  (2  Chron. 
xxxiii.  7  ;  xxxv.  3).  It  disappeared  when  Je- 
rusalem was  destroyed  by  Nebuchadnezzar, 
and  has  not  been  seen  since. 

Sacred  chests  were  in  use  among  other 
peoples  of  antiquity.  They  were  employed 
by  the  Greeks  and  Egyptians,  and  served  as 
receptacles  for  the  idol,  or  for  symbols  of  the 
deities,  or  for  other  sacred  objects. 

Ark'lte. 

A  tribe  descended  from  Canaan  (Gen.  x. 
17;  1  Chron.  i.  15).  According  to  Josephus 
they  founded  the  Phoenician  city  Arke,  the 
modern  'Arka,  about  twelve  miles  north  of 
Tripoli,  in  Syria  (Antiq.  i.  6,  2).  This  town 
is  mentioned  as  Arkatu  by  Thothmes  III. 
about  1600  j-ears  before  Christ  (Brugsch). 

Ar-ma-ged'don,   in   E.   Y.  Har-Magedon 

[mountain  of  Meglddo]. 

A  prophetic  battlefield  where  the  kings  of 
the  whole  world  gather  together  unto  the 
war  of  the  great  day  of  God  (Kev.  xvi.  16). 
The  name  is  framed  with  evident  reference 
to  the  sanguinary  contests  which  took  place 
near  the  town  of  Megiddo  ;  the  first,  that  in 
which  Sisera  and  the  Canaanites  were  de- 
feated at  the  waters  of  Megiddo  (Judg.  v.  19), 
the  second,  that  which  resulted  in  the  death 
of  Ahaziah,  king  of  Judah,  at  Megiddo  (2 
Kin.  ix.  27),  and  the  third,  that  in  which  king 
Josiah  was  killed  when  in  conflict  with  the 
army  of  Pharaoh-necho  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  29; 
Zech.  xii.  11).  The  historical  associations 
with  Megiddo  in  the  past  were  seized  upon 
by  the  prophet  to  supply  a  speaking  name 
appropriate  in  a  description  of  the  future 
sorrows  and  triumphs  of  God's  people. 

Ar-me'ni-a.     See  Ararat. 

Arm'let. 

An  ornament  like  a  bracelet,  but  surround- 
ing the  arm  higher  up  than  the  wrist  (Ex. 
xxxv.  22,  R.  v.).  There  were  armlets  among 
the  spoil  of  the  Midianites  (Num.  xxxi.  50, 
R.  v.).  In  parts  of  the  East  an  armlet,  gen- 
erally studded  with  jewels,  is  worn  by  kings 
as  one  of  the  insignia  of  royal  authority  (cp. 
2  Sam.  i.  10). 

Ar-mo'ni  [pertaining  to  the  palace]. 

One  of  Saul's  sons  by  his  concubine  Rizpah. 
He  was  slain  bv  the  Gibeonites  to  satisfy  jus- 
tice (2  Sam.  xxi.  8-11). 

Ar'mor. 

Covering  worn  to  protect  the  person  against 
oflensive  weapons  (Eph.  vi.  11).  It  consisted 
of — 1.  The  shield.  Shields  were  used  by  all 
nations  of  antiquity.  The  Israelites  em- 
ployed a  larger  and  a  smaller  kind  (1  Kin. 
X.  16,  17).  The  larger  kind,  translated  shield, 
buckler,  target,  belonged  to  the  heavy  armed 
spearmen  and  lancers  (1  Chron.  xii.  8,  24,  34  ; 
2  Chron.  xiv.  8).  The  smaller  shield,  ren- 
dered shield  or  buckler,  was  carried  bv  archers 
(1  Chron.  v.  18 ;  2  Chron.  xiv.  8).'  Shields 
were  of  various  shapes — round,  oval,  and  ob- 


Army 


51 


Aroer 


long.  They  were  commonly  made  of  several 
thicknesses  of  leather  or  of  wood  covered 
with  leather  (cp.  E/ek.  xxxix.  9),  which  was 
oik^d  to  keep  it  jilossy  and  pliable,  and  to  pro- 
tect it  against  tlie  wet  (Is.  xxi.  5).  Tliey  were 
sometimes  covered  with  brass  (Antiq.  xiii. 
12,  5),  or  made  entirely  of  brass  (1  Kin.  xiv. 
27,  probably),  or  even  of  beaten  gold  (1  Kin. 
X.  17;  2  C'hron.  ix.  16;  1  Mac.  vi.  2,  39). 
Bronze  shields  were  often  two  or  three  feet  in 
diameter.  Sometimes  a  shieldbearer  accom- 
panied a  warrior  into  battle  (1  Sam.  xvii.  7). 
2.  Helmets  were  made  of  leather  and  event- 
ually of  iron  and  brass  (1  Mac.  vi.  35).  They 
were  known  to  Egyptians,  Philistines,  A.s- 
syrians,  Babylonians,  Persians  (1  Sam.  xvii. 
5 ;  Jer.  xlvi.  4  ;  Ezek.  xxiii.  23,  24  ;  xxvii. 
10).  Helmets  of  brass  were  in  occasional  use 
among  the  Israelites  and  Philistines  as  early 
as  the  time  of  SjiuI  (1  Sam.  xvii.  5,  38).  Uz- 
ziah  armed  his  troops  with  helmets  and  coats 
of  mail  (2  Chron.  xxvi.  14).  3.  The  breast- 
plate or  properly  coat  of  mail,  as  it  is  some- 
times rendered,  covered  the  breast,  back,  and 
shoulders.  It  was  made  of  leather,  quilted 
cloth,  linen  (Herod,  iii.  47),  brass,  or  iron 
(1  Sam.  xvii.  5;  Rev.  ix.  9),  and  even  gold 
(1  Mac.  vi.  2).  There  were  joints  in  it  or  be- 
tween it  and  the  adjacent  armor  (1  Kin. 
xxii.  34).  Scale-armor  coats  were  worn  by 
Goliath,  and  chain  coats  by  the  soldiers  of 
Antiochus  Eupator  (1  Sam.  xvii.  5,  Hebrew; 

1  Mac.  vi.  .3.5,  Greek).  4.  Greaves,  consisting 
of  thin  plates  of  metal,  were  occasionally 
worn  to  protect  the  front  of  the  leg  below 
the  knee  (1  Sam.  xvii.  6) ;  and  sometimes,  5. 
Laced  boots  set  with  nails  (Is.  ix.  5,  R.  V. 
margin).  For  oflTensive  weapons,  see  the 
several  articles. 

Ar'my. 

The  army  of  Israel  consisted  originally  of 
infantry  only  (Num.  xi.  21  ;  1  Sam.  iv.  10 ; 
XV.  4),  composed  of  spearmen,  slingers,  and 
archers.  It  included  all  the  able-bodied 
men  of  the  nation — all  the  males  from  20 
years  old  and  upward,  able  to  go  forth  to 
war,   being   enrolled    for    service    (Num.  1. ; 

2  Sam.  xxiv.  9).  The  numbers  reported 
as  participating  in  various  battles  are  suffi- 
ciently large  to  include  the  greater  part  of 
the  adult  male  population  of  the  region. 
For  military  operations  of  no  great  magni- 
tude, each  tribe  furnished  its  quota  of  war- 
riors (Num.  xxxi.  4;  Josh.  vii.  3;  Judg.  xx. 
10) :  hut  inroads  of  the  enemy  were  naturally 
met  by  all  the  manly  spirits  seizing  their 
weapons  to  defend  their  firesides.  In  time  of 
national  peril  messengers  were  sent  through- 
out all  the  coasts  of  Israel  to  summon  the 
men  of  war  by  the  sound  of  the  trumpet,  by 
proclamation,  or  by  symbolic  act,  to  come  to 
the  rescue  (Judg.  vi.  34,  35 ;  xix.  29  ;  1  Sam. 
xi.  7).  The  army  was  divided  into  bodies  of 
a  thousand,  a  hundred,  and  fifty,  each  of 
which  was  under  its  own  officer  (Num.  xxxi. 
14 ;  Judg.  XX.  10 ;  1  Sam.  viii.  12 ;  2  Kin.  i. 


9  ;  xi.  4  ;  2  Chron.  xxv.  5).  The  commander- 
in-chief  and  the  officers  formed  a  council 
of  war  (1  Chron.  xiii.  1  ;  cp.  2  Kin.  ix.  5, 
13).  The  first  traces  of  a  standing  army  are 
found  in  the  reign  of  Saul.  He  retained 
three  thousand  men  of  all  Israel  to  hold  the 
Philistines  in  check  (1  Sam.  xiii.  2),  and  im- 
pressed any  men  of  marked  valor  whom  he 
saw  (xiv.  52).  David  increased  the  array,  and 
organized  it  into  twelve  divisions  of  twenty- 
four  thousand  footmen  each  (1  Chron.  xxvii.), 
and  Solomon  added  a  large  force  of  chariots 
and  horsemen,  which  he  distributed  in  the 
cities  throughout  his  kingdom  (1  Kin.  ix.  19  ; 
X.  26;  cp.  iv.  26;  2  Chron.  ix.  25).  The  suc- 
cessors of  these  three  kings  of  all  Israel  con- 
tinued to  bestow  attention  on  the  organiza- 
tion and  equipment  of  the  host,  as  Jehosha- 
phat  (2  Chron.  xvii.  13-19)  Amaziah  (xxv. 
5,  6),  Uzziah  (xxvi.  11-15),  Judas  Maccabseus 
(1  Mac.  iii.  55).    See  War. 

Ar'nan  [agile]. 

Founder  of  a  family,  presumably  of  the 
lineage  of  David  (1  Chron.  iii.  21). 

Ar'non  [murmuring,  noisy ;  or,  perhaps, 
quickly  moving]. 

A  river  which  anciently  formed  the  boun- 
dary between  the  Amorite  country  on  the 
north  and  that  of  the  Moabites  on  the  south 
(Num.  xxi.  13,  26),  and  at  a  later  period  be- 
tween the  tribe  of  Reuben  on  the  north  and 
again  Moab  on  the  south  (Deut.  iii.  8,  16 ; 
Josh.  xiii.  16).  It  had  fords  (Is.  xvi.  2).  It 
is  now  called  the  Wady  Mqjib,  and  is  a 
perennial  stream  which  is  formed  by  the 
junction  of  three  smaller  tributaries,  and 
falls  into  the  Dead  Sea.  It  is  fringed  by 
oleanders,  the  vegetation  of  its  banks  is  ex- 
uberant, and  its  waters  are  full  of  fish. 

A'rod  or  Ar'o-di. 

A  son  of  Gad,  and  founder  of  a  family  (Gen. 
xlvi.  16  ;  Num.  xxvi.  17). 

Ar'o-er  [naked,  nakedness;  or  juniper 
thicket]. 

1.  A  town  on  the  right  or  northern  bank 
of  the  river  Arnon.  It  was  the  southern 
point  of  the  Amorite  kingdom  ruled,  by 
Sihon,  and  afterwards  of  the  tribe  of  Reuben 
(Deut.  ii.  36;  iii.  12;  Josh.  xii.  2 ;  xiii.  16; 
Judg.  xi.  26,  33).  It  was  taken  by  Mesha.  king 
of  Moab  (Moabite  Stone,  26).  It  fell  into  the 
hands  of  Hazael,  king  of  Syria  (2  Kin.  x.  33 ; 
1  Chron.  v.  8).  In  the  time  of  Jeremiah  it 
belonged  to  Moab  (Jer.  xlviii.  19).  It  is  now 
called  'Ara'ir,  and  is  a  desolate  heap  just 
south  of  Dibon,  and  a  little  east  of  the  Ro- 
man road  running  north  and  south  through 
Moab. 

2.  A  city  built  by  the  Gadites  (Num.  xxxii. 
34).  It  was  before,  that  is  east  of,  Riibbath 
Ammon,  in  the  middle  of  the  valley  of  Gad, 
on  the  southern  boundary  of  that  tribe  (Josh, 
xiii.  25 ;  2  Sam.  xxiv.  5).  Exact  site  unknown. 

3.  A  village  of  Judah,  to  which  David  sent 
spoil  after  his  victory  over  the  Amalekites 
who  had  pillaged  Ziklag  (1  Sam.  xxx.  28). 


Aroerite 


52 


Asa 


Its  ruius  consist  of  a  few  walls,  in  the  wady 
'Ar'ara,  twelve  miles  southeast  of  Beer-sheba. 

If  Aroer  in  Is.  xvii.  2  is  a  proper  name,  and 
not  a  common  noun  meaning  nakedness,  ruin, 
the  phrase  in  which  it  stands  may  be  ren- 
dered "the  cities  of  Aroer,"  and  interpreted 
as  the  suburbs  of  the  Gadite  Aroer  ;  or  "  the 
cities  Aroer,"  the  two  Aroers  east  of  the  Jor- 
dan being  used  representatively  for  all  the 
cities  of  the  region. 

Ar'o-er-ite. 

A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Aroer  (1  Chron. 
xi.  44,  where  the  reference  is  ijrobably  to 
Aroer  3). 

Ar-pach'shad,  in  A.  V.  Arphaxad  [ety- 
mology unknown  ;  the  latter  part  of  the  name, 
if  separable,  is  contained  in  Chaldea]. 

A  son  of  Shem  (Gen.  x.  22,  24 ;  1  Chron.  i. 
17, 18,  both  R.  v.).  He  was  a  remote  ancestor 
of  Abraham,  was  born  two  years  after  the 
flood,  at  the  age  of  35  begat  Shelah,  and 
died  403  years  afterwards,  at  the  age  of 
438  (xi.  10-13,  R.  V.).  Arpachshad  is  not 
necessarily  a  person.  The  structure  of  these 
genealogical  registers,  apparent  at  a  glance, 
is  such  that  the  name  may  be  that  of  a  tribe 
or  laud,  of  which  the  people  were  descended 
from  that  son  of  Shem  born  two  years  after 
the  flood.  Arpachshad  was  long  identified 
with  the  mountainous  country  on  the  upper 
Zab  north  and  northeast  of  Nineveh,  called 
by  the  Greek  geographers  Arrapachitis,  and 
by  the  Assyrians  Arabella.  But  this  identi- 
fication fails  to  account  for  the  final  syllable, 
shad. 

Ar'pad,  in  A.  V.  twice  Arphad. 

A  city,  generally  coupled  in  the  O.  T.  with 
Hamath,  from  which,  consequently,  it  was 
not  far  distant  (2  Kin.  xviii.  34 ;  xix.  13  ;  Is. 
X.  9 ;  Jer.  xlix.  23).  It  has  been  placed  at 
Tell  Erfad,  13  miles  north  of  Aleppo.  It 
was  a  place  of  importance,  and  was  sub- 
jected to  repeated  visitations  from  the  As- 
syrians. It  saw  the  army  of  Rammannirari 
in  806  B.  c,  and  of  Ashurnirari  in  754  ;  it  was 
besieged  and  taken  by  Tiglath-pileser  742- 
740 ;  and  an  uprising  of  cities  which  included 
Arpad  was  suppressed  by  Sargon  in  720. 

Ar-phax'ad.     See  Arpachshad. 

Ar'sa-ces. 

King  of  Persia  and  Media  (1  Mac.  xiv.  2,  3 ; 
XV.  22),  from  174  to  136  B.  c.  He  was  the 
sixth  of  the  name,  but  is  better  known  as 
Mithridates  I.  of  Parthia.  His  rule  extended 
far  beyond  the  bounds  of  Media  and  Persia. 
He  conquered  Asia  from  the  Hindu  Kush  to 
the  Euphrates  and  raised  the  Parthian  king- 
dom to  an  empire. 

Ar-tax-erx'es  [po.ssessor  of  an  exalted 
kingdom]. 

The  son  and  successor  of  his  father  Xerxes 
on  the  Persian  throne  465  B.  c.  He  is 
called  Longimanus,  the  Longhanded.  This 
epithet  is  generally  interpreted  literally,  but 
Dr.  John  Wilson  considers  that  it  is  figurative, 


and  means  only  that  Artaxerxes  had  a  widely- 
extended  dominion.  He  was  led  to  forbid 
building  at  Jerusalem  (Ezra  iv.  7),  but  after- 
wards permitted  it  (vi.  14).  The  older  in- 
terpreters understood  the  king  referred  to 
to  be  the  Pseudo-Snierdis,  i.  e.  a  Magian  im- 
postor called  Gomates,  who  pretended  to  be 
Smerdis,  brother  of  the  deceased  Cambyses, 
and  reigned  as  such  for  seven  months  in  the 
year  521  b.  c,  until  the  fraud  was  discovered 
and  he  was  put  to  death.  But  see  remarks 
under  Ahasuerus.  In  the  seventh  year  of 
his  reign  (458  B.  c.)  Artaxerxes  allowed  Ezra 
to  lead  a  great  multitude  of  exiles  back  to 
Jerusalem  (Ezra  vii.  1,  11,  12,  21;  viii.  1).  In 
the  twentieth  year  of  his  reign  (445  B.  c.)  he 
permitted  Nehemiah  to  make  his  first  journey 
to  the  .lewish  capital,  and  rebuild  the  walls  of 
the  city  (Neh.  ii.  1,  etc.).  In  the  thirty-second 
year  of  his  reign  (433-432  b.  c.)  he  allowed 
Nehemiah,  who  had  returned  for  a  little  to 
Persia,  to  revisit  Jerusalem,  and  become  gov- 
ernor of  the  restored  city  and  the  adjacent 
country  (xiii.  6).  Artaxerxes  died  in  the  year 
425  B.  c. 

Ar'te-mas  [gift  of  Artemis]. 

A  companion  whom  Paul  thought  of  send- 
ing on  an  errand  to  Titus  (Tit.  iii.  12). 

Ar'te-mis. 

The  Greek  goddess  of  hunting,  correspond- 
ing to  the  Roman  Diana  (Acts  xix.  24,  R.  V., 
margin) ;  see  Diana. 

Ar'u-both  [latticed  windows]. 

A  town  mentioned  in  connection  with 
Socoh  and  Hepher;  hence  probably  in  the 
southwest  of  Judah  (1  Kin.  iv.  10). 

A-ru'mali  [perhaps,  a  height]. 

A  village  near  Shechem,  once  the  residence 
of  Abimelech  (Judg.  ix.  41).  It  has  been  sup- 
posed to  be  identical  with  Rumah  (2  Kin. 
xxiii.  36),  and  has  been  placed  doubtfully  at 
el-'Ormeh,  6  miles  southeast  of  Shechem, 
which,  however,  is  spelled  with  a  difl'erent 
initial  letter. 

Ar'vad  [wandering] . 

A  place  which,  in  EzekieFs  time,  furnished 
mariners  and  valiant  defenders  of  the  strong- 
hold of  Tj-re  (Ezek.  xxvii.  8,  11).  It  is  the 
island  of  Aradus  near  the  coast  of  Phoenicia, 
now  called  er-Ruad  (1  Jlac.  xv.  23). 

Ar'vad-ite. 

One  of  the  inhabitants  of  Arvad.  They 
were  reckoned  to  Canaan  (Gen.  x.  18 ;  1 
Chron.  i.  16). 

Ar'za  [delight]. 

The  steward  of  king  Elah's  house  in  Tir- 
zah  (1  Kin.  xvi.  9). 

A'sa  [physician]. 

1.  A  Levite,  son  of  Elkauah  who  lived  in 
a  village  of  the  Netophathites  (1  Chron.  ix. 
16). 

2.  A  king  of  Judah  who  ascended  the 
throne  in  the  twentieth  year  of  Jeroboam, 
king  of  Israel.  He  was  son  of  Abijam  and 
grandson  of  Rehoboam.     His  mother  (really 


Asahel 


53 


Asaramel 


his  grandmother)  was  Maacah,  daughter  of 
Absalom  (1  Kin.  xv.  9-10,  cp.  2).  His  reign 
began  with  ten  years  of  peace  (2  Chron.  xiv. 
1).  He  took  away  the  male  prostitutes  out 
of  the  land,  aliolished  the  idols  of  his  predeces- 
sors, and  removed  his  grandmother  from  her 
position  of  queen-itiother,  because  she  had 
made  an  image  for  an  Asherah  (1  Kin.  xv. 
y-13  ;  cp.  xiv.  22-24  ;  2  Chron.  xiv.  1-5  ;  xv. 
16).  He  also  destroyed  the  strange  altars, 
the  high  places,  and  the  sun  images  through- 
out .Tudah  (2  C'liron.  xiv.  3-5)  as  fully  as  he 
was  able  (cp.  1  Kin.  xxii.  46  ;  2  Chron.  xix. 
4) :  but,  though  his  own  heart  was  perfect 
with  the  Lord,  the  people  still  occasionally 
sacrificed  to  Jehovah  on  high  places  (1  Kin. 
XV.  14  ;  2  Chron.  xv.  17).  His  kingdom  was 
invaded  by  the  Ethiopian  Zerah,  at  the  head 
of  an  enormous  host  of  Africans,  but  by  the 
help  of  .Jehovah  he  defeated  them,  and  di'ove 
them  from  the  land  (2  Chron.  xiv.  9-15).  In 
the  fifteenth  year  of  his  reign,  encouraged  by 
the  prophet  Azariah,  he  completed  the  re- 
ligious reformation  which  he  had  begun,  re- 
stored the  altar  of  burnt  ofl'eriug  at  the  tem- 
ple, and  induced  the  people  to  renew  the 
covenant  with  Jehovah  (2  Chron.  xv.  1-15). 
In  the  thirty-sixth  year  of  his  reign,  Baasha, 
king  of  Israel,  invaded  Benjamin  and  fortified 
Eamah  on  the  main  road  from  Jerusalem  to 
the  north.  Asa.  finding  himself  too  weak  to 
reopen  the  road  by  the  capture  of  Ramah, 
took  the  temple  treasui-es,  and  hired  Ben- 
hadad,  king  of  Damascus,  to  attack  Baasha. 
Ben-hadad  invaded  the  northern  portion  of 
the  Israelite  kingdom,  compelling  Baasha  to 
■withdraw  from  Ramah.  Asa  took  the  build- 
ing materials  which  Baasha  had  gathered  at 
Ramah  and  fortified  Geba  and  Mizpah.  The 
prophet  Hanani  reproved  the  king  for  his 
worldly  policy,  after  his  experience  of  God's 
help  at  the  time  of  the  Ethiopian  invasion. 
Asa  resented  the  interference  of  the  prophet, 
putting  him  in  prison  (1  Kin.  xv.  16-22  ;  2 
Chron.  xvi.  1-10).  In  the  thirtj'-ninth  year 
of  his  reign  he  became  diseased  in  his  feet. 
In  his  distress  he  sought  help  from  the  physi- 
cians, but  not  from  the  Lord  (1  Kin.  xv.  23 ; 
2  Chron.  xvi.  12).  In  his  latter  days  he  was 
not  so  true  to  Jehovah  as  in  his  earlier  life. 
He  died  in  the  forty-first  year  of  his  reign, 
and  was  buried  with  royal  honors  in  a  sepul- 
cher  which  he  had  made  for  himself  in  the 
city  of  David. 

As'a-hel  [God  hath  made]. 

1.  Son  of  Zeruiah,  and  brother  of  Joab  and 
Abishai  (1  Chron.  ii.  16).  For  a  time  he  was 
the  military  captain  in  attendance  on  David 
for  the  fourth  month  of  the  year,  his  men 
numbering  24,000  (xxvii.  7).  He  was  exceed- 
ingly fleet  of  foot.  When  the  followers  of 
David  routed  those  of  Ishbosheth  he  pursued 
Abner,  Ishbosheth's  commander-in-chief,  with 
the  intention  of  killing  him.  Abner,  after 
warning  him  more  than  once,  was  compelled, 
reluctantly  and  in  self-defence,  to  strike  him 
a  mortal  thrust  (2  Sam.  ii.  18-23). 


2.  One  of  the  Levites  employed  by  Jehosh- 
aphat  to  teach  the  people  the  law  (2  Chrofl. 
xvii.  8). 

3.  An  overseer  of  the  temple  in  the  reign 
of  Hezekiah  (2  Chron.  xxxi.  13). 

4.  Father  of  a  certain  Jonathan  (Ezra  x.  15). 
A-salah,  in  A.  V.  twice  As-a-M'ah  (2  Kin. 

xxii.  12,  14)  [Jehovah  hath  made]. 

1.  A  Simeonite  prince  (1  Chron.  iv.  36). 

2.  A  Levite,  head  of  the  familj-  of  Mei'ari 
in  David's  time  (1  Chron.  vi.  30 ;  xv.  6,  11). 

3.  A  man  of  Judah,  son  of  Baruch,  and 
head  of  the  familj*  of  Shelah  at  the  time  of 
the  return  from  the  captivity  (1  Chron.  ix.  5). 
He  was  known  also  by  the  synonymous  name 
Maaseiah  (Neb.  xi.  5). 

4.  An  officer  whom  Josiah  sent  with  others 
to  the  prophetess  Huldah  to  inquire  of  the 
Lord  about  the  things  which  he  had  heard 
from  the  Law  found  by  Hilkiah  (2  Kin.  xxii. 
12,  14;  2  Chron.  xxxiv.  20). 

A'saph  [collector  ;  or  He  hath  gathered  or 
removed  reproach]. 

1.  A  Levite,  the  son  of  Berachiah,  of  the 
Gershomite  family  (1  Chron.  vi.  39,  43).  With 
Hemau  and  Ethan,  he  sounded  cymbals  be- 
fore the  ark  during  its  removal  from  the 
house  of  Obed-edom  to  the  city  of  David 
(xv.  16-19).  He  was  then  assigned  the  per- 
manent office  of  sounding  cymbals  at  the 
service  (xvi.  4,  5,  7);  and  when  the  service 
was  finally  and  fully  arranged,  of  the  three 
families  permanently  charged  with  the  music 
and  song  and  instructed  in  the  art,  his  family, 
with  him  at  the  head,  was  one  (xxv.  1-9). 
Their  position  was  on  the  right  (vi.  39).  The 
family  often  receives  mention  (2  Chron.  xx. 
14;  xxix.  13).  A  hundred  and  twenty-eight, 
all  of  them  singers,  came  back  from  Babylon 
(Ezra  ii.  41 ;  Xeh.  vii.  44),  and  conducted  the 
psalmody  when  the  foundations  of  Zerub- 
babel's  temple  were  laid  (Ezra  iii.  10).  Twelve 
psalms,  viz.  the  50th  and  the  73d  to  the  83d, 
both  inclusive,  are  attributed  in  the  titles  to 
the  family  of  Asaph  (cp.  2  Chron.  xxix.  30). 
The  50th  belongs  to  the  second  book  of 
psalms ;  the  others  constitute  the  bulk  of 
the  third  book.  In  them  the  usual  name 
of  the  deity  is  God,  rather  than  Jehovah. 
Asaph,  like  the  other  chief  singers,  is  called 
a  seer  (2  Chron.  xxix.  30;  cp.  xxxv.  15  and 
1  Chron.  xxv.  5). 

2.  Father  of  Hezekiah's  recorder  (2  Kin. 
xviii.  18). 

3.  Keeper  of  the  king's  park  in  Palestine 
under  Artaxerxes  Longimanus,  king  of  Per- 
sia (Xeh.  ii.  8). 

4.  In  1  Chron.  xxvi.  1  read  Ebiasaph  (cp. 
ix.  19). 

A-sar'a-mel,  in  A.  A'.  Saramel. 

Perhaps  a  title  of  Simon  Maccabseus,  Sar 
'am  'el,  prince  of  the  people  of  God  ;  or  more 
probably,  since  the  word  is  preceded  by  a 
preposition,  it  stands  for  Ifsar  'am  'el,  the 
court  of  the  people  of  God,  the  forecourt  of 
the  temple  (1  Mac.  xiv.  28). 


Asarel 


54 


Asher 


As'a-rel,  in  A.  V.  A-sar'e-el  [God  hath 
bound]. 

A  8un  of  Jehalelcel  (1  Chron.  iv.  16). 

As-a-re'lah.    See  Asharelah. 

As'ca-lon  (1  Mac.  x.  86).    See  Ashkelon. 

As'e-nath  [Egyptian  Snat,  belonging  to  the 
goddess  Xeith]. 

Daughter  of  Poti-phera,  priest  of  On,  wife 
of  Joseph  and  mother  of  Manasseh  and  Eph- 
raim  (Gen.  xli.  45,  50-52;  xlvi.  20). 

A'ser.    See  Asher. 

Ash. 

The  rendering  in  the  A.  V.  of  the  Hebrew 
'Oren  in  Is.  xliv.  14.  The  wood  of  the  tree 
was  suitable  for  use  in  making  idols.  A  tree 
which  the  Arabs  call  'arda  is  said  by  one  of 
their  writers  to  grow  in  Arabia  Petrgea,  and 
is  described  as  having  thorns  and  producing 
bunches  of  bitter  berries.  This  imperfect 
description  recalls  the  mountain  a.sh,  and  the 
name  'ardn  may  be  connected  with  'oren.  But 
by  'oreu  the  Seventy  understood  the  lir  tree. 
Jerome  renders  it  pine.  E.  V.  accordingly 
translates  the  word  by  fir  ti'ee,  and  places  ash 
on  the  margin.  The  Syrian  fir  {Pinus  hale- 
pensis)  is  perhaps  intended,  which  flourishes 
on  the  mountains  of  Palestine,  and  is  occasion- 
ally found  as  far  south  as  Hebron.     See  Fir. 

A'shan  [smoke]. 

A  town  in  the  lowland,  allotted  to  Judah, 
afterwards  transferred  to  Simeon  and  assigned 
with  its  suburbs  to  the  Levites  (Josh.  xv.  42 ; 
xix.  7  ;  1  Chron.  iv.  32;  vi.  59).  In  the  pres- 
ent text  of  Josh.  xxi.  16  or  1  Chron.  vi.  59 
Ashan  and  Ain  have  become  confounded 
through  the  misreading  of  one  letter.  Ashan 
is  apparently  identical  with  Cor-ashan,  in  A. 
V.  Chor-ashan,  smoking  furnace  (1  Sam.  xxx. 
30),  where  many  manuscripts  and  versions 
have  Bor-ashan,  smoking  pit. 

Ash-a-re'lah,  in  A.  V.  Asarelah  [upright 
toward  God]. 

A  son  of  Asaph  (1  Chron.  xxv.  2).  Called 
in  ver.  14  Jesharelah,  a  word  having  the  same 
meaning. 

Ash'be-a  [let  me  call  as  witness]. 

A  descendant  of  Shelah,  of  the  tribe  of 
Judah.  The  members  of  the  family  wrought 
fine  linen  (1  Chron.  iv.  21). 

Ash'bel  [perhaps,  a  secondary  form  of  Esh- 
baal,  man  of  the  Lord]. 

A  son  of  Benjamin  and  founder  of  a  tribal 
family  (Gen.  xlvi.  21 ;  Num.  xxvi.  38;  1  Chron. 
viii.  1). 

Ash'che-naz.     See  Ashkenaz. 

Ash'dod,  in  N.  T.  Azotus  [a  fortified  place, 
a  castle]. 

One  of  the  five  chief  Philistine  cities,  ruled 
over  by  a  lord,  and  seat  of  the  worship  of 
Dagon  (Josh.  xiii.  3 ;  1  Sam.  v.  1  seq. ;  vi. 
17  ;  1  Mac.  x.  83;  xi.  4).  Anakim  remained 
in  it  after  the  conquest  of  Canaan  by  the  He- 
brews (Josh.  xi.  22).  It  was  assigned  to 
Judah  (xv.  46,  47),  but  was  not  possessed  by 


that  tribe.  The  ark  of  God  was  carried  to 
Ashdod  by  the  Philistines  after  they  captured 
it  at  Ebenezer,  and  was  placed  in  the  temple 
of  Dagon  (1  Sam.  v.  1-8).  A  judgment  fall- 
ing on  the  inhabitants,  the  ark  was  trans- 
ferred to  Gath  (6-8).  Uzziah  broke  down  the 
walls  of  Ashdod  (2  Chron.  xxvi.  6).  The 
Tartan  or  Assyrian  commander-in-chief  under 
Sargon  besieged  it  with  success  (Is.  xx.  1). 
Psammetichus,  king  of  Egypt,  utterly  de- 
stroyed it  about  630  b.  c,  after  a  siege  which, 
according  to  Herodotus  (ii.  157),  lasted  twenty- 
nine  years.  Only  a  remnant  survived  (Jer. 
XXV.  20  ;  cp.  Zeph.  ii.  4  ;  Zech.  ix.  6).  Its  in- 
habitants were  among  those  who  opposed  the 
rebuilding  of  the  walls  of  Jerusalem,  and 
they  spoke  a  different  language  from  the 
Israelites  of  that  day  ;  nevertheless  some  of 
the  returned  Jews  married  women  of  Ashdod 
(Neh.  iv.  7  ;  xiii.  23,  24).  The  city  was  twice 
besieged  and  partially  destroyed  by  the  Mac- 
cabees (1  Mac.  V.  68 ;'  x.  84),  but  was  rebuilt 
by  the  Romans  about  55  B.  c  In  N.  T.  times 
it  was  called  Azotus  (Acts  viii.  40). 

Philip  preached  the  gospel  from  this  place 
as  far  as  Csesarea  (Acts  viii.  40).  The  city  be- 
came eventually  the  seat  of  a  bishop.  Its 
approximate  site  is  the  mud  village  of  Esdud 
on  the  eastern  slope  of  a  low  round  knoll, 
among  sycomore  trees  and  prickly  pears, 
9  miles  northeast  from  Ascalon,  3  from  the 
Mediterranean,  and  about  midway  between 
Jafia  and  Gaza. 

Ash'dod-ite,  in  A.  V.  once  Ashdothite. 

A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Ashdod  (Josh, 
xiii.  3;  Xeh.  iv.  7). 

Ash'doth-ite.     See  preceding  article. 

Ash-doth-pis'gah,  in  E.  V.  slopes  of  Pis- 
gab,  in  A.  V.  once  springs  of  Pisgah. 

The  slopes  of  Pisgah  east  of  the  Dead  Sea, 
which  face  the  west  (Dent.  iii.  17;  iv.  49; 
Josh.  xii.  3  ;  xiii.  20). 

Ash'er,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Aser,  in  imitation 
of  the  Greek  form  [happy]. 

1.  The  eighth  son  of  Jacob,  and  the  second 
by  Zilpah,  Leah's  maidservant  (Gen.  xxx. 
12,  13;  XXXV.  26).  His  blessing  given  by 
Jacob  on  his  deathbed  is  thus  worded,  "  Out 
of  Asher  his  bread  shall  be  fat,  and  he  shall 
yield  royal  dainties"  (Gen.  xlix.  20).  That 
of  Moses,  "  Let  Asher  be  blessed  with  chil- 
dren ;  let  him  be  acceptable  to  his  brethren, 
and  let  him  dip  his  foot  in  oil.  Thy  shoes 
shall  be  iron  and  brass  ;  and  as  thy  days,  so 
shall  thy  strength  be  "  (Deut.  xxxiii.  24).  He 
had  four  sons,  Jimnah,  Ishuah,  Isui,  and 
Beriah  ;  and  a  daughter  named  Serah  (Gen. 
xlvi.  17  ;  1  Chron.  vii.  30). 

2.  The  tribe  of  which  Asher,  the  son  of 
Jacob,  was  the  progenitor.  As  assigned,  its 
territory  extended  on  the  north  to  the  north- 
ern boundary  of  Palestine,  and  on  the  south 
reached  to  the  south  of  Carmel,  a  length  of 
about  60  miles.  On  the  east  it  was  bounded 
by  the  territories  of  Zebulun  and  Naphtali, 
and  on  the  west  by  the  Mediterranean  (Josh. 


Asherah 


55 


Ashterathite 


six.  24-31).  But  from  Tyre,  Sidon,  Accho, 
and  other  stroug  places  the  Asherites  did  not 
expel  the  C'anaunite  inhabitants  (Judg.  i.  31, 
32).  The  failure  of  the  Asherites  to  capture 
and  occupy  the  Phoenician  plain  along  the 
sea  left  them  only  the  inland  hill-country, 
except  near  Carmel.  This  was  well  adapted 
for  the  culture  of  the  olive,  so  that  the  in- 
habitants might  dip  their  feet  in  oil  (cp.  Deut. 
xxxiii.  24). 

3.  A  town  east  of  Shechem  (Josh.  xvii.  7)  ; 
perhaps  Teiasir,  about  11  miles  northeast  of 
Shechem  on  the  road  to  Bethshean. 

A-she'rali,  jjlural  A-she'rim,  masculine, 
and  Asheroth,  feminine  [upright  or  uniting, 
or  less  probably,  bringing  fortune]. 

A  word  uniformly  translated  grove  in  the 
A.  v.,  but  a  grove  of  trees  would  not  be 
brought  out  of  the  temple  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  6). 
It  was  something  upright  made  of  wood  (Ex. 
xxxiv.  13),  originally,  perhaps,  the  trunk  of 
a  tree  with  the  branches  chopped  off,  and  was 
regarded  as  the  wooden  symbol  of  a  goddess 
Asherah,  probably  Ashtoreth,  the  female  side 
of  the  beneficent  and  fertilizing  sun-god  (Ex. 
xxxiv.  13).  It  was  erected  beside  the  altar 
of  Baal  (Judg.  \i.  25, 28,  R.  V.).  The  prophets 
of  the  Asherah  in  Ahab's  time  were,  with  those 
of  Baal,  slain  by  Elijah  at  the  river  Kishon  (1 
Kin.  xvi.  33 ;  xviii.  19-40.  both  R.  V.).  Women 
wove  hangings  for  an  Asherah  in  the  temple 
(2  Kin.  xxiii.  7,  R.  V.),  and  Josiah,  as  part 
of  his  religious  reformation,  brought  out  the 
idolatrous  symbol  and  burnt  it  at  the  brook 
Kidron  (6). ' 

A-she'rim.     See  preceding  article. 

Ash'er-ite. 

A  member  of  the  tribe  of  Asher  (Judg.  i.  32). 

A-she'roth.     See  Asherah. 

Ash'hur,  in  A.  V.  Aslmr  [blackness]. 

Son  of  Hezron  by  his  wife  Abiah.  He  was 
enrolled  with  the  house  of  Caleb,  was  head 
or  ancestor  of  the  inhabitants  of  Tekoa,  and 
had  two  wives  and  seven  children  (1  Chron. 
ii.  24  ;  iv.  5-7). 

Ash'i-ma. 

A  divinity  worshiped  by  the  people  of 
Hamath  (2  Kin.  xvii.  30). 

Ash'ke-lon,  in  A.  V.  sometimes  Askelon 
[starting  point,  migration]. 

One  of  the  five  leading  Philistine  cities 
each  ruled  by  a  lord  (Josh.  xiii.  3).  It  was 
situated  in  a  valley  on  the  Mediterranean 
seashore  (Jer.  xlvii.  5,  7),  12  miles  north  of 
Gaza,  and  was  the  seat  of  the  worship  of  Der- 
ceto,  a  goddess  with  the  body  of  a  fish,  whose 
temple  and  lake  lay  to  the  east  of  the  city.  It 
was  captured  bj^  the  tribe  of  Judah  in  the  time 
of  the  judges  (Judg.  i.  18),  but  soon  reverted 
to  its  old  rulers  (xiv.  19;  1  Sam.  vi.  17).  It 
was  to  have  its  inhabitants,  all  but  a  rem- 
nant, cut  off  and  made  desolate,  apparently 
by  a  Pharaoh  in  Jeremiah's  time  (Jer.  xlvii. 
1,  5,  7:  Zeph.  ii.  4,  7;  cp.  also  Zech.  ix.  5). 
Ashkelon  was  twice  taken  by  Jonathan  Mac- 


cabjeus  (1  Mac.  x.  86;  xi.  60).  It  was  the 
birthplace  of  Herod  the  Great,  and  the  resi- 
dence of  his  sister  Salome.  It  was  several 
times  taken  and  retaken  during  theCrusiides, 
till  at  length,  in  a.  d.  1270,  the  sultan  Bibars 
destroyed  it  and  filled  the  harbor  with  stones. 
Its  site  has  been  found  within  a  natural  am- 
phitheater constructed  by  a  ridge  of  rocks, 
forming  a  kind  of  semicircle  with  the  opeu 
side  to  the  sea.  The  wall,  now  in  ruins,  ran 
along  the  top  of  the  ridge.  The  soil  is  fer- 
tile, producing  large  apples,  sycomore  figs, 
etc.  The  kind  of  onion  called  shallot,  or 
eschalot,  came  at  fir.st  from  Ashkelon,  after 
which  it  is  named.  Ashkelon  is  now  called 
'Askalan. 

Ash'ke-lon-ite ;  in  A.  V.  Eshkalonite,  fol- 
lowing partly  the  traditional  Hebrew  pro- 
nunciation and  partly  the  obsolete  spelling, 
Eshkalon. 

An  inhabitant  of  Ashkelon  (Josh.  xiii.  3). 

Ash'ke-naz,  in  A.  V.  twice  Aschenaz. 

The  eldest  son  of  Gomer  (Gen.  x.  3 ;  1 
Chron.  i.  6).  The  name,  whether  originally 
that  of  a  person  or  country  or  tribe,  denoted, 
a  people  of  the  race  of  Gomer.  In  the  time 
of  Jeremiah  they  dwelt  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Ararat  and  Minni,  that  is,  near  eastern  Ar- 
menia (Jer.  Ii.  27). 

Ash'nah  [strong]. 

1.  A  village  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  near 
Zorah  (Josh.  xv.  .33,  R.  V.). 

2.  Another  village  of  Judah,  but  farther 
south  (Josh.  XV.  43).     Exact  site  unknown. 

Ash'pe-naz. 

The  master  of  the  eunuchs  at  Babylon  dur- 
ing Nebuchadnezzar's  reign  (Dan.  i.  3). 
Ash'ri-el.     See  Asriel. 
Ash'ta-roth  [plural  of  Ashtoreth  (q.  v.)]. 

1.  In  connection  with  the  plural  of  Baal,  a 
general  designation  for  all  the  false  gods  of 
the  neighboring  nations  and  their  idols ;  or 
better,  to  judge  from  Gen.  xiv.  5  and  1  Sanx 
xxxi.  10,  the  old  Canaanitish  plural  of  emi- 
nence whereby  the  goddess  Ashtoreth  was 
honorably  spoken  of  in  the  plural  number. 

2.  A  town  at  Edrei,  named  after  the  god- 
dess Astarte,  and  the  capital  of  Og,  king  of 
Bashan  (Deut.  i.  4,  where  it  is  spelled  Asta- 
roth  in  A.  V. ;  Josh.  ix.  10).  Some  of  the 
ancient  inhabitants  were  giants,  Og  himself 
being  of  the  number  (Jo.sh.  xii.  4  ;  xiii.  12). 
The  place  fell  to  the  lot  of  Machir,  the  son 
of  Manasseh  (31),  but  became  a  Levitical  city, 
inhabited  by  the  children  of  Gershom  (1 
Chron.  vi.  71).  Uzzia,  one  of  David's  mighty 
men,  was  connected  with  the  town  (xi.  44). 
Its  site  is  commonly  identified  with  Tell 
'Ashterah,  which  agrees  with  the  statement 
of  Eusebius  that  the  town  was  distant  6 
Roman  miles  from  Edrei.  This  tell  stands 
on  a  hill  in  the  mid.st  of  a  well-watered, 
grassy  plain.    See  Ashteroth-kaenaim. 

Ash'te-rath-ite. 

A  native  of  Ashtaroth  (1  Chron.  xi.  44). 


Ashteroth-kamaim 


56 


Asnapper 


Ash'te-rotli-kar-na'un  [two-horned  Ash- 
taruth]. 

A  i)lace  smitteu  by  Chedorlaomer  ou  his 
expedition  against  the  cities  of  the  plain  (Gen. 
xiv.  5,  K.  v.).  Its  name  suggests  that  the 
inhabitants  specially  worshiped  the  horned 
moon.  Probably  Asbteroth-karnaim  is  the 
full  name  of  Ashtaroth.  and  it  may  be  the 
jilace  known  centuries  later  as  Karuaim, 
which  is  mentioned  in  connection  with  cities 
of  Gilead  and  in  which  Atargatis  was  wor- 
shiped (1  Mac.  V.  26,  3(j,  43  ;  2  Mac.  xii.  2G). 
This  goddess,  whose  true  name  according  to 
Strabo  was  Athara,  was  the  Syrian  nature 
deity  corresi)onding  to  Ashtoreth.  It  is  to 
be  remembered  that  the  physical  features 
ascribed  to  Carnion  in  2  Mac.  xii.  21  do  not 
agree  with  Tell  'Ashterah,  the  commonly  ac- 
cepted site  of  Ashtaroth. 

Ash'to-reth  [a  binding  together,  union]. 

Astiirte,  a  Phoenician  goddess,  partly 
evolved,  perhaps,  from  admiration  for  the 
planet  Venus,  but  symbolizing  also  the  soft 
radiance  of  the  moon  ;  cp.  Asbteroth-kar- 
naim. Her  worship  was  early  established  at 
Sidon,  hence  she  is  called  the  goddess  or  the 
abomination  of  the  Zidonians  (1  Kin.  xi.  5, 
33;  2  Kin.  xxiii.  13).  It  was  in  vogue  east 
of  the  Jordan  in  the  days  of  Abraham  (Gen. 
xiv.  5).  As  early  as  the  times  of  the  judges 
it  had  spread  to  the  Hebrews  (Judg.  ii.  13 ; 
X.  6).  It  was  also  practiced  in  Philistia  (1 
Sam.  xxxi.  10).  Solomon  in  his  old  age  gave 
it  the  support  of  his  great  name  (1  Kin.  xi. 
5  ;  2  Kin.  xxiii.  13). 

Ash'ur.     See  Ashhue. 

Ash'ur-ite. 

A  people  belonging  to  the  kingdom  of  Ish- 
bosheth  (2  Sam.  ii.  9).  They  are  enumerated 
between  Gilead  and  Jezreel.  Vulgate  and 
Syriac  have  Geshurites. 

Ash'vatli. 

An  Asherite,  family  of  Heber,  house  of 
Japhlet  (1  Chrou.  vii.33). 

A'si-a. 

The  continent  east  of  Europe  and  Africa 
(Herod,  iv.  36-40).  The  name  was  employed 
in  a  narrower  sense  for  the  kingdom  of  the 
Seleucida'  (1  Mac.  viii.  6 ;  xi.  13),  which  em- 
braced Syria  and  extensive  regions  west  of 
the  river  Halys.  When  the  Romans  trans- 
ferred most  of  these  western  districts,  Mj-sia, 
Lydia,  and  Phrygia,  to  Eumenes  II.,  king 
of  Pergamos,  the  name  was  used  by  them  for 
the  kingdom  of  Pergamos,  and  when  this 
kingdom  was  appropriated  by  them  in  133 
B.  c,  they  added  Caria  and  a  strip  of  coast 
to  it  and  formed  the  province  of  Asia  (Acts 
vi.  9;  xxvii.  2;  1  Pet.  i.  1;  Rev.  i.  4,  11). 
Pliny,  however,  distinguishes  between  Phry- 
gia and  Asia  (v.  28).  So  do  Paul  and  others 
(Acts  ii.  9,  10  ;  xvi.  6).  The  names  of  the  in- 
corporated districts  were  not  abandoned  ;  and 
Paul,  who  was  traveling  along  but  outside  of 
the  borders  of  Asia,  mentions  being  at  a  point 


over  against  Mysia  (Acts  xvi.  7,  R.  V.),  in  which 
Pergamos  was  situated,  one  of  the  cities  of 
Asia  (Rev.  i.  4,  11).  The  province  was  at  first 
governed  bj'  proi)ra?tors,  but  in  27  B.  c.  it 
was  made  senatorial  and  so  continued  for  300 
years,  being  governed  by  proconsuls  (cp.  Acts 
xix.  38,  R.  v.).  Its  capital  w^as  Ephesus.  In 
the  N.  T.  Asia  always  denotes  the  Roman 
province  (Acts  xix.  10,  22,  26,  27;  xx.  4,  16, 
18;  xxi.  27;  xxiv.  18;  xxvii.  2;  1  Cor.  xvi. 
19;  2  Cor.  i.  8;  2  Tim.  i.  15). 

A'si-arcli  [chief  of  Asia]. 

Member  of  a  college  of  deputies  who  were 
annually  appointed  by  various  towns  of  the 
pi-ovince  of  Asia  to  conduct  a  festival  and 
games  in  honor  of  the  Roman  emperor.  The 
festivities  took  place  yearly  at  one  of  the 
several  cities  which  had  the  honor  in  succes- 
sion. The  asiarchs  were  chosen  each  year, 
but  in  time  formed  an  influential  body  in 
the  towns,  and  often  secured  the  reelection 
of  their  members.  The  asiarchs  of  Ephesus 
were  friends  to  Paul  (Acts  xix.  31,  R.  V.  marg.). 

A-si-de'ans.    See  Hasid.eans. 

A'si-el  [God  hath  made]. 

A  Simeonite  (1  Chrou.  iv.  35). 

As'ke-lon.     See  Ashkelon. 

As-mo-nse'an  [Greek  ' Asamunaios,  from 
Hel)rew  Hnshman,  opulent]. 

A  descendant  of  Hasbman,  a  priest  of  the 
family  of  Joarib  and  ancestor  of  the  Mac- 
cabees (Antiq.  xii.  6,  1 ;  cp.  1  Mac.  ii.  1 ;  1 
Chron.  xxiv.  7).  The  title  Asmonsean  is  com- 
monly employed  in  Jewish  literature  to  des- 
ignate the  family  from  Mattathias  to  Herod 
the  Great  and  Aristobulus  (Antiq.  xiv.  16,  4  ; 
XX.  8,  11). 

As-mo-nae'ans,  Pal'ace  of  the. 

A  ])alace  in  Jerusalem  erected  by  the  As- 
monsean  princes,  opposite  the  western  court 
of  the  temi)le,  on  an  elevation  which  com- 
manded a  view  of  the  city  and  the  sanctuary 
(Antiq.  xx.  8,  11).  It  stood  near  the  Xystus 
and  overlooked  it  (ibid. :  War  ii.  16,  3).  It  is 
probably  the  royal  palace  which  was  reck- 
oned one  of  the  two  fortresses  of  Jerusalem, 
the  Paris  being  the  other,  and  in  which  Herod 
the  Great  i-esided  before  the  erection  of  his 
palace  in  the  upper  city  (Antiq.  xiv.  13,  9; 
XV.  3,  7;  8,  4  and  5).  This  latter  building  ex- 
celled it  in  magnificence  and  as  a  fortress. 
So  late  as  A.  D.  60  the  last  prince  of  the  He- 
rodian  house  used  it  as  a  residence,  Agrippa 
II.,  the  king  Agrippa  of  Acts  xxv.  13  (Antiq. 
XX.  8,  11 ;  War  ii.  16,  3).  It  was  probably  the 
palace  burnt  by  the  seditious  Jews  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  war  with  the  Romans  (War  ii. 
17,  6). 

As'nah  [a  bramble]. 

One  of  the  Nethinim,  some  of  whose  de- 
scendants returned  from  the  captivity  at 
Babylon  (Ezra  ii.  50). 

As-nap'per,  in  R.  V.  Osnappar. 

A  high  Assyrian  dignitary  called  great  and 
noble  who  settled  various  foreign  tribes  in 


Asp 


57 


Assir 


Samaria  (Ezra  iv.  10).  He  seems  to  have 
been  either  Esar-haddou  or  one  of  his  officials 
(cp.  2  aud  10).  The  name  is  supposed  by  some  to 
be  a  rude  Aramaic  form  of  Ashurbanipal.  the 
son  of  Esar-haddou,  who  from  about  671  B.  C. 
or  hiter  was  his  associate,  aud  from  &iS  b.  c. 
his  successor  ou  the  Assyrian  throue,  aud 
reigued  uutil  about  ()2(i  B.  c.  Ashurbauipal 
records  that  he  penetrated  Ehim,  took  Susa 
the  cai)ital,  aud  carried  off  many  of  the  in- 
habitants to  Assyria  (cp.  Ezra  iv.  9,  10).  His 
father,  Esar-haddou,  had  conquered  Egypt. 
Eebeliiou  occurred  among  the  petty  rulers, 
aud  assistance  was  rendered  them  by  the  able 
Tirhakah.  To  supi)ress  this  revolt,  Ashur- 
bauipal conducted  two  campaigns,  in  which 
ou  the  whole  he  was  successful,  though  Egypt 
was  lost  at  last.  In  the  later  campaign,  about 
664  B.  c.  Thebes,  then  known  as  No,  was  cap- 
tured and  plundered  (cp.  Nah.  iii.  8-10).  He 
had  relations  first  friendly,  but  afterwards 
the  reverse,  with  Gyges,  the  usurping  king 
of  Lydia  ;  see  Gog.  He  had  to  crush  a  rebel- 
lion of  his  own  brother,  the  ruler  of  Babylon. 
He  had  a  war  with  the  Minni.  By  the  Greeks, 
who  called  him  Sardanapalus,  he  was  consid- 
ered effeminate.  Modern  scholars  regard  his 
memory  with  gratitude  ou  account  of  the 
splendid  library  which  he  brought  together. 
He  had  copyists  incessantly  at  work  not 
merely  transcribing  Assyrian  book.s,  but 
ti-auslatiug  works  of  value  from  the  so-called 
Accadian  and  other  tongues.  Part  of  this 
library  has  been  recovered,  and  it  is  from  it 
that  we  derive  most  of  our  acquaintance  with 
the  Assyrian  empire  and  its  kings. 

Asp  [a  round  shield,  which  the  serpent 
when  coiled  up  resembles]. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  Pethen 
in  Deut.  xxxii.  33 ;  Job  xx.  14,  16  ;  aud  Is. 
xi.  8.  aud  of  the  Greek  Aspis  in  Eom.  iii.  13. 
With  some  inconsistency  Pethen  is  rendered 
not  asp  but  adder  in  Ps.  Iviii.  4  and  xci.  13. 
Pethen  is  a  species  of  snake  (Ps.  Iviii.  4),  ven- 
omous (Deut.  xxxii.  33i,  dwelling  in  holes  (Is. 
xi.  !?);  probably  Xaja  haje,  which  is  found  in 
Egypt  and  Palestine,  is  the  asp  of  the  Greeks 
and  Romans,  is  of  the  same  genus  as  the 
deadly  cobra  of  India,  and  is  generally  used 
by  the  snake-charmers  in  their  performances. 
It  has  a  hood  which  it  dilates  when  about  to 
strike  its  prey. 

As'pa-tha. 

A  son  of  Haman  (Esth.  ix.  7). 

As'phar. 

A  reservoir  in  the  wilderness  of  Tekoah  (1 
Mac.  ix.  33). 

As'ri-el,  in  A.  V.  once  Asliriel  [probably, 
vow  of  God]. 

A  descendant  of  Manasseh  and  founder  of 
a  family  (Num.  xxvi.  31 :  Josh.  xvii.  2). 

Ass. 

The  genus  called  by  zoologists  Asinus,  con- 
taining the  several  species  and  varieties  of 
asses,  wild  or  domesticated.     The  ass  genus 


belongs  to  the  family  Eqnidse  or  Horses.  Three 
asses  are  mentioned  in  Scripture. 

1.  The  wild  ass,  called  in  Hebrew  'Arod, 
the  fugitive.  It  is  poetically  described  in  Job 
xxxix.  5-S,  where,  however,  there  is  mention 
also  of  the  commou  wild  ass  of  Syria,  and  is 
named  also  in  Dan.  v.  21.  If  distinct  in 
species  from  the  commou  wild  ass,  it  is  prob- 
ably As-inits  onager,  which  is  found  in  the 
Sahara  and  in  Arabia,  where  it  was  once 
common,  but  is  uow  more  rare.  It  occa- 
sionally visits  the  Hauran.  It  is  the  pro- 
genitor of  the  domestic  ass. 

2.  The  wild  ass  of  Syria  {Asinus  hemipjjits); 
Hebrew  Pere\  the  leaper,  occurring  in  Job 
xxiv.  5;  xxxix.  5;  Ps.  civ.  11  ;  Is.  xxxii.  14, 
and  Jer.  xiv.  6.  It  is  rather  smaller  than  the 
onager.  Tristram  mentions  that  euormous 
herds  of  them  often  enter  the  Armenian  moun- 
tains in  summer.  They  are  found  at  all  times 
in  Northern  Arabia,  Mesopotamia,  and  Syria, 
occasioually  entering  Northern  Palestine. 
They  are  the  species  represented  ou  the  Nine- 
vite  sculptures. 

3.  The  domestic  ass  {Asinns  asinus),  the 
Hebrew  H"mor.  It  is  a  sub-species  descended 
from  the  onager.  It  is  obstinate  aud  tyi)ical 
of  stupidity.  But  on  the  other  hand  the  ass 
is  strong,  easily  fed,  patient,  and  forgiviug. 
Its  faults  are  mainly  produced  by  the  cruel 
bondage  imposed  upon  it  by  its  human  task- 
master. The  ass  was  early  domesticated. 
Abraham  had  asses  (Gen.  xii.  16)  on  which 
he  rode  (xxii.  3),  so  had  Jacob  (xxx.  43). 
They  were  used  also  for  burden-bearing  (xlix. 
14  ;  Is.  xxx.  6),  for  ploughing,  etc.  (Deut.  xxii. 
10).  White  asses  were  deemed  fit  for  persons 
of  rank  (Judg.  v.  10),  as  they  still  ai"e  in 
Palestine.  Jesus  showed  his  lowliness,  and 
at  the  same  time  the  spirit  of  the  earlier 
kiugs,  by  rejecting  horses  and  riding  on  an 
ass  in  his  triumphal  entry  into  Jerusalem 
(Zech.  ix.  9  ;  Mat.  xxi.  5). 

As'shnr.  in  A.  V.  twice  Assur  [probably 
originally  A-ushar,  watered  plain  (Delitzsch), 
or  from  the  local  deity  Ashur,  the  good 
(Schrader)].     Pronounced  Ash'ur. 

A  people  descended  from  Shem  (Gen.  x.  22), 
and  the  country  which  they  inhabited  (Ezra 
iv.  2.  A.  y. :  Ezek.  xxvii.  23).    See  Assyria. 

As-shu'rim. 

A  people,  doubtless  of  Arabia,  descended 
from  Dedan,  and  more  remotely  from  Abra- 
ham by  Keturah  (Gen.  xxv.  3).  The  like 
name  borne  by  an  individual  mentioned  in 
the  Minseau  inscription  throws  little  or  no 
light  on  this  tribe.  The  Ashurites,  named 
after  Gilead  in  2  Sam.  ii.  9,  are  almost  cer- 
tainly different,  as  is  also  Asshur,  that  is  As- 
syria, in  Ezek.  xxvii.  23. 

As-si-de'ans.     See  Hasid^axs. 

As'sir  [captive]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Levi  through  Korah, 
bom  in  Egypt  (Ex.  vi.  24  ;  1  Chron.  vi.  22). 

2.  A  descendant  of  the  preceding  (1  Chron. 
vi.  23,  37). 


Assos 


58 


Astrologers 


3.  A  son  of  king  Jeconiah  (1  Chron.  iii.  17). 
The  name  does  not  appear  in  R.  V.  The 
revisers  regard  it  as  an  adjective  descriptive 
of  Jeconiah,  and  translate  it  "  the  captive;" 
but  there  is  no  definite  article  in  the  present 
Hebrew  text,  and  there  was  none  in  the  text 
used  by  the  Seventy.  His  name  suggests  that 
Assir  was  born  in  captivity.  This  accords  with 
other  indications.  Jeconiah  was  18  years  old 
when  carried  off  to  Babylon,  and  in  the  enu- 
meration of  the  members  of  his  family  de- 
ported with  him,  no  children  are  mentioned 
(2  Kin.  xxiv.  8-15).  Assir  did  not  succeed  to 
the  royal  title  ;  the  right  to  the  throne  passed 
to  Shealtiel  (q.  v.). 

As'sos. 

A  seaport  town  of  Mysia,  now  called  Beiram, 
not  far  from  Troas  (Acts  xx.  13,  14). 

As'sur.    See  Asshur. 

As-syr'i-a  [Greek  modification  of  Asshur 
(q.  V.)]. 

A  country  on  the  river  Tigris  (Gen.  ii.  14, 
E.  V.  margin).  It  was  originally  the  district 
dominated  by  the  town  of  Asshur,  the  ruins  of 
which  have  been  found  at  Kalah  Shergat,  on 
the  western  bank  of  the  Tigris,  about  60  miles 
below  Nineveh.  With  the  growth  of  the  city's 
power  and  dominion,  the  name  came  to  de- 
note the  region  comjiassed  by  the  Gordysean 
mountains  of  Armenia  on  the  north,  the 
ranges  of  Media  on  the  east,  and  the  little 
Zab  river  on  the  south.  Westward  it  ex- 
tended a  short  distance  from  the  Tigris  into 
Mesopotamia.  This  district  is  the  Assyria 
proper  of  history,  but  the  name  was  often 
given  to  the  extensive  empire  conquered  and 
ruled  by  the  Assyrians.  The  inhabitants  were 
Semites  (Gen.  x.  22),  who  derived  their  cul- 
ture from  Babylonia,  and  probably  originally 
emigrated  thence.  They  became  powerful 
enough  under  king  Tukulti-adar,  about  1300 
B.C., to  subjugate  Babylonia,  and  thenceforth 
during  700  years  they  were,  with  brief  inter- 
ruptions, the  leading  power  in  the  east.  Tig- 
lath-pileser  I.,  about  1120  to  1100  b.  c,  raised 
the  kingdom  into  the  most  extensive  empire 
of  the  age.  Under  his  successors  it  greatly 
declined,  its  decadence  leaving  a  void  which 
permitted  the  kingdoms  of  David  and  Solo- 
mon to  reach  their  widest  limits.  Ashur- 
nasirpal  (885  to  860)  by  his  conquests  restored 
the  prestige  of  the  empire.  He  erected  a 
palace  in  the  northwestern  part  of  Calah,  and 
made  that  ancient  town  (Gen.  x.  11)  the  cap- 
ital. He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Shalman- 
eser,  called  II.,  who  reigned  from  about  860 
to  825,  the  first  Assyrian  king  who  came  into 
conflict  with  the  Israelites  ;  see  Ahab  and 
Jehu.  Among  the  other  kings  were  Pul, 
also  known  as  Tiglath-pileser  III.,  743-727  ; 
Shalmaneser  IV.,  727-722;  Sargon,  722-705; 
Sennacherib,  705-681  ;  Esar-haddon,  680-668  ; 
and  Ashurbanipal,  668-626.  Ashurbanipal  is 
possibly  Asnapper.  Several  minor  kings  fol- 
lowed. About  607  B.  c.  the  Modes,  the  Baby- 
lonians, and  their  allies  captured  Nineveh, 


and  put  ap  end  to  the  Assyrian  empire.  When 
at  the  height  of  its  power  in  the  seventh  cen- 
tury B.  c,  Assyria  held  sway  over  Babylonia, 
parts  of  Media.  Armenia,  Syria,  Cyprus,  Ara- 
bia, and  Egypt.  The  kings  of  Israel  mentioned 
in  the  Assyrian  inscriptionsareHumri(Omri), 
Ahabbu  (Ahab),  Yaua  (Jehu),  Minihimmu 
(Menahem),  Pakaha  (Pekah),  and  Ausi'  (Ho- 
shea).  The  kings  of  Judah  so  mentioned  are 
Azriyau  (Azariah  or  Uzziah),  Yauhazi  (Ahaz), 
Hazakiyau(Hezekiah)andMinasi(Manasseh). 

The  Assyrian  religion  was  borrowed  from 
that  of  Babylon,  except  that  Ashur,  the  pre- 
siding god  of  the  city  of  Asshur,  became  the 
chief  deity  of  Assyria.  It  was  animistic  na- 
ture-worship. Every  object  and  phenomenon 
in  nature  was  believed  to  be  animated  by  a 
spirit.  The  great  gods,  after  Ashur,  were  the 
prominent  objects  of  nature.  They  were 
eleven  in  number,  in  two  triads  and  a  pentad. 
Chief  were  Anu,  heaven,  Bel,  the  region  in- 
habited by  man,  beast,  and  bird,  and  Ea,  ter- 
restrial and  subterranean  waters.  Next  in 
order  were  Sin,  the  moon,  Shamash,  the  sun, 
and  Ramman,  god  of  the  storm.  Then  came 
the  five  planets.  There  were  innumerable 
other  deities,  some  of  whom  were  merely 
different  aspects  of  the  foregoing.  Sul)ordi- 
nate  gods  often  attained  eminence  as  patrons 
of  important  towns. 

Excavations  in  the  Assyrian  palaces,  begun 
by  the  Frenchman  Botta  in  1843,  followed 
immediately  by  the  Englishman  Layard.and 
then,  after  a  time,  by  George  Smith  of  the 
British  Museum,  Rassam,  and  others,  have 
made  the  Assyrian  empire,  which  was  little 
more  than  a  myth  to  the  classic  nations  of 
antiquity,  to  us  a  great  reality. 

The  language  spoken  by  the  Assyrians  and 
the  kindred  people  in  Babylonia  was  of  the 
Semitic  family  and  closely  allied  to  the  He- 
brew. An  alphabet  was  not  used.  The  lan- 
guage was  written  in  characters  which  ex- 
pressed syllables,  not  single  letters  or  sounds. 
These  signs  were  imi)ressed  on  clay  by  a 
stylus,  each  impression  having  the  shape  of 
a  wedge  or  arrow,  whence  the  writing  is  called 
cuneiform.  The  characters  were  originally 
pictures  of  objects,  but  in  time  assumed  con- 
ventional forms  which  often  bore  no  resem- 
blance to  the  original  object. 

As'ta-roth.    See  Ashtaroth  2. 

As-trol'o-gers. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  words 
Hob're  shamai/'ni},  dividers  of  the  heavens. 
They  are  mentioned  with  stargazers  (Is. 
xlvii.  13).  There  is  no  question  that  these 
were  astrologers  who  divided  the  heavens 
into  certain  mansions,  with  the  view  of 
tracing  the  course  of  the  planets  through 
each  of  them,  in  the  vain  hope  of  being  able 
to  tell  fortunes  and  predict  future  events. 
Though  their  failure  was  complete,  yet  the 
careful  study  of  the  heavens  which  astrolo- 
gers found  needful,  led  to  the  gradual  growth 
of  the  sublime  science  of  astronomy. 


Asuppim 


59 


Athens 


2.  The  rendering  in  A.  V.  of  the  Hebrew 
and  Aramaic  words  \lshshaiihiin  (Dan.  i.  20), 
'Ash'phin  (ii.  27),  and  'Ash'phnyi/a  (iv.  7 ;  v. 
7),  all  translated  in  the  R.  V.  "enchanters." 
See  Enchantment  and  Enchanter. 

A-sup'pim  [collections,  stores]. 

A  building  for  storing  temple  goods,  which 
stood  near  the  southern  gate  of  the  outer 
court  (1  Chron.  xxvi.  15,  17) ;  hence  E.  V. 
renders  the  word  by  storehouse. 

A-syn'cri-tus  [incomparable  or  unlike]. 
A  Christian  at  Kome  to  whom  Paul  sent  a 
salutation  (Rom.  xvi.  14). 

A'tad  [a  plant,  Ehamnits paliurus,  or  Christ's 
thorn]. 

The  great  company,  which  was  bearing  the 
body  of  Jacob  from  Egypt  to  the  sepulcher 
at  Hebron,  after  making  a  detour,  perhaps  to 
avoid  the  Philistines  and  Edomit«s,  halted 
at  the  threshing-floor  of  Atad,  east  of  the 
Jordan,  and  made  a  mourning  for  seven  days. 
The  Canaanites  saw  and  called  the  place  Abel- 
mizraim.  Meadow,  or  with  slightly  altered 
pronunciation.  Mourning  of  Egypt.  The  pro- 
cession afterwards  entered  Canaan  (Gen.  1. 
9-13). 

At'a-rah  [a  crown,  a  diadem]. 

A  wife  of  Jerahmeel  (1  Chron.  ii.  26). 

At'a-roth  [crowns,  diadems]. 

1.  A  town  east  of  the  Jordan,  rebuilt  by 
the  tribe  of  Gad  (Num.  xxxii.  3,  34).  It  was 
taken  from  the  men  of  Gad  by  Mesha,  king 
of  Moab  (Moabite  Stone,  10, 11).  Its  name  is 
generally  supposed  to  be  preserved  in  the 
ruins  'Attarus,  on  the  western  slope  of  Jebel 
'Attarus,  three  or  four  miles  eastof  Machaerus. 
The  mountain  is  some  miles  south  of  Hesh- 
bon,  which  is  in  the  tribe  of  Reuben  ;  but  the 
territories  of  Reuben  and  Gad,  like  those  of 
Judah  and  Simeon,  were  much  commingled. 
The  ruins  consist  of  uuwrought  stones,  lying 
in  heaps ;  ranges  of  broken  walls ;  remains 
of  foundations,  large  caverns,  and  circular 
cisterns.  The  old  citadel  was  an  hour's  walk 
from  the  town,  than  which  it  is  lower,  but 
more  isolated. 

2.  The  same  as  Ataroth-addar  (Josh.  xvi.  2). 

3.  A  town  on  the  border  of  Ephraim,  not 
far  from  Jericho.  Apparently  different  from 
Ataroth-addar  (Josh.  xvi.  7). 

4.  A  village,  apparently  in  Judah  (1  Chron. 
ii.  54).  The  name  should  include  the  four 
words  that  follow  in  A.  V.  and  be  written  as 
in  E.  v.,  Atroth-beth-joab. 

At'a-roth-ad'dar,  in  A.  V.  once  Ataroth- 
adar  [crowns  of  Addar]. 

A  village  on  the  southern  frontier  of  Eph- 
raim (.Josh.  xvi.  5),  on  the  boundary  line  be- 
tween that  tribe  and  Benjamin,  west  of  Luz 
and  near  the  hill  that  lieth  on  the  south  side 
of  the  nether  Beth-horon  (xviii.  13).  Not 
identified.  'Atara,  3i  miles  south  of  Bethel, 
on  the  road  leading  to  Jerusalem,  is  much 
too  far  east. 


A'ter  [shut]. 

1.  A  man  called,  by  way  of  distinction, 
Ater  of  Hezekiah,  ninety-eight  of  whose  de- 
scendants returned  from  liabylun  after  the 
captivity  (Ezra  ii.  K! ;  Neh.  vii.  21). 

2.  A  porter  (Ezra  ii.  42 ;  Neh.  vii.  45). 

A'thach  [a  lodging-place]. 

A  village  in  the  south  of  Judah,  to  which 
David  sent  some  of  the  spoil  of  Ziklag  (1 
Sam.  XXX.  30).  Perhaps  it  is  Ether  (Josh.  xv. 
42 ;  xix.  7),  kaph  and  resh  being  confused  by 
a  scribe. 

A-tha'iah. 

A  man  of  Judah,  son  of  Uzziah,  of  the 
family  of  Perez  (Neh.  xi.  4) ;  scarcely  the 
same  as  Uthai  (1  Chron.  ix.  4). 

Ath-a-li'ah  [Jehovah  has  afflicted  or  is 
exalted]. 

1.  The  wife  of  Jehoram,  king  of  Judah,  a 
daughter  of  Ahab  and  granddaughter  of 
Omri  (2  Kin.  viii.  18,  26  ;  2  Chron.  xxi.  6 ; 
xxii.  2).  She  possessed  the  masculine  courage 
of  her  mother  Jezebel,  and  was  equally  un- 
scrupulous in  shedding  blood.  When  her  son, 
king  Ahaziah,  was  slain  by  Jehu,  she  killed 
all  the  sons  of  the  murdered  monarch  except- 
ing one  infant,  Joash,  who  was  stolen  away 
by  his  aunt,  Jehosheba.  Then  seizing  the 
throne,  she  reigned  six  years,  at  the  end  of 
which  a  priestly  insurrection  took  place  in 
favor  of  Joash.  Attempting  to  quell  it,  she 
was  dragged  from  the  temple  courts  and 
killed  at  the  carriage  entrance  of  the  palace 
(2  Kin.  xi.  1-16;  2  Chron.  xxii.  1-xxiii.  21). 

2.  A  Benjamite  of  the  house  of  Jeroham 
(1  Chron.  viii.  26). 

3.  A  man  of  the  father's  house  of  Elam 
(Ezra  viii.  7). 

Ath-e-no'toi-us. 

A  commissioner  .sent  by  Antiochus  Sidetes 
to  Simon  Maccabseus.  He  belonged  to  the 
privileged  class  known  as  friends  of  the  king 
(1  Mac.  XV.  28). 

Ath'ens. 

The  caiutal  of  Attica,  one  of  the  Greek 
states.  The  city  became  the  center  of  en- 
lightenment in  science,  literature,  and  art 
for  the  ancient  world.  It  grew  up  around 
the  rocky  hill  called  Acropolis  (top  or  high- 
est point  of  the  city),  and  covered  the  smaller 
hills  and  intervening  valleys  on  the  north- 
west side  of  the  Gulf  of  ^Egina,  between  the 
small  river  Ilissus  on  the  east  and  south,  and 
the  Cephisus  a  little  to  the  west.  Athens  was 
about  5  miles  from  the  sea.  Its  commercial 
port  was  Pirteus,  with  which  the  city  when 
in  its  glory  was  connected  by  long  walls. 
The  navy  anchored  close  by  at  Phaleron. 
Tradition  says  that  Athens  was  founded  by 
Cecrops  about  1556  B.  c,  that  it  sent  fifty 
ships  to  the  Trojan  war,  and  that  it  was  ruled 
by  kings  till  about  1068  B.  c.  The  supreme 
authority  was  afterwards  vested  in  archons. 
Two  celebrated  legislators  are  spoken  of; 
Draco,  about  621  b.  c,  whose  name  has  be- 


Athlai 


60 


Attalia 


<;oiiie  proverbial  for  pitiless  severity,  aud 
Solon,  about  594  B.  c,  a  wiser  mau,  whose 
laws  were  more  humane.  In  490  B.  c.  the 
Athenians,  sui>ported  by  the  I'latieans,  gained 
the  great  victory  at  Marathon  against  the 
generals  of  Darius  Hystaspis,  king  of  Persia. 
In  480  Athens  had  to  be  abandoned  to  his  son 
and  successor,  Xerxes,  but  the  great  naval 
battle  at  Salamis  gained  by  the  Greeks  com- 
pelled the  invader  to  withdraw.  The  city 
was,  however,  burnt  in  479  B.  c.  by  his  gen- 
eral, Mardouius.  The  glory  gained  by  the 
Athenians  in  the  Persian  war  led  to  the  es- 
tablishment of  a  small  empire,  with  Athens 
for  its  capital  and  a  powerful  fleet  rather 
than  a  large  army  for  its  support.  About 
444  B.  c.  the  power  of  Pericles,  an  able  demo- 
cratic leader,  became  very  great.  The  good 
feature  of  his  enlightened  government  was 
the  erection  of  many  beautiful  public  build- 
ings in  Athens.  Literature  also  gi-eatly  flour- 
ished under  his  administration.  In  431,  while 
he  yet  lived  and  ruled,  the  Peloponnesian 
■war  began,  which  ended  by  the  surrender  of 
Athens  to  the  Spartans  in  404.  The  city  after- 
wards went  through  various  political  vicis- 
situdes, though  the  intellect  and  knowledge 
of  its  inhabitants  rendered  them  influential, 
whatever  changes  took  place.  Four  great 
schools  of  philosophy — Platonic,  Peripatetic, 
Epicurean,  and  Stoic — flourished  here  and 
attracted  numerous  students,  not  only  from 
Greece,  but  also  later  from  Eome.  The  city 
■was  taken  by  the  Roman  general  Sulla  in  86 
B.  c,  and  was  still  subject  to  the  Eomans 
■when  Paul  was  there.  Altars  "to  an  un- 
known god  "  were  found  in  the  city  and  at 
the  harbor  Phaleron  (Actsxvii.  23  ;  Pausanias 
i.  1,  4 ;  Philostratus,  vit.  Apol.  6,  2).  Mars' 
Hill,  on  which  Paul  delivered  his  celebrated 
discourse,  was  a  short  distance  west  of  the 
Acropolis  (Acts  xvii.  15-xviii.  1 ;  cp.  also  1 
Thes.  iii.  1).  Athens  subsequently  came  into 
the  hands  of  the  Goths,  the  Byzantines,  and 
other  temporarily  dominant  races,  ending 
■with  the  Turks.  Since  the  establishment  of 
the  modern  Greek  kingdom,  in  a.  d.  1828, 
Athens  has  been  the  capital  not  .merely  of 
Greece,  but  of  the  Hellenic  race  throughout 
the  world. 

Ath'lai  [afiiicted  or  exalted]. 

A  mau  who  was  induced  by  Ezra  to  divorce 
his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  28). 

A-tone'ment  [at-one-ment,  the  making  of 
those  one  in  feeling  who  before  were  at 
variance] . 

1.  Reconciliation  between  persons  or  beings 
at  variance  (Rom.  v.  11,  A.  V.). 

2.  That  which  produces  this  reconciliation, 
specially  an  expiatory  sacrifice  designed  to 
have  that  effect  (Ex.  xxx.  16 ;  Lev.  iv.  20,  26, 
31,  35).  This  is  the  sense  in  which  the  word 
atonement  is  now  commonly  used. 

A-tone'ment,  Day  of. 

The  annual  day  of  humiliation  and  expia- 
tion for  the  sins  of  the  nation,  when  the  high 


priest  offered  sacrifices  as  an  atonement  for 
the  sanctuarj-,  the  prie.sts,  and  the  people 
(Lev.  xvi. ;  xxiii.  26-32  ;  Num.  xxix.  7-11). 
It  was  observed  on  the  tenth  day  of  the 
seventh  month  by  abstinence  from  daily 
labor,  by  a  holy  convocation,  and  by  fasting. 
It  was  the  only  fast  enjoined  by  the  law.  It 
was  "the  fast"  (Acts  xxvii.  9;  Antiq.  xiv. 
4,  3).  On  that  day  the  high  priest  laid  aside 
his  official  ornaments,  and  clad  in  simple 
white  linen  sacrificed  a  bullock  as  a  sin 
offering  for  himself  and  the  priests.  Taking 
a  censer  of  live  coals  from  off'  the  altar,  he 
entered  the  holy  of  holies  and  burned  in- 
cense that, the  smoke  might  cover  the  mercy 
seat  above  the  law.  He  then  fetched  the 
blood  of  the  slain  bullock  and  sprinkled  it 
on  the  mercy  seat  and  on  the  floor.  This 
completed  the  atonement  for  the  priesthood. 
He  took  the  two  goats  provided  by  the  nation 
and  cast  lots  upon  them.  One  he  slew  as  a 
sin  offering  for  the  people,  brought  its  blood 
within  the  veil,  and  sprinkled  it  as  before  to 
make  atonement  for  the  holy  of  holies.  By 
similar  rites  he  made  atonement  for  the  holy 
place  and  the  altar  of  burnt  offering.  He 
now  took  the  remaining  goat,  placed  his 
hands  on  its  head,  and  confessed  over  it  the 
sins  of  the  people.  Typically  the  sins  of  the 
people  were  "laid  on  its  head,"  it  was  made 
the  sin  bearer  of  the  nation,  and  laden  with 
guilt  not  its  own  was  sent  away  into  the  wil- 
derness ;  see  Azazkl.  The  high  priest  re- 
sumed his  official  raiment,  offered  his  burnt 
offering  and  that  of  the  people,  and  likewise 
the  fat  of  the  sin  offering.  The  flesh  of  the 
bullock  aud  the  goat  were  carried  without 
the  camp  and  burned.  The  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews  points  out  that  this  entry  of  the 
high  priest  into  the  most  holy  place,  once  a 
year,  aud  not  without  blood,  foreshadowed 
the  entrance  of  Jesus,  the  gi-eat  high  priest, 
once  for  all  into  heaven,  having  purchased 
for  us  eternal  salvation  (Heb.  ix.  1-12,  24- 
28). 
At'roth.    See  Atroth-shophan. 

At'roth-beth-jo'ab  [crowns  of  the  house 
of  Joab]. 

A  village,  apparently  in  Judah  (1  Chron.  ii. 
54,  R.  v.).   In  A.  V.  the  name  is  cut  asunder. 

At'roth-sho'phan  [crowns  of  Shophan]. 

A  town  rebuilt  by  the  Gadites  (Num.  xxxii. 
35,  R.  v.).  Site  unknown.  In  A.  Y.  incor- 
rectly represented  as  two  towns. 

At'tai  [perhaps,  opportune]. 

1.  A  man  of  Judah  whose  descent  through 
his  mother  was  from  Jerahmcel  and  Hezron, 
but  whose  father  was  an  Egyptian  slave  (1 
Chron.  ii.  34-36). 

2.  A  Gadite  who  came  to  David  at  Ziklag 
(1  Chron.  xii.  11). 

3.  A  son  of  Rehoboam  by  his  queen  Maacah 
(2  Chron.  xi.  20). 

At-ta-li'a  [jiertaining  to  Attains]. 

A  city  on  the  seacoa.st  of  Pamphylia,  built 


Attains 


61 


Azariah 


by  Attains  PhilaiU'lplius,  kiug  of  Pcrgamos, 
159-138  B.  c,  anil  now  called  Antali  or  Adal. 
Paul  sailed  theuce  to  Autioch  ou  his  first 
missionary  journey  (Acts  xiv.  25). 

At'ta-lus. 

King  of  Porganios,  cither  Attains  II.,  Phila- 
delphus,  or  his  nephew  Attains  III.,  who  suc- 
ceeded his  nnole  iu  138  B.  c.  (1  Mao.  xv.  '2'2). 

Au-gus'tan  Band,  in  A.  V.  Augustus'  Band. 

A  cohort  of  Eomau  soldiers,  apparently 
named  after  the  Koman  emperor  Augustus 
(Acts  xxvii.  1). 

Au-gus'tus  [venerable,  august]. 

The  personal  name  of  the  first  Roman  em- 
peror, called  iu  the  N.  T.  Qesar  Augustus. 
See  C^SAK. 

A'va.     See  Avva. 

A'ven  [emptiness,  nothingness,  an  idol]. 

1.  The  Egyptian  city  Ou,  called  by  the 
Greeks  Heliopolis  (Ezek.  xxx.  17).  The  He- 
brew consonants  of  Ou  and  Aveu  are  the 
same,  though  the  vowels  differ.  The  pro- 
nunciation has  been  intentionally  modified 
by  the  prophet  to  express  his  contempt  for 
the  idolatries  of  the  city. 

2.  A  name  applied  by  Hosea  to  Bethel  as 
no  longer  the  house  of  God,  but  now  a  house 
of  idolatry  (Hos.  x.  8) ;  see  Beth-avex. 

3.  A  town,  apparently,  which  served  to 
designate  a  valley  in  the  kingdom  of  Da- 
mascus (Amos  i.  5)  ;  probably  Heliopolis,  now 
Baalbec,  which  like  the  Egyptian  Ou  was  a 
seat  of  the  sun-worship  (cp.  1  above). 

A-ven'ger  of  Blood. 

One  who  inflicts  punishment  on  a  mur- 
derer, thus  vindicating  the  majesty  of  the 
law,  "  Whoso  sheddeth  man's  blood,  by  man 
shall  his  blood  be  shed  "  (Gen.  ix.  5,  6  ;  Num. 
XXXV.  31).  When  civil  life  is  regulated,  this 
duty  is  undertaken  by  courts  of  justice.  Of 
old,  however,  the  Semitic  nations,  like  the 
ancient  Greeks,  Germans,  and  Slavs,  acted  to 
a  large  extent  on  the  system  of  each  injured 
man  being  his  own  avenger.  When  murder 
or  accidental  homicide  took  place,  the  nearest 
relative  of  the  victim  was  expected  to  avenge 
his  death,  and  was  called  the  avenger  of 
blood.  He  slew  the  murderer  or  the  unin- 
tentional homicide,  without  any  preliminary 
trial  to  settle  the  actual  facts  of  the  case. 
Then,  very  probably,  the  nearest  relative  of 
the  second  man  slain  murdered  the  avenger 
of  blood,  and  a  blood  feud  was  established. 
The  Mosaic  legislation  introduced  modifica- 
tions into  the  system  which  destroyed  its 
worst  features.  Cities  of  refuge  were  estab- 
lished, and  any  one  killing  a  man  and  fleeing 
to  one  of  those  cities  was  granted  a  fair  trial, 
and  was  not  put  to  death  unless  he  had  com- 
mitted actual  murder  (Xum.  xxxv.  19,  21, 
24,  27;  2  Sam.  xiv.  11).  The  A.  V.  reads.  Re- 
venger of  blood.    See  Cities  of  Refuge. 

A'vlm  and  Avims.     See  Avvim. 

A'vites.     See  Avvites. 


A'vith  [ruins]. 

An  Edomite  city,  the  native  place  of  king 
Hadad  KJen.  xxxvi.  35 ;  1  Chron.  i.  46).  Exact 
site  unknown. 

Av'va,  in  A.  V.  A'va. 

A  city  of  the  Assyrian  empire,  in  or  north- 
west of  Bal)ylouia,  from  which  people  were 
brought  to  help  to  colonize  Samaria.  Their 
gods  were  Nibhaz  and  Tartak  (2  Kin.  xvii. 
24,  31).  It  is  doubtless  the  place  called  Ivvah 
iu  2  Kin.  xviii.  34;  xix.  13,  R.  V. 

Av'vim,  in  A.  V.  A'vims  and  A'vites  and, 
as  name  of  the  town,  A'vim. 

1.  The  aborigines  of  the  Philistine  country 
about  Gaza.  All  save  a  small  remnant  were 
destroyed  by  the  Caphtorim,  afterwards  called 
Philistines  (Deut.  ii.  23;  Josh.  xiii.  3). 

2.  A  town  of  Benjamin,  perhaps  the  same, 
as  Ai  (Josh,  xviii.  23). 

Av'vites,  in  A.  V.  A'vites. 

1.  The  same  as  Avvim  (Josh.  xiii.  3). 

2.  People  of  Avva  (2  Kin.  xvii.  31). 
A'zal.     See  Azel. 

Az-a-li'ah  [Jehovah  hath  spared]. 

Son  of  MeshuUam  and  father  of  Shaphaa 
the  scribe  (2  Kin.  xxii.  3). 

Az-a-ni'ah  [Jehovah  hath  given  ear]. 

A  Levite,  father  of  Jeshua  (Neh.  x.  9). 

Az'a-rel,  in  A.  V.  A-zar'e-el,  once  A-zar'- 
a-el  (Neh.  xii.  36)  [God  has  helped]. 

1.  A  Levite  who  joined  David  at  Ziklag  (1 
Chron.  xii.  6). 

2.  A  singer  in  David's  time  (1  Chron.  xxv. 
18).  In  ver.  4  he  is  called  Uzziel  (as  king 
Azariah  was  also  known  as  Uzziah),  and  is 
recorded  as  of  the  lineage  of  Hemau. 

3.  A  son  of  Jeroham,  the  chief  of  the  tri])e 
of  Dan  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  22). 

4.  A  man  whom  Ezra  persuaded  to  divorce 
his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  41). 

5.  A  priest  of  the  father's  house  of  Immer 
(Neh.  xi.  13). 

6.  A  musician  of  priestly  descent  (Neh.  xii. 
36). 

Az-a-ri'ah  [Jehovah  hath  helped]. 

1.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Zerah,  house 
of  Ethan  (1  Chnm.  ii.  8). 

2.  A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath,  line  of 
Izhar,  and  an  ancestor  of  Samuel  the  prophet 
and  Heman  the  singer  (1  Chron.  vi.  36 ;  per- 
haps, 2  Chron.  xxix.  12). 

3.  One  of  Solomon's  ofiicials,  son  of  the  high 
priest  Zadok  (1  Kin.  iv.  2)  and  brother  of 
Ahimaaz. 

4.  Grandson  of  Zadok  and  son  of  Ahimaaz. 
He  was  in  the  line  of  high-priestly  succession 
(1  Chron.  vi.  9). 

5.  Son  of  Nathan,  and  hence  probably  Solo- 
mon's nephew  (2  Sam.  v.  14),  who  was  over 
Solomon's  twelve  tax-collectors  (1  Kin.  iv.  5). 

6.  A  prophet,  son  of  Oded,  who  encouraged 
king  Asa  to  persevere  in  national  religious 
reformation  (2  Chron.  xv.  1-8). 

7.  Two  sons  of  king  Jehoshaphat  (2  Chron. 
xxi.  2). 


Azarias 


62 


Azel 


8.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Hezron, 
house  of  Jerahmeel  (1  Chroii.  ii.  38,  39).  His 
grandfather  was  Obed  (38)  ;  hence  he  was 
perhaps  the  captain  Azariah.  son  of  Obed, 
who  assisted  in  overthrowing  Athaliah  and 
placing  Joash  on  the  throne  (2  Chron.  xxiii.  1). 

9.  Another  captain,  son  of  Jeroham,  who 
aided  in  overthrowing  Athaliah  (2  Chron. 
xxiii.  1). 

10.  A  prince  of  Ephraim,  son  of  Johanan, 
who  aided  in  persuading  the  soldiers  of 
Pekah's  army  to  release  the  captives  of  Judah 
(2  Chron.  xxviii.  12). 

11.  A  king  of  Judah,  known  also  as  Uzziah 
(cp.  2  Kin.  XV.  1  with  2  Chron.  xxvi.  1) ;  see 
Uzziah.  In  Assyrian  inscriptions  he  is  called 
Azriyahu. 

12.  A  high  priest  (1  Chron.  vi.  10),  probably 
he  who  rebuked  Uzziah  for  encroaching  on 
the  priest's  office  (2  Chron.  xxvi.  17-20).  Per- 
haps he  was  still  officiating  in  Hezekiah's 
reign  (xxxi.  10,  13),  but  probably  the  pontiflf 
of  the  latter  reign  was  another  priest  of  the 
name  Azariah  ;  see  High  Priest. 

13.  A  Levite,  family  of  Merari,  who  as- 
sisted in  purifying  the  temple  in  Hezekiah's 
reign  (2  Chron.  xxix.  12). 

14.  A  high  priest,  son  of  Hilkiah  and  father 
of  Seraiah,  not  long  before  the  exile  (1  Chron. 
vi.  13,  14  ;  perhaps  ix.  11).     See  Sekaiah  12. 

15.  A  sou  of  Hoshaiah  and  an  opponent  of 
the  prophet  Jeremiah  (Jer.  xliii.  2). 

16.  The  Hebrew  and  original  name  of 
Abednego  (Dan.  i.  7;  1  Mac.  ii.  59). 

17.  A  prominent  person,  probably  prince 
of  Judah,  who  marched  in  the  procession  at 
the  dedication  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh. 
xii.  32,  33). 

18.  A  son  of  Maaseiah,  who  had  a  house 
at  Jerusalem  in  Nehemiah's  time,  and  re- 
paired the  wall  in  its  immediate  vicinity 
(Neh.  iii.  23,  24). 

19.  One  of  those,  apparently  Levites,  who 
explained  to  the  people  the  law  which  Ezra 
read  (Neh.  viii.  7). 

20.  A  priest,  doubtless  head  of  a  father's 
house,  who  in  the  days  of  Nehemiah  sealed 
the  covenant  to  keep  separate  from  foreigners 
and  observe  the  law  of  God  (Neh.  x.  2). 

21.  A  descendant  of  Hilkiah  who  was  ruler 
of  the  hou.se  of  God  after  the  exile  (1  Chron. 
ix.  11) ;  see,  however,  Seraiah  12. 

Besides  these,  a  king  of  Israel  (not  Uzziah) 
is  called  Azariah  in  2  Chron.  xxii.  6,  but  this 
seems  a  coxiyist's  error  for  Ahaziah,  which  is 
given  in  the  next  verse  (2  Chron.  xxii.  6,  7  ; 
cp.  2  Kin.  viii.  29). 

Az-a-ri'as  [Greek  form  of  Azariah]. 

One  of  two  men  appointed  by  Judas  Mac- 
cabseus  to  chief  authority  in  Judsea  during 
his  absence  (1  Mac.  v.  18),  but  who  were  de- 
feated by  Gorgias  (56-60). 

A'zaz  [strong]. 

A  Reubenite,  line  of  Joel  (1  Chron.  v.  8). 

A-za'zel  [probably  for  ^azalzel,  in  the  sense 
of  dismi.ssal  or  dismissed,  separated  one]. 


The  word  occurs  originally  in  one  passage 
only  (Lev.  x^^.  8,  10,  26,  E.  V.) ;  see  Atone- 
ment, Day  of.  The  data  for  determining  its 
meaning  are  meager  and  insufficient,  being 
confined  as  yet  to  etymology,  exegesis  of  the 
passage,  and  general  biblical  teaching.  Nu- 
merous interpretations  have  been  proposed, 
but  they  are  conjectures  more  or  less  satis- 
factory. The  word  has  been  interpreted  both 
impersonally  and  personally,  as  meaning — 1. 
A  place :  a  solitary  de.sert  (Jonathan,  Jerome) ; 
2.  A  goat :  the  departing  goat  (Jewish  revisers 
of  the  Septuagint ;  Vulgate) ;  scape-goat,  the 
goat  that  is  allowed  to  escape  (A.  V.) ;  3.  An 
abstract  nouu :  utter  removal  or  dismissal 
(Bahr,  Winer,  R.  V.)  ;  4.  A  personal  being : 
(a)  some  demotf  of  the  wilderness  (Stade) ; 
(h)  a  fallen  angel  who  seduces  men  to  evil 
(Book  of  Enoch  vi.  7  ;  viii.  1  et  passim),  later 
identified  with  Sammael ;  (c)  an  epithet  ap- 
plied to  the  devil  (Origen,  Hengstenberg, 
Oehler,  Kurtz,  Keil ;  see  Milton,  Paradise 
Lost  i.). 

Either  of  two  interpretations  is  satisfac- 
tory :  1.  To  regard  the  word  as  an  abstraction. 
Aaron  shall  cast  lots  upon  the  goats,  "one 
lot  for  the  Lord  and  the  other  lot  for  dis- 
missal," and  shall  send  the  goat,  upon  which 
the  latter  lot  falls,  away  "as  a  dismissal  to 
the  wilderness."  The  idea  of  the  escaped 
goat  is  virtually  preserved  by  this  interpre- 
tation. 2.  To  regard  the  word  as  an  epithet 
of  the  devil,  the  apostate  one.  Those  who 
are  laden  with  sin  belong  to  the  devil.  The 
objection  to  this  interpretation  is  that  Satan 
is  nowhere  mentioned  in  any  part  of  the 
Pentateuch.  The  serpent  indeed  is,  but  it  is 
not  certain  that  the  devil  was  as  yet  recog- 
nized as  the  possessor  and  actuator  of  the 
serpent  of  the  temptation. 

Az-a-zi'ah  [Jehovah  is  strong]. 

1.  A  harper  for  religious  service  during  the 
reign  of  David  (1  Chron.  xv.  21). 

2.  Father  of  a  prince  of  Ephraim  in  David's 
reign  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  20). 

3.  An  overseer  of  the  temple  in  the  reign 
of  Hezekiah  (2  Chron.  xxxi.  13). 

Az'buk. 

Father  of  a  certain  Nehemiah,  contempo- 
rary but  not  identical  with  the  celebrated 
governor  of  that  name  (Neh.  iii.  16). 

A-ze'kah  [a  field  dug  by  a  hoe  and  set  out 
with  new  vines]. 

A  town  in  the  lowland,  near  Socoh,  to 
which  the  kings  besieging  Gibeon  were  driven 
by  Joshua  (Josh.  x.  10,  11).  It  was  assigned 
to  Judah  (xv.  35).  The  Philistines  pitched 
their  camp  near  it  when  they  brought  with 
them  Goliath  (1  Sam.xvii.  1).  It  was  fortified 
by  Rehoboam  (2  Chron.  xi.  9).  Nebuchad- 
nezzar fought  against  it  (Jer.  xxxiv.  7),  and 
probably  took  it,  but  it  continued  to  exist 
after  the  captivity  (Neh.  xi.  30).  Its  site  has 
not  been  identified. 

A'zel ;  in  A.  V.  once  A'zal  (Zech.  xiv.  5),  a 
Hebrew  pronunciation  sometimes  employed 


Azem 


63 


Baal 


when  the  word  stands  at  a  pause  in  the  sen- 
tence (as  in  text  of  1  Chrou.  viii.  38,  but  not 
of  ix.  44,  R.  V.)  [perhaps,  noble]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Jonathan,  Saul's  son  (1 
Chron.  viii.  37,  38;  ix.  43,  44). 

2.  Probably  a  hamlet ;  and  if  so,  it  lay  to 
the  east  of  Jerusalem  (Zech.  xiv.  5).  Per- 
haps identical  with  Beth-ezel. 

A'zem.    See  Ezem. 

Az'gad  [perhaps,  strong  of  fiirtune]. 

Founder  of  a  family,  members  of  which  re- 
turned from  Babylonia  with  both  Zerubbabel 
and  Ezra  (Ezra  ii.  r2 ;  viii.  12).  Its  repre- 
sentative sealed  the  covenant  (Xeh.  x.  15). 

A'zi-el.     See  Jaaziel. 
A-zi'za  [robust]. 

A  man  whom  Ezra  induced  to  divorce  his 
foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  27). 

Az'ma-veth  [brave  even  to  death]. 

1.  A  Barhumite,  one  of  David's  mighty 
men  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  31). 

2.  A  Benjamite,  whose  sons  came  to  David 
at  Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  3). 

3.  The  son  of  Adiel.  He  was  over  David's 
treasures  (1  C"hron.  xxvii.  25). 

4.  A  son  of  Jehoadah  and  descendant  of 
Jonathan,  Saul's  son  (1  Chron.  viii.  36). 

5.  A  village  in  the  vicinity  of  Jerusalem, 
near  Geba.  Forty-two  of  its  inhabitants  re- 
turned from  the  Babylonian  captivity  (Ezra 
ii.  24).  Some  singers  resided  on  its  fields 
(Neh.  xii.  29).  Called  also  Beth-azmaveth 
(Neh.  vii.  28).   Its  site  has  not  been  identified. 

Az'mon  [robust]. 

A  place  on  the  southern  boundary  of 
Canaan,  to  the  west  of  Kadesh-barnea  and 
near  the  brook  of  Egypt  (Num.  xxxiv.  4,  5  ; 
Josh.  XV.  4,  K.  V.t.     Exact  site  unknown. 

Az'noth-ta'bor  [the  ears,  i.  e.  slopes  or 
tops,  of  Tabor]. 

A  place  on  the  boundary  of  Xaphtali,  evi- 
dently near  mount  Tabor  (Josh.  xix.  34). 

A'zor. 

An  ancestor  of  Christ  who  lived  after  the 
exile  (Mat.  i.  13,  14). 

A-zo'tus.    See  Ashdod. 

Az'ri-el  [help  of  God]. 

1.  A  chief  man  of  the  half  tribe  of  Manas- 
seh,  east  of  the  Jordan  (1  Chrou.  v.  24). 

2.  A  Xaphtalite  of  David's  time,  father  of 
Jerimoth  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  19). 

3.  Father  of  Seraiah  of  Jeremiah's  time 
(Jer.  xxxvi.  26). 

Az'ri-kain  [help  against  an  enemy,  or  help 
hath  arisen]. 

1.  A  son  of  Neariah  (1  Chron.  iii.  23). 

2.  A  son  of  Azel,  and  descendant  of  Jona- 
than, Saul's  son  (1  Chron.  viii.  38  ;  ix.  44). 

3.  A  Levite,  descended  from  Merari  (1 
Chron.  ix.  14). 

4.  The  governor  of  the  palace  under  king 
Ahaz.  He  was  killed  b3-  an  Ephraimite, 
Zichri  (2  Chron.  xxviii.  7). 


A-zu'baJi  [forsaken  or  desolation] . 

1.  A  wife  of  Caleb  (1  Chron.  ii.  18,  19). 

2.  A  daughter  of  Shilhi  and   mother  of 
Jehoshaphat  (1  Kin.  xxii.  42). 

A'zur.  See  AzzuR. 
Az'zah.  See  Gaza. 
Az'zan  [strong]. 

Father  of  Paltiel,  prince  of  Issachar  in  the 
days  of  Moses  (Num.  xxxiv.  26). 
Az'zur,  in  A.  V.  twice  A'zur  [helpful]. 

1.  Father  of  Hananiah  the  false  prophet 
(Jer.  xxviii.  1). 

2.  Father  of  Jaazaniah  (Ezek.  xi.  1). 

3.  One  of  those  who,  with  Nehemiah,  sealed 
the  covenant  (Neh.  x.  17). 


B. 


Ba'al  [master,  lord,  possessor]. 

1.  A  sun-god,  exhibiting  diflerent  aspects  of 
the  solar  energy,  the  center  of  whose  worship 
was  Phoenicia,  whence  it  spread  to  the  neigh- 
boring countries.  Baal  was  adored  on  high 
places  in  Moab  as  early  as  the  days  of  Balaam 
and  Balak  (Num.  xxii.  41).  In  the  time  of 
the  judges  he  had  altars  within  the  country 
of  the  Israelites  (Judg.  ii.  13  ;  vi.  28-32),  and 
when  king  Ahab  married  Jezebel,  the  daugh- 
ter of  Ethbaal,  king  of  the  Sidonians,  the 
worship  of  Baal  almost  supplanted  that  of 
Jehovah.  The  life  and  death  struggle  be- 
tween the  two  religions  culminated  on 
mount  Carmel  when  the  prophet  Elijah  met 
the  priests  of  Baal  (1  Kin.  xvi.  31,  32  ;  xviii. 
17-40).  Though  it  ended  in  the  slaughter  of 
the  priests  of  Baal,  yet  they  soon  swarmed 
anew  until  crushed  by  Jehu  (2  Kin.  x.  18- 
28).  About  this  time,  the  worship  of  Baal 
received  new  impulse  in  Judah  through  the 
influence  of  Jezebel's  daughter,  Athaliah, 
wife  of  Jehoram  (2  Chron.  xvii.  3 ;  xxi.  6 ; 
xxii.  2).  On  her  overthrow,  the  temple  of 
Baal  at  Jerusalem  was  pulled  dowu,  the  al- 
tars and  images  were  destroyed,  and  Mattan, 
the  chief  priest,  slain  before  the  altar  (2  Kin. 
xi.  18).  After  a  time  the  worship  of  Baal 
was  revived  in  both  Israel  (Hos.  ii.  8  ;  iv.  13) 
and  Judah.  Ahaz  made  molten  images  for 
the  Baalim  (2  Chron.  xxviii.  2).  Hezekiah, 
indeed,  wrought  a  reformation,  but  Manas- 
seh  erected  altars  to  Baal  (2  Kin.  xxi.  3). 
Josiah  destroyed  the  vessels  of  Baal  at  Jeru- 
salem, and  made  the  public  worship  of  Baal 
for  the  time  to  cease  (xxiii.  4,  5).  Jeremiah 
frequently  denounced  it,  as  did  other  prophets 
(Jer.  xix.  4,  5).  The  worship  of  Baal  was  ac- 
companied with  lascivious  rites  (cp.  1  Kin. 
xiv.  24),  the  sacrifice  of  children  in  the  fire 
by  parents  (Jer.  xix.  5),  and  kissing  the 
image  (1  Kin.  xix.  18  ;  Hos.  xiii.  2).  Baal  was 
often  associated  with  Ashtoreth,  the  moon- 
god  (Judg.  ii.  13),  and  in  the  vicinity  of  his 
altar  there  was  often  an  Asherah  (Judg.  vi. 
30 ;  1  Kin.  xvi.  32,  33,  both  E.  V.).    Baal  must 


Baalah 


64 


Baal-shalishah 


not  be  confounded  with  the  Babylonian  Bel, 
though  both  are  sun-gods. 

2.  A  Keubeuite,  house  of  Joel,  who  lived 
before  the  captivity  of  the  ten  tribes  (1  Chron. 
V.  5,  6). 

3.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  king  Saul's  ancestor 
Jeiel  (1  Chron.  viii.  30 ;  ix.  35,  36,  39,  R.  V.). 

4.  A  village  of  Simeon  (1  Chron.  iv.  33)  ; 
the  sjinic  as  Baalatli-beer  (q.  v.). 

Ba'al-ah  [mistress] . 

1.  A  town  better  known  as  Kirjath-jearim 
(Josh.  XV.  9). 

2.  A  mountain  in  Judah,  some  distance 
westward  of  the  town  Baalah  (Josh.  xv.  11). 
Exact  situation  unknown. 

3.  A  town  in  the  south  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv. 
29) ;  apjiarently  the  same  as  the  Simeonite 
town  Balah  (Josh.  xix.  3)  or  Bilhah  (1  Chron. 
iv.  29).     Site  unknown. 

Ba'al-ath  [mistress]. 

A  village  of  the  original  territory  of  Dan 
(Josh.  xix.  44),  near  Gezer  (Antiq.  viii.  6,  1). 
Solomon  fortified  it  (1  Kin.  ix.  IS;  2  Chron. 
viii.  6). 

Ba'al-atb-be'er  [possessor  of  a  well]. 

A  town  on  the  boundary  line  of  the  tribe 
of  Simeon.  Called  simply  Baal  (1  Chron.  iv. 
33),  and  known  also  as  Eaniah  of  the  South 
(Josh.  xix.  8,  R.  v.).     Site  unknown. 

Ba'al-be'rith  [lord  of  a  covenant ;  i.  e.  the 
god  who  enters  into  a  covenant  with  his  wor- 
shipers] . 

A  designation  under  which  in  the  time  of 
the  judges  Baal  was  worshiped  at  Shechem, 
where  he  had  a  temple  (Judg.  viii.  33  ;  ix.  4). 
Sometimes  he  was  spoken  of  as  El-berith,  the 
coveuant-keeping  god  (Judg.  ix.  46,  R.  V.  ; 
where  A.  V.  partly  translates  the  name). 

Ba'al-e,  or  rather,  as  in  R.  V.,  Baale  Judah 
[a  CI  instruct  form,  probably  siuguhir,  Eaal  of 
Judah]. 

A  town  of  Judah,  the  same  as  Baalah  and 
Kirjath-baal  and  Kirjath-jearim  (2  Sam.  vi. 
2;  cp.  1  Chron.  xiii.  6;  Josh,  xviii.  14).     See 

KlR,JATH-JEARIM. 

Ba'al-gad  (lord  of  fortune]. 

A  place  at  the  foot  of  mount  Hermon,  in 
the  valley  of  Lebanon,  where  apparently  Gad, 
the  god  of  fortune,  was  worshiped.  It  consti- 
tuted the  extreme  northern  limit  of  Joshua's 
conquests  (Josh.  xi.  17 ;  xii.  7 ;  xiii.  5).  It 
can  scarcely  be  identified  with  either  Banias 
or  Baalbek. 

Ba'al-ha'mon  [place  of  a  multitude]. 

A  place  where  Solomon  had  a  vineyard 
(Song  viii.  11).  Its  identity  with  Balamon,  a 
town  near  Dothan  (Judith  viii.  3),  which  Gesc- 
nius  suggested,  is  extremely  doubtful  in  view 
of  the  variant  spelling  Belbaim,  Belmaim, 
Abelmaein  (iv.  4 ;  vii.  3). 

Ba'al-ha'nan  [lord  of  benignity]. 

1.  Son  of  Achbor  and  king  of  Edom  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  38;  1  Chron.  i.  49). 

2.  Custodian  of  the  olive  and  sycomore 
trees  under  king  David  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  28). 


Ba'al-ha'zor  [lord  of  a  village]. 

A  jilace  beside  Ephraim  (2  Sam.  xiii.  23). 
Gesenius  suggested  Hazor  in  Benjamin  (Neh. 
xi.  33).  Another  view  is  that  it  was  at  Tell 
'Asur,  4  miles  northeast  of  Bethel. 

Ba'al-her'mon  [Baal  or  lord  of  Hermon]. 

A  mountain  marking  the  northwestern 
limit  of  the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh  east  of 
Jordan,  and  situated  south  or  southwest 
of  mount  Hermon  proper  (Judg.  iii.  3 ;  1 
Chron.  v.  23).  The  comparison  of  Josh.  xiii. 
5  with  Judg.  iii.  3  is  not  sufficient  to  estab- 
lish its  identity  with  Baal-gad. 

Ba'al-i  [my  master]  (Hos.  ii.  16). 

Ba'al-im  [Hebrew  plural  of  Baal]. 

The  sun-god  Baal  as  worshiped  under  diflfer- 
ent  aspects  by  the  nations  neighbor  to  Israel, 
or  the  old  Canaanite  plural  of  eminence  in- 
stead of  the  singular  number  (Judg.  ii.  11 ; 
iii.  7 :  viii.  33;  x.  10;  1  Sam.  vii.  4;  xii.  10). 
Often  coupled  with  Ashtaroth  (q.  v.). 

Ba'a-lis. 

A  king  of  the  Ammonites  who  reigned 
shortly  after  Nebuchadnezzar's  capture  of 
Jerusalem  (Jcr.  xl.  14). 

Ba'al-me'on  [lord  of  ]\Ieon  or  habitation]. 

An  old  Amorite  city  on  the  frontiers  of 
Moab,  known  fully  as  Beth-baal-meon  (Num. 
xxxii.  38 ;  Ezek.  xxv.  9 ;  both  forms  on 
Moabite  Stone  9,  30).  It  was  assigned  to  the 
Eeubenites  and  rebuilt  by  them  (Num.  xxxii. 
38  ;  in  ver.  3  called  Beon ;  Josh.  xiii.  17  ;  1 
Chron.  v.  8).  It  was  held  by  Mesha,  king 
of  Moab  (Stone  9,  30),  and  was  in  possession 
of  the  same  people  in  the  sixth  century  b.  c. 
(Ezek.  xxv.  9  ;  and  Jer.  xlviii.  23,  where  it 
is  abbreviated  to  Beth-meon).  It  was  still 
a  considerable  town  in  the  time  of  Jerome, 
who  gives  its  distance  from  Heshbon  as  9 
Roman  miles.  The  ruins,  now  called  Ma'in, 
lie  in  the  northern  ]Moabite  territory,  4  miles 
southwest  of  JNIedeba.  Tristram  describes 
them  as  occupying  the  crests  and  sides  of 
four  adjacent  hills,  one  being  evidently  the 
site  of  the  central  city,  connected  with  the 
rest  by  a  causeway.  There  are  remains  of 
foundations,  walls,  streets,  arches,  carved 
stones,  caverns  and  cavei'uous  dwellings, 
wells,  and  cisterns. 

Ba'al-pe'or  [lord  of  Peor]. 

A  Moabite  deity  worshiped  with  impure 
rites  on  the  top  of  mount  Peor.  The  Israel- 
ites, when  encamped  at  Shittini,  felt  attracted 
by  it,  and  so  sinned  that  a  plague  broke  out 
among  them,  and  was  not  stayed  till  a  slaugh- 
ter had  been  ordered  of  the  chief  transgres- 
sors (Num.  xxv.  1-9 ;  Ps.  cvi.  28 ;  Hos.  ix. 
10). 

Ba'al-per'a-zim  [i>lace  of  breaking  forth]. 

A  place  near  the  valley  of  Rephaim  where 
David  gained  a  victorv  over  the  Philistines 
(2  Sam.  V.  18-20 ;  1  Chron.  xiv.  9-11 ;  cp.  Is. 
xxviii.  21). 

Ba'al-shal'i-shali,  in  A.  Y.  Baal-shallsha 
[lord  of  Shalishah,  a  third  part]. 


Baal-tamar 


65 


Babel,  Tower  of 


A  village  from  which  bread  and  corn  of  the 
firstfruits  were  brought  to  Elisha  when  he 
was  at  Gilgal,  on  the  mountains,  seven  and  a 
half  miles  north  of  Bethel  (2  Kin.  iv.  42-44). 
The  gift  was  brought  to  Gilgal  because  a 
sc-hool  of  the  iirin>hets  was  there.  Jerome 
and  Eusebius  call  Baal-shalishah  Beth-shal- 
ishah.  and  describe  it  as  situated  15  Roman 
miles  to  the  north  of  Lydda.  Conder  locates 
it  at  the  present  village  of  Kefr  Thilth  on 
the  lower  hills  of  Eithraim,  16  English  miles 
northeast  of  Lydda  and  13i  miles  northwest 
of  Gilgal.  The  distance  and  etymology  favor 
the  identilication.     Cp.  1  Sam.  ix.  4. 

Ba'al-ta'mar  [lord  or  possessor  of  a  palm]. 

A  place  in  Benjamin  where  the  Israelite 
army  totik  their  stand  when  about  to  assail 
Gibeah  (Judg.  xx.  33).    Exact  site  unknown. 

Ba'al-ze'bub  [lord  of  the  fly]. 

The  name  under  which  the  sun-god  Baal 
was  worshii)ed  at  Ekron  as  the  ])roducer  of 
flies,  and  consequently  able  to  defend  against 
this  pest.  Ahaziah,  king  of  Judah,  applied 
to  him  for  a  revelation  (2  Kin.  i.  (J,  16).  See 
Beelzkbib. 

Ba'al-ze'phon  [lord  of  watchfulness,  scarce- 
ly Baal  of  the  north  or  place  of  Typhon]. 

A  place  which  was  over  against  the  Israel- 
ites while  they  were  encamped  beside  Pi- 
hahiroth,  between  Migdol  and  the  sea,  just 
before  they  crossed  through  the  sea  (Ex. 
xiv.  2,  9).  So  also  in  Num.  xxxiii.  7,  Pi- 
hahiroth  is  said  to  be  before  Baal-zepbon. 
Site  disputed. 

Ba'a-na,  in  A.  V.  once  Baanali  (1  Kin.  iv. 
16)  [.^ramaic  form  of  Baauah]. 

1.  Solomon's  purveyor  for  the  southern  dis- 
trict of  the  plain  of  Jezreel  from  Megiddo  to 
the  Jordan.  He  was  a  son  of  Ahilud  and 
probably  brother  of  Jehoshaphat  the  recorder 
(1  Kin.  iv.  12;  cp.  ver.  3). 

2.  Solomon's  purveyor  for  Asher  and  vicin- 
ity. He  was  a  son  of  Hushai,  not  unlikely 
of  that  Hushai  who  was  the  friend  and  ad- 
viser of  David  (1  Kin.  iv.  16). 

3.  A  certain  Zadok's  father  (Neh.  iii.  4). 

Ba'a-nah. 

1.  A  Beujamite,  brother  of  Eechab,  and 
leader  of  a  predatory  band.  Although  the 
brothers  belonged  to  the  tribe  of  Saul,  they 
nevertheless  murdered  his  son  Ish-bosheth, 
and  thus  were  partly  instrumental  in  turning 
the  kingdom  to  David.  They  carried  the 
head  of  the  murdered  man  to  David  at  He- 
bron in  expectation  of  a  reward  ;  but  David 
had  them  put  to  death  as  criminals  (2  Sam. 
iv.  1-12). 

2.  A  Xetophathite.  father  of  Heled,  one  of 
David's  worthies  (1  Chrou.  xi.  30). 

3.  One  of  Solomon's  purveyors.  SeeB.\AN.4.. 

4.  A  Jew  who  returned  from  Babylon  with 
Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii.  2:  Neh.  vii.  7).  It  was 
probably  the  representative  of  his  family  who 
sealed  the  covenant  in  Nehemiah's  time  (x. 
27). 

5 


Ba'a-ra  [perhaps  stupidity]. 

A  wife  of  Shaharaim  (1  Cliron.  viii.  8). 

Ba-a-se'iah. 

A  Levitt',  de^cendant  of  Gershom  and  an- 
cestor of  Asaph  the  singer  (1  C'hron.  vi.  40). 

Ba'a-sha. 

Son  of  Ahijah,  of  the  tribe  of  Issachar,  who 
conspired  against  Nadab,  the  son  and  succes- 
sor of  Jeroboam  I.,  king  of  Israel.  When 
Nadab  was  directing  the  siege  of  Gibbethon, 
then  in  the  hands  of  the  Philistines,  Baaslia 
murdered  him  and  all  Jeroboam's  descend- 
ants, thus  fulfilling  the  judgment  denounced 
against  his  house  (1  Kin.  xvi.  7;  cp.  Acts  ii. 
23).  Then  the  assassin  ascended  the  throne 
of  Israel  in  the  third  year  of  Asa,  king  of 
Judah,  and  fixed  his  capital  at  Tirzah  (1  Kin. 
XV.  25-xvi.  4).  He  carried  on  a  long  war 
with  Asa.  He  began  to  fortify  Ramah  to 
blockade  the  northern  frontier  of  Judah,  but 
was  diverted  from  his  purpose  by  the  in- 
vasion of  his  kingdom  by  Benhadad,  king 
of  Damascus,  whom  Asa  hired  (1  Kin.  xv. 
16-21 ;  2  Chrou.  xvi.  1-6).  Though  Baasha 
had  extirpated  the  house  of  Jeroboam,  yet 
he  imitated  it  in  its  calf-worship,  and  a 
prophet,  Jehu,  son  of  Hanani,  was  sent  to 
threaten  him  and  his  house  with  a  similar 
fate.  He  died  after  a  reign  of  24  years,  and 
was  buried  in  Tirzah,  leaving  his  son  Elah  to 
ascend  the  throne  (1  Kin.  xv.  34-xvi.  6). 

Ba'bel  [gate  of  God]. 

A  city  in  the  plain  of  Shinar.  It  was 
the  beginning  of  Nimrod's  kingdom,  i.  e. 
probably  the  earliest  and  chief  seat  of  his 
power  (Gen.  x.  10).  Soon  after  the  deluge  it 
became  celebrated  as  the  spot  where  the 
famous  tower  was  undertaken  (xi.  9).  In  the 
English  versions  the  word  Babel  occurs  in 
these  two  passages  only,  being  rendered 
Babylon  in  all  later  notices. 

Bab'el,  Tower  of. 

A  tower  undertaken  at  Babylon  shortly 
after  the  flood.  Those  "wlio  began  to  erect 
it  desired  to  establish  a  renowned  center  and 
prevent  the  danger  of  their  being  scattered 
over  the  earth.  There  is  neither  building- 
stone  nor  lime  on  the  alluvial  plain  of  Shinar, 
so  bricks  were  used  in  jilace  of  stone  in  build- 
ing this  tower,  and  for  mortar  bitumen  was 
employed,  abundant  supplies  of  which  were 
found  at  Hit,  about  140  miles  higher  up  the 
river.  The  tower  was  never  finished,  for  those 
erecting  it  were  visited  with  a  punishment 
w"hich  instantly  or  soon  produced  diflerence 
of  dialect  and  the  withdrawal  of  men  to  new 
regions.  Hence  the  city  was  called  Babel, 
place  of  God's  judgment.  To  describe  the 
event  the  Hebrew  writer  selected  a  word 
which  bears  some  resemblance  in  .sound  to 
Babel  (Gen.  xi.  1-9).  Babylon  was  not  wholly 
deserted,  a  considerable  number  of  the  old 
builders  remaining  there,  so  that  the  city  soon 
became  a  populous  place.  A  groiindle.ss  tradi- 
tion identifies  the  tower  of  Babel  with  the 


Babylon 

Birs  Nimrud.at  Borsippa,  about  7  miles  from 
the  center  of  Babylou. 

Bab'y-lon  [Babel,  Assyrian  Bab-il,  with 
the  (ireek  ending  on]. 

1.  The  eaj)ital  of  the  Babylonian  empire. 
Its  first  mention  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  is 
in  Gen.  x.  10,  with  three  other  places,  as  the 
beginning  of  Ninirod's  kingdom  (cp.  Is.  xxiii. 
T.i).  There  the  tower  of  Babel  ((j.  v.)  was  un- 
dertaken and  the  eomsequent  confusion  of 
tongues  took  place  (Gen.  xi.  1-9).  It  grew  in 
size  and  importance  century  after  century 
until  it  readied  its  greatest  glory  in  the  reign 
of  Nebuchadnezzar  (604-561  b.  c),  who  did 
much  for  it,  rendering  it  the  largest  and 
most  splendid  capital  of  the  then  known 
world,  if  not,  indeed,  of  the  ancient  world 
itself  The  earliest  writer  who  estimated  its 
magnitude  when  at  its  greatest  was  Herod- 
otus, who  flourished  about  443  b.  c.  He  says 
that  Babylon,  which  he  presumably  visited, 
was  a  square,  each  side  being  120  stades,  or 
about  fourteen  miles,  in  length.  This  meas- 
urement yields  an  area  of  nearly  200  square 
miles,  and  includes  Borsippa  in  the  city 
limits.  Ctesias,  also  an  eyewitness,  who 
flourished  about  the  year  400  b.  c,  makes 
each  side  of  the  square  only  about  90  stades, 
or  the  length  of  the  four  sides  together 
360  stades,  or  42  miles,  in  which  case  the 
area  would  slightly  exceed  100  square  miles. 
Other  writers  prior  to  the  Christian  era  speak 
of  365,  368,  and  385  stades.  The  city  was 
surrounded  by  a  wall  (Jer.  li.  58),  or  rather 
douI)le  walls  "(Herod,  i.  181).  Without  the 
walls  was  a  deep  and  broad  moat.  Between 
the  two  walls,  all  round  the  square,  was 
a  space  within  which  no  houses  were  al- 
lowed to  be  built.  AVithin  the  inner  wall 
were  vast  spaces  connected  by  gardens  and 
open  fields,  which  counted  much  for  the  area 
but  added  little  to  the  population  of  the  city. 
Herodotus  says  that  the  walls  were  50  royal 
cubits  broad,  or  about  85  English  feet;  while 
Quintus  C'nrtius  makes  them  the  equivalent 
of  about  32  English  feet.  Eegarding  the 
height  of  the  walls,  Herodotus  calls  it  200 
royal  cubits,  about  335  English  feet ;  Cli- 
tarchus  (as  reported  by  Diodorus  Siculus) 
and  Strabo  agree  in  reducing  this  to  75  Eng- 
lish feet.  The  city  had  a  hundred  gates 
of  brass,  twenty-five  on  each  side.  From 
these  there  ran  broad  streets  at  right  angles 
to  the  walls,  thus  dividing  the  whole  area 
into  a  large  number  of  smaller  squares.  The 
Euphrates  ran  through  the  midst  of  the  city, 
dividing  it  into  two  portions.  The  eastern 
section  was  the  larger,  and  contained  the 
palace,  the  hanging  gardens  (see  NEBtJCH.\D- 
nezzar),  and  the  temx>le  of  Bel-Marduk, 
patron  deity  of  the  city.  A  smaller  palace 
and  a  temple  of  Nebo  stood  in  the  western 
section.  Along  each  bank  of  the  river  there 
was  a  continuous  quay  like  the  Thames  em- 
bankment. A  wall  cut  the  quay  off  from  the 
city ;  but  it  was  perforated  by  twenty-five 
gateways  with  gates,  whence  there  was  a  de- 


66  Babylonia 


scent  to  the  river  bank.  There  were  ferry- 
boats, a  bridge,  and  even  a  tunnel.  The 
material  of  the  walls,  the  quays,  the  palaces, 
temples,  and  private  edifices,  was  brick ;  the 
cement  or  mortar  was  bitumen  (cp.  Gen.  xi. 
3).  The  timber  of  the  houses,  which  were 
two,  three,  and  four  stories  high,  was  of 
palm  wood  (Herod,  i.  178-186).  The  Scrip- 
ture prophecies  regarding  Babylon  have  been 
fulfilled  (Is.  xiii. ;  xiv.  1-23  ;  xxi.  1-10;  xlvi. 
1,  2;  xlvii.  1-3  ;  Jer.  1.  and  li.).  Jeremiah  (li. 
37,  cp.  1.  26)  says  that  it  should  become  heaps, 
and  mounds  are  all  that  remain  of  it  now. 
They  commence  3i  to  5  miles  above  the  vil- 
lage of  Hillah,  and  extend  from  north  to 
south  slightly  above  3  miles,  by  1|  from  east 
to  west,  lying  chiefly  on  the  eastern  side  of 
the  river.  The  three  most  notable  mounds 
are  now  called  by  the  Arabs  the  Babil,  the 
Kasr,  and  the  Amram  mounds.  Babil  marks 
the  site  of  Marduk's  temple ;  Kasr.  that  of 
Nebuchadnezzar's  palace,  and  has  furnished 
bricks  stamped  with  his  name ;  the  Amram 
mound,  apparently  that  of  the  palaces  of 
prior  kings,  possibly  of  the  hanging  gardens. 
The  eflort  to  trace  the  course  of  the  lofty 
walls  has  been  unsuccessful. 

2.  The  mystic  Babylou  of  Kevelation  xiv. 
8;  xvi.  19  :  xvii.,  xviii.,  is  the  city  of  Eome, 
which  stood  on  seven  hills  (cp.  xvii.  3,  5,  6,  9, 
18). 

Bal)-y-lo'ni-a. 

A  region  of  western  Asia  wliich  had  Baby- 
lon for  its  capital.  It  is  sometimes  called,  in 
whole  or  in  part,  Shinar  (Gen.  x.  10;  xi.  2; 
Is.  xi.  11),  and  sometimes  land  of  the  Chal- 
deans (Jer.  xxiv.  5;  xxv.  12;  Ezek.  xii.  13). 
It  was  bounded  on  the  north  by  Upper  Meso- 
potamia, the  dividing  line  between  them  run- 
ning from  near  Hit  on  the  Euphrates  to  a 
little  below  Samarah  on  the  Tigris.  The 
boundary  is  a  natural  one,  separating  the 
slightly  elevated  jtlain  of  .secondary  forma- 
tion on  the  north  from  the  low-lying  alluvium 
brought  down  bj'  the  Euphrates  and  the  Ti- 
gris on  the  south.  Babylonia  is  bounded  on 
the  east  by  the  Tigris,  on  the  south  by  the 
Persian  Gulf,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Arabian 
desert.  In  ancient  historic  times  the  area 
Avas  about  25,000  square  miles,  but  the  north- 
ern part  of  the  Persian  Gulf  is  being  grad- 
ually filled  with  alluvium,  so  that  now  the 
district  is  430  miles  long  by  185  broad  at  the 
widest  part,  and  contains  30,000  square  miles. 
The  deep  rich  alluvial  soil,  artificially  irri- 
gated, was  of  almost  matchless  fertility. 
Cushites  were  early  in  the  country  (Gen.  x. 
8-10),  and  likewise  the  Semites.  Cities  were 
built,  notably  Ur  (xi.  28),  Larsa  (cp.  xiv.  1), 
Erech,  Babel,  Accad  (x.  10),  Cuthah  (2  Kin. 
xvii.  24),  and  Nipur.  These  towns  were 
sometimes  independent  kingdoms,  at  other 
times  under  one  monarchy.  The  Cushite 
Nimrod  early  united  four  under  his  sway. 
Sargon  of  Agade,  who  was  a  Semite  by  race 
or  had  adopted  the  Semitic  language,  held 
the  entire  region  under  his  rule  about  3750 


Babylonia 


67 


Baean 


B.  c.  But  his  dominion  and  that  of  his  son 
Naram-siu  extended  far  beyond  BiibyUmia, 
and  reached  to  tlie  Mediterranean  Sea.  About 
2285  B.  c,  Kudurnanhundi  descended  from 
Elam  and  conquered  Babyk)nia.  To  this 
Elaniite  dynasty  Chedorlaomcr  probably  be- 
k)nged  (tJen.  xiv.  1).  About  the  sixteenth 
century  B.  c,  the  officials  of  Palestine  used 
the  Babylonian  script  and  language  in  their 
corresjtondeuce  with  the  Egyjitian  court. 
About  1270  B.  c.  the  Assyrians  under  Tukulti- 
adar  subjugated  Babylonia,  which  for  the 
next  700  years  remained  a  second-rate  power, 
though  occasionally  casting  otf  the  Assyrian 
yoke.  Nabonassar  achieved  iudeiiendence  in 
747  B.  c.  It  was  reconquered  by  Tiglath- 
pileser  about  731  B.  c. ;  then,  after  successive 
revolts,  again  by  Sargon  in  709  b.  c,  by  Sen- 
nacherib in  703  B.  c,  by  Esarhaddon  in  680 
B.  c,  and  by  Ashurbanipal  in  648  B.  c.  During 
this  period  Merodach-baladan  twice  occupied 
the  throne,  once  from  721  to  709,  and  again 
in  704  or  703.  In  625  B.  c,  Babylonian  inde- 
pendence was  tiually  secured  by  Nabupalu- 
sur,  known  to  the  Greeks  as  Nabopolassar,  an 
Assyrian  nobleman  of  high  rank.  The  As- 
syrian empire  was  threatened  by  Medes  and 
restless  Babylonians.  Nabopolassar  was  or- 
dered to  defend  it  against  all  enemies.  He 
was  faithless,  and,  soon  after  entering  Baby- 
lon, declared  his  independence,  and  laid  the 
foundations  of  what  soon  developed  into  the 
great  Babylonian  empire.  He  reigned  from 
the  year  625  to  604  b.  c.  He  betrothed 
his  sou  Nebuchadnezzar  to  Amuhia  or  Amy- 
itis.  daughter  of  Cyaxares,  king  of  Media, 
and  the  two  fathers-in-law  sent  their  united 
forces  to  attack  Nineveh.  They  were  suc- 
cessful. Nineveh  was  taken  and  destroyed 
about  606  b.  c,  and  the  Assyrian  empire 
partitioned  between  the  victors.  The  share 
of  Nabopolassar  was  Susiana,  the  vallej^  of 
the  Euphrates,  Syria,  and  Palestine,  which 
were  annexed  to  the  Babylonian  empire.  He 
made  peace  between  the  Syrians  and  the 
Medes,  who  had  l)een  at  war.  In  his  old  age 
his  territory  was  invaded  by  Pharaoh  Necho, 
king  of  Egypt,  and,  too  inert  or  infirm  to  re- 
si.st  the  enemy,  he  sent  his  son  Nebuchadnez- 
zar in  his  stead.  Nebuchadnezzar  totally  de- 
feated Necho  at  the  battle  of  Carchemish, 
fought  605  B.  c,  and  pursuing  him  to  or  into 
Egypt,  meditated  fresh  victories,  but  was  re- 
called to  Babylon  by  the  news  of  his  father's 
death.  He  ascended  the  throne  in  604  B.  c, 
and  reigned  nearly  forty-four  years.  Under 
him  the  Babylonian  empire  reached  the  far- 
thest limits  to  which  it  ever  attained  ;  and 
almost  all  its  engineering  and  architectural 
achievements  were  carried  out  under  his 
direction.  Jeru.salem  was  captured  and  de- 
stroyed by  him,  and  the  people  of  Judah 
carried  into  captivity  ;  see  Nebuchadnez- 
Z.A.R.  On  his  death  in  561  B.  c,  he  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Evil-merodach,  who  be- 
friended the  captive  Jehoiachin  (2  Kin.  xxv. 
27;  Jer.  lii.  31).     After  a  reign  of  two  years 


(561-559  B.  c.)  Evil-nierodach  was  put  to 
death  by  conspirators,  heade<l  by  Neriglissar, 
husband  of  a  daughter  of  Xol)uchadnezzar. 
Neriglissiir,  who  is  probably  Nergal-sharezer 
(Jer.  xxxix.  3,  13),  tlien  a.sceuded  the  throne 
and  reigned  between  three  and  four  years, 
dying  in  556  B.  c.  His  .son  and  successor, 
Ijaborosoarchod  or  Labossoracus,  a  mere  boy, 
was  tortured  to  death  a  few  months  later,  and 
with  him  the  house  of  Nabopolassar,  which  had 
ruled  seventy  years,  came  to  an  end.  The  con- 
spirators against  the  boy-king  then  invested 
one  of  their  number,  Nabonadius,  with  the 
sovereignty.  In  the  seventeenth  year  of  his 
reign,  539  b.  c.  Cyrus  the  Persian  entered 
Babylon,  terminating  the  Babylonian  em- 
pire ;  see  Cyrvs.  In  520-19  B.  c.,  and  again 
in  514,  Babylon  revolted  against  Darius  Hys- 
taspis,  but  on  both  occasions  it  was  subdued, 
and  the  last  time  was  dismantled.  From  that 
date  it  gradually  decayed,  the  building  of 
Seleucia  on  the  Tigris,  in  322  B.  c,  hasten- 
ing its  ruin.  Since  then  the  territory  on  the 
Lower  Euphrates  has  passed  successively  to 
the  Persians,  the  Macedonians,  the  Greeks, 
the  Romans,  the  Parthians,  the  Persians 
again,  and  finally  to  the  Mohammedans, 
whose  misgoverument  renders  comparatively 
unproductive  a  country  which  under  firm 
and  enlightened  rule  would  become  well  cul- 
tivated and  prove  itself  one  of  the  most  fer- 
tile regions  in  the  world.  With  the  exception 
of  Ashur,  the  Babylonian  gods  were  the  same 
as  those  of  Assyria. 

Ba'ca  [a  balsam  tree,  so  named  from  its 
shedding  as  it  were  tears  of  gum ;  possibly 
also  a  noun  meaning  weeping]. 

A  valley  in  Palestine  (Ps.  Ixxxiv.  6),  so 
called  from  the  balsam  trees  which  grew  in 
it ;  possibly  the  valley  of  Eephaim,  where 
such  trees  were  found  (2  Sam.  v.  22,  23,  E.  V. 
margin).  Perhaps,  however,  the  expression  is 
figurative,  as  the  Greek  and  Syrian  transla- 
tors believed,  like  "  valley  of  the  shadow  of 
death,"  and  denotes  any  vale  of  tears. 

Bac'chi-des. 

A  Syrian  general  sent  by  Demetrius  I.  at 
the  close  of  162  B.  c.  to  place  Alcimus  in  the 
high  priesthood,  and  to  subjugate  rebellious 
Judah  (1  Mac.  vii.  8-20).  The  next  year  he 
defeated  Judas  and  Jonathan  Maccab£eus ; 
but  his  third  campaign,  which  he  undertook 
in  157  B.  c,  was  not  successful,  and  he  re- 
turned discouraged  {ix.  1-57 ;  59-72). 

Badg'er. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  Tahash 
in  the  A.  V.  (Ex.  xxvi.  14  ;  xxxv.  7;  Num. 
iv.  25;  Ezek.  xvi.  10).  It  was  an  animal.  Its 
skin  was  used  for  the  outer  covering  of  the 
tabernacle,  and  for  sandals.  Tristram  says 
that  the  common  badger,  3Ieles  rulgaris,  is  not 
rare  in  the  hilly  and  wooded  parts  of  Pales- 
tine, but  it  does  not  seem  to  be  alluded  to  in 
the  Bible.     See  Seal,  I. 

Bse'an. 

Probably  a  Bedouin  tribe  which  made  pred- 


Bagpipe 


68 


Balak 


atory  incursions  (1  Mac.  v.  4).  Blau  has,  how- 
ever, suggested  that  it  may  be  the  uame  of 
the  place  which  is  called  Bajaa  in  the  in- 
scription at  Karnak.  and  which  was  situated 
in  the  region  indicated  by  the  narrative. 

Bag'pipe. 

The  rendering  on  the  margin  of  the  R.  V. 
of  the  Aramaic  Sitmphoneya  in  Dan.  iii.  5,  7, 
10,  15.  The  texts  of  the  A.  V.  and  R.  V. 
translate  it  Dulcimer.  Sumphoneya  is  ap- 
parently from  the  Greek  sumphonia,  sym- 
phony, unison  of  sounds.  The  bagpipe  is 
known  in  Italy  by  the  name  sambogna,  and 
in  Asia  Minor  as  s;imbonya,  names  which  re- 
call sumphoneya.  The  instrument  is  used  also 
in  Egypt  and  Arabia,  where  it  consists  of  a 
leathern  bag  in  which  two  pipes  are  inserted, 
one  for  intiatiug  the  bag,  the  other  for  play- 
ing upon  with  the  fingers. 

Ba-ha'rtun-ite. 

An  inhabitant  of  Bahurim  (1  Chron.  xi.  33). 

Ba-hu'rim  [young  men]. 

A  village  near  the  mount  of  Olives,  on  the 
road  from  Jerusalem  to  the  Jordan  (2  Sam. 
xvi.  5).  It  is  mentioned  repeatedly  in  the 
history  of  David.  Thence  came  Shimei,  who 
cursed  him.  and  in  a  well  there  Jonathan  and 
Ahiniaaz  hid  when  pursued  by  the  partisans 
of  Abs;iloui  [2  Sam.  iii.  16  ;  xvi.  5  ;  xvii.  18  ; 
xix.  1(3 ;  1  Kin.  ii.  S). 

Ba'jith  [the  house].  The  Hebrew  text  has 
the  definite  article. 

A  Moabite  town  or  temple  (Is.  xv.  2). 

Bak-bak'kar. 

A  Levite  (1  Chron.  ix.  15). 

Bak'buk  [a  flagon]. 

One  of  the  Xethinim,  and  founder  of  a 
family,  members  of  which  returned  from  the 
captivity  (Ezra  ii.  51 ;  Neh.  vii.  53). 

Bak-bu-ki'ah  [eflusion  of  Jehovah]. 

1.  A  Levite  resident  of  Jerusalem,  and  in 
high  office  immediatelv  after  the  exile  (Neh. 
xi.  17). 

2.  A  Levite,  perhaps  representative  of  the 
family  of  the  earlier  Levite  of  this  name, 
who  served  as  gatekeeper  of  the  temple  in 
Nehemiah's  time  (Neh.  xii.  25). 

Ba'laam  [perhaps,  devouring]. 

A  prophet,  the  son  of  Beor.  and  resident 
of  the  Hittite  city  of  Pethor,  on  the  Euphrates. 
Balak,  king  of  Moab,  sent  an  embassy  to  him, 
consisting  of  elders  of  Moab  and  Midian, 
offering  him  great  reward  to  curse  the  Israel- 
ites, that  it  might  afterwards  be  more  easy 
to  destroy  them  in  battle.  He  answered  the 
deputies  that  he  could  not  do  so  without  the 
consent  of  Jehovah,  the  God  of  Israel.  Con- 
sent was,  of  course,  refused.  Balak  dispatched 
more  honorable  negotiators,  not  elders,  but 
princes.  Balaam  replied  that  not  for  a  house 
full  of  gold  and  silver  would  he  go  beyond 
the  word  of  Jehovah.  Applying  again  to 
God  for  permission  to  go,  he  was  allowed  to 
accompany  the  men,  on  condition  of  utter- 
ing only  tiie  divine  words  put  into  his  mouth. 


On  the  way  an  angel  of  the  Lord  with  drawn 
sword,  visible  to  the  ass  on  which  Balaam  rode 
but  not  to  its  rider,  thrice  disputed  his  progress. 
The  ass  refused  to  go  forward.  When  beaten, 
voice  was  given  to  it,  and  it  spoke  out.  and 
finally  Balaam  himself  was  permitted  to  see 
the  angel,  and  learn  the  peril  he  was  in.  He 
ottered  to  turn  back,  but  was  allowed  to  go 
forward,  on  the  same  stringent  condition  as 
before.  Balak  met  him  on  the  banks  of  the 
Arnon,  and  conducted  him  to  Kiriath-huzoth 
(the  city  of  streets),  probably  the  same  as 
Kiriathaim,  on  the  first  conspicuous  emi- 
nence after  passing  the  Arnon.  After  offer- 
ing sacrifices,  probably  on  the  top  of  'Attarus, 
with  its  commanding  prospect,  the  two.  ac- 
companied by  the  princes  of  Moab,  went 
northward  to  the  high  places  of  Baal,  from, 
which  elevated  spot  the  whole  camp  of  Israel 
was  visible  (Num.  xxii.  1-41).  After  sacri- 
fices on  seven  altars.  Balaam  went  alone  to  a 
bare  height.  There  the  word  of  the  Lord 
came  to  him.  He  returned  to  Balak.  and 
blessed  the  people  he  had  been  invited  to^ 
curse  (xxiii.  1-12).  Balak  was  dreadfully 
disappointed,  but  it  occurred  to  him  that  the 
Israelites  when  all  visible  at  once  looked  too- 
imposing  ;  if  Balaam  saw  only  the  outlying- 
part  of  their  camp,  perhaps  he  might  be  able 
to  'curse  them.  He  took  Balaam  to  the  top 
of  Pisgah  and  sacrificed  as  before ;  but  the 
only  result  was  fresh  blessing  instead  of 
cursing  (13-26).  A  third  attempt  was  made, 
with  the  usual  preliminaries,  the  station  this 
time  being  the  top  of  Peor,  on  the  ridge  north 
of  Nebo.  Not  merely  was  there  blessing  in 
the  most  decided  language,  but  the  utterance 
ended  with  a  prophecy  that  Israel  should 
ultimately  conquer  ^loab.  Balak  was  en- 
raged at  what  he  considered  Balaam's  treach- 
ery, and  dismissed  him  to  his  own  country 
without  conferring  on  him  the  intended  honor 
(xxiii.  27-xxiv.  25).  Balaam,  however,  be- 
fore quitting  the  country,  suggested  that  if 
the  Israelites  could  be  seduced  into  the  idol- 
atry and  the  impurity  of  the  worship  prac- 
ticed in  Baal-peor,  Jehovah  would  leave  them 
to  their  fate.  The  evil  counsel  was  taken, 
with  the  result  of  heavy  judgment  on  the 
Israelites.  In  the  war  waged  by  the  Israel- 
ites to  execute  vengeance  on  the  Midiauites. 
Balaam  was  slain  (xxxi.  S.  16 ).  Various  other 
O.  T.  books  and  some  of  the  N.  T.  writers 
refer  to  Balaam's  character  and  fate  (Dent. 
xxiii.  4. 5 ;  Josh.  xxiv.  9, 10 ;  Neh.  xiii.  2  :  Mic. 
vi.  5;  2  Pet.  ii.  15;  Jude  11 ;  Rev.  ii.  14). 

Ba'lac.     See  Balak. 

Bal'a-dan  [a  son  he  hath  given].  The  name 
is  abbreviated  by  omission  of  the  name  of 
some  god  who  bestowed  the  son. 

Father  of  Merodach-baladan  (Is.  xxxix.  1). 

Ba'lali.    See  Baalah  3. 

Ba'lak,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Balac  [emptying], 

A  Moabite  king,  son  of  Zippor,  who  luredi 

Balaam  from  Pethor  to  curse  Israel  (Num.. 


Bald  Locust 


69 


Baptism 


xsii.-xxiv. :  Josh.  xxiv.  9  ;  Judg.  xi.  25;  Mic. 
vi.  5  :  Rev.  ii.  14). 

Bald  Lo'cust. 

The  reuderiug  of  the  Hebrew  S<il'am.  con- 
sumer. An  unknown  species  of  locust  or 
grasshopper  (Lev.  xi.  22).  There  is  nothing 
in  the  Hebrew  etymology  to  suggest  that  the 
auiuial  had  a  bald  appearance. 

Balm,  Balm  of  Gil'e-ad. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  S'ri. 
ooze.  a  vegetable  pr<>duct  obtained  especially 
in  Gilead  i  Gen.  xxxvii.  25 :  Jer.  viii.  22  ;  xlvi. 
11 1,  and  exported  from  Palestine  (Gen.  xxxvii. 
25 :  Ezek.  xxvii.  17).  It  was  used  as  an  oint- 
ment for  the  healing  of  wounds  (Jer.  li.  S). 
It  was  once  strongly  believed,  and  still  is  by 
many,  that  the  balm  of  Gilead  was  opobal- 
~amum.  a  greenish-yellow  oily  resin  of  the 
consistency  of  honey,  to  which  wonderful 
healing  virtues  were  attributed.  It  comes 
from  a  tree.  Balsamodendron  opobalsamum  or 
nUeadenie.  belonging  to  the  order  Amyridacex 

<  Amy  rids).  It  is  from  six  to  eight  feet  high. 
But  the  identification  of  the  opobalsamum 
viiih  the  balm  of  Gilead  is  rendered  doubtful 
by  the  fact  that  the  tree  producing  it  is  not 
now  found  in  Gilead.  even  in  gardens,  and 
there  is  no  proof  that  it  ever  existed  in  that 
locality.  It  is  a  native  of  Arabia  and  Nubia, 
and  hence  is  often  called  the  balm  of  Mecca. 
Ou  the  margin  of  R.  V.  (Gen.  xxxvii.  25)  the 
word  is  rendered  by  mastic.  Pistacia  lentiscu.^. 
a  bushy  evergreen  tree,  about  twelve  feet 
high.  It  grew  in  Palestine  (Pliny  14,  25). 
The  transparent,  pale  yellow,  fragrant  gum 
was  used  for  incense  and.  when  dissolved  in 
water,  as  an  ointment;  while  oil  obtained 
from  the  bark,  leaves,  and  berries  was  used 
as  a  medicine.  Josephus  mentions  a  plant 
bearing  very  precious  balsam  as  cultivated  at 
Jericho,  but  he  does  not  give  details  sufficient 
for  its  identification  ( Antiq.  xiv.  4.  1 :  xv.  4, 
2 ;  War  i.  6.  6).  Xor  can  it  be  examined  now. 
for  it  has  been  extinct,  it  is  believed,  since 
the  time  of  the  crusades. 

Bal'sam  Tree. 

The  rendering  of  Hebrew  Baka'  on  the 
luargin  of  Ps.  Ixxxiv.  G ;  2  Sam.  v.  23.  24 ;  1 

<  hron.  xiv.  14.  15  in  E.  V.  The  plant  grew 
iiear  Jerusalem.  The  Arabs  apply  the  name 
TO  a  bush  which  grows  near  Mecca,  resembles 
the  balsam  (see  Balm),  and  has  a  white,  acrid 
sap. 

Ba'mah  [high  place]  (Ezek.  xx.  29).  See 
High  Place.*. 

Ba'moth  [high  places]. 

An  encampment  of  the  Israelites  north  of 
:he  Arnon.  probably  an  abbreviation  of 
Bamoth-baal  i  Xum.  xxi.  19i. 

Ba'moth-ba'al  [high  places  of  Baal]. 

A  place  north  of  the  Arnon.  probably  that 
at  which  the  Israelites  temporarily  encamped, 
to  which  Balak  took  Balaam,  and  whence 
the  plains  of  Moab  were  visible  Num.  xxi. 
19;  xxii.  41,  R.  V.  margin).      It  was  within 


the  limits  of  the  tribe  of  Reuben  i  Josh.  xiii. 
17 :  where  it  is  named  between  Dibon  and 
Beth-baal-meon).  It  is  believed  to  be  one  of 
the  peaks  of  the  long  ridge  of  Attarus  on  the 
south  bank  of  the  Zerka  ilain. 

Ba'nl  [built]. 

1.  A  Ciadite,  one  of  David's  mighty  men  (2 
Sam.xxiii.  36 1.  Textual  criticism  is  still  un- 
able to  determine  the  text  of  this  verse  and 
of  1  Chron.  xi.  3s.  One  or  both  may  need 
revision. 

2.  A  descendant  of  Judah  through  Perez 
(1  Chron.  ix.  4.  E.  V.). 

3.  Founder  of  a  family,  members  of  which 
returned  from  Babylonia  with  Zerubbabel 
(Ezra  ii.  10 1.  Some  of  them  took  foreign 
wives  IX.  29i.  The  family's  representative 
sealed  the  covenant  (Neh.  x.  14'.  Called  also 
Binnui  (Xeh.  vii.  15i. 

4.  A  Levite  of  the  family  of  ilerari  (I 
Chron.  vi.  46). 

5.  A  Levite  who  lived  before  the  return 
from  exile,  of  the  sons  of  Asaph  and  hence 
of  the  family  of  GJershom    Xeh.  xi.  22 1. 

6.  A  Levite.  father  of  Rehum  ( Neh.  iii.  17) ; 
perhaps  he  who  took  a  prominent  part  at  the 
feast  of  tabernacles  in  Ezra's  time  (Xeh.  ix. 
4.  5).  and  in  behalf  of  his  house  sealed  the 
covenant  (s.  13  l 

7.  A  Levite  (Xeh.  ix.  4i.  As  the  name  is 
mentioned  twice  in  ver.  4  and  only  once  in 
ver.  5.  it  is  perhaps  once  corrupt  in  ver.  4. 

8.  Founder  of  house  or  family  i  Ezra  x.  34), 
among  whose  descendants  was  a  person  also 
named  Bani  i3i). 

Bap'tism. 

The  rite  of  washing  with  water  as  a  sign 
of  religious  purification  and  consecration. 
Among  the  Jews,  as  elsewhere,  such  wash- 
ing were  frequent ;  s<jme  prescribed  in  the 
O.  T.  (e.  g.  Ex.  xxix.  4;  xxx.  -20;  xl.  12;  Lev. 
XV.;  xvi.  26.  2'?;  xvii.  15:  xxii.  4.  6;  Xum. 
xix.  S)  and  others  the  product  of  later  cus- 
tom (see  Mark  vii.  .3.  4;  Heb.  vi.  2i.  Many 
believe  also  that  in  Christ's  time,  as  certainly 
was  the  case  later,  proselytes  to  Judaism  were 
baptized.  Hence  John,  the  Forerunner,  when 
sent  to  call  Israel  to  repentance,  was  directed 
by  God  (John  i.  33 1  to  administer  baptism  to 
those  who  accepted  his  message.  His  rite  is 
called  ■■  the  baptism  of  repentance  unto  remis- 
sion of  sins  "  I  Mark  i.  4.  R.  V.  >.  Recipients  of 
it  thereby  acknowledged  their  sins  and  pro- 
fessed their  faith  that  through  the  coming 
Messiah  they  would  be  forgiven.  Jesus  sought 
baptism  partly  to  express  his  sympathy  with 
John's  work,  partly  to  dedicate  himself  to  his 
own  work,  and  partly  to  express  his  assump- 
tion of  the  sins  of  men.  The  mode  of  John's 
baptism  is  not  described,  but.  as  Jesus  entered 
into  the  Jordan  (Mark  i.  9. 10.  it  was  probably 
by  affusion  or  by  immersion.  At  first  Christ's 
disciples  continued  to  baptize  the  people  as 
John  had  done  i  John  iv.  1.  2i.  thus  carrying'on 
John's  work,  but  after  Christ's  Galilaeau  min- 
istrv  began,  we  read  of  this  no  more.     But 


Baptism 

in  his  parting  instructious  (Mat.  xxviii.  19), 
Christ  made  baptism  the  initiatory  rite  of  his 
Church,  one  of  the  two  sacraments  to  be  ob- 
served by  his  followers.  Hence  we  find  it 
from  the  first  required  and  administered  by 
the  apostles  and  their  co-laborers  (Acts  ii.  38, 
41 ;  viii.  12,  3b  ;  ix.  lb  ;  x.  48  ;  1  Cor.  i.  14,  16, 
etc.).    It  signifies  and  seals  a  believer's  union 


Ancient  representation  of  the  Baptism  of  Christ, 
from  a  Church  in  Ravenna.  John  stands  on 
the  river  bank,  our  Lord  in  the  water.  The 
river  Jordan  is  symbolized  by  the  sitting  figure. 

with  Christ  through  repentance  and  faith ; 
the  removal  of  his  sins  by  Christ's  death  and 
the  Spirit's  operation  in  him  ;  and  his  en- 
gagement to  be  the  Lord's  (Eom.  vi.  4 ;  Gal. 
iii.  27;  Col.  ii.  11,  12;  1  Pet.  iii.  21).  Chris- 
tians have  diflered,  even  from  early  times,  as 
to  the  mode  of  baptism.  While  the  word  is 
derived  from  a  verb,  haptizo,  which  means 
etymologically  to  immerse,  this  does  not 
prove  that  immersion  was  the  mode  always 
practiced  nor  that  it  is  necessary.  In  fact, 
instances  occur  where  the  word  plainly  does 
not  mean  immerse  (e.  g.  Luke  xi.  38,  in  Eng- 
lish version  "wash,"  and  probably  Mark  vii. 
4).  The  Scriptures  nowhere  describe,  much 
less  pre.scribe,  the  mode.  In  the  post-apos- 
tolic times  both  immersion  and  affusion  were 
used.  The  Eastern  churches  and  the  Protes- 
tant Baptists  still  practice  immersion,  the 
Latin  Church  generally  uses  aflTusion,  while 
most  Protestants  use  affusion  or  aspersion 
(sprinkling).  Probably  the  mode  varied  even 
in  apostolic  times.  According  to  Christ's  com- 
mand, it  is  to  be  administered  in  the  name 
of  the  Trinity.  Modern  Baptists  contend 
that  baptism  should  only  be  administered  to 
adult  believers.  The  Church,  however,  from 
the  earliest  time  has  administered  it  also  to 
children  who  have  sponsors  to  care  for  their 
Christian  nurture.  It  is  certainly  scriptural 
to  do  this  to  children  of  believers,  since  St. 
Paul  expressly  teaches  (Gal.  iii.  15-29)  that 
believers  in  Christ  are  under  the  gracious 


70  Bar -Jonah 


provisions  of  the  covenant  which  God  made 
with  Abraham.  Under  that  covenant  cir- 
cumcision was  administered  to  children  as  a 
sign  of  their  participation  in  the  relation  in 
which  their  parents  stood  to  God.  The  chil- 
dren of  Christian  believers  have  therefore  a 
similar  right  to  the  ordinance  which  has  re- 
placed circumcision. 

The  phrase  "baptized  for  the  dead"  (1 
Cor.  XV.  29)  is  difficult  to  explain.  It  prob- 
ably either  means  "baptized  with  a  view  to 
the  world  of  the  dead  into  which  we  are 
going,  "or  refers  to  a  custom  of  baptizing  one 
person  in  place  of  another  who  has  died,  a 
custom  which  Paul  might  cite  for  his  argu- 
ment without  approving.  g.  t.  p. 

Bar-ab'bas  [son  of  a  father]. 

A  robber  who  had  made  an  insurrection  in 
which  he  had  committed  murder.  He  was  a 
notable  prisoner  when  Jesus  was  arrested. 
Pilate,  anxious  that  Jesus  should  be  released, 
otl'ered  the  Jews  the  option  of  releasing  Jesus 
or  Barabbas,  and  they  chose  Barabbas  (Mat. 
XX vii.  16,  17,  20,  21,  26). 

Bar'a-chel  [God  has  blessed]. 
A   Buzite,    father  of   Elihu,   Job's  friend 
(Job  xxxii.  2,  6). 

Bar-a-cM'ah,   in  A.   V.    Barachias,    the 

Greek  modific^ation  of  the  Hebrew  name  [Je- 
hovah hath  blessed]. 

Father  of  that  prophet,  Zachariah,  who  was 
slain  between  the  temple  and  the  altar  (Mat. 
xxiii.  35).     See  Zachaeiah. 

Ba'rak  [lightning]. 

An  Israelite,  l)ele(iigingtothecityof  Kedesh- 
naphtali,  who  at  the  command  of  Deborah 
the  prophetess,  called  together  10,000  men  of 
Naphtali  and  Zebulun,  with  whom  he  routed 
Sisera,  Jabin's  commander-in-chief,  and  de- 
stroyed his  army  (Judg.  iv.  1-24 ;  v.  1,  12 ; 
Heb.  xi.  32). 

Bar-ba'ri-an. 

1.  Originally  one  who  did  not  speak  the 
Greek  language.  The  phrase  Hellenes  and 
barbarians  embraced  all  nations  (cp.  Eom.  i. 
14).  There  being  nothing  offensive  in  the 
word,  the  Eomans  and  the  Jews  were  content 
to  be  called  barbarians. 

2.  Later,  one  who  did  not  belong  to  the 
cultivated  Hellenic  race  (cp.  Col.  iii.  11). 

3.  One  who  spoke  an  unintelligible  foreign 
tongue  (1  Cor.  xiv.  11). 

Bar-hu'mite. 

Probably  a  misreading  of  Baharumite  (2 
Sam.  xxiii.  31  with  1  Chron.  xi.  33). 

Ba-ri'ah  [fugitive]. 

A  descendant  of  Shecaniah  (1  Chron.  iii. 
22). 

Bar-je'sus.     See  Elymas. 

Bar-Jo'nab,  in  A.  V.  Bar-jona  [son  of 
Jonah]. 

A  surname  of  the  apostle  Peter,  meaning 
that  he  was  the  son  of  a  man  named  Jonah 
(Mat.  xvi.  17). 


Barkos 


Barzillai 


Bar'kos  [painter]. 

One  of  the  Nethiniiii,  who  founded  a  fam- 
ily, members  of  whicli  returned  from  the  cap- 
tivity (Ezra  ii.  53;  Meh.  vii.  55). 

Bar'ley. 

A  cereal  sraiu,  called  by  the  Hebrews 
S''orah,  the  hairy,  bristlinj^  thing,  and  by  the 
Greeks  Krithai,  and  largely  cultivated  iu 
Palestine  (Ruth  i.  22),  Egypt  (Ex.  ix.  31),  and 
the  adjacent  regions,  and  made  into  cakes  or 
loaves  (Judg.  vii.  13 ;  .John  vi.  9).  The  sev- 
eral barleys  belong  to  the  genus  Hordeum. 
They  are  cereal  gras.ses.  with  the  spikelets, 
which  are  in  threes,  on  opposite  sides  of  the 
rachis  or  flower  axis,  so  as  to  form  a  two- 
sided  spike.  Ten  species  are  known,  of  which 
Tristram  found  six  iu  Palestine,  one  of  them, 
Hordeum  athaburense,  from  mount  Tabor,  being 
peculiar  to  the  Holy  Land.  That  now  culti- 
vated in  Palestine  is  chiefly  Hordeum  dis- 
tichum,  which  has  only  the  central  floret  fer- 
tile, the  two  side  ones  being  abortive. 

Bar'na-bas  [son  of  prophecy,  especially  of 
prophesying  which  takes  the  form  of  ex- 
hortation or  consolation]. 

The  surname  of  Joses,  a  Levite  of  Cyprus, 
who.  early  converted  to  Christianity,  sold  his 
land  and  laid  the  price  at  the  feet  of  the 
apostles  in  Jerusalem  (Acts  iv.  36,  37).  When 
the  Christians  of  Jerusalem  were  afraid  to  re- 
ceive the  new  convert  Paul,  Barnabas  spoke 
in  his  behalf,  and  removed  their  apprehen- 
sions (ix.  27).  On  the  report  reaching  Jeru- 
salem that  Christians  of  Cyprus  and  Cyrene 
had  been  proclaiming  the  gospel  with  great 
success  to  Greeks  as  well  as  to  Jews  at  Antioch 
of  Syria,  the  Cliurch  sent  Barnabas  thither, 
and  he  aided  iu  the  work  (xi.  19-24).  From 
Antioch  he  went  to  Tarsus  and  brought  back 
Saul  (xi.  22-26).  Later  the  two  were  dis- 
patched to  carry  alms  to  their  brethren  at 
Jerusalem,  then  su|fering  from  famine  (27- 
30).  Keturuing  with  John  ]\Iark  to  Antioch 
(xii.  25),  they  were  sent  forth  by  the  church 
on  a  mission  to  the  gentiles  (xiii.  2).  They 
visited  Cyprus,  and  went  thence  to  Perga, 
Antioch  in  Pisidia,  Iconium,  Lystra,  and 
Derbe.  At  Ly.stra  the  simple  inhaliitants 
mistook  Barnabas  for  their  supreme  god 
Jupiter,  and  Paul,  who  perhaps  was  the  chief 
speaker  and  less  imposing  in  appearance,  for 
Mercury,  the  messenger  of  the  gods  (xiii.  3- 
xiv.  28).  Having  returned  to  Antioch  of 
Syria,  they  were  sent  by  the  church  to  the 
council  of  Jerusalem.  Barnabas  spoke,  as 
did  Paul  (xv.  1,  2,  12).  At  the  close  the  two 
were  commissioned  to  carry  the  decrees  of 
the  council  to  the  churches  in  Syria  and 
Asia  Minor  (22-31).  After  further  labors  at 
Antioch  (35),  Paul  proposed  a  second  mis- 
sionary journey.  Barnabas  was  quite  willing, 
but  desired  to  have  with  him  his  young  rela- 
tive. John  Mark  (Col.  iv.  10).  To  this  Paul 
objected,  as  John  Mark  had  lost  heart  and 
gone  home  from  Perga  on  the  former  tour. 
Each  maintained  his  view  pertinaciously,  and 


the  two  evangelists  separated  and  went  dif- 
ferent ways.  Barnabas  with  Mark  sjviled 
again  to  Cyprus,  while  Paul  went  on  to  Asisi. 
Minor  (36-41).  But  their  mutual  affection  did 
not  cease.  Paul,  in  his  epistles,  speaks  in  a 
friendly  way  of  Barnabas  (1  Cor.  ix.  6  :  Gal. 
ii.  1,  9,  13;  Col.  iv.  10),  and  yet  more  so  of 
.Tohu  Mark,  about  whom  the  quarrel  arose  (2 
Tim.  iv.  11). 

Bar-sab'bas,  in  A.  V.  Bar'sa-bas  [son  of 
Sabba  (?)]. 

1.  The  surname  of  the  Joseph  who  stood 
candidate  for  the  apostleship  against  Matthias 
(Acts  i.  23). 

2.  The  surname  of  the  Judas  who  was  sent 
to  Antioch  as  a  delegate  of  the  metropolitaa 
church  with  Paul,  Barnabas,  and  Silas  (Acts 
XV.  22). 

Bar-thoro-mew  [son  of  Tolmai]. 

One  of  the  twelve  apostles  (Mat.  x.  3 ;  Mark 
iii.  l^i ;  Luke  vi.  14 ;  Acts  i.  13).  As  in  the 
first  three  of  these  passages  the  name  of 
Bartholomew  immediately  follows  that  of 
Philip,  and  nearly  does  so  in  the  fourth. 
Bartholomew  was  probably  the  surname  of 
Nathanael,  who  was  led  to  Christ  by  Philip 
(John  i.  45,  46). 

Bar-ti-mse'us  [son  of  Timseus]. 

A  blind  man  healed  by  Jesus  at  Jericho 
(Mark  x.  46). 

Ba'ruch  [blessed]. 

1.  A  member  of  the  family  of  Neriah,  and 
a  friend  of  Jeremiah.  He  had  custody  of  the 
deed  of  the  field  purchased  to  testify  thafc 
land  should  again  be  bought  after  the  exile 
(Jer.  xxxii.  12-16).  In  the  fourth  year  of 
Jehoiakim,  he  wrote  the  prophecies  of  Jere- 
miah at  the  prophet's  dictation  (xxxvi.  1-8). 
In  the  following  year  he  publicly  read  theiu 
on  the  fast  day  (10),  and  afterwards  before 
the  princes,  who  took  possession  of  the  roll 
(14-20).  The  king,  on  hearing  the  opening 
sentences,  burnt  the  roll  and  ordered  the 
seizure  of  the  prophet  and  the  scribe,  but  they 
escaped  (21-26).  Baruch  made  a  new  copy 
with  additions  (xxxvi.  27-32).  When  Zede- 
kiah  cast  the  prophet  into  prison,  Baruch  re- 
mained by  him  (xxxii.  12,  16),  and  was  one 
of  those  taken  with  Jeremiah  to  Egypt  (Jer. 
xliii.  1-7).  For  the  book  bearing  the  name 
of  Baruch,  see  Apocrypha. 

2.  Son  of  Zabbai.  He  repaired  part  of  the 
wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  20).  He  is  per- 
haps the  person  of  that  name  who  sealed  the 
covenant  (x.  6). 

3.  A  man  of  Judah,  of  the  Shilonite  fam- 
ily (Neh.  xi.  5). 

Bar-zil'la-i  [made  of  iron]. 

1.  A  wealthy  Gileadite  of  Eogelim,  east  of 
the  Jordan.  He  showed  David  princely  hos- 
pitality, sending  him  and  his  army  food  and 
other  necessaries  while  the  fugitive  king  was 
at  Mahanaim  during  Absalom's  rebellion  (2 
Sam.  xvii.  27-29).  After  the  victory,  Barzil- 
lai escorted  David  over  the  Jordan,  and  was 
invited  to  become  a  member  of  the  king's 


Bascama 


72 


Bat 


household  and  court  at  Jerusalem,  but  he 
excused  himself  on  account  of  his  great  age 
— eighty  years.  It  was  therefore  arranged 
that  his  son  Chimham  should  go  in  his  stead 
(xix.  31-40). 

2.  A  Meholathite,  whose  son  Adriel  mar- 
ried Saul's  daughter  Michal  (2  Sara.  xxi.  8). 

3.  A  priest  who  married  a  daughter  of  Bar- 
zillai  the  (lileadite,  and  assumed  his  father- 
in-law's  name  (Ezra  ii.  61 ;  Neh.  vii.  63). 

Bas'ca-ma. 

A  town  east  of  the  Jordan  near  which 
Jonathan  Maccabseus  was  put  to  death,  and 
where  for  a  time  he  was  buried  (1  Mac.  xiii. 
23 ;  and  Antiq.  xiii.  6,  6,  where  it  is  called 
Basca). 

Bas'e-math,  in  A.  V.  Bashemath,  once 
Basmath  (1  Kin.  iv.  15)  [fragrance]. 

1.  One  of  Esau's  wives,  daugliter  of  Elon 
the  Hittite  {Gen.  xxvi.  34) ;  in  xxxvi.  2  called 
Adah.     See  Adah. 

2.  One  of  Esau's  wive.s,  a  daughter  of  Ish- 
mael  and  sister  of  Nebaioth  (Gen.  xxxvi.  3, 
4,  13,  17)  ;  in  xxviii.  9  called  Mahalath. 

3.  A  daughter  of  Swlomon  and  wife  of  his 
tax  collector  for  Naphtali  (1  Kin.  iv.  15). 

Ba'shan  [broad,  open  land]. 

A  region  east  of  the  Jordan.  Its  location 
and  extent  in  O.  T.  times  is  best  learned  from 
its  cities.  Within  its  bounds  were  Golan, 
north  of  the  Yarmuk  (Deut.  iv.  43),  Edrei  and 
Ashtaroth  (Deut.  i.  4),  Salecah  on  the  south- 
ern slope  of  the  Jebel  Hauran  (Deut.  iii.  10; 
Josh.  xiii.  11,  both  R.  V.).  That  is  to  say,  it 
extended  southeastwardly  from  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  upper  Jordan  to  the  border  of 
the  Arabian  desert  south  of  the  Hauran 
mountain.  It  marched  on  the  north  with 
Oeshur  and  Maacah  (Josh.  xii.  5  ;  see  Aram), 
and  contained  '"the  region  of  the  Argob," 
famous  for  sixty  cities  high-walled  (Deut.  iii. 
4,  5 ;  1  Kin.  iv.  13).  So  large  a  number  is 
not  incredible.  In  the  mountainous  parts  of 
the  country  there  are  still  at  least  one  hun- 
dred deserted  cities  and  villages,  many  of 
them  built  of  basalt  and  with  hasaltic  doors 
(Porter,  CUies  of  Bushan).  Josephus  identifies 
Bashan  with  Gaulonitis  and  Batanea  (Antiq. 
iv.  5,  3  with  1  Kin.  iv.  13 ;  and  ix.  8,  1  with 
2  Kin.  x.  33).  In  the  days  of  Abraliam  it 
was  occu]>ied  by  a  people  of  especially  large 
and  powerful  build,  known  as  Rephaim  (Gen. 
xiv.  5).  The  last  king  of  this  race  was  Og,  who 
•was  defeated  and  slain  at  Edrei  by  the  Israel- 
ites in  the  time  of  Moses  (Num.  xxi.  33-35; 
Deut.  iii.  1-7).  Bashan  was  assigned  to  the 
half  tribe  of  Manasseh  (Deut.  iii.  13).  It  is  a 
broad,  fertile  plateau,  of  volcanic  formation, 
and  well  adapted  for  pasture.  It  was  celebrated 
for  its  cattle  (Ps.  xxii.  12;  Ezek.  xxxix.  18; 
Amos  iv.  1),  and  for  its  breed  of  sheep  (Dent, 
xxxii.  14).  It  was  celebrated  also  for  its  oak 
trees  (Is.  ii.  13  ;  Ezek.  xxvii.  6 ;  Zech.  xi.  2). 
Forests  of  evergreen  oak  still  survive. 

Ba'shan-ha'voth-ja'ir ;  riglitly  separated 
by  K.  v.,   which  renders  "  he  called  them. 


even  Bashan,  after  his  own  name,  Havvoth- 
jair"  (Deut.  iii.  14).     See  Havvoth-jaie. 

Bash'e-math.     See  Basemath. 

Bas'i-lisk. 

The  rendering  of  the  R.  V.  of  the  Hebrew 
Sepha'  and  i<iph  'oni,  a  venomous  serpent  living 
in  a  hole  (Is.  xi.  8).  It  deposits  eggs,  from 
which  its  young  are  hatched  (lix.  5).  It  is 
insensible  to  the  charmer's  arts  (Jer.  viii.  17). 
The  marginal  rendering  is  adder,  except  in 
Prov.  xxiii.  32,  where  adder  is  used  in  the 
text.  Except  in  the  last  case,  the  A.  V.  trans- 
lates the  word  by  cockatrice. 

Ba'sin,  formerly  spelled  Bason. 

A  portable  vessel  for  holding  water  for 
washing  and  other  purposes  (John  xiii.  5). 

In  the  English  version  the  word  is  used 
for  bowls  and  dishes  of  various  kinds,  espe- 
cially for — 

1.  A  small  vessel,  in  Hebrew  'Aggan  (Is. 
xxii.  24,  rendered  cup),  used  for  wine  (Song 
vii.  2,  rendered  goblet)  and  other  liquids  (Ex. 
xxiv.  6). 

2.  A  shallow  vessel,  in  Hebrew  Saph,  used 
for  domestic  purposes  (2  Sara.  xvii.  28)  and  to 
receive  the  blood  of  .sacrifices  (Ex.  xii.  22).. 
They  were  emploved  in  the  temple  (Jer.  Iii. 
19,  R.  v.  cups;  2  Kin.  xii.  13,  A.  V.  bowl,  R. 
V.  cup). 

3.  A  large  bowl,  in  Hebrew  3Iizral;  used  in 
the  tabernacle  and  temple,  especially  in  min- 
istrations at  the  great  altar  (Num.  iv.  14),  to 
hold  the  meal  oftering  (Num.  vii.  13.  rendered 
bowl),  and  to  receive  the  blood  of  sacrifices 
(Zech.  ix.  15  with  xiv.  20,  rendered  bowl). 
It  was  made  of  gold,  silver,  or  brass,  and 
burnished  (Ex.  xxvii.  3 ;  Num.  vii.  84,  ren- 
dered bowl :  1  Kin.  vii.  45,  50).  Revelers 
sometimes  drank  wine  from  such  vessels 
(Amos  vi.  6,  rendered  bowl). 

Bas'ket. 

Baskets  of  different  sizes,  shapes,  and  con- 
struction were  in  use,'  and  various  names 
were  employed  for  them.  As  ancient  sculp- 
tures and  relics  show,  and  as  the  etymology 
denotes,  they  were  woven  open  or  close,  were 
made  of  the  fiber  or  leaves  of  the  palm  tree 
or  of  rushes,  reeds,  twigs,  or  ropes,  tapered  at 
the  top  or  at  the  bottom,  were  shallow  or  deep, 
ornamented  with  colors  or  plain,  small  enough 
to  be  carried  in  the  hand,  or  so  large  that 
they  were  carried  on  the  shoulder  or  head  or 
borne  on  a  pole  between  two  men.  They  were 
employed  for  carrying  fniit  (Deut.  xxvi.  2; 
Jer.  vi.  9 ;  xxiv.  2  ;  Amos  viii.  2,  where  in 
each  passage  a  difl'erent  Hebrew  word  is 
used)  ;  for  carrying  bread,  cakes,  and  flesh 
(Gen.  xl.  17;  Ex.  xxix.  2,  3;  Lev.  viii,  2; 
Judg,  vi,  19 ;  Mark  viii,  19,  20,  where  still 
another  Hebrew  and  two  Greek  names  occur) ; 
for  carrying  clay  to  the  brickyard  and  earth 
for  the  building  of  embankments  (Ps.  Ixxxi. 
6,  R.  V. ;  see  illustration  under  Egypt). 

Bas'math.     See   Basemath. 

Bat. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  '"tal- 


*l 


Bath 


73 


Bealiah 


leph.  It  was  classed  with  fowls,  and  was 
•ceremonially  unclean  (Lev.  xi.  i;j,  I'J  ;  Deut. 
xiv.  11,  1~,  \s).  It  bides  itself  from  observa- 
tion iu  dark  places  (Is.  ii.  20).  The  reference 
is  pretty  clearly  to  the  bat  order,  of  which 
Tristram  enumerates  seventeen  species  as  oc- 
curring in  Palestine.  The  bat  is  not  a  bird, 
but  is  a  quadruped,  covered  with  hair  instead 
of  feathers,  having  teeth  instead  of  a  bill,  and 
suckling  its  young  instead  of  laying  eggs. 
Nor  is  its  "  wing  "  a  flying  apparatus  of  the 
bird  type ;  it  is  an  unfeathered  membrane 
connecting  the  fore  and  hind  legs. 
Bath. 

A  Hebrew  measure  of  capacity  used  for 
measuring  liquids  (1  Kin.  vii.  26, 38  ;  2  Chrou. 
ii.  10;  iv.  5  ;  Ezra  vii.  22).  It  was  the  tenth 
part  of  an  homer,  and  corresponds  to  the  dry 
measure  ephah  in  capacity  (Ezek.  xlv.  10, 
11,  14). 
Bath'ing. 

In  the  warm  climate  of  the  East  frequent 
bathing  is  a  necessity.  The  daughter  of 
Pharaoh  bathed  in  the  Nile  (Ex.  ii.  5).  The 
Egyptians  wore  linen  garments,  constantly 
fresh-washed,  and  their  priests  washed  them- 
selves in  cold  water  twice  every  day  and  twice 
every  night  (Herod,  ii.  37).  Egyptians,  He- 
brews, and  Syrians  washed  the  dust  of  the 
road  from  their  feet  when  they  tarried  at  a 
house  (Gen.  xviii.  4  ;  xix.  2  ;  xxiv.  32  ;  xliii. 
24 ;  John  xiii.  10).  If  the  Israelites  con- 
tracted ceremonial  defilement,  they  bathed 
the  body  and  washed  the  raiment  (Lev.  xiv. 
8  ;  XV.  5  ;  xvii.  15  ;  Num.  xix.  7,  8),  either  in 
running  water  (Lev.  xv.  13),  at  a  fountain 
{Judith  xii.  7,  9 ;  cp.  John  ix.  7),  in  a  river  (2 
Kin.  V.  10),  or  at  home  in  court  or  garden 
(2  Sam.  xi.  2,  4  ;  cp.  Susanna  15).  They  washed 
and  anointed  themselves  and  put  on  their  best 
garments  for  gala  and  court  attire  and  on 
putting  away  mourning  (Ex.  xl.  12,  13  ;  Eutli 
iii.  3 ;  2  Sam.  xii.  20 ;  Judith  x.  3 ;  Mat.  vi. 
17).  The  priests  washed  their  hands  and 
feet  before  entering  the  sanctuary  or  burning 
an  offering  on  the  altar  (Ex.  xxx.  19-21).  The 
high  priest  bathed  at  his  inauguration  and 
on  the  day  of  atonement  before  each  act  of 
propitiation  (Lev.  viii.  6  ;  xvi.  4,  24).  In  the 
time  of  Christ,  the  Jews  washed  their  hands 
before  eating,  and  washed  or  sprinkled  them- 
selves on  coming  from  the  market  (Mark  vii. 
3, 4) .  At  this  time  also,  when  Greek  and  Roman 
customs  had  gained  entrance  among  the  Jews, 
there  were  public  baths.  The  warm  springs 
at  Tiberias,  Gadara,  and  Callirrhoe,  near  the 
eastern  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea,  were  resorted 
to  for  health  (Antiq.  xvii.  6,  5  ;  xviii.  2,  3). 
The  fish  ponds  connected  with  the  palace  at 
Jericho  were  used  for  bathing  and  swimming 
(Antiq.  xv.  3.  3). 

Bath-rab'bim  [daughter  of  many  people]. 
One  of  the  gates  of  Heshbon  (Song  vii.  4). 
Bath-she'ba  [daughter  of  an  oath]. 
Daughter  of  Eliam,  and  wife  of  Uriah  the 
Hittite ;  thus  perhaps  the  daughter  of  one, 


as  she  was  the  wife  of  another,  of  David's 
mighty  men.  She  is  the  woman  with  whom 
David  so  shamefully  sinned,  and  who,  after 
the  removal  of  her  husband,  became  the  wife 
of  David  and  mother  of  Solomon  (2  Sam.  xi. 
3,  4;  xii.  24  ;  1  Kin.  i.  11).  When  Adonijah 
was  preparing  to  usurp  the  kingdom,  Bath- 
sheba,  supported  by  the  prophet  Nathan,  ap- 
pealed to  David  in  favor  of  her  own  son  Solo- 
mon, the  result  being  that  Adonijah's  enter- 
prise was  thwarted  (i  Kin.  i.  11-53),  and  him- 
self ultimately  put  to  death  (ii.  13-25). 

Batli'-shu-a  [daughter  of  riches  or  salva- 
tion]. 

1.  The  daughter  of  Shua  (as  the  name  is 
rendered  in  A.  V.)  and  wife  of  Judah  (1 
Chron.  ii.  3 ;  see  Gen.  xxxviii.  2, 12,  both  R.  V.). 

2.  The  text  of  1  Chron.  iii.  5  refers  to  the 
mother  of  Solomon  as  Bath-shua,  the  daugh- 
ter of  Ammiel.  Bath-shua  is  probably  merely 
a  misreading  of  Bath-sheba,  due  to  a  par- 
tial elfacement  of  the  Hebrew  letter  beth.  The 
Septuagint  has  here  the  usual  form  for  Bath- 
sheba. 

Bav'vai,  in  A.  V.  Ba'vai. 

A  sou  of  Heuadad,  who  superintended  the 
repair  of  part  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh. 
iii.  IS). 

Bay  Tree. 

The  rendering  in  the  A.  Y.  of  the  Hebrew 
'Ezrah  in  Ps.  xxxvii.  35.  The  plant  referred 
to  by  the  translators  is  Laurus  nobilis,  a  tree 
thirty,  forty,  or  more  feet  high,  w'ith  lance- 
shaped  evergreen  aromatic  leaves,  inconspic- 
uous flowers,  and  cherry -like  fruits.  Tristram 
met  with  it  on  Carmel,  Tabor,  and  in  Gilead. 
The  R.  V.  renders  'Esrah  "a  green  tree  in  its 
native  soil,"  which,  of  course,  tends  to  flourish 
better  than  a  transplanted  and,  perhaps,  a 
sickly  exotic.  The  same  Hebrew  word  is 
used  in  Lev.  xvi.  29;  xviii.  26,  for  a  native 
as  distinguished  from  a  man  from  another 
country. 

Baz'lith  or  Baz'luth  [nakedness].  Either 
form  is  in  itself  legitimate. 

One  of  the  Nethinim  and  founder  of  a 
family,  members  of  which  returned  from 
captivity  (Ezra  ii.  52;  Neh.  vii.  54). 

Bdell'ium. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  B'dolah,  a 
substance  of  the  same  color  as  manna  (Num. 
xi.  7),  and  found  like  gold  and  the  onyx  stone 
or  the  beryl  in  the  land  of  Havilah  (Gen.  ii. 
12).  The  Greeks  gave  the  name  bdeltion  to  a 
transparent,  waxy,  fragrant  gum  obtained 
from  a  tree  in  Arabia,  Babylonia,  India,  and 
Media.  The  best  came  from  Bactria.  As 
gold,  the  onyx,  and  the  beryl,  belong  to  the 
mineral  kingdom,  b'dolah  may  perhaps  also. 
The  Septuagint  translates  it  in  Gen.  ii.  12 
anihrax,  the  carbuncle,  ruby,  and  garnet; 
and  in  Num.  xi.  7,  krustallos,  rock  crystal. 

Be-a-li'ah  [Jehovah  is  Lord]. 
A  Benjamite  warrior  who  came  to  David  at 
Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  5). 


Bealoth 


74 


Bed 


Be'a-loth  [literally  mistresses,  possessors]. 

1.  A  village  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  24).     Site  unknown. 

2.  A  locality  in  the  vicinity  of  the  tribe  of 
Asher,  perhaps  known  by  this  name  (1  Kin. 
iv.  16,  K.  v.).     See  Aloth. 

Bean. 

Beans  were  used  for  food  (2  Sam.  svii.  28), 
and  occasionally,  especially  during  famine, 
were  mixed  with  grain  and  made  into  a 
coarse  bread  (Ezek.  iv.  9).  The  common 
bean,  Vicia  faba,  is  still  known  in  Palestine 
by  the  O.  T.  name  for  bean. 

Bear. 

The  Syrian  bear  {Ursus  syriaats)  is  of  a 
yellowish-brown  color,  and,  unless  pressed  by 
necessity,  lives  chiefly  on  vegetable  food.  But 
all  bears  are  dangerous  when  meddled  with 
(Is.  xi.  7 ;  Amos  v.  19),  especially  when  robbed 
of  their  whelps  (2  Sam.  xvii.  8 ;  Prov.  xvii. 
12 ;  Hosea  xiii.  8).  Though  now  almost  con- 
fined to  Lebanon,  on  the  west  of  the  Jordan, 
and  Hermon,  Gilead,  and  Bashan,  on  the  east 
of  the  river,  it  anciently  roamed  over  the 
laud  (cp.  Prov.  xxviii.  15).  David  killed  one 
in  the  vicinity  of  Bethlehem  (1  Sam.  xvii. 
34),  and  near  Bethel  two  she  bears,  which 
came  out  of  the  woods,  tore  in  pieces  forty- 
two  young  persons  who  mocked  Elisha  (2 
Kin.  ii.  24). 

The  bear  of  Dan.  vii.  5,  commissioned  to 
devour  much  flesh,  was  the  Medo-Persiau 
empire,  one  of  four  successive  empires  of  the 
world.  The  four  beasts  of  Daniel  are  com- 
bined in  one  beast  in  Eev.  xiii.  2,  to  symbol- 
ize all  the  power  of  the  world.  The  feet  are 
bear's  feet. 

Beard. 

The  beard  was  cherished  as  the  badge  of 
manly  dignity.  Its  neglect  was  an  outward 
sign  of  mental  aberration  (1  Sam.  xxi.  13)  or 
of  alHiction  (2  Sam.  xix.  24).  As  a  mark  of 
mourning  it  was  customary  to  pluck  it  out 
or  cut  it  otf  (Ezra  ix.  3 ;  Is.  xv.  2  ;  Jer.  xli. 
5;  Herod,  ii.  36).  The  king  of  the  Ammon- 
ites grievously  insulted  David's  ambassadors 
when,  among  other  acts,  he  shaved  oflf  one 
half  of  their  beards  (2  Sam.  x.  4,  5 ;  cp. 
Herod,  ii.  121,  4).  The  ancient  Egyptians 
shaved  the  head  and  the  face,  but  often  wore 
a  false  beard.  They  let  the  hair  and  beard 
grow  as  a  sign  of  mourning  (Herod,  ii.  36). 
Hence  Joseph,  when  released  from  prison, 
shaved  the  beard  in  order  to  appear  before 
Pharaoh  (Gen.  xli.  14).  The  practice  of  shav- 
ing oflF  the  corners  of  the  beard  (Lev.  xix.  27 ; 
Jer.  ix.  26 ;  xxv.  23,  both  E.  V.)  was  probably 
a  heathenish  sign,  as  the  Arabs  shaved  the 
side  of  the  face  between  the  ear  and  the  eye 
in  honor  of  their  god  Orotal  (Herod,  iii.  8). 

Beast. 

1.  A  mammal,  not  man,  as  distinguished 
from  a  fowl  of  the  air  and  a  creeping  thing 
(Gen.  i.  29,  30).  The  wild  beasts  are  distin- 
guished   from    domesticated    animals   (Lev. 


xxvi.   22;  Is.  xiii.  21,  22;  xxxiv.  14;  Jer.  1. 
39;  Mark  i.  13). 

2.  Any  of  the  inferior  animals,  including 
reptiles  and  birds,  as  distinguished  from  man 
(Ps.  cxlvii.  9 ;  Ecc.  iii.  19  ;  Acts,  xxviii.  5).  In 
this  sense  there  was  a  distinction  drawn  un- 
der the  Mosaic  law  between  ceremonially 
clean  and  unclean  beasts. 

3.  Figuratively,  a  fierce  destructive  power. 
Four  successive  empires,  beginning  with  the 
Babylonian,  are  thus  symbolized  in  Dan.  vii. 
The  four  beasts,  combined  into  a  compo.site 
monster,  represent  the  power  of  the  world  in 
Eev.  xiii.  1-10,  with  its  seat  transferred  from 
Babylon  to  Eome,  xvii.  3-18.  A  beast  with 
lamb's  horns  represents  false  prophecy  (xiii. 
11-18),  w^hich  is  a  ravening  wolf  in  sheep's 
clothing.  The  beasts  of  Eev.  iv.  6-9  of  the 
A.  V.  are  very  properly  altered  to  "living 
creatures"  in  the  E.  V. 

Be'bai. 

The  founder  of  a  family,  some  of  whose 
members  returned  from  the  captivity  (Ezra 
ii.  11 ;  viii.  11  ;  Xeh.  vii.  16). 

Be'cher  [young  camel]. 

1.  A  son  of  Benjamin  (Gen.  xlvi.  21 ;  1 
Chrou.  vii.  6).  His  descendants  were  ap- 
parently too  few  at  the  beginning  to  form  a 
tribal  family,  at  least  they  found  no  place  in 
the  registry  of  families  (Num.  xxvi.  38;  1 
Chron.  viii.  1-6),  but  they  ultimately  in- 
creased to  nine  fathers'  houses,  inhabiting 
Anathoth  and  other  towns  in  the  territory 
of  Benjamin  and  mustering  20,200  men  (1 
Chron.  vii.  8,  9). 

2.  A  son  of  Ephraim,  and  founder  of  a 
family  (Num.  xxvi.  35  ;  reference  to  Becher 
lacking  in  the  Septuagint).  He  is  not  men- 
tioned among  the  sons  of  Ephraim  in  1  Chron. 
vii.  20-27.  Perhaps  the  children  of  Becher 
the  Benjamite  were  not  so  few  in  numbers 
during  the  sojourn  in  Egypt  as  has  been  sup- 
posed, but  were  principally  identified  with 
Ephraim,  perchance  through  a  marriage  of 
Becher  with  Sheerah,  and  hence  their  family 
as  a  whole,  but  not  all  the  fathers'  houses, 
were  enrolled  with  Ephraim. 

Be-co'rath,  in  A.  V.  Be-cho'rath  [primo- 
geniture]. 

A  Benjamite,  an  ancestor  of  king  Saul  (1 
Sam.  ix.  1). 

The  identification  of  Becorath  with  Becher 
(1  Chron.  vii.  6)  is  groundless.  Becorath  was 
son  of  Aphiah,  the  son  of  a  Benjamite,  where- 
as Becher  was  the  son  of  Benjamin  himself. 

Bed. 

An  article  of  domestic  furniture  to  sleep 
upon.  The  poor  and  travelers  often  slept  on 
the  ground,  using  their  upper  garment  as  a 
covering  (Gen.  xxviii.  11 ;  Ex.  xxii.  26).  A 
bed  might  be  no  more  than  a  rug  or  mat, 
easily  bundled  up  and  carried  away  (Mat.  ix. 
6).  But  beds  raised  from  the  ground  were 
early  in  existence  (2  Kin.  i.  4,  6 ;  iv.  10),  with 
bedsteads  of  wood,  or  of  iron  (Dent.  iii.  11), 
or  among  the  wealthy  of  ivory  (Amos  vi.  4), 


I 


Bedad 


75 


Beelzebub 


with  silkeu  cushions  (Amos  iii.  12,  E.  V.) 
and  rich  coverings  (Prov.  vii.  16;  Judith 
X. -ill. 

Be'dad  [separation]. 

The  father  of  Hadad,  king  of  Edom  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  3o;  1  Chron.  i.  4(5). 

Be'dan. 

Apparently  a  Hebrew  judge,  ruling  be- 
tween Gideon  and  Jephthah,  and  distin- 
guished enough  to  rank  with  them  and  with 
Samuel  (1  Sam.  xii.  11).  No  such  personage 
is  mentioned  in  the  Book  of  Judges.  Four 
theories  have  been  proposed  in  explanation. 
1.  Bedan  ruled  Israel,  though  no  record  of 
his  administration  is  found  in  the  Book  of 
Judges.  2.  Bedan  means  in  Dan,  or  is  a  con- 
traction of  Beu-Dan,  son  of  Dan,  and  is  equiv- 
alent to  Samson.     Better  is  3.  Bedan  is  the 


Bee. 

An  insect  which  makes  honey  (Judg.  xiv. 
8,  18).  It  is  compared  to  an  army  (Is.  vii. 
18)  cliasiug  man  (Deut.  i.  44),  or  surrounding 
him  (Ps.  cxviii.  12).  As  Canaan  was  a  land 
flowing  with  milk  and  honey  (Ex.  iii.  8  ;  cp. 
Gen.  xliii.  11 ;  Ezek.  xxvii.  17),  bees  must 
have  been  there  in  large  numbers.  Their 
nests  were  in  rocks  (Ps.  Ixxxi.  IB)  and  in 
woods  (1  Sam.  xiv.  2Ji),  especially  in  Judah 
(Ezek.  xxvii.  17;  cp.  Mat.  iii.  4). 

Be-e-li'a-da  [the  Lord  hath  known,  i.  e. 
kindly  regarded]. 

A  son  of  king  David,  born  at  Jerusalem  (1 
Chron.  xiv.  7).  During  his  lifetime  he  may 
have  been  called  by  the  alternate  name 
Eliada,  God  hath  known  ;  at  any  rate,  when 
the  word  Baal  became  distasteful  on  account 


'Ain  Muwt'ileh,  the  traditional  Beer-lahai-roi. 


judge  Jair  ;  for  a  person  called  Bedan  is  reg- 
istered in  1  Chron.  vii.  14-17  as  a  descend- 
ant of  Gilead,  the  son  of  Machir,  the  son  of 
Manasseh  ;  and  Jair  the  judge  was  a  Gileadite, 
and  belonged  to  the  villages  named  from  Jair, 
a  descendant  of  Machir  (1  Chron.  ii.  21,  22). 
Bedan's  descent  from  Manasseh  diflered  from 
that  of  Jair  who  captured  and  named  the 
villages ;  but  this  fact  does  not  prevent  Be- 
dan from  representing  the  de.scendants  and 
the  district  of  Jair  the  conqueror,  and  being 
officially  called  Jair.  Best  is  4.  Bedan  is  an 
early  misreading  for  either  Abdon  (Judg.  xii. 
13)  or  for  Barak,  which  is  found  in  the  Scp- 
tuagint,  Syriac  and  Arabic  versions  (cp.  Heb. 
xi.  32). 

Be-de'iah. 

A  son  of  Bani,  who  was  induced  by  Ezra  to 
put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  35). 


of  idolatrous  associations,  the  Hebrew  his- 
torians were  apt  to  write  Eliada  instead  of 
Beeliada  (2  Sam.  v.  16  ;  1  Chron.  iii.  8). 

Be-el'ze-bub. 

The  prince  of  the  demons  (Mat.  x.  25  :  xii. 
24;  Mark  iii.  22;  Luke  xi.  15,  18,  19),  whom 
Jesus  identifies  with  Satan  (Mat.  xii.  26 ; 
Mark  iii.  23;  Luke  xi.  18).  The  spelling 
Beelzebub  differs  but  slightly  from  Baalze- 
bub,  god  of  Ekron.  The  Greek  text,  how- 
ever, has  Beelzebul.  The  common  explana- 
tion is  that,  with  the  view  of  insulting  the 
Ekrouite  god  and  his  worshipers,  the  Jews 
wished  to  make  s'bub,  fly,  into  sihbul  or  zebel, 
dung.  But  as  in  Hebrew  s'btd  means  habita- 
tion, Baalzebul  may  signify  lord  of  the  habi- 
tation, and  the  notion  of  insult  falls  to  the 
ground.  Jesus  played  upon  this  meaning  of 
the  name  in  Mat.  x.  25.    The  notion  of  insult 


Beer 


76 


Beer-sheba 


also  falls  on  the  plausible  supposition  that 
Beelzebul  was  merely  a  Greek  nioditicatiou 
of  Beelzebub,  adopted  because  the  pronuncia- 
tion was  for  the  Greeks  easier  to  the  tongue 
and  more  pleasant  to  the  ear. 
Be'er  [a  wellj. 

1.  A  station  of  the  Israelites  on  the  con- 
fines of  Moab,  at  which  a  well  was  dug  bj- 
the  leaders  of  Israel  with  their  staves  or  un- 
der their  official  supervision  (Num.  xxi.  IB- 
IS) ;  possibly  the  same  as  Beer-elim. 

2.  A  place  to  which  Jotham  fled  from  his 
brother  Abimelech  (Judg.  ix.  21).  Situa- 
tion unknown.  Eusebius  discriminates  it  from 
Beeroth  in  Benjamin,and  locates  it  in  the  plain 
8  Roman  miles  to  the  north  of  Eleutheropolis, 
i.  e.  Beit  Jibrin.  Josephus  says  that  Jotham 
lied  to  the  mountains  (Antiq.  v.  7,  2). 

Be-e'ra  [a  well]. 

An  Asherite,  family  of  Heber  (1  Chron. 
Tii.  37). 

Be-e'rah  [a  well]. 

A  i>rince  of  the  Reubeuites,  who  was  car- 
ried captive  by  Tiglath-pileser,  king  of  As- 
syria (1  Chron.  v.  6). 


out  to  her  by  an  angel  when  she  and  her  son 
Ishmael  were  in  danger  of  perishing  from 
thirst  (Gen.  xvi.  10-15;  xxiv.  62;  xxv.  11). 
The  Bedouin  connect  'Ain  Muweileh,  at  the 
eastei-u  foot  of  Jebel  Muweileh,  a  few  miles 
west  of  Kadesh,  on  the  caravan  route  to 
Egypt,  with  Hagar.  (See  illustration,  p.  75.) 
Be-e'roth  [wells]. 

1.  A  Gibeonite  town  (Josh.  ix.  17),  after- 
wards assigned  to  the  Benjamites  (xviii.  25; 
2  Sam.  iv.  2).  It  continued  to  be  inhabited 
after  the  captivity  (Ezra  ii.  25  ;  Neh.  vii.  29). 
It  still  exists  in  the  village  el-Bireh,  a  little 
more  than  8  miles  north  of  Jerusalem  on 
the  way  to  Bethel.  It  is  built  on  a  ridge 
running  west  to  east,  and  is  seen  from  a  dis- 
tance toward  both  the  north  and  south. 
Many  large  stones  and  various  substructions 
testify  to  the  antiquity  of  the  site. 

2.  Beeroth  of  the  children  of  Jaakan ;  wells 
on  the  borders  of  Edom,  belonging  to  the  tribe 
of  Jaakan,  by  which  the  Israelites  encamped 
on  their  way  to  Canaan  (Deut.  x.  6).  See 
Jaakan. 

Be-e'roth-ite,  once  Berothite. 


Beer-sheba. 


Be'er-e'lim  [well  of  heroes  or  of  tree.?]. 
A  village  of  Moab  (Is.  xv.  8)  ;  possibly  the 
same  as  Beer  1. 

Be-e'ri  [man  of  a  well]. 

1.  A  Hittite,  father  of  Judith,  one  of  Esau's 
•wives  (Gen.  xxvi.  34).     See  Anah. 

2.  Father  of  the  prophet  Hosea  (Hos.  i.  1). 
Be'er-la-hai'-roi  [the  well  of  the  Living 

One  who  seeth  me]. 

The  name  given  by  Hagar  to  a  well  in  the 
desert  between  Kadesh  and  Bered,  pointed 


A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Beeroth  (2  Sam. 
iv.  2  ;  xxiii.  37  ;  1  Chron.  xi.  39). 

Be'er-she'ba  [well  of  seven].  The  pres- 
ence of  the  word  seven  in  the  name  was  a 
constant  reminder  that  a  covenant  had  been 
sworn  to. 

A  well  dug  by  Abraham  in  the  wilderness 
adjacent  to  the  Philistine  country,  and  where 
he  and  the  king  of  Gerar  made  a  covenant 
not  to  molest  each  other.  This  well  had 
already  been  an  object  of  strife  between  their 


Beeshterah 


BeU 


respective  herdsmen.  Accordingly  Abniham 
gave  Abimelecb  seven  ewe  him))s  :is  ;i  witness 
of  the  Hebrew  title,  and  to  furtlier  preserve 
the  memory  of  the  trausjvction,  called  the 
well  Beer-sheba  ^Geu.  xxi.  22-'S2).  He  also 
planted  there  a  tamarisk  tree,  and  called  ou 
the  name  of  Jehovah,  the  everlasting  God  (33, 
E.  v.).  Abraham  resided  for  many  years  at 
this  place.  Then  he  went  to  Hebron,  and  after- 
wards sojourned  at  Beer-lahai-roi.  During 
the  absence  of  the  Hebrews  from  this  part 
of  the  wilderness,  the  Philistines  rilled  up 
the  wells ;  but  when  Isaac  came  into  au- 
thority he  returned  to  this  district  and  be- 
gan to  reopen  them.  While  at  Beer-sheba, 
engaged  in  clearing  out  that  well  also,  the 
king  of  Gerar  came  and  made  a  covenant 
with  him.  as  he  or  his  predecessor  had  done 
with  Abraham.  The  Philistine  and  his  com- 
panions had  scarcely  departed,  when  Isaac's 
servants  announced  that  they  had  reached 
water.  As  in  former  like  cases,  Isaac  piously 
revived  the  old  name,  calling  the  well  Shibah, 
the  feminine  form  of  the  numeral  sheba', 
thus  confirming  and  preserving  the  name 
Beer-sheba  (xxvi.  32,  33,  R.  V.).  It  was  from 
this  well  that  Jacob  started  on  his  journey  to 
Haran  (xxviii.  10),  and  there  he  siicrificed  on 
his  way  to  Egypt  (xlvi.  1-5).  A  town  ulti- 
mately rose  in  the  vicinity  of  the  well  (Josh. 
XV.  28).  It  was  situated  in  the  extreme 
south  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  28  :  2  Sam.  xxiv. 
7;  2  Kin.  xxiii.  8),  though  allotted  to  the 
Simeonites (Josh. xix.  1.2;  1  Chron.  iv.28i,and 
was  also  the  southern  limit  of  Palestine,  so 
that  the  expression  became  proverbial.  "  from 
Dan  to  Beer-sheba,"  i.  e.  from  the  extreme 
north  to  the  extreme  south  of  the  Holy  Land 
(Judg.  XX.  1  et  pas.).  Samuel's  sons  were 
judges  in  Beer-sheba  (1  Sam.  viii.  2).  Elijah 
passed  through  it  on  his  way  to  Horeb  (1  Kin. 
xix.  3).  It  was  inhabited  after  the  captivity 
(Neh.  xi.  27.  30).  Robinson  found  two  deep 
wells,  still  called  Bir  es-Seba',  on  the  north- 
ern side  of  a  wide  watercourse  or  bed  of  a 
torrent,  wady  es-Seba'.  The  wells  are  some 
distance  apart.  They  are  circular  and  built 
around  with  solid  masonry.  The  largest  he 
found  \2h  feet  in  diameter  and  44V  deep,  to 
the  surface  of  the  water,  16  feet  at  the  lower 
part  being  cut  through  solid  rock. 

Be-esh'te-rah  [house  or  temple  of  Astarte] . 

The  same  place  as  Ashtaroth  (Josh.  xxi.  27 
with  1  Chron.  vi.  71).  This  contraction  of 
Beth-eshterah  is  like  that  of  Bethshan  to 
Beisan. 

Bee'tle.     See  Cricket. 

Be'he-moth  [probably  derived  from  Egyp- 
tian p-fhe-mau,  water  ox,  and  modified  by 
the  Hebrews  into  b'hemoth,  a  plural  of  ex- 
cellence denoting  an  animal  which  possesses 
in  a  high  degree  the  attributes  of  b'hemah, 
a  beast] . 

A  large  animal  described  by  Job.  It  eats 
grass  like  an  ox.  Its  body  is  thick  and  mas- 
sive, with  bones  like  bars  of  iron,  and  a  tail, 


which  it  moves  like  a  cedar.  It  is  am- 
phibious, sometimes  feeding  with  other  ((Uad- 
rupeds  ui)on  the  mountains,  and  sometimes 
lying  in  fens,  among  reeds,  or  under  willows 
or  apparently  in  flooded  rivers  (Job.  xl.  15-24  ; 
R.  V.  margin  "hippopotamus"').  It  is  prob- 
ably the  hipi)Opotannis  of  the  Nile  (llippo- 
potamus  amphibias).  This  has  an  unwieldy 
body  eleven  or  twelve  feet  long,  a  large 
clumsy  head,  short  stout  legs,  with  four  feet 
bearing  toes.  The  gape  of  its  mouth  is  enor- 
mous and  the  tusks  of  formidable  .size.  It 
feeds  on  green  corn,  gniss,  and  young  shrubs. 
In  ancient  times  it  descended  the  Nile ;  but 
it  was  hunted  for  its  valuable  skin,  teeth, 
and  flesh,  and  it  was  also  taken  in  considera- 
ble numbers  to  Rome  for  exhibition  in  the 
circus.  Now,  therefore,  these  animals  are 
extinct  in  Egypt,  though  found  on  the  Upper 
Nile. 

Be'ka,  in  A.  V.  Be'kah  [division,  half]. 

Haifa  shekel  (Ex.  xxxviii.  26).  The  value 
was  about  16.8  pence  or  33  cents.  It  was  used 
for  weighing  the  precious  metals  (Gen.  xxiv. 
22).    See  Weights. 

Bel  [lord]. 

Title  of  the  patron  god  of  Babylon  (Is. 
xlvi.  1 ;  Jer.  1.  2  ;  li.  44  ;  Bel  and  Dragon  3- 
22;  Herod,  i.  181),  whose  proper  name  was 
Marduk  or,  as  pronounced  by  the  Hebrews,. 
Merodach.  He  was  a  sun-god,  the  sun  of 
early  day  and  of  spring ;  and  he  was  re- 
garded as  the  son  of  Ea,  god  of  the  ocean 
and  other  terrestrial  waters.  His  festival  was- 
celebrated  in  the  spring,  at  the  beginning  of 
the  year.  Because  the  sun  in  this  aspect  ex- 
erts such  potent  influence  in  nature,  and  be- 
cause he  was  tlieir  tutelary  divinity,  the  men 
of  Babylon  paid  him  supreme  worship  and  as- 
cribed to  him  the  loftiest  attributes.  He  was 
not  originally  numbered  among  the  chief 
gods  by  the  people  on  the  lower  Tigris  and 
Euphrates,  but  gi'ew  in  importance  with  the 
increasing  power  and  renown  of  the  city  of 
Babylon. 

Another  Bel,  god  of  the  region  between 
earth  and  sky.  and  grouped  in  a  triad  with 
Ann,  heaven,  and  Ea,  was  one  of  the  elevea 
great  gods. 

Be'la,  in  A.  V.  once  Be'lah  (Gen.  xlvi.  21) 
[devouring,  destruction]. 

1.  A  king  of  Edom,  whose  father's  name 
was  Beor  (Gen.  xxxvi.  32). 

2.  A  Reubenite  chief  (1  Chron.  v.  8). 

3.  A  son  of  Benjamin,  and  founder  of  a 
family  (Gen.  xlvi.  21  ;  Num.  xxvi.  38). 

4.  One  of  the  cities  of  the  plain,  the  same 
as  Zoar  (Gen.  xiv.  2,  8). 

Be'li-al  [worthlessness,  wickedness]. 

Ungodliness  (Ps.  xviii.  4,  R.  V.).  The 
phrase  "  men  of  belial  "  is  a  Semitic  circum- 
locution, in  default  of  the  appropriate  ad- 
jective, for  ungodly  men  (Deut.  xiii.  13). 
Belial  is  personified  in  2  Cor.  vi.  15. 

Bell. 

Small  golden  bells,  alternating  with  orna- 


Bellows 


78 


Bene-jaakan 


ments  in  the  form  of  pomegranates,  were  at- 
tached to  the  lower  part  of  the  official  hlue 
robe  of  the  high  priest  in  order  to  send  forth 
a  sound  that  might  be  heard  in  the  temple 
for  a  memorial  of  the  children  of  Israel,  that 
he  die  not  (Ex.  xxviii.  33,  34  ;  Ecclus.  xlv. 
9).  A  string  of  flat  pieces  of  brass  was  hung 
around  the  neck  of  horses,  or  a  single  bell 
was  suspended  from  their  throat  (Zech.  xiv. 
20  ;  cp.  Judg.  viii.  21).  In  either  case  the  tink- 
ling kept  the  horses  together  at  night,  and 
made  it  easy  to  find  a  strayed  beast. 

Bellows. 

An  instrument  for  blowing  the  fire  of  a 
smelting  furnace  (Jer.  vi.  29 ;  Iliad  xviii.  470). 
As  used  by  the  ancient  Egyptians,  the  bellows 
consisted  of  a  pair  of  leather  bags,  fitted  into 
a  frame,  from  each  of  which  a  pipe  extended 
to  the  fire.  They  were  worked  by  the  feet, 
the  operator  standing  upon  them  with  one 
under  each  foot,  and  pressing  them  alter- 
nately while  he  pulled  up  the  exhausted 
skin  with  a  string  which  he  held  in  his 
hand.  A  double  pair  was  used  for  each  fur- 
nace. 

Bel-shaz'zar  [Babylonian  Bel-shar-tisur, 
Bel  protect  the  king] . 

A  king  of  the  Chaldeans,  descended  from 
Nebuchadnezzar,  and  slain  on  the  night  that 
the  Medo-Persian  army  entered  Babylon  (Dan. 
V.  1-31).  It  appears  from  contemporary  in- 
scriptions that  he  was  the  eldest  sou  of  Nabu- 
na'id,  pronounced  Nabonadios  and  Nabonidos 
by  the  Greeks.  As  early  as  551  b.  c,  the  fifth 
year  of  Nabuna'id,  Belshazzar,  the  king's  son, 
was  a  man  of  aflairs,  employing  a  scribe  ;  and 
in  the  eleventh  year  he  was  a  holder  of  prop- 
erty, and  had  a  steward  over  his  house  and 
scribes.  To  the  moon-god  Nabuna'id  prayed  : 
"As  for  me,  Nabuna'id  king  of  Babylon,  de- 
liver me  from  sin  against  thy  great  divine 
nature  and  grant  unto  me  length  of  days. 
And  concerning  Belsharusur  my  firstborn,  the 
offspring  of  my  body,  his  heart  also  fill  thou 
with  awe  of  thy  great  divinity,  that  he  may 
never  indulge  in  sins.  With  abundance  of 
days  let  him  be  satisfied."  See  Cyrus  and 
Daniel. 

Bel-te-shaz'zar  [Babylonian,  BnlntsiMisur, 
protect  his  life].  The  name  is  abbreviated 
by  omitting  the  name  of  the  deity  invoked. 

The  name  given  bj'  the  prince  of  the  Baby- 
lonian eunuchs  to  the  prophet  Daniel  (Dan. 
i.  7).  Bel,  the  god  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  was 
the  deity  invoked  in  the  name  (iv.  8). 

Ben  [sou]. 

A  Levite  (1  Chron.  xv.  18),  but  probably 
the  name  has  erroneously  crept  into  the  text ; 
cp.  20,  21. 

Ben-a-bin'a-dab  [son  of  Abinadab]. 

Son-in-law  of  Solomon  and  his  purveyor  in 
the  region  of  Dor  (1  Kin.  iv.  11,  R.  V.). 

Be-na'iah  [Jehovah  hath  built]. 
1.  A  Levite,  the  son  of  Jehoiada  of  Kab- 
zeel  in  Judah  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  20).     His  father 


was  a  priest  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  5).  If  the  title 
here  denotes  a  minister  at  the  altar,  Benaiah's 
father  was  probably  the  leader  of  the  priests 
who  joined  the  army  which  placed  David  on 
the  throne  (xii.  27).  Benaiah  was  a  valiant 
man,  celebrated  for  having  descended  into  a 
})it  and  killed  a  lion,  for  having  slain  two 
lion-like  men  of  Moab,  and,  when  armed  only 
with  a  statf,  for  having  met  an  Egyptian 
giant,  wrested  away  his  spear,  and  killed  him 
with  his  own  weajion  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  20,  21 ; 
1  Chron.  xi.  22,  23).  He  was  over  the  Cher- 
ethites  and  Pelethites,  David's  bodyguard 
(2  Sam.  viii.  18).  and  also  commanded  the 
military  division  for  the  third  month  (1 
Chron.  xxvii.  5,  6).  He  with  the  bodyguard 
remained  faithful  to  David  during  Absalom's 
rebellion  (cp.  2  Sam.  xv.  18;  xx.  23)  and  that 
of  Adonijah  (1  Kin.  i.  10).  By  David's  order 
he,  at  the  head  of  the  guard,  escorted  Solo- 
mon to  Gihon,  to  be  anointed  king  (38),  and 
as  chief  of  the  guard  he  executed  Adonijah 
(ii.  25),Joab  (29-34),  and  Shimei  (46).  The 
death  of  Joab  having  left  the  oflice  of  com- 
mander-in-chief vacant,  Benaiah  was  pro- 
moted to  the  same  (35). 

2.  A  Pirathonite,  one  of  David's  thirty 
mighty  men  of  the  second  rank  (2  Sam.  xxiii. 
30 ;  1  Chron.  xi.  31).  He  commanded  the 
military  division  for  the  eleventh  month 
(xxvii.  14). 

3.  A  Levite  of  the  second  degree  who 
played  the  psaltery  before  the  ark  when  it 
was  escorted  to  Jerusalem,  and  afterwards 
in  the  tabernacle  erected  by  David  (1  Chron. 
XV.  18,  20:  xvi.  5). 

4.  A  priest  who  blew  a  trumpet  in  the 
company  which  escorted  the  ark  to  Jeru- 
salem and  afterwards  in  David's  tabernacle 
(1  Chron.  xv.  24;  xvi.  6). 

5.  A  Levite,  descended  from  Asaph,  and 
living  before  the  reign  of  Jehoshaphat  (2 
Chron.  xx.  14). 

6.  A  Simeonite.  possibly  a  contemporary 
of  Hezekiah  (1  Chron.  iv.  36  ;  cp.  41). 

7.  A  Levite,  an  overseer  of  dedicated  offer- 
ings in  Hezekiah's  reign  (2  Chron.  xxxi.  13). 

8.  Father  of  Ezekiel's  contemporary,  prince 
Pelatiah  (Ezek.  xi.  1,  13). 

9-12.  Four  men,  sons  of  Parosh,  Pahath- 
moab,  Bani,  and  Nebo,  respectively,  who  were 
induced  bv  Ezra  to  put  away  their  strange 
wives  (Ezra  x.  25,  30,  35,  43). 

Ben-am 'mi  [son  of  my  people ;  a  circum- 
locution for  my  kinsman,  and  equivalent  to 
Amnion,  kin]. 

Son  of  Lot's  younger  daughter,  from  whom 
sprang  the  Ammonite  tribe  (Gen.  xix.  38). 

Ben-de'ker  [son  of  Deker]. 
Solomon's  purveyor  in  Bethshemesh  and 
some  other  towns  (1  Kin.  iv.  9,  E.  V.). 

Ben'e-be'rak  [sons  of  Berak]. 
A  town  of  Dan  (Josh.  xix.  45),  now  Ibn 
Ibrak,  4  miles  east  of  Jaffa. 

Ben'e-ja'a-kan.    See  Jaakan. 


Ben-geber 


79 


Benjamin 


Ben-ge'ber  [sou  of  Geber]. 
Solomons  purveyor  in   Ramoth-gilead   (1 
Kin.  iv.  lo.  K.  V.)- 

Ben-ha'dad  [sou  of  Hadad,  the  supreme 
god  of  Syria].     See  H.A.D.VD. 

The  name  of  three  kings  ruling  at  Da- 
mascus. 

1.  Benhadad,  son  of  Tabrimmon  aud  grand- 
son of  Ilozion.  When  Baasha,  king  of  Israel, 
built  Kaniali  to  blockade  the  entrance  into 
Judah  from  the  north,  Asa,  king  of  Judah, 
hired  Benhadad  to  break  his  treaty  with 
Baasha  and  invade  the  kingdom  of  Israel. 
The  army  of  Benhadad  entered  the  territory 
of  the  ten  tribes,  captured  the  cities  of  Ijon, 
Dan,  aud  Abel-maacah,  and  ravaged  the  laud 
west  of  the  lake  of  Genuesaret.  The  diver- 
sion caused  Baasha  to  withdraw  from  Eamah 
and  terminate  tlie  blockade  of  the  kingdom 
of  Judah  (1  Kiu.  xv.  18-21 ;  2Chron.  xvi.  1-6). 

2.  Benhadad,  contemporary  of  Ahab.  His 
full  name  appears  to  have  been  Benhadadidri, 
the  son  of  Hadad  is  my  help.  He  besieged 
Samaria,  but  drove  Ahab  to  desperation  and 
forced  him  to  battle  by  insulting  demands, 
and  was  defeated.  The  next  year  Benhadad 
renewed  the  war,  but  sustained  a  still  heavier 
defeat  than  on  the  previous  occasion.  Ahab 
granted  him  conditions  of  peace,  making  a 
covenant  with  him  aud  letting  him  go  (1  Kin. 
XX.  1-34;.  The  arrival  of  a  common  enemy, 
Shalmaueser  king  of  Assyria,  in  the  west  in 
856  B.  c.  necessitated  the  preservation  of  the 
peace,  aud  it  continued  three  years  (1  Kin. 
xxii.  1).  In  854  Benhadad,  assisted  by  Ahab 
and  other  royal  allies,  ofi'ered  resistance  to 
the  Assyrians  at  Karkar  near  Hamath,  but 
was  defeated.  In  the  following  year,  as  is 
probable,  in  early  spring  Ahab  unsuccessfully 
attempted  to  wrest  Eamotb-gilead  out  of  the 
hands  of  Benhadad  (xxii.  1-36).  For  some 
time  Benhadad  waged  predatory  warfare  with 
the  Israelites,  and  later  he  invaded  Israel 
with  his  army  and  laid  siege  to  Samaria  (2 
Kin.  V.  2;  vi.  8-vii.  20),  but  these  varied  hos- 
tilities were  repeatedly  interrupted  by  Shal- 
maneser's  operations  against  Benhadad  in 
the  years  850,  849,  and  846.  Between  845 
aud  the  close  of  843,  Benhadad  was  murdered 
and  succeeded  by  Hazael  (2  Kin.  viii.  15). 

3.  Benhadad,  son  of  Hazael,  aud  called  by 
the  murdered  king's  name.  In  the  reign  of 
Jchoahaz,  king  of  Israel,  Hazael  aud  then 
Benhadad  oppressed  the  ten  tribes  (2  Kin. 
xiii.  3-13).  But  Joash,  sou  of  Jehoahaz,  in- 
flicted three  defeats  on  Benhadad.  and  re- 
covered the  cities  of  Israel  which  had  been 
under  Syrian  rule  (22-25).  His  son,  Jeroboam 
II..  followed  up  these  victories  by  retaking 
Hamath,  aud  eveu  temporarily  occupying 
Damascus  (xiv.  28). 

The  palaces  of  Benhadad  are  the  palaces 
of  Damascus  (Jer.  xlix.  27  ;  Amos  i.  4). 

Ben-ha'il  [sou  of  strength,  virtuous]. 
One  of  the  princes  sent  by  Jehoshaphat  to 
teach  iu  the  cities  of  Judah  (2  Chron.  xvii.  7). 


Ben-ha'nan  [son  of  the  kind  one]. 
A  sou  of  Sliin)ou,  registered  with  the  tribe 
of  Judah  (1  Chron.  iv.  20). 

Ben-he'sed  [sou  of  benevolence  or  of 
Hesed]. 

Solomon's  purveyor  in  Aruboth  (1  Kin.  iv. 
10,  R.  v.). 

Ben'hur  [sou  of  Hur]. 

Solomon's  purvevor  in  mount  Ephraim  (1 
Kin.  iv.  8,  R.  Y.).  ' 

Be-ni'nu  [our  sou]. 

A  Levite  who  with  Nehemiah  and  others 
sealed  a  covenant  with  Jehovah  (Neh.  x.  13). 

Ben'ja-min  [sou  of  the  right  hand,  i.  e.  of 
happiness] . 

1.  The  youngest  of  Jacob's  twelve  sous.  He 
was  the  full  brother  of  Joseph,  both  being 
children  of  Rachel.  As  Jacob  was  approach- 
ing Bethlehem,  Rachel  gave  birth  toBeujamiu, 
aud,  feeling  that  his  advent  into  the  world 
was  about  to  cost  her  her  life,  named  him 
Benoui,  sou  of  my  sorrow,  but  Jacob  called 
him  Benjamin  (Gen.  xxxv.  16-20).  Being 
the  youngest,  aud  associated  with  such  mem- 
ories, he  was  peculiarly  dear  to  his  father, 
especially  after  the  supposed  death  of  Joseph. 
With  excessive  reluctance  his  pareut  allowed 
him  to  go  to  Egypt  with  his  other  brothers 
(Gen.  xliii.  1-17),  aud  Judah  was  probably 
right  in  supposing  that  the  father  would  die 
of  grief  if  any  untoward  occurrence  happened 
to  the  son  of  his  old  age.  Joseph  also  felt 
much  afl'ection  for  Benjamin  (xliii.  29-34; 
xliv.  1-34).  Ultimately  Benjamin  had,  be- 
sides other  descendants,  five  sons  and  two 
grandsons,  through  whom  he  became  the 
founder  of  families  and  a  tribe  in  Israel 
(Gen.  xlvi.  21 ;  Num.  xxvi.  38-41 ;  1  Chron. 
vii.  6-12;  viii). 

2.  The  tribe  to  which  Benjamin  gave  ori- 
gin, and  the  territory  that  it  obtained.  Jacob 
prophesied  :  "Benjamin  is  a  wolf  that  ravin- 
eth.  In  the  morning  he  shall  devour  the 
prey,  and  at  eveu  he  shall  divide  the  spoil" 
(Gen.  xlix.  27,  R.V.);  and  Moses:  "  The  beloved 
of  the  Lord  shall  dwell  in  safety  by  him.  He 
covereth  him  all  the  day  long  and  he  dwell- 
eth  between  his  shoulders"  (Dent,  xxxiii. 
12,  R.  v.).  In  the  distribution  of  the  land  by 
lot  under  Joshua  at  Shiloh,  after  Judali  and 
Ephraim  had  received  territory,  the  first  lot 
came  to  Benjamin,  who  was  assigned  the  dis- 
trict lying  between  those  of  Judah  and  Eph- 
raim. Its  northern  boundary  ran  from  Jor- 
dan through  Bethel  to  Ataroth-addar,  south 
of  nether  Bethhoron.  Its  western  border  ran 
from  this  poiut  to  Kirjath-jearim.  Its  south- 
ern boundary  went  thence  through  the  val- 
ley of  the  son  of  Hinnom,  immediately  south 
of  Jerusalem,  to  the  northern  point  of  the 
Dead  Sea.  Its  easteru  limit  was  the  Jordan 
(Josh,  xviii.  11-20).  The  territory  thus 
marked  out  extended  from  west  to  east  about 
28  miles,  and  from  north  to  south  about  12 
miles.  It  was  a  hilly  country,  but  extremely 
fertile  (Autiq.  v.  1,  22)  and  it  was  studded 


Beno 


80 


Bemice 


with  towns,  the  chief  of  which  were  Jerusalem, 
Jericho,  Bethel,  Gibeon,  Gibeath,  and  Mizpeh 
(Josh,  xviii.  21-28).  The  tribe  early  furnished 
Israel  with  a  deliverer  from  foreign  oppres- 
sion (Judg.  iii.  15).  The  tribe  was  nearly  ex- 
terminated for  protecting  the  guilty  inhabi- 
tants of  Gibeah  (xix.-xxi.).  Later  it  gave  the 
first  king  to  Israel,  and  long  clung  to  the 
house  of  Saul  (2  Sam.  ii.  9,  15  ;  1  Chron.  xii. 
29).  Even  after  David  had  become  king  of 
all  Israel,  Benjamites  occasionally  showed 
dissatisfaction  (2  Sam.  xvi.  5 ;  xx.  1-22 ;  Ps. 
vii.  title) ;  but  a  large  part  of  the  tribe  re- 
mained true  to  the  house  of  David  when 
the  ten  tribes  separated  under  Jeroboam  (1 
Kin.  xii.  21),  and  shared  the  fortunes  of 
Judah  to  the  end  (Ezra  iv.  1).  From  this 
tribe  sprang  the  apostle  of  the  gentiles  (Phil, 
iii.  5). 

Two  gates  at  Jerusalem  bore  the  name  of 
Benjamin.  The  upper  or  high  gate  of  Ben- 
jamin was  in  the  temple  (Jer.  xx.  2).  For 
the  other  gate  of  Benjamin,  see  Jerusalem 
II.  3. 

3.  A  Beujamite,  a  son  of  Bilhan,  family  of 
Jediael  (1  Chron.  vii.  10). 

4.  A  son  of  Harim,  who  had  taken  a  foreign 
wife  (Ezra  x.  32). 

Be'no  [his  son]. 

A  descendant  of  Merari  through  Jaaziah 
(1  Chron.  xxiv.  26,  27),  if  Beno  is  a  proper 
name,  as  it  seems  to  be  iu  ver.  27. 

Ben-o'ni  [son  of  my  sorrow]. 

The  name  designed  by  Eachel  for  the  child 
whose  birth  was  causing  her  death.  But 
Jacob  changed  it  to  Benjamin  (Gen.  xxxv. 
18). 

Ben-zo'lietli  [son  of  Zoheth]. 

A  descendant  of  Ishi,  registered  with  the 
tribe  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  iv.  20).  Perhaps, 
however,  a  name  has  dropped  out  of  the  text 
before  this  name.  If  so,  the  passage  should 
be  translated  :  ' '  And  the  sons  of  Ishi,  Zoheth 
and  ....  the  son  of  Zoheth." 

Be 'on.    See  B.\al-meon. 

Be'or  [a  torch]. 

1.  Father  of  Bela,  king  of  Edom  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  .32;  1  Chron.  i.  43). 

2.  Father  of  Balaam  (Num.  xxii.  5).  Called 
in  A.  V.  of  2  Pet.  ii.  15  Bosor. 

Be'ra  [excellence]. 

A  king  of  Sodom,  defeated  by  Chedorlaomer 
and  his  confederates  (Gen.  xiv.  2). 
Ber'a-chah  [blessing]. 

1.  A  Beujamite  who  joined  David  at  Zik- 
lag  (1  Chron.  xii.  3). 

2.  A  valley  in  Judah  near  Tekoa.  Jehosh- 
aphat  gave  it  its  name  because  he  and  his 
army  there  returned  thanks  to  God  for  a 
great  victory  over  the  Ammonites,  Moabites, 
and  Edomites  (2  Chron.  xx.  26).  The  name 
still  lingers  as  Bereikiit,  a  ruin  about  4  miles 
northwest  of  Tekoa,  6  miles  southwest  of 
Bethlehem,  and  a  little  east  of  the  road  from 
the  latter  village  to  Hebron. 


Ber-a-chi'ah.    See  Berechiah. 

Be-ra'iah  [Jehovah  hath  created]. 

A  son  of  Shimei  (1  Chron.  viii.  21,  R.  V.), 
descendant  of  Shaharaim  who  had  his  regis- 
try with  Benjamin  (8,  11-13). 

Be're-a. 

A  town  in  Judsea  near  which  Judas  Mac- 
cabfeus  was  slain  (1  Mac.  ix.  4).  Not  iden- 
tified. 

For  Be-re'a,  a  city  of  Macedonia  (Acts  xvii. 
10,  A.  v.),  .see  Berce.a.. 

Ber-e-cM'ah,  in  A.  V.  once  Berachiah  (1 
Chron.  vi.  39)  [Jehovah  hath  blessed]. 

1.  A  Levite,  the  father  of  Asaph,  descended 
from  Gershom  (1  Chron.  vi.  39 ;  xv.  17). 

2.  A  Levite,  one  of  the  four  doorkeepers 
for  the  ark  in  David's  reign  (1  Chron.  xv.  23, 
24). 

3.  One  of  the  chief  men  of  Ephraim  in  the 
reign  of  Pekah.  He  took  the  part  of  the  cap- 
tives from  Judah.  He  was  a  son  of  Meshil- 
lemoth  (2  Chron.  xxviii.  12). 

4.  A  son  of  Zeinibbabel  (1  Chron.  iii.  20). 

5.  A  Levite.  descended  from  Elkanah  of 
Netophah  (1  Chron.  ix.  16). 

6.  A  son  of  Meshezabel.  His  son  repaired 
part  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  4,  30). 

7.  Father  of  the  prophet  Zechariah  (Zech. 
i.  1,  7). 

Be'red  [hail]. 

1.  A  place  in  the  wilderness  of  Shur,  to  the 
west  of  Kadesh,  and  not  far  from  Beer-lahai- 
roi  (Gen.  xvi.  7,  14).  Its  exact  locality  has 
not  been  determined. 

2.  An  Ephraimite,  of  the  family  of  Shu- 
thelah  (1  Chron.  vii.  20). 

Be'ri  [man  of  a  well]. 
An   Asherite,    son   of   Zophah,  family  of 
Heber  (1  Chron.  vii.  36). 

Be-ri'ah  [perhaps,  with  an  outcrv,  or  in 
evil]. 

1.  A  son  of  Asher,  and  founder  of  a  family 
(Gen.  xlvi.  17;  Num.  xxvi.  44). 

2.  A  son  of  Ephraim  (1  Chron.  vii.  23). 

3.  A  Beujamite,  head  of  a  father's  house 
among  the  inhabitants  of  Aijalon  (1  Chron. 
viii.  13), 

4.  A  Levite,  a  son  of  Shimei,  the  Gershon- 
ite  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  10).  His  sons  were  united 
with  the  children  of  his  brother  Jeush  into 
one  father's  house  (11). 

Be 'rite. 

Apparently  a  people  living  near  Abel-beth- 
maacah  (2  Sam.  xx.  14),  but  it  is  questionable 
if  the  present  text  is  correct. 

Be'rith.     See  Baal-berith. 

Ber-ni'ce  [for  Pherenilr,  carrying  off  vic- 
tory, victorious]. 

The  eldest  daughter  of  Herod  Agrippa  I. 
She  was  married  to  her  uncle,  Herod,  ruler 
of  Chalcis,  who  soon  afterwards  died.  She 
was  so  much  with  her  brother  Agrippa  that 
scandal  arose  in  consequence.  She  tried  to 
allaj'  it  by  a  marriage  with  Polemo,  king  of 


Berodach-baladan 


81 


Bethany 


Cilicia.  She  soon  became  tired  of  him.  and, 
deserting  him,  returned  to  her  brother  Agrip- 
pa  (Antiq.  xx.  7,  3;  War  ii.  11,  'y).  She  was 
with  him  when  Paul  made  his  defense  before 
him  (Acts  sxv.  23;  xxvi.  30i.  She  afterwards 
became  the  mistress,  first  of  Vespasiiin  and 
then  of  Titus. 
Ber'o-dach-bal'a-dan.     See   Mekodach- 

BAHDAN. 

Be-rcE'a,  iu  A.  V.  Be-re'a. 

1.  A  city  of  Macedonia,  about  50  miles  west 
of  Thessalonica  and  S.i  or  24  miles  from  the 
sea.  where  Paul  preached  on  his  first  journey 
to  Europe  (Acts  xvii.  10-14;  xx.  4).  It  is  now 
called  Verria  or  Boor. 

2.  A  Syrian  city  between  Antioch  and 
Hierapolis.  where  Menelaus  was  smothered 
in  a  tower  of  ashes  1 2  Mac.  xiii.  4).  An  earlier 
name  of  the  town  survives  in  Aleppo,  the 
designation  Beroea.  which  was  given  by  Se- 
leucus  Xicator,  having  had  a  transient  ex- 
istence. 

3.  .See  Beeea  1. 

Be-ro'tliali  or  Ber'o-tliai  [wells]. 

Berothah  was  a  town  situated  between  Ha- 
math  and  Daniascus  (Ezek.  xlvii.  16).  It  is 
probably  identical  with  Berothai.  a  city  which 
was  once  subject  to  Hadadezer,  king  of  Zobah, 
but  was  captured  by  David  and  yielded  him 
large  booty  in  brass  (2  Sam.  viii.  8 ;  in  1 
Chron.  xviii.  S  called  Cun.  in  A.  V.  Chun : 
probably  a  corruption,  for  the  Seventy  read 
the  noun  Mibhur.  of  which  the  letters  are 
much  like  those  of  Berothai).  Site  unknown. 

Ber'yl. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Tarshish, 
a  precious  stone  brought  doubtless  from  the 
place  bearing  the  same  name.  It  was  the 
first  stone  of  the  fourth  row  on  the  Jewish 
high  priest's  brea5t])late  (E.y.  xxviii.  20; 
xsxix.  13:  Song  v.  14;  Ezek.  i.  16 ;  x.  9; 
xxviii.  13 ;  Dan.  x.  6).  None  of  these  pas- 
sages tells  the  color  of  the  stone.  On  the 
margin  of  the  E.  V.  of  Song  v.  14  iar^hish  is 
rendered  topaz,  and  on  that  of  Ex.  xxviii.  20 
chalcedony.  The  .Septuagiut  renders  the  word 
by  chrys<jlite  in  Ex.  xxviii.  20;  xxxix.  13; 
Ezek.  xxviii.  13  :  and  bv  anthrajr.  carbuncle, 
in  Ezek.  x.  9.  ' 

2.  The  Greek  BeruUos  (Rev,  xxi.  20),  the 
eighth  foundation  of  the  wall  of  the  New 
Jerusalem.  The  beryl  is  an  earthy  mineral, 
having  asits  chief  constituents  silica,  alumina, 
and  beryllium  (glucinum).  It  may  be  color- 
less or  aquamarine,  bluish  green,  or  various 
blues  and  violet,  or  yellow  and  brown.  It  is 
closely  allied  to  the  emerald.  It  is  found  in 
Siberia.  India.  Brazil,  and  in  some  parts  of 
Great  Britain. 

Be 'sal. 

<»ne  of  the  Nethinim  and  founder  of  a 
family  (Ezra  ii.  49;  Neh.  vii.  .52). 

Bes-0-de'iali  [in  familiarity  with  Jehovah]. 
Father  of  MeshuUam.  who  helped  to  repair 
a  gate  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  6). 


Be'sor  [perhapscoldness,  or,  jiossibly,  haste]. 

A  brook  south  of  Ziklag  (1  Siim.  xxx.  9.  10, 
21).  iK-rhaps  the  Xahr  Ghazzeh,  which  rises 
near  Beer-sheba  and  empties  into  the  Medi- 
terranean south  of  Gaza. 

Be'tah  [trust,  confidence]. 

A  citv  of  Aram-zobah  (2  Sam.  viii.  8).  prob- 
ably to"  be  read  Tebah.  Called  Tibhath  in 
1  Chron.  xviii.  8.     .Site  unknown. 

Be 'ten  [body,  belly,  or  valley]. 

A  village  of  Asher  (Josh.  xix.  25).  Eusebius 
identified  it  with  a  village  Beth-beten,  8  Re- 
man miles  east  of  Acre. 

Beth. 

The  second  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet. 
Griginally  it  was  a  rude  representation  of  a 
dwelling,  and  from  this  circumstance  it  de- 
rives its  name,  which  means  a  house.  The 
English  letter  B  has  the  same  origin.  Betli 
stands  at  the  head  of  the  second  section  of 
Ps.  cxix.  iu  many  versions,  in  which  section 
each  verse  begins  with  this  letter. 

The  Hebrew  letters,  beth,  caph,  mem.  and 
pe.  or  b,  k.  m.  and  p,  have  at  different  stages 
of  their  development  been  so  siniilar  as  to 
cause  readers  some  difficulty  in  distinguish- 
ing them,  and  open  the  waj-  to  misreadiugs ; 
for  example,  they  are  written,  in  the  order 
just  named,  on 

O/dMrnrCwB     ^  ^^       y^        ^^        t 

%mb  of  James  -v  w  , . 

WffifnyBC  '-'  O  J 

^■miso<iuealliefr     -^   «- 
Bir^m  ~' 


Palmyrpne 


M 


5 

8 


if 


Beth-ab'a-ra  [house  of  the  ford]. 

A  place  beyond  Jordan  at  which  John  bap- 
tized (John  i.  28,  A.  V.).  The  oldest  manu- 
scripts have  Bethany,  as  now  the  R.  V. :  but 
Origen.  not  being  able  to  find  a  place  of  this 
name,  decided  in  favor  of  the  reading  Beth- 
abara.  If  the  correct  reading  be  Bethat)ara, 
then  the  site  is  evidently  at  one  of  the  nu- 
merous fords  of  the  Jordan,  and  of  these  only- 
one  is  now  called  Makbadet  "Abarah.  It  is  a. 
main  ford  of  the  river  just  above  the  place 
where  the  Jalud  stream,  flowing  dowai  the 
valley  of  Jezreel  by  Beisan.  enters  the  Jor- 
dan. The  traditional  site,  however,  is  east 
of  Jericho. 

Beth-a'nath  [house  of  the  goddess  Anath]. 

A  fenced  city  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  xix.  38 1, 
from  which,  however,  that  tribe  failed  to 
drive  out  the  Canaanite  inhabitants  (Judg.  i. 
33).  Suitably  lc<-ated  at  the  village  of  'Anata, 
'Ainata.  or  Ainitha.  6  miles  west  of  Kedesh- 

Beth-a'natli  [house  of  the  goddess  Anath]. 

A  town  in  the  mountains  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  ,59) ;  commonly  sought  at  Beit  'Ainun.  Ii 
miles  southeast  of  Halhul. 

Beth'a-ny  [house  of  the  afflicted  one  ;  in 
Talmud,  house  of  non-maturing  dates]. 


Beth-arabah 


82 


Beth-biri 


1.  A  small  towu  ou  the  mount  of  (Jlives 
(Mark  xi.  1 ;  Luke  xix.  29),  about  15  furlongs 
from  Jerusalem  (John  xi.  18)  on  the  road  to 
Jericho.  Our  Lord  often  lodged  there  (Mat. 
xxi.  17  ;  xxvi.  (J ;  Mark  xi.  1,  11,  12  ;  xiv.  3). 
It  was  the  town  of  Lazarus,  of  Martha,  and 
of  Mary  (John  xi.  1 ;  xii.  1),  as  well  as  of 
Simon  the  leper,  in  whose  house  one  of  the 
anointings  of  Jesus  took  place  (Mat.  xxvi.  6- 
13;  Mark  xiv.  3).  From  near  the  town  Jesus 
ascended  to  heaven  (Lukexxiv.  50, 51).  It  has 
been  generally  identitied  as  the  village  of  el- 
'Aziriyeh  (Lazarus'  village),  ou  the  farther 
side  of  a  shallow  valley  on  the  eastern  slope 
of  the  mount  of  Olives,  southeast  from  Jeru- 
salem. It  is  now  a  miserable  village  with  a 
few  ancient  stones  built  into  modern  habita- 
tions.    The  houses  of  Simon  and  of  Martha 


Beth-ar'bel  [house  of  God's  ambush]. 

A  town  destroyed  by  Shalman  with  hor- 
rible cruelty  (Hos.  x.  14).  The  best  identifi- 
cation that  has  been  proposed  is  with  Arbela 
of  Galilee  (Antiq.  xii.  11,  1;  xiv.  15,  4;  cp. 
1  Mac.  ix.  2),  now  Irbid,  4  miles  west-north- 
west of  Tiberias.  There  are  many  natural  cav- 
erns in  a  limestone  precipice,  which  have  been 
connected  by  artificial  passages  cut  througli 
the  rock,  with  defenses  wherever  access  was 
possible.  Herod  the  Great  found  these  cav- 
erns the  abode  of  robbers,  whom  he  rooted 
out. 

Beth-a'ven  [house  of  nothingness  or  idol- 
atry]. 

1.  A  town  in  the  territory  of  Benjamin, 
near  Ai,  east  of  Bethel  (Josh.  vii.  2),  west  of 
Michmash  (1  Sam.  xiii.  5;  cp.  xiv.  23),  and 


Bethany. 


and  Mary  and  the  tomb  of  Lazarus  are  all 
shown,  but  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that 
they  are  genuine.  Presumably  when  the  vil- 
lage was  first  named  date  palms  grew  in  the 
vicinity.  They  do  not  do  so  now.  but  in 
their  place  are  olives,  figs,  and  pomegranates. 
2.  A  place  east  of  the  Jordan,  probably  a 
village,  where  John  was  baptizing  when 
Jesus  returned  from  the  temptation  (John  i. 
28,  R.  Y.  ;  cp.  x.  40).    See  Beth.-vbar.^. 

Beth-ar'a-bah  [house  of  the  wilderness]. 

A  village  in  the  wilderness  of  Judah,  on 
the  boundary  line  between  Judah  and  Benja- 
min (Josh.  XV.  61 ;  xviii.  22).  Called  simply 
Arabah  in  xviii.  18 ;  unless  the  reading  of 
the  Scptuagint  be  correct,  Beth-arabah  in- 
stead of  "the  side  over  against  the  Arabah.'^ 
Site  not  yet  identified. 

Betb-a'ram.     See  Beth-haram. 


on  the  border  of  a  wilderness  (Josh,  xviii. 
12).     Not  yet  identified. 

2.  A  name  applied  by  Hosea  contemptu- 
ously to  Bethel  after  it  had  become  a  seat  of 
idolatry  (Hos.  iv.  15;  v.  8;  x.  5). 

Beth-az'ma-veth.    See  Azmaveth. 

Beth-ba'al-me'on.    See  Baal-meon. 

Beth-ba'rah  [perhaps  for  Beth-abarah, 
house  of  the  ford]. 

A  place  on  the  Jordan,  probal)ly  on  the 
right  bank  (Judg.  vii.  24). 

Beth-ba'si. 

A  place  in  the  wilderness  (1  Mac.  ix.  62), 
probably  the  wilderness  of  Tekoa  (33).  Jose- 
phus  calls  it  Bethalaga  (Antiq.  xiii.  1,  5). 

Beth-bi'ri,  in  A.  V.  Beth-bir'e-i  [house  of 
my  creation]. 

A  Simeonite  town   (1   Chron.  iv.  31).     The 


Beth-car 


83 


Bethesda 


name  is  luobably  a  corruptiou  of  Betli- 
lebaoth  (c\).  Josh.  xix.  6). 

Beth'-car  [house  of  pasture,  a  place  fit  for 
grazing]. 

A  place  which  is  named  to  indicate  the  point 
to  which  the  Philistines  were  pursued  by  the 
Israelites  after  the  second  and  decisive  battle 
of  Ebenezer  (1  Sam.  vii.  11).  The  use  of  the 
word  "under"  seems  to  imply  that  it  over- 
looked a  plain. 

Beth-da'gon  [house  of  Dagon]. 

1.  A  village  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  33,  41),  apparently  in  the  vicinity  of 
Eleutheropolis.     Not  identified. 

2.  A  town  of  Asher,  on  the  frontier  toward 
Zebulun  (Josh.  xix.  27).     Not  identified. 

Beth-dib-la-tha'im  [house  of  fig  cakes]. 

A  town  on  the  tat)lelan<l  of  Moab,  territory 
once  in  possession  of  Israel  (Jer.  xlviii.  21, 
22).  Probably  the  same  as  Almou-diblathaim. 

Beth-e'den.     See  Edex  2. 

Beth'el  [house  of  God]. 

1.  A  town  of  Palestine,  west  of  Ai,  south 
of  Shiloh  (Geu.  xii.  8  ;  Judg.  xxi.  19),  and 
near  Michmasli  (1  Sam.  xiii.  2).  Abraham 
on  his  first  journey  into  Palestine,  and  sub- 
sequently, pitched  his  tent  near  it  (Gen.  xiii. 
3).  The  town  was  called  Luz  by  the  Canaan- 
ites ;  but  Jacob  called  the  name  of  the  place 
close  by,  where  he  passed  the  night  sleeping 
on  the  ground,  Bethel  on  account  of  the 
vision  which  he  saw  there,  and  he  erected  a 
pillar  to  mark  the  spot  (Gen.  xxviii.  19  seq.  ; 
xxxi.  13).  The  two  are  distinguished  (Josh. 
xvi.  2) ;  but  the  name  Bethel  soon  supplanted 
Luz  as  designation  of  the  town.  On  the  re- 
turn of  Jacob  from  Paddan-arani  he  went  to 
Bethel,  built  an  altar,  and  reaffirmed  the  name 
(Gen.  XXXV.  1-15  ;  Hos.  xii.  4).  The  people  of 
the  town  helped  those  of  Ai  in  the  second  bat- 
tle with  Joshua  (Josh.  viii.  9,  12,  17).  Later  it 
was  taken  and  its  king  slain  (xii.  9,  16).  It 
was  assigned  to  Benjamin,  and  stood  on  the 
boundary  line  between  that  tribe  and  Eph- 
raim  (Josh.  xvi.  2  ;  xviii.  13,  22).  It  was  en- 
tered and  its  Cauaanite  inhabitants  were 
slain  by  the  men  of  Ephraim  when  they  were 
engaged  in  securing  their  recently  acquired 
territory  (Judg.  i.  22  seq.).  Its  villages  on 
the  north  of  the  boundary  line  belonged  to 
Ephraim,  and  so  perhaps  did  the  town,  as  a 
result  of  this  extermination  of  the  Canaanites 
within  its  walls  (1  Chron.  vii.  28).  When 
the  Israelites  were  gathered  at  Mizpah  near 
Gibeah  to  war  against  Benjamin,  the  ark  was 
brought  from  Shiloh,  18  miles  distant,  to 
Bethel,  8  miles  oflF  (Judg.  xx.  1,  27).  Thither 
the  men  of  Israel  repaired  to  ask  counsel  of 
God,  and  there  they  built  a  temporary  altar 
and  offered  sacrifices  (18,  26,  R.  V.).  At  the 
end  of  the  war  they  came  again  to  Bethel, 
sat  there  before  the  Lord,  built  a  new  altar 
or  repaired  the  old  one.  and  offered  sacrifices 
(xxi.  2-4,  R.  v.).  When  the  regular  ser- 
vices of  the  sanctuary  at  Shiloh  were  sus- 


pended during  the  loss  and  seclusion  of  the 
ark,  Bethel  was  one  of  the  places  where 
Samuel  judged  Israel,  and  whither  men  went 
with  their  otierings  to  God  (1  Sam.  vii.  16; 
X.  3).  Jeroboam  fixed  one  of  his  calves  there 
(1  Kin.  xii.  29-33),  and  Bethel  became  a  great 
center  of  idolatry  (1  Kin.  xiii.  1  32 ;  2  Kin. 
x.  29).  It  was  taken  and  temporarily  held 
by  Abijah  (2  Chron.  xiii.  19).  Elijah  passed 
through  it  (2  Kin.  ii.  1-3),  and  it  was  from 
Bethel  that  the  youths  came  who  mocked 
Elisha  (23,  24).  The  prophets  denounced  it 
for  its  idolatries  (Jer.  xlviii.  13;  Hos.  x.  15; 
Amos  iii.  14  ;  iv.  4  ;  v.  5,  6),  and  called  it 
Beth-aven,  house  of  naught  (Hos.  iv.  15;  v. 
8  ;  X.  5).  Amos  was  in  danger  in  Bethel  for 
his  bold  preaching  (Amos  vii.  1(3-13).  Josiah 
broke  down  its  altars  and  its  iiigh  places,  and, 
as  foretold,  burned  the  bones  of  the  priests 
taken  from  its  sepulchers  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  4, 
15-20).  Some  of  its  inhabitants  returned 
from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii.  28 ; 
Nell.  vii.  32),  the  place  again  reverting  to  the 
Benjamites  (xi.  31).  In  Maccabee  times  it 
was  fortified  by  the  Syrian  Bacchides  (1  Mac. 
ix.  50).  In  the  Jewish  war  it  was  captured 
by  Vespasian,  later  Roman  emperor  (War  iv. 
9,  9).  The  ruins,  called  Beitin,  lie  on  the 
watershed  of  Palestine,  about  11  miles  north 
from  Jerusalem.  They  are  on  the  summit 
of  a  hill  sloping  to  the  southeast,  and  cover 
three  or  four  acres.  A  range  of  hills  trends 
to  the  southeast  (cp.  1  Sam.  xiii.  2).  In  the 
valley  to  the  west  is  a  broken  reservoir,  314 
feet  long  by  217  broad,  with  two  brooks  of 
living  water.  Two  other  brooks  are  in  the 
vicinity.  There  are  sepulchers  cut  in  a  low 
cliff.  All  the  country  round  is  of  gray  stone 
or  white  chalk,  with  a  great  deficiency  of 
vegetable  mould.  As  in  Abraham's  time,  it  is 
a  pastoral  region. 

2.  A  town  in  the  territory  of  Simeon  (1 
Sam.  XXX.  27).     See  Bethuel. 

Beth-e'mek  [house  of  the  valley]. 

A  town  within  the  territory  of  Asher  (Josh. 
xix.  27).     Not  identified. 

Be'ther  [separation,  division]. 

Not  a  mountain  range  near  the  strong 
fortress  Bether,  where  the  Jews  under  Bar- 
cocheba  made  their  last  stand  in  their  contest 
with  the  Romans,  for  this  word  has  a  diflerent 
orthography,  Beth-ther.  Bether  is  probably 
a  common  noun,  and  describes  the  mountains 
as  cleft  and  rugged  (Song  ii.  17). 

Be-thes'da  [house  of  mercy]. 

Earlier  manuscripts  of  the  N.  T.  have  other 
spellings,  as  Bethsaida,  house  of  fishing,  and 
Bethzatha,  house  of  the  olive. 

A  pool  at  Jerusalem,  which  was  near  the 
sheep  gate  and  had  five  porches,  that  were 
sufficiently  ample  to  accommodate  a  great 
multitude  (John  v.  2  seq.).  Its  waters  were 
supposed  to  possess  healing  virtue.  The 
fourth  verse  of  the  A.  V..  which  mentions  a 
periodic  troubling  of  the  waters,  and  ascribes 
it  to  an  angel,  is  omitted  in  R.  V.  as  being 


Beth-ezel 


84 


Bethlehem 


insufficiently  supported  by  early  texts.  Tra- 
dition located  Bethesda  at  the  Birket  Israel, 
north  of  tlie  temjile,  or  at  an  adjacent  pool. 
Tlie  tradition  was  well  founded,  even  if  it 
iiltimatelj'  went  astray.  1.  In  a.  d.  333  the 
Bordeaux  pilgrim  stated  that  there  were  two 
pools  and  five  porches.  2.  Early  manuscripts, 
e.  g.  the  Sinaitic,  have  Bethzatha,  abbreviated 
Bezatha,  instead  of  Bethesda.  These  words 
are  apparently  variations  of  Bezetha,  the 
name  of  the  quarter  of  the  citj'  north  of  the 
temple  hill,  and  imply  that  the  pool  was  in 
the  Bezethan  section  of  the  city.  3.  The 
pool  was  near  the  sheep  gate,  and  the  natural 
explanation  of  Neh.  iii.  determines  the  loca- 
tion of  this  gate  to  have  been  north  of  the 
temple  area.  4.  In  the  autumn  of  1888  ex- 
cavation in  the  northeast  part  of  Jerusalem, 
in  connection  with  the  repair  of  the  church 
of  St.  Anne,  laid  bare  at  some  depth  below 
that  building  a  pool  with  five  porches.  A 
faded  fresco  on  the  wall  depicts  an  angel  and 
water,  and  shows  that  in  the  early  Christian 
ages  tins  pool  was  regarded  as  Bethesda. 

Beth-e'zel  [house  of  root], 

A  town  of  Judah  or  Samaria — it  is  uncer- 
tain which  (Mic.  i.  11).  Perhaps  identical 
with  Azal,  i.  e.  Azel  (q.  v.),  mentioned  in 
Zech.  xiv.  5. 

Beth-ga'der  [house  of  a  wall]. 
A  town  of  Judah   (1  Chrou.  ii.  51).     See 
Gedee. 

Beth-ga'mul  [house  of  perfection]. 
A  Moabite  town  (Jer.  xlviii.  23),  possibly 
Jemail,  east  of  Dibon. 

Beth-hac'che-rem,  in  A.  V.  Beth-hac'ce- 

rem  [house  of  the  vineyard]. 

A  town  of  Judah  (Neh.  iii.  14;  Jer.  vi.  1). 
Jerome  knew  a  village  Beta-charma.  It  was 
visible  from  Bethlehem  where  he  resided, 
and  was  situated  on  a  hill  between  Tekoa 
and  Jerusalem.  Accordingly  its  site  has  been 
sought  a(  the  Frank  mountain,  3i  miles  south- 
east of  Bethlehem. 

Beth-ha'ran,    Beth-a'ram,    Beth-ha'ram 

[last  two  forms  may  signify  place  of  the 
height]. 

A  town  in  the  Jordan  valley,  rebuilt  by 
the  children  of  Gad  (Num.  xxxii.  36;  Josh. 
xiii.  27).  Tristram  well  identified  it  with 
the  mound  called  Beth-haran,  in  the  plain 
east  of  the  Jordan,  opposite  Jericho  on  the 
southeast.  This  mound  must  be  distinguished 
from  Tell  er-Rameh,  3  miles  farther  up  the 
wady  to  the  east,  the  site  of  Betharamphtha, 
where  Herod  had  a  palace  (Antiq.  xviii.  2, 1 ; 
War  ii.  4,  2  ;  9,  1). 

Beth-hog'lah,  in  A.  V.  once  Beth-hogla 
[house  of  the  partridge]. 

A  village  of  Benjamin  on  the  boundary 
line  between  that  tribe  and  Judah,  and  near 
the  river  Jordan  (Jo.sh.  xv.  6;  xviii.  19,  21). 
The  name  and  site  are  found  at  'Ain  Hajlah, 
4  miles  southeast  of  Jericho. 


Beth-ho'ron  [house  of  hoUowness]. 

Twin  towns  of  Ephraim,  Ij  miles  apart, 
but  with  a  difference  of  600  feet  in  altitude, 
on  the  boundary  between  Ei)hraim  and  Ben- 
jamin, built  by  a  woman  of  Ephraim  called 
Sherah  (Josh.  xvi.  3,  5;  xviii.  13;  1  Chron. 
vii.  24).  One  of  them  was  assigned  as  residence 
to  the  Levites  of  the  family  of  Kohath  (Josh. 
xxi.  22 ;  1  Chron.  vi.  68).  The  towns  lay  in 
a  mountain  pass,  on  the  ancient  highway  be- 
tween Jerusalem  and  the  plain,  12  Roman 
miles  northwest  of  the  cai»ital.  They  con- 
trolled the  pass,  and  were  fortified  by  Solo- 
mon (2  Chron.  viii.  5) ;  but  especially  did  the 
walls  of  the  upper  town  engage  military  at- 
tention, for  it  occupied  the  more  .strategic 
position  (1  Kin.  ix.  17;  1  Mac.  ix.  50;  cp. 
Judith  iv,  4).  Up  and  down,  past  these 
towns,  repeatedly  surged  the  tide  of  war. 
The  Amorites  fled  down  this  pass  before 
Joshua  (Josh.  x.  10  seq.).  The  Phili.stines 
ascended  it  to  make  war  with  Saul  (1  Sam. 
xiii.  18).  Judas  Maccabteus  fought  two  bat- 
tles here  (1  Mac.  iii.  15  seq. :  vii.  39  seq.),  and 
the  army  of  Cestius  Gallus,  governor  of  Syria, 
was  almost  annihilated  here  by  the  Jews 
(War  ii.  19,  8).  The  towns  still  exist  under 
the  names  Beit  'IJr  et-Tahta  and  el-F6ka. 

Beth-jesh'i-motli,  in  A.  V.  once  Beth- 
jes'i-motli  [house  of  the  wastes]. 

A  town  east  of  the  Jordan,  near  Pisgah 
and  the  Dead  Sea  (Josh.  xii.  3  ;  xiii.  20;  War 
iv.  7,  6).  When  the  Israelites  encamped  at 
Shittim,  it  formed  the  southern  limit  of  the 
camp  (Num.  xxxiii.  49).  It  was  10  Roman 
miles  southeast  of  Jericho.  Direction  and 
distance  indicate  'Ain  es-Suwemch,  and  this 
name  seems  an  echo  of  Jeshimoth.  It  was 
assigned  to  the  Reubenites,  but  in  the  time 
of  Ezekiel  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Moabites 
(Josh.  xiii.  20;  Ezek.  xxv.  9). 

Beth-le-aph'rah.    See  Aphrah. 

Beth-leb'a-oth  [house  of  lionesses]. 

A  town  in  the  south  of  Judah,  assigned  to 
the  Simeonites  (Josh.  xv.  32 ;  xix.  6)  ;  see 
Beth-biri.     Not  identified. 

Beth'le-hem  [house  of  bread]. 

1.  A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah, 
originally  called  Ephrath  ;  hence,  to  distin- 
guish it  from  a  place  of  the  same  name  in 
Zebulun,  called  also  Bethlchem-judah  and 
Bethlehem-ephrathah  (Gen.  xxxv.  19;  Judg. 
xvii.  7;  Mic.  v.  2).  Bethlehem  is  not  men- 
tioned among  the  cities  a.ssigned  to  Judah 
(Josh.  XV. ;  see,  however,  ver.  59,  Septuagint). 
But  as  a  village  it  existed  as  early  as  the  time 
of  Jacob.  Rachel  died  and  was  buried  in  its 
vicinity  (Gen.  xxxv.  16,  19;  xlviii.  7).  Its 
citizens  were  hospitable  to  the  Levites  (Judg. 
xvii.  7;  xix.  1).  A  branch  of  Caleb's  family 
settled  in  the  town  and  attained  to  great  in- 
fluence (1  Chron.  ii.  51,  54;  cp.  Ruth.  iv.  20). 
It  was  the  residence  of  Boaz,  of  Ruth  (i.  19; 
iv.  9-11),  doubtless  of  Obed  (iv.  21,  22),  and 
of  Jesse,  the  father  of  David  (Ruth  iv.  11. 
17  ;  1  Sam.  xvi.  1,  4).     As  the  birthplace  and 


Beth-maacah 


86 


Bethsaida 


ancestral  home  of  David,  it  was  the  city  of 
David  (Luke  ii.  11).  It  was  a  walled  town 
as  early  as  the  time  of  David.  It  fell  tem- 
porarily into  the  hands  of  the  Philistines  (2 
Sam.  xxiii.  14,  15).  Rehohoam  strengthened 
its  fortifications  (2  Chron.  xi.  0).  Bethlehem- 
ites  returned  from  captivity  with  Zerubbabel 
(Ezra  ii.  21 ;  Neh.  vii.  26).  It  was  looked  to 
as  the  place  where  the  Messiah  should  be 
born  (Mic.  v.  2 :  Mat.  ii.  5),  and  accordingly 
when  the  fullness  of  time  had  come  Jesus  be- 
came incarnate  at  Bethlehem.  In  its  vicinity 
the  annunciation  to  the  shepherds  took  place 
(Luke  ii.  1-20).  Thither  the  Magi  went  to 
salute  the  newborn  babe,  and  it  was  the  in- 
fants of  Bethlehem  who  were  murdered  by 
Herod  to  make  sure  that  among  them  he  had 
cut  ofi'the  future  king  (Mat.  ii.  1-18).  There 
has  never  been  any  doubt  as  to  its  site.  It  is 
5  miles  south  of  Jerusalem,  at  the  modern 
village  of  Beit  Lahm,  on  the  east  and  north- 
east slope  of  a  long  ridge,  which  to  the  west 
is  higher  than  the  village.  The  town  has 
several  gates.  The  houses  are  mostly  small, 
but  well  built.  The  inhabitants,  who  may 
be  4000  or  more,  are  mostly  Christians  be- 
longing to  the  Greek  Church.  There  are  in 
the  vicinity  vineyards,  orchards  of  fig  trees, 
and  olive  trees.  The  fields,  though  stony, 
produce  grain  abundantly,  and  at  harvest 
gleaning  may  be  seen  as  it  was  in  the  days 
of  Ruth.  A  little  east  of  the  town  is  the 
church  built  by  Helena,  the  mother  of  Cou- 
stantine,  over  the  cave  said  to  be  the  stable 
in  which  the  nativity  took  place.  Half  a 
mile  to  the  north  of  the  town  is  the  tradi- 
tional tomb  of  Rachel.  On  the  southern  side 
of  the  town  is  a  valley  running  to  the  Dead 
Sea,  while  almost  at  the  walls  on  the  east  a 
valley  begins  which  joins  the  Avady  es-Surar  or 
vale  of  Sorek,  and  near  by  is  also  an  upper 
branch  of  the  wady  es-Sunt  or  vale  of  Elah 
(cp.  1  Sam.  xvii.  2). 

2.  A  town  with  dependent  villages  within 
the  territory  of  Zebulun  (Josh.  xix.  15).  It 
seems  to  have  been  this  Bethlehem  which 
gave  birth  to  the  judge  Ibzan  (Judg.  xii. 
8-10:  cp.  11).  It  is  believed  to  have  been  on 
the  site  of  the  modern  Beit  Lahm,  a  small 
and  wretched  village  7  miles  northwest  of 
Nazareth. 

Beth-ma'a-cah,  in  A.  V.  Betli-maacliah 
[house  of  Maacah]. 

A  town  near  the  foot  of  mount  Hermon 
(2  Sam.  XX.  14, 15).  See  Abel-beth-maacah. 

Beth-mar'ca-both  [house  of  the  chariots]. 

A  town  of  the  Simeonites  (Josh.  xix.  5 ;  1 
Chron.  iv.  31).  Exact  site  unknown.  Per- 
haps Madmannah  was  a  chariot  station,  and 
was  spoken  of  by  this  name  (Josh.  xv.  31). 

Beth-me'on.     See  Baal-meon. 

Beth-mer'hak  [house  of  removal]. 

Probably  only  a  house  beside  the  brook 
Kidron,  between  Jerusalem  and  the  mount 
of  Olives  (2  Sam.  xv.  17,  R.  V.).     The  margin 


renders  it  the  Far  House ;  the  A.  V.,  a  place 
that  was  far  off. 

Beth-nim'rah  [house  of  limpid  fresh 
water]. 

A  town  in  the  Jordan  valley  east  of  the 
river,  assigned  to  Gad  and  rebuilt  by  that 
tribe  (Num.  xxxii.  36  ;  Josh.  xiii.  27).  Euse- 
bius  and  Jerome  locate  it  5  Roman  miles  to 
the  north  of  Livias,  now  Tell  er-Rameh.  At 
the  place  tlius  indicated  ruins  bear  the  name 
Nimrin.  They  lie  amidst  rich,  well-watered 
pasture  land. 

Beth-pa'let.     See  Beth-pelet. 

Beth-paz'zez  [house  of  dispersion]. 

A  town  within  the  territory  of  Issachar 
(Josh.  xix.  21).     Exact  site  unknown. 

Beth-pe'let ;  in  A.  V.  Beth-phelet  and 
Beth-palet  [house  of  escape]. 

A  town  iu  the  most  southerly  part  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  27 ;  Neh.  xi.  26).  Exact  site  un- 
known. 

Beth-pe'or  [house  of  Peor]. 

A  town  near  Pi-sgah.  In  the  valley  opposite 
to  it  the  Israelites  had  their  main  encamp- 
ment, elsewhere  referred  to  as  in  the  mouu- 
tains  of  Abarim,  when  their  army  was  war- 
ring with  Sihon  and  Og  (cp.  Deut  iii.  29;  iv. 
46;  with  Num.  xxi.  20;  xxiii.  28;  xxxiii. 
47-49).  In  this  valley  Moses  was  afterwards 
buried  (Deut.  xxxiv.  6).  The  town  was  as- 
signed to  the  Reubenites  (Josh.  xiii.  20).  Ac- 
cording to  Eusebius,  it  lay  6  Roman  miles 
above,  that  is  in  the  mountains  east  of,  Livias, 
now  Tell  er-Rameh. 

Beth'pha-ge  [house  of  figs]. 

A  village  near  Bethany,  on  or  near  the 
road  from  Jericho  to  Jerusalem  (Mark  xi.  1 ; 
Luke  xix.  29).  It  probably  stood  between 
Bethany  and  Jerusalem,  not  far  from  the 
descent  of  the  mount  of  Olives  (Mat.  xxi.  1 ; 
John  xii.  1,  12,  14).  The  site  has  not  been 
satisfactorily  identified. 

Beth-phe'let.     See  Beth-pelet. 

Beth-ra'pha  [house  of  Kapha,  house  of  a 
giant]. 

A  family  of  Judah,  or  a  town  whose  inhabi- 
tants belonged  to  that  tribe  (1  Chron.  iv.  12). 

Beth-re'hob  [house  of  a  street]. 

A  town  in  the  north  of  Palestine,  by  the 
valley  of  the  upper  Jordan  (Num.  xiii.  21, 
where  it  is  called  simply  Rehob ;  Judg.  xviii. 
28).  It  was  inhabited  by  Syrians,  who  joined 
the  Ammonites  in  a  great  war  with  David  (2 
Sam.  X.  6).  Robinson  doubtfully  located  it 
at  the  modern  fortress  of  Hunin  command- 
ing the  plain  of  Huleh,  in  which  Dan  was 
situated  ;  but  the  location  is  improbable. 

Beth-sa'i-da  [house  of  hunting  or  fishing]. 

A  town  on  the  lake  of  Gennesaret,  near 
the  Jordan,  rebuilt  by  Philip  the  tetrarch, 
and  named  by  him  Julias  in  honor  of  the 
daughter  of  the  emperor  Augustus  (Antiq. 
xviii.  2,  1 ;  Life  72).  To  this  town,  which 
was  on  the  other  side  of  the  sea  (actually  at 


Beth-shean 


87 


Beth-shemesh 


the  northern  end),  Jesus  withdrew  on  re- 
ceiving news  of  the  murder  of  John  the  Bap- 
tist (Luke  is.  10;  cp.  :Mat.  xiv.  13;  John 
vi.  1).  Goinj;  forth  to  a  desert  grassy  place, 
apparently  about  2  miles  down  the  eastern 
side  of  the  lake,  he  was  followed  by  the  mul- 
titude. In  the  evening  he  miraculously  fed 
them.  Tlie  disciples  then  entered  into  a  boat 
to  precede  him  "  unto  the  other  side  to  [or 
toward]  Bethsaida  "  (Mark  vi.  4.").  R.  V.).  Dur- 
ing the  evening  and  night,  the  disciples  were 
in  the  midst  of  the  sea  distressed  in  rowing, 
for  the  wind  was  contrary  unto  them.  Jesus 
came  walking  on  the  sea,  and  was  taken  into 
the  boat.  And  when  they  had  crossed  over 
they  came  to  the  land  unto  Gennesaret  (ver. 
53).  Do  these  statements,  taken  in  connec- 
tion with  John's  mention  of  ''  Bethsaida  of 
Galilee"  (xii.  21),  imply  another  Bethsaida? 
Notable  scholars,  like  Robinson,  think  so,  and 
locate  it,  among  other  places,  at  'Ain  et-Tabi- 
ghah,  about  3  miles  southwest  of  the  mouth 
of  the  Jordan.  But  the  existence  of  two  towns 
of  the  same  name  on  the  same  lake,  and  at  most 
only  a  few  miles  apart,  is  so  improbable  that 
the  words  of  the  evangelists  must  be  subjected 
to  careful  scrutiny  to  learn  whether  they  re- 
quire this  assumption  ;  and  1.  The  ultimate 
destination  of  the  disciples  was  Capernaum 
(John  vi.  IT)  ;  but  it  was  determined  that 
they  should  sail  "toward  Bethsaida,"  keep- 
ing nearer  the  shore  than  the  direct  course 
to  Capernaum  would  require  (Thomson).  2. 
Even  if  their  pui-pose  was  to  make  a  stop  at 
Beth.saida,  it  was  proper  to  .speak  of  going 
"  to  the  other  side  to  Bethsaida,"  for  Josephus 
uses  a  similar  expression  for  proceeding  by 
boat  from  Tiberias  33  miles  to  Taricheje.  He 
"sailed  over  to  Tarichefe  "  (Life  59,  quoted 
by  G.  A.  Smith).  3.  Philip  was  of  Bethsaida 
of  Galilee  (John  xii.  21).  Thomson  suggests 
that  any  city  built  at  the  mouth  of  the  nar- 
row Jordan,  as  Beth.saida-Julias  admittedly 
was,  would  almost  necessarily  have  part  of 
its  houses  or  a  suburb  on  the  west  bank  of 
the  river,  which  would  be  in  Galilee.  Peter, 
Andrew,  and  Philip,  were  born  there  and  were 
Galilseans.  Thomson  further  suggests  that 
probably  the  whole  city  on  both  banks  of 
the  river  was  ordinarily  attached  to  Galilee. 
Geo.  Adam  Smith  atBrms  that  "the  province 
of  Galilee  ran  right  round  the  lake."  His 
opinion  is  based  on  Josephus'  mention  of  a 
certain  Judas,  who  belonged  to  Gamala  in 
Gaulonitis,  as  a  Galilaean  (War  ii.  8,  1  with 
Antiq.  xviii.  1,  1). 

Beth-she'an,  or,  contracted,  Beth'-shan 
[house  of  quiet  or  restful  security]. 

A  city  splendidly  situated  on  the  brow  of 
a  hill  just  where  the  valley  of  Jezreel  drops 
down  300  feet  to  the  level  of  the  Jordan.  In 
addition  to  enjoying  the  security  afforded  by 
the  natural  strength  of  the  city,  its  inhabi- 
tants early  rendered  themselves  formidable 
by  the  use  of  war  chariots  of  iron  (Josh. 
xvii.    16).     Beth-shean,  with    its   dependent 


towns,  fell  within  the  area  of  Is.sachar,  but 
was  given  to  the  ^lanassites  (Josh.  xvii.  11 ; 
1  Chron.  vii.  29).  They  failed,  however,  to 
drive  out  the  Canaanites,  but  were  strong 
enough  to  make  them  pay  tribute  (Josh.  xvii. 
12-1() ;  Judg.  i.  27,  28).  After  the  battle  of 
Gilboa,  the  Philistines  fastened  the  bodies  of 
Saul  and  his  sons  to  the  wall  of  Beth-shean 
(1  Sam.  xxxi.  10-13;  2  Sam.  xxi.  12-14).  In 
the  Greek  period  it  was  sometimes  called 
Nyssa,  but  its  common  name  in  Greek  and 
Latin  literature  is  Scythopolis.  It  bore  this 
name  as  early  as  the  time  of  Judas  Maccabseus. 
In  several  instances  Scythopolis  is  written 
^Kveiav  TToAcs,  city  of  the  Scythians  (Judg.  i.  27. 
Septuagint;  Judith  iii.  10;  2  Mac.  xii.  29)  ; 
and  it  has  been  supposed  that  a  remnant  of 
the  Scythian  hordes  settled  here,  who  are 
said  to  have  advanced  through  Palestine 
against  Egypt  in  the  latter  half  of  the  seventh 
century  before  Christ  (Herod,  i.  103,  10.5; 
Pliny,  hist.  nat.  v.  16).  The  name  Scythopolis 
may,  however,  be  the  echo  of  some  Semitic 
word.  In  the  first  century  a.  d.  the  popula- 
tion of  the  citv  was  predominantly  gentile 
(2  Mac.  xii.  30';  War  ii.  18,  1,  3,  4  ;"  Life  6), 
and  the  Jews  consequently  sacked  it  during 
the  war  with  the  Eomans.  The  citizens  re- 
taliated by  massacring  the  Jewish  residents. 
Jo.sephus  says  that  it  was  the  largest  of  the 
ten  cities  called  Decapolis,  apparently  disre- 
garding Damascus,  possibly  because  the  city 
on  the  Abanah  was  not  at  this  moment  a  mem- 
ber of  the  league  (War  iii.  9,  7).  It  was  the 
only  one  of  the  ten  cities  that  lay  west  of  the 
Jordan.  It  continued  to  figure  in  history 
as  late  as  the  crusades.  Though  the  name 
Scythopolis  lasted  for  centuries,  it  did  not 
ultimately  take  root,  and  the  Arab  village 
which  now  marks  its  .site'  is  called  Beisan. 
Extensive  ruinsof  the  city  .still  remain,  which 
date  largely  from  the  Greco-Eoman  period. 
Its  walls  must  have  been  between  2  and  3 
miles  round.  The  city  was  divided  into  three 
parts  by  two  streams  flowing  through  deep 
ravines.  The  southern  section  contains  the 
modern  village  and  hi]i]i(iilr()ine  (race  course), 
a  theater,  with  a  ruinetl  mosque,  and  part  of 
the  ancient  city  walls.  The  central  section 
is  almost  surrounded  by  the  two  streams,  and 
includes  the  present  mound  or  tell,  which 
rises  about  200  feet  high,  with  sides  nearly 
perpendicular,  and  at  its  top  traces  of  the 
thick  wall  which  once  enclosed  the  summit. 
The  northerly  one  has  a  church,  tombs,  and 
fort.  The  principal  edifices  were  built  of 
black  basalt,  the  region  around  being  vol- 
canic. 

Beth-she'mesh  [hou.se  of  the  sun]. 

1.  A  town  of  the  lowland,  in  the  vale  of 
Sorek,  now  called  Ain  Shems.  The  name 
suggests  that  it  was  once  a  seat  of  the  Canaan- 
ite  worship  of  the  sun.  It  was  allotted  to 
Judah,  and  lay  on  the  assigned  boundary 
line  (Josh.  xv.  10) ;  but  as  this  tribe  found 
itself  possessed  of  more  territory  than  neces- 


Beth-shemite 


Bezek 


sary  (xix.  9),  it  was  trausferred  with  several 
other  towns  to  Dan  {41,where  the  synonymous 
name  Ir-shcmesh  is  used).  The  Danites  did 
not  occupy  it;  and  when  provision  was  made 
for  the  tribe  of  Levi,  it  was  given  to  the 
priests  the  sons  of  Aaron,  and  reclioned  as 
set  apart  from  the  tribe  of  Judah  (xxi.  16, 
€p.  9  ;  1  Oliron.  vi.  59).  Of  course,  after  the 
formation  of  the  kingdom  it  was  within 
Judah  (2  Kin.  xiv.  11).  When  the  ark  was 
sent  back  from  the  Philistine  country  on  a 
new  cart  drawn  by  two  milch  kine  without 
liuman  guidance,  the  animals  took  the  way 
to  Beth-shemesh.  The  townspeople,  profanely 
looking  into  the  ark,  were  struck  by  a  plague 
which  was  fatal  to  seventy  of  their  number 
(Antiq.  vi.  1,4).  After  the  words  seventy  men 
there  is  the  strange  insertion  in  the  Hebrew 
text,  rendered  suspicions  by  the  absence  of  the 
conjunction,  of  the  further  words  fifty  thou- 
sand men  (1  Sam.  vi.  1-21,  E.  V.).  One  of  Solo- 
mon's twelve  purveyors  drew  supplies  of 
food  from  the  town  and  district  (1  Kin.  iv. 
7,  9).  It  was  the  scene  of  a  battle  between 
Amaziah,  king  of  Judah,  and  Joash,  king  of 
Israel,  in  which  the  former  was  defeated  (2 
Kin.  xiv.  11;  2  Chron.  xxv.  21),  and  it  was 
taken  by  the  Philistines  during  the  reign  of 
Ahaz  (xxviii.  18). 

2.  A  town  on  the  boundary  of  Issachar,  be- 
tween Tabor  and  the  Jordan  (Josh.  xix.  22). 
Not  identified. 

3.  A  fenced  city  of  the  tribe  of  Naphtali, 
from  which,  however,  the  Canaanites  were 
not  driven  (Josh.  xix.  38;  Judg.  i.  33).  Not 
identified.  Possibly  the  town  of  this  name, 
already  mentioned  as  on  the  boundary  of 
Issachar,  is  intended. 

4.  An  Egyptian  city  where  the  sun  was 
worshiped  (Jer.  xliii.  13) ;  doubtless  On. 

Beth-she'mite. 

A  native  of  Beth-shemesh  (1  Sam.  vi.  14, 
18). 

Beth-shit'tali  [house  of  the  acacia]. 

A  town  between  the  valley  of  Jezreel  and 
Zererah  in  the  Jordan  valley  (Judg.  vii.  22, 
E.  v.).  The  fact  that  it  is  coupled  with 
Zererah,  and  not  with  Beth-shean,  excludes 
its  identification  with  Shutta. 

Beth-su'ra.     See  Beth-zur. 

Beth-tap'pu-ah  [house  of  apples  or  similar 
fruit]. 

A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  53),  the  modern  village  of  Tuffuh,  about 
4  miles  west  of  Hebron  (cp.  1  Chron.  ii.  43). 

Be-thu'el  [perha])s  abode  of  God]. 

1.  Son  of  J^ahor  by  his  wife  Milcah.  He 
was  the  father  of  Laban  and  Eebekah,  and 
nephew  of  Abraham  (Gen.  xxii.  20,  22,  23 ; 
xxiv.  15,  29;  xxv.  20;  xxviii.  2,  5). 

2.  A  town  of  the  Simeonites  (1  Chron.  iv. 
:^0 ;  in  Josh.  xix.  4  Bethul).  David  sent 
thither  part  of  the  recaptured  spoil  of  Ziklag 
(1  Sam.  XXX.  27).  In  this  latter  passage  it  is 
called  Bethel,  a  modified  form  of  the  name, 
more  suggestive  to  the  Hebrew  ear.  It  seems 


to  be  the  Chesil  of  Josh.  xv.  30.  Not  identi- 
fied. Possibly  the  small  village  of  Beit  Aula, 
()j  miles  northwest  of  Hebron. 

Be'thul.     See  Bethuel  2. 

Beth-zach-a-ri'as. 

A  town  (1  Mac.  vi.  32,  33),  70  stades  or  8 
miles  from  Bethsura  (Antiq.  xii.  9,  4).  It  is 
identified  with  the  modern  Beit  Zakariya,  9 
Roman  miles  by  road  north  of  Bethsura. 

Beth'-zur,  in  Maccabees  Bethsura  [house 
of  a  rock]. 

A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  58).  It  was  fortified  by  Rehoboam  (2 
Chron.  xi.  7).  In  Nehemiah's  time  half  of 
its  district  was  subject  to  Azbuk  (Neh.  iii.  16). 
In  the  Greek  period  the  name  was  written 
Bethsura,  and  it  was  important  as  a  frontier 
town  toward  Idumsea.  Here  Judas  Macca- 
bseus  gained  a  gi-eat  victory  over  the  Syrian 
general  Lysias  (1  Mac.  iv.  29;  2  Mac.  xi.  5; 
xiii.  19,  22).  The  patriot  leader  afterwards 
fortified  it  (1  Mac.  iv.  61 ;  vi.  7, 26,  31).  Want 
of  food  compelled  the  garrison  to  surrender 
it  to  the  Syrians  (49,  50).  Its  defenses  were 
strengthened  by  Bacchides  (ix.  52).  but  it  was 
recaptured  by  Simon  (xi.  65,  66  ;  xiv.  7)  and 
refortified  (33).  The  name  lingers  in  the 
ruins  Beit  Sur,  4  miles  to  the  north  of  He- 
bron. 

Bet'o-nim  [pistachio-uuts]. 

A  town  of  Gad  (Josh.  xiii.  26).  Not  prop- 
erly identified. 

Beu'lah  [married]. 

A  name  prophetically  applied  to  the  once 
forsaken  laud  of  Palestine  when  it  was  re- 
stored to  God's  favor  and  repeopled  after  the 
cajitivity  (Is.  Ixii.  4). 

Be'zai. 

Founder  of  a  family,  some  of  whom  re- 
turned from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra 
ii.  17  ;  Neh.  vii.  23).  A  representative  of  the 
family  signed  the  covenant  of  fidelity  to  Je- 
hovah (Neh.  X.  18). 

Be'zal-el,  in  A.  V.  Be-zal'e-el  [in  the 
shadow  (/.  e.  under  the  protection)  of  God]. 

1.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Hezron, 
house  of  Caleb,  and  a  grandson  of  Hur  (1 
Chron.  ii.  20) ;  a  skillful  artificer  raised  up 
of  God  and  appointed  to  work  in  gold,  silver, 
copper,  in  the  setting  of  precious  stones,  and 
the  carving  of  wood  for  the  furni.shing  of  the 
tabernacle  (Ex.  xxxi.  1-11;  xxxv.  30-35). 

2.  A  son  of  Pahath-moab,  induced  by  Ezi-a 
to  put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  30). 

Be'zek  [dissemination,  sowing,  plantation]. 

A  town  evidently  in  central  Palestine,  not 
a  great  distance  from  Jabesh-gilead  (1  Sam. 
xi.  8,  11).  Twin  villages  of  this  name  ex- 
isted in  Eusebius'  time  17  Roman  miles  from 
Shechem  toward  Beth-shean.  Conder  iden- 
tifies the  site  with  the  ruin  Ibzik,  13  miles 
northeast  of  Shechem.  With  this  town  may 
be  identified  Bezek  mentioned  in  Judg.  i.  4 
seq..  on  theassumi)tion  that  Adoni-bezek  ad- 
vanced southward   with   his  forces  to  unite 


Bezer 


89 


Bible 


witb  the  southern  Canaanites,  was  met  and 
repulsed  by  Judah  and  Simeon,  and  pureued 
to  his  capital. 
Be'zer  [gold  or  silver  ore]. 

1.  An  Asherite,  sou  of  Zophah  (1  Chron. 
vii.  37). 

2.  A  city  in  the  wilderness,  on  the  plateau 
within  the  territory  of  Reuben.  It  was  given 
to  the  Levites,  and  was  one  of  the  cities  of 
refuge  (Deut.  iv.  43;  Josh.  xx.  S;  xxi.  'SG;  1 
Mac.  V.  SG).  It  afterwards  came  into  the 
possession  of  Moab,  and  Mesha,  kiug  of  Moab, 
fortilied  it  (Moabite  Stone  27).  Not  identified. 

Be'zeth. 

A  place  not  far  from  Jerusalem,  where 
Bacchides  pitched  his  camp  (1  Mac.  vii.  19), 
the  village  of  Beth-zetho  or  Berzetho  (Autiq. 
xii.  10,  2),  doubtless  Bezetha,  the  northern 
suburb  of  Jerusalem.     See  Jerusalem  II.  3. 

Bi'ble  [Greek  BibJia,  books,  ecclesiastical 
Latin  Bibiia],  It  is  believed  that  the  Greek 
word  Bibiia  was  first  applied  to  the  sacred 
books  by  John  Chrysostom,  patriarch  of  Cou- 
stautiuople  from  A.  D.  398  to  404. 

Etymologically  viewed,  the  Bible  means 
"the  Books,"  and  that  no  qualifying  adjec- 
tive stands  before  the  nouu  imjilies  that  these 
writings  were  regarded  by  those  who  used 
the  term  as  forming  a  class  by  themselves 
and  as  superior  to  all  other  literary  produc- 
tions. They  are  uniquely  and  preemiueutly 
the  books.  The  same  view  is  suggested  by 
the  etymology  of  the  word  Scripture  and 
Scriptures,  and  the  fact  is  rendered  all  the 
more  significant  that  both  terms  occur  fre- 
qnentlv  with  this  implied  meaning  in  the 
N.  T.  '(Mat.  xxi.  42 ;  Acts.  viii.  32).  The 
term  Bible  is  absent  from  the  s^icred  page ; 
it  is  of  ecclesiastical  origin.  The  plural  term 
Bibiia  marks  the  important  fact  that  the 
Bible  is  not  a  single  book,  but  a  great  many. 
The  words  Bible  and  Scripture,  on  the  other 
hand,  being  both  in  the  singular  number,  em- 
phasize the  fact  that,  under  the  diversity  of 
human  authorship,  there  lies  a  wonderful 
unity,  pointing  to  the  operation  of  one  direct- 
ing Miud,  which  acted  during  more  than  a 
thousand  consecutive  years  when  these  writ- 
ings were  being  prod  uced .  The  claims  to  divine 
authority  made  by  Scripture  are  investigated 
by  the  science  of  Apologetics.  The  word  is 
used  in  a  Greek  rather  than  in  an  English 
sense,  and  is.  therefore,  liable  to  be  misun- 
derstood. It  is  related  that  when  George  III. 
wa.s  told  that  Bishop  Watson  had  published 
an  Apolufiy  fur  the  Bible,  he  drily  remarked 
that  he  did  not  know  before  that  the  Bible 
required  an  apology.  The  bishop  used  the 
word  "Apology''  like  the  Greek  apolo(iia, 
to  mean  defense ;  and  the  science  of  Apolo- 
getics (lefeuili  the  Bible.  A  second  science  is 
that  of  BiV)lical  Criticism.  This  is  divided 
into  Higher  ("ritici-sm,  which  inquires  into 
the  origin  and  character  of  the  several  books, 
and  seeks  to  determine  by  whom,  under  what 
circumstances,  and  with  what  design  they 


were  written;  and  Lower  or  Textual  Criticism, 
which  seeks,  by  the  aid  of  the  ancient  manu- 
scripts and  versions,  to  J)ringthe  text  of  these 
books  to  the  highest  practicable  level  of  ac- 
curacy. Cp.  ApotKYPH.\,  C.\NON.  The  science 
of  Hermeneutics  investigates  the  i)rinciples 
of  interpretation,  while  Exegesis  applies  them. 
The  contents  of  the  Bible  are  then  methodi- 
cally arranged.  It  will  be  found  when  this 
is  done  that  they  touch  geography,  history, 
science,  philosophy,  ethics — in  fact,  nearly 
every  department  of  human  thought.  Further, 
Biblical  Theology  investigates  the  doctrines 
of  the  Bible  in  their  historical  development, 
and  Dogmatic  or  Systematic  Theology  seeks  to 
arrange  the  doctrines  into  the  system  which 
is  contained  in  Scripture,  sliow  their  relation 
to  each  other  and  to  other  truths,  and  to  state 
them  with  precision.  The  Bible  is  naturally 
divided  into  the  Old  and  the  New  Testa- 
ments or  covenants.  The  O.  T.  was  written 
in  Hebrew,  except  a  few  verses  in  Aramaic, 
and  the  N.  T.  in  Greek.  For  the  several  books 
of  the  O.  T.  and  N.  T.,  see  the  articles  which 
hear  their  names ;  and  for  the  versions  of  the 
Scripture  into  other  tongues,  see  Samari- 
tan, Septuagint,  Versions,  and  Vulgate. 
Each  of  the  sacred  books  on  its  original  pub- 
lication came  forth  as  a  more  or  less  con- 
tinuous roll,  with  no  division  into  chapters  or 
verses.  To  find  a  passage  under  these  circum- 
stances was  difficult ;  to  tell  another  where  to 
find  it  was  far  from  easy.  Hence  eftbrts  at 
some  sort  of  division  and  classification  began 
early  to  be  made  ;  then  improvements  were 
introduced,  till  the  process  of  development 
ended  in  our  present  system  of  chaptei-s  and 
verses.  The  credit  of  the  division  into  chaj)- 
ters  is  generally  given  to  cardinal  Hugo,  who 
lived  in  the  thirteenth  century;  that  into 
verses  was  apparently  borrowed  from  the 
Jewish  Masorites  of  the  ninth  century.  The 
present  division  into  chapters  and  verses  was 
first  adopted  in  its  entirety  in  the  Geneva 
N.  T.,  published  in  1517,  and  the  Geneva 
Bible,  in  1560.  They  are  of  great  convenience, 
but  are  not  perfect.  Regarding  chaptei-s, 
there  is  an  imperfection  in  drawing  the  line 
between  the  i.  and  ii.  of  Genesis  at  the  place 
where  the  separation  is  now  made.  Gen.  i. 
should  also  include  Gen.  ii.  1-3,  and  chajjter 
ii.  begin  at  ii.  4.  where  "God"  is  succeeded 
by  "the  Lord  God."  Is.  liii.  should  begin 
with  lii.  13.  and  John  vii.  should  take  in  also 
viii.  1.  Regarding  the  verses,  they  are  abso- 
lutely indLsjiensable  for  the  purpose  of  refer- 
ence, but  they  should  be  ignored  when  one  is 
following  the  thread  of  an  argument  or  of  a 
narrative.  The  R.  V.  enables  one  to  do  this 
easily,  giving  as  it  does  less  prominence  to 
the  division  into  verses;  but  the  danger  of 
inaccuracy  as  to  numbers  is  diminished  by 
quoting  from  the  A.  V.,  where  the  verses  are 
sepai-ated.  The  Bible  in  whole  or  in  part  has 
been  printed  in  more  than  three  hundred  lan- 
guages or  dialects.  It  would  not  be  a  great  ex- 
aggeration were  one,  referring  to  the  inspired 


Bichri 


90 


Birsha 


writers  of  the  Bible,  to  adopt  the  language 
of  the  psalmist,  meant  originally  for  the 
silent  theological  teaching  of  the  starry  skj^: 
"Their  line  is  gone  out  through  all  the  earth, 
and  their  words  to  the  end  of  the  world  (Ps. 
xix.  4). 

Bich'ri  [youthful]. 

Father  of  the  rebel  Sheba  (2  Sam.  xx.  1). 

Bid'kar. 

A  captain  under  Jehu  (2  Kin.  ix.  25). 

Big'tha. 

A  chamberlain  who  ministered  in  the  pres- 
ence of  Xerxes  (Esth.  i.  10). 

Big'than  or  Big'tha-na  [Persian  and  San- 
scrit BiifiiKh'iiui,  gift  of  fortune]. 

A  chaiiilKTlain,  keeper  of  the  palace  door, 
who  cousjiired  against  king  Xerxes  (Esth.  ii. 
21 ;  vi.  2). 

Big'vai. 

1.  One  of  the  leaders  of  the  exiles  who  re- 
turned from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra 
ii.  2). 

2.  Founder  of  a  family,  of  which  some  2000 
returned  from  Bal)ylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra 
ii.  14;  Neh.  vii.  19),  and  several  score  after- 
wards with  Ezra  (Ezra  viii.  14). 

Bil'dad. 

A  Shuhite,  one  of  Job's  friends  (Job  ii.  11), 
who  made  three  speeches  to  the  patriarch 
(viii.,  xviii.,  xxv.). 

Bil'e-am  [perhaps  greed,  consumption,  de- 
struction]. 

A  town  of  Manasseh,  west  of  the  Jordan, 
which  was  assigned  to  the  Levites  of  the 
family  of  Kohath  (1  Chron.  vi.  70)  ;  see 
Ibleam.  In  its  stead  Gath-rimmon  appears 
in  the  present  Hebrew  text  of  Josh.  xxi.  25. 
This  latter  name  has  probably  been  errone- 
ously copied  from  the  preceding  verse.  The 
Septuagint  (Vat.  and  Alex.)  lends  confirma- 
tion to  this  view. 

Bil'gah  [cheerful]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Aaron.  His  family  had 
grown  to  a  father's  house  in  the  time  of  David, 
and  was  made  the  fifteenth  course  of  the 
priests  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  1,  6,  14). 

2.  A  chief  of  the  priests,  perhaps  repre- 
senting the  priestly  course  of  this  name,  who 
returned  from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Neh. 
xii.  5,  7).  In  the  next  generation  a  father's 
house  among  the  priests  bore  this  name  (ver. 
18) ;  cp.  BiLGAi. 

Bil'gai  [cheerful]. 

One  of  the  priests  who,  doubtless  in  behalf 
of  a  father's  house,  sealed  the  covenant  in 
the  days  of  Nehemiah  (Neh.  x.  8) ;  cp.  under 
the  similar  name  Bilgah. 

Bil'hah  [perhaps  bashfuluess]. 

1.  Rachel's  maidservant,  who,  at  her  mis- 
tress' desire,  became  one  of  Jacob's  secondary 
wives.  She  was  the  mother  of  Dan  and  Naph- 
tali  (Gen.  xxx.  1-8  ;  1  Chron.  vii.  13).  Ulti- 
mat«ly  she  committed  sin  with  Reuben  (Gen. 
XXXV.  22). 


2.  A  Simeonite  town  (1  Chron.  iv.  29).  See 
Baalah. 

Bil'han  [perhaps  bashful]. 

1.  A  Horite,  son  of  Ezer  (Gen.  xxxvi.  27). 

2.  A  Benjamite,  family  of  Jediael,  and 
himself  the  ancestor  of  several  fathers'  houses 
(1  Chron.  vii.  10). 

Bil'shan. 

One  of  the  twelve  chief  men  who  returned 
from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii.  2 ; 
Neh.  vii.  7). 

Bim'hal. 

An  Asherite,  family  of  Beriah,  house  of 
Japhlet  (1  Chron.  vii.  33). 

Bin'e-a. 

A  son  of  Moza,  a  descendant  of  Jonathan, 
Saul's  son  (1  Chron.  viii.  37;  ix.  43). 

Bin'nu-i  [built]. 

1.  The  head  of  a  family,  of  which  several 
hundred  returned  from  the  captivity.  His 
name  is  also  pronounced  Bani  (Ezra  ii.  10 ; 
Neh.  vii.  15). 

2.  A  son  of  Pahath-moab,  induced  by  Ezra 
to  put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  30). 

3.  A  Levite  who  went  from  Babylon  with 
Zerubbabel  (Neh.  xii.  8).     He  was  a  son  of 

i  Henadad  (x.  9).  His  son  was  one  who  re- 
ceived the  silver  and  gold  brought  from 
Babylon  to  the  temple  by  Ezra  (Ezra  viii.  33), 
and  his  family  was  represented  at  the  build- 
ing of  the  wall  (Neh.  iii.  24),  and  its  repre- 
sentative sealed  the  covenant  (x.  9). 

Birds. 

The  Hebrews  classed  as  birds  all  animals 
which  fly,  including  the  bat  and  winged  in- 
sects. Tristram  enumerates  348  species  of 
birds  as  either  indigenous  or  visitants  to  Pales- 
tine. Of  these  27i  belong  to  the  Palaearctic 
zone  of  Sclater — that  to  which  most  of  the 
European  birds  belong  ;  40  to  the  Ethiopian, 
and  7  to  the  Indian  zone ;  while  30,  as  far  as 
is  known,  are  peculiar  to  Palestine  itself. 
The  Ethiopian  and  Indian  types  are  almost 
exclusively  confined  to  the  Dead  Sea  basin, 
but  it  is  so  depressed  beneath  the  level  of  the 
ocean  that  it  is  really  a  small  tropical  region 
located  in  the  midst  of  the  temperate  zone. 
In  the  Mosaic  law  twenty  or  twenty-one  birds 
and,  in  the  case  of  four  of  them,  their  kind 
are  expressly  named  as  unclean  (Lev.  xi.  13- 
19  ;  Deut.  xiv.  11-20).  The  flesh  and  the  eggs 
of  all  clean  birds  were  eaten  (cj).  Is.  x.  14  ;  Luke 
xi.  12),  but  the  only  birds  used  for  sacrifice 
were  turtle  doves  and  young  i)igeons  (Lev.  i. 
14).  Doves  were  domesticated  (Is.  Ix.  8),  and 
later,  chickens.  The  cock  is  mentioned  (Mat. 
xxvi.  34),  and  the  hen  (xxiii.  37;  Luke  xiii. 
34).  Wild  fowl  were  hunted,  among  other 
ways,  by  decoy  birds  (Ecclus.  xi.  30),  with 
snares  (Amos  iii.  5),  and  with  nets  (Prov.  i. 
17).  The  migration  of  birds  is  referred  to 
(Jer.  viii.  7). 

Bir'sha. 

A  king  of  Gomorrah  who  was  defeated  by 


Birthday 


91 


Bithynia 


C'hedorliiomeraud  his  cou federates  (Gen.  xiv. 
2,  8,  10). 

Birth'day. 

The  birth  of  a  child,  especially  of  a  son, 
was  a  glad  occasion,  and  was  often  celebrated 
by  a  feast  (Jer.  xx.  15;  Antiq.  xii.  4,  7).  The 
anniversary  of  one's  birth  was  celebrated  by 
the  Egyptians  and  Persians  (Gen.  xl.  20 ; 
Herod,  "i.  IXi).  Herod  the  tetrarch  kept  the 
anniversary  of  either  his  birth  or  his  acces- 
sion, it  is  debated  which  (Mat.  xiv.  6). 

Birth'right. 

A  certain  right  or  privilege  considered  to 
belong  to  the  firstborn  son  in  a  family,  and 
which  is  not  shared  by  his  younger  brothers. 
The  eldest  son  ordinarily  succeeded  to  his 
father's  rank  and  position,  as  head  of  the 
family  or  tribe,  and  as  representative  of  its 
prerogatives.  He  also  inherited  a  double 
portion  of  his  father's  property,  a  right  guar- 
anteed to  the  firstborn  even  when  his  mother 
was  the  less  loved  of  two  wives  (Deut.  xxi. 
17;  cp.  2  Kin.  ii.  9).  A  birthright  might  be 
sold  to  a  younger  brother,  as  Esau  sold  his 
birthright  to  Jacob  (Gen.  xxv.  29,  34 ;  Heb. 
xii.  16).  It  might  also  be  forfeited  on  account 
of  misconduct  (1  Chrou.  v.  1). 

Bir'za-ith,  in  A.  V.  Bir'za-vith  [openings, 
wounds].  The  form  in  E.  V.  is  the  tradi- 
tional reading,  that  in  A.  V.  represents  the 
consonants  of  the  present  text. 

An  Asherite,  family  of  Malchiel  (1  Chron. 
vii.  31). 

Bish'lam  [son  of  peace]. 

A  Persian  otlicial  who  joined  in  the  com- 
plaint to  Artaxerxes  that  the  Jews  were  re- 
building Jerusiilem  (Ezra  iv.  7). 

Blsh'op  [a  corruption  of  Latin  episcopits, 
Greek  episl:o2ws,  an  overseer]. 

The  Greek  word  is  used  in  the  Septuagint  for 
an  official  overseer,  whether  civil  or  religious, 
as  Elcazar  the  priest  (Num.  iv.  16).  and  offi- 
cers of  the  army  (sxxi.  14).  In  the  N.  T.  the 
word  occurs  first  in  the  exhortation  of  Paul  to 
the  elders  or,  as  in  the  margin,  presbyters  of 
the  church  at  Ephesus,  when  he  said,  "  Take 
heed  unto  yourselves,  and  to  all  the  flock,  in 
the  which  the  Holy  Ghost  hath  made  you 
bishops,"  or,  as  in  the  margin,  "'overseers" 
(Acts  XX.  17.  28,  R.  V.).  Here  and  elsewhere 
Paul  identifies  elders,  presbyters,  and  bishops 
(Tit.  i.  5-7).  The  terms  are  diff'erent  desig- 
nations for  the  incumbent  of  the  same  office. 
Elsewhere  he  distinguishes  simply  between 
bishop  and  deacon  (Phil.  i.  1 ;  1  Tim.  iii.  1-8). 
Peter,  using  the  verb  ephkopeo,  exhorts  the 
elders  to  tend  the  flock  of  God,  "exercising 
the  oversight,  not  of  constraint,  but  will- 
ingly "  (1  Pet.  V.  2,  E.  v.).  In  the  church  of 
the  N.  T.  the  duties  of  the  bishop  were  to 
care  for  the  flock  of  God  (Acts  xx.  28  ;  1  Pet. 
V.  2).  He  was  the  shepherd,  bearing  rule 
and  watching  in  behalf  of  souls,  admonish- 
ing, encouraging,  and  supporting  (1  Thes.  v. 
14;  Heb.  xiii.  17),  and  some  among  them  la- 


bored in  the  word  and  in  teaching  (1  Tim.  v. 
17^.  His  qualifications  are  enumerated  in  1 
Tim.  iii.  1-7  and  Tit.  i.  7-9.  A  iilurality  of  them 
existed  in  the  church  at  Phili])pi,  as  in  that 
of  Ephesus  (Phil.  i.  1);  and  the  college  of 
presbyter-bishops  ordained  by  the  laying  on 
of  hands  (1  Tim.  iv.  14).  In  the  church  at 
Jerusalem  the  elders  and  apostles  consulted 
together,  and  the  decision  of  the  council  was 
given  in  the  name  of  the  apostles  and  elders 
(Acts  XV.  6,  22  ;  xvi.  4  ;  xxi.  18) ;  see  Eldkr. 
The  name  is  applied  figuratively  to  Jesus  (1 
Pet.  ii.  25).  A  distinction,  however,  grew  up 
very  early  in  the  Church  between  elder  or 
presbyter  and  bishop.  It  appears  in  the  sec- 
ond century,  being  mentioned  in  the  epistles 
of  Ignatius,  who  died  in  107  or  116.  Accord- 
ing to  the  Roman  Catholic  Council  of  Trent 
in  the  sixteenth  century, ''  Bishops,  being  the 
successors  of  the  apostles,  are  placed  by  the 
Holy  Ghost  to  govern  the  Church  of  God,  and 
to  be  superior  to  their  presbyters  or  priests." 
Roman  Catholic  opinion  assumes  that  the 
apostles  had  a  general  supervision  of  the  con- 
gregation, while  the  elders  whom  they  had 
ordained  had  the  local  oversight;  but  as  the 
congregations  increased  in  number,  the  apos- 
tles ordained  assistants  whom  they  appointed 
their  successors,  to  be  overseers  of  the  con- 
gregation in  a  district.  Such  were  the  angels 
of  the  seven  churches  (Eev.  i.  20)  ;  see  Angel. 
High  Anglicans  find  the  institution  implied 
in  the  position  of  the  apostle  James  in  the 
church  at  Jerusalem,  in  the  angels  of  the 
seven  churches,  and  in  the  work  of  Timothy 
and  Titus.  Paul  did  indeed  exhort  Timothy 
to  tarry  at  Ephesus,  order  public  worship,  ex- 
hort and  teach  (1  Tim.  i.  3  ff.)  ;  and  Titus, 
whom  Paul  had  before  employed  as  a  mes- 
senger to  the  Corinthians  (2  Cor.  xii.  18),  he 
left  in  Crete  to  set  in  order  things  that  M'ere 
wanting,  and  to  appoint  elders,  called  also 
bishops,  in  every  city  (Tit.  i.  5-7).  But  it  is 
to  be  noted  that  Timothy  was  in  the  first  in- 
stance ordained  bj- presbytery  (1  Tim.  iv.  14), 
and  there  is  not  a  trace  in  the  N.  T.  of  the 
apostles  appointing  any  man  to  succeed  them. 

Bi-thi'ah  [a  daughter,  in  the  sense  of  a 
wor.shiper,  of  Jehovah]. 

A  daughter  of  Pharaoh  and  wife  of  Mered, 
a  man  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  iv.  18).  Her  name 
indicates  that  she  was  a  convert  to  the  wor- 
ship of  Jehovah. 

Bith'ron  [cut,  division,  gorge]. 

A  region,  doubtless  a  valley,  north  of  the 
Jabbok  near  Mahauaim  (2  Sam.  ii.  2Q). 

Bi-thyn'i-a. 

A  country  in  the  northwestern  part  of  Asia 
Minor,  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Black 
Sea,  on  the  south  by  Phrygia  and  Galatia,  on 
the  east  by  Paphlagonia  and  part  of  Phrygia, 
and  on  the  west  by  Mysia.  But  its  boundaries 
varied  at  different  times.  It  was  colonized 
by  the  Thyni  or  Bithyni  from  Thrace,  in 
Europe,  who  conquered  or  drove  out  the  Beb- 
ryces,  its  original  inhabitants,  and  imparted 


Bittern 


92 


Blindness 


to  it  their  own  name  (Herod,  vii.  75).  Under 
tbe  Persian  empire  it  constituted  a  satrapy. 
Nicomedes  III.  bequeathed  it  to  the  Romans 
in  74  B.  c.  Palil  and  Silas  attempted  to  en- 
ter Bithynia,  but  the  Spirit  sufiered  tliem  not 
(Acts  xvi.  7).  The  gospel  was  carried  thither 
by  other  means.  Peter  was  able  to  address 
Christians  of  Bithynia  in  his  first  letter  (1  Pet. 
i.  1).  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  second  cen- 
tury Pliny  the  younger  reported  numerous 
Christians  there.  Laterstill,  in  two  of  its  towns, 
Nicgea  and  Chalcedou,  great  councils  of  the 
Church  were  held.  It  is  a  fertile  country,  in 
which  the  vine  is  largely  cultivated.  In 
various  parts,  especially  in  the  chain  of  mount 
Olympus,  which  ruusalong  its  southern  bound- 
ary, there  are  forests  of  oak,  interspersed  with 
beech  trees,  chestnuts,  and  walnuts. 

Bit'tern. 

The  rendering  in  A.  V.  of  the  Hebrew  word 
Kippod,  the  one  contracting  or  rolling  itself 
together;  an  animal  frequenting  ruins  (Is. 
siv.  23;  xxxiv.  11),  which  ascended  to  the 
top  of  ruined  doors  or  to  window  sills,  and 
thence  made  its  voice  heard  (Zeph.  ii.  14). 
The  bittern  {Botaurus  stellaris)  is  a  long- 
necked  and  long-legged  wading  bird,  habit- 
ually frequenting  pools  of  water,  but  not 
likely  to  be  heard  giving  voice  from  a  ruined 
window.  The  E.  V.  considers  the  animal  to 
be  the  porcupine,  while  Tristram  identifies  it 
as  probably  the  Scops  Owl  {Scojis  gin),  a  mi- 
grant in  Palestine  for  the  summer  months, 
breeding  in  the  walls  of  old  ruins  and  in  hol- 
low trees. 

Bi-tu'men. 

Mineral  pitch.  There  are  three  varieties 
of  it :  (1)  Earthy  bitumen  ;  (2)  elastic  bitu- 
men, elaterite  or  mineral  caoutchouc ;  (3) 
compact  bitumen  or  asphalt,  asphaltum,  or 
Jew's  pitch.  In  its  appearance  it  resembles 
common  pitch.  It  sinks  in  water,  is  easily 
melted,  is  very  inflammable,  and  when  set 
on  fire  burns  with  a  red  smoky  flame.  It  is 
produced  in  the  chemistry  of  nature  by  the 
enclosure  of  vegetable  matter  in  the  crust  of 
the  earth,  so  that  it  is  in  immediate  contact 
with  water,  while  atmospheric  air  is  quite 
shut  out.  There  is  a  pitch  lake  in  Trinidad. 
Bitumen  or  asphalt  exists  at  or  near  the  Dead 
Sea.  called,  in  consequence,  by  the  Greeks 
and  Romans,  Lake  Asphaltites.  It  is  found 
also  at  Hit,  on  the  Euphrates,  above  Babylon, 
and  in  other  places.  Bitumen  was  the  slime 
with  which  the  bricks  used  for  the  erection 
of  the  tower  of  Babel  were  cemented  (Gen. 
xi.  3).  The  slime  pits  in  which  the  defeated 
kings  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah  fell  were  bitu- 
men pits  (xiv.  10). 

Biz'i-o-thi'ah,  in  A.  V.  Biz-joth'jah  [con- 
tempt of  Jehovah] . 

A  town  in  the  most  southerly  portion  of 
Judah  (Josh.  xv.  28).  The  text  is  suspicious. 
Almost  the  same  consonants  would  mean  "its 
daughters  or  suburbs"  (Septuagint,  cp.  Neh. 
xi.  27). 


Biz'tha. 

A  chamberlain  at  the  court  of  Xerxes  (Esth. 
1.  10). 

Blain. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  '"ba'bii'oth, 
pustules.  It  signifies  a  bleb,  a  bubble  of  mat- 
ter, a  blister  full  of  serum  arising  upon  the 
skin.  It  would  now  probably  be  ranked  un- 
der the  skin  disease  called  pemphigus.  Blains 
accompanied  by  boils  is  the  disease  which  con- 
stituted the  sixth  of  the  ten  plagues  of  Egypt 
(Ex.  ix.  8-11). 

Blas'phe-my. 

Defamatory  or  other  wicked  language  di- 
rected against  God  (Ps.  Ixxiv.  10-18  ;  Is.  Hi. 
5;  Rev.  xvi.  9,  11,  21).  Under  the  Mosaic 
law  it  was  punished  by  stoning  (Lev.  xxiv. 
16).  The  charge  of  blasphemy  was  falsely 
brought  against  Naboth  (1  Kin.  xxi.  10-13), 
Stephen  (Acts  vi.  11),  and  our  Lord  (Mat.  ix. 
3 ;  xxvi.  65,  66:  John  x.  36). 

Blasphemy  against  the  Holy  Ghost  con- 
sisted in  attributing  the  miracles  of  Christ, 
which  were  wrought  by  the  Spirit  of  God,  to 
Satanic  power  (Mat.  xii.  22-32 ;  Mark  iii. 
22-30). 

Blas'tus  [a  sprout  or  shoot,  a  sucker]. 

A  palace  functionary  who  had  charge  of 
Herod  Agrippa's  bedchamber  (Acts  xii.  20). 

Bless. 

The  three  leading  meanings  which  the  verb 
bless  has  in  Scripture  are  : 

1.  To  bestow  divine  favor  and  confer  di- 
vine benefits  (Gen.  i.  22;  ii.  3  ;  ix.  1-7). 

2.  To  adore  God  for  his  goodness  and  re- 
turn thanks  (Ps.  ciii.  1 ;  and  Mat.  xxvi.  26 ; 
Mark  xiv.  22  with  Luke  xxii.  19  and  1  Cor. 
xi.  24). 

3.  To  invoke  God's  favor  on  a  person  (Gen. 
xxvii.  4,  27-29;  1  Chrou.  xvi.  2  :  Ps.  cxxix. 
8),  including  salutation  and  even  the  ordi- 
nary greeting,  "Peace  be  to  you"  (1  Sam. 
XXV.  5,  6,  14;  2  Kin.  iv.  29). 

Bless 'ing. 

Any  ad\autage  conferred  or  wished  for. 
Specially — 

1.  Favors,  advantages,  conferred  by  God, 
and  bringing  pleasure  or  happiness  in  their 
train  (Gen.  xxxix.  5  :  Dent,  xxviii.  8  ;  Prov. 
X.  22,  etc.). 

2.  The  invocation  of  God's  favor  upon  a 
person  (Gen.  xxvii.  12). 

3.  A  present,  a  token  of  good  will  (Gen 
xxxiii.  11  ;  Josh.  xv.  19 :  2  Kin.  v.  15). 

Blind'ness. 

Blindness  is  extremely  prevalent  in  the 
east.  Its  main  causes  are  smallpox,  and  es- 
pecially ophthalmia,  aggravated  by  peculiar 
conditions,  such  as  the  perpetual  glare  of  the 
sun,  the  quantity  of  fine  dust  in  the  air,  and 
flies.  Children  are  also  sometimes  born  blind 
(John  ix.  1).  Consequently  blind  beggars  are 
frequent  (Mat.  ix.  27 ;  xii.  22 ;  xx.  30  ;  xxi. 
14).  Total  or  pai'tial  blindness  may  result 
from  old  age  (Gen.  xxvii.  1 ;  1  Sam.  iv.  15 ; 


Blood 


93 


Boil 


1  Kin.  xiv.  4).  The  cyos  of  caiitives  taken 
in  war  were  frequently  put  out  hy  l)arl)ar()us 
victore,  as  by  the  Ammonites,  Philistines,  As- 
syrians, and  Babylonians  (Judg.  xvi.  21 ;  1 
&un.  xi.  2 ;  2  Kin.  xxv.  7).  In  a  few  in- 
stances men  were  miraculously  smitten  with 
temporary  blindness  ((Jen.  xix.  11  ;  2  Kin.  vi. 
18-22  ;  Acts  ix.  II ;  xiii.  11).  The  Mosaic  law 
inculcated  the  exercise  of  humanity  toward 
the  blind  (Lev.  xix.  14;  Deut.  xxvii.  18). 


Assyrian  King  piercing  the  Eyes  of  Captives. 

Blood. 

The  vital  fluid  circulating  through  the 
body,  and  conveyed  by  a  system  of  deep- 
seated  arteries  from  the  heart  to  the  extrem- 
ities, and  by  a  system  of  superficial  veins 
back  again  to  the  heart.  Arterial  blood  is 
Horid  red,  while  venous  blood  is  of  a  dark 
])urple  or  modena  hue.  The  life  is  in  the 
blood  (Lev.  xvii.  11,  14)  ;  or  the  blood  is  the 
life  (Deut.  xii.  23),  though  not  exclusively 
(Ps.  civ.  30).  The  blood  represented  the  life, 
and  so  sacred  is  life  before  God  that  the  blood 
of  murdered  Abel  could  be  described  as  cry- 
ing to  God  from  the  ground  for  vengeance 
(Gen.  iv.  10) ;  and  immediately  after  the 
flood  the  eating  of  the  blood  of  the  lower 
animals  was  forbidden,  although  their  slaugh- 
ter f(n"  food  was  authorized  (ix.  3,  4  ;  Acts  xv. 
20,  29),  and  the  law  was  laid  down.  "  Whoso 
sheddeth  man's  blood,  by  man  shall  his  blood 
be  shed"  (Gen.  ix.  G).  The  loss  of  life  is  the 
penalty  for  sin,  and  its  typical  vicarious  sur- 
render was  necessary  to  remission  (Heb.  ix. 
22),  and  so,  under  the  Mosaic  law,  the  blood  of 
animals  was  used  in  all  offerings  for  sin,  and 
the  blood  of  beasts  killed  on  the  hunt  or 
slaughtered  for  food  was  poured  out  and  cov- 
ered with  earth,  because  withheld  by  God 
from  man's  consumption  and  reserved  for 
purposes  of  atonement  (Lev.  xvii.  10-14;  Deut. 
xii.  1.5, 16).  The  "blood  of  Jesus,"  the  "  blood 
of  Christ,"  the  "blood  of  Jesus  Christ,"  or 
"  the  blood  of  the  Lamb."  are  figurative  ex- 
pressions for  Ids  atoning  deatli  (1  Cor.  x.  16  ; 
Eph.  ii.  13  ;  Heb.  ix.  14 ;  x.  19 :  1  Pet.  i.  2,  19  ; 
1  John  i.  7;  Rev.  vii.  14;  xii.  11). 

For  revenger,  or  rather  avenger,  of  blood, 
see  Avenger. 


Blood'y  Flux.  See  Dysentery. 
Blood'y  Sweat.    See  Sweat. 

Bo-a-ner'ges  [sons  of  tumult  or  thunder]. 

A  name  given  by  Jesus  to  James  and  John 
on  account  of  their  impetuosity  (Mark  iii.  17; 
cp.  Luke  ix.  54,  55). 

Boar. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  H'zir,  when 
it  refers  to  wild  swine,  and  especially  to  the 
male  of  wild  swine  (Ps.  Ixxx.  13).  When  the 
reference  is  to  the  domesticated  animal,  it  is 
rendered  swine.  The  wild  boar  is  three  or 
more  feet  long,  not  counting  the  tail.  The 
canine  teeth  project  beyond  the  upper  lip, 
constituting  formidable  tusks,  with  which  it 
seeks  to  rip  up  its  assailants.  The  female  is 
smaller  than  the  male,  and  has  smaller  tusks. 
The  animal  is  still  found  in  Palestine,  espe- 
cially in  the  ravines  east  of  the  Jordan,  in 
the  valley  near  Jericho,  in  the  swamps  of  the 
waters  of  Merom,  on  Tabor,  Lebanon,  and 
Carmel,  and  in  the  plain  of  Sharon. 

Bo'az,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Bo'oz  [commonly 
interpreted  as  meaning  "  In  liim  is  strength." 
but  both  spelling  and  accentuation  are  against 
this  explanation]. 

1.  A  wealthy  and  honorable  Bethlehemite, 
kinsman  to  the  husband  of  Ruth  the  Moab- 
ite.ss.  He  respected  the  memory  of  tlie  dead 
by  marrying  Ruth  after  the  decease  of  her 
husband,  and  became  ancestor  of  David  and 
of  Christ  (Ruth  ii.-iv. ;  Mat.  i.  5).  Late  Jew- 
ish tradition,  destitute  of  all  probability,  iden- 
tifies him  with  the  judge  Ibzan. 

2.  One  of  two  pillars,  that  on  the  left,  set 
u.p  in  the  porch  of  Solomon's  temple  (1  Kin. 
vii.  15-22). 

Boch'e-ru  [firstborn]. 

A  son  of  Azel  and  a  descendant  of  Jona- 
than, Saul's  son  (1  Chron.  viii.  38). 

Bo'cMm  [weepers]. 

A  ]ilace  near  Gilgal,  where  the  Israelites 
repented  and  wept  under  the  rebuke  of  the 
angel  of  the  Lord  for  their  disobedience  of 
God's  commands  (Judg.  ii.  1-5).  Its  exact 
site  is  unknown. 

Bo'han  [thumb]. 

1.  A  son  of  Reuben  (Josh.  xv.  6;  xviii.  17). 

2.  The  stone  of  Bohan  was  a  place  on  the 
boundary  between  Judah  and  Benjamin,  not 
a  great  distance  from  the  Jordan  (Josh.  xv. 
6  ;  xviii.  17).     Exact  site  unknown. 

Boil. 

An  inflamed  ulcer.  It  was  inflicted  along 
with  blains  as  the  sixth  plague  of  Egypt  (Ex. 
ix.  8-11 ;  cp.  Deut.  xxviii.  27,  35).  It  was  a 
prominent  symptom  in  leprosy  (Lev.  xiii.  18- 
20).  It  constituted  the  main  feature  of  Heze- 
kiah's  disease,  which  brought  his  life  into 
imminent  danger  (2  Kin.  xx.  7  ;  Is.  xxxviii. 
21).  Job  was  smitten  by  .Satan  with  boils 
from  head  to  foot  (Job  ii.  7).  Ordinary  boils 
are  common,  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  East, 
1   during  the  rainy  season.  They  are  unsightly, 


Bolster 


94 


Borrow 


but  are  not  dangerous.  One  type  of  boil, 
however,  the  carbuncle,  arising  from  poisoned 
blood  and  eating  away  the  flesh  like  an  ulcer, 
may  terminate  the  life.  This  was  probably 
Hezekiah's  disease.  The  application  of  a 
poultice  of  figs  would  do  it  good,  but  the 
rapid  cure  was  due  to  God. 

Bol'ster. 

The  usual  Hebrew  word  which  is  rendered 
bolster  or  pillow  means  simply  at  the  head, 
and  the  Greek  word  rendered  pillow  in  A.  V. 
does  not  necessarily  mean  a  cushion  for  the 
head.  Jacob,  sleeping  in  the  open  field,  took 
a  stone  to  support  his  head  (Gen.  xxviii.  11, 
18).  Jesus  probably  placed  the  leather  cushion 
of  the  steersman's  seat  under  his  head  when 
he  lay  down  to  sleep  in  the  stern  of  the  boat 
(Mark  iv.  38).  Michal  jiut  some  article  of 
goats'  hair  at  the  head  of  the  teraphim  which 
she  laid  in  the  bed  to  deceive  the  messengers 
who  were  sent  to  take  David.  She  did  this 
perhaps  to  give  the  appearance  of  human 
hair  or  of  a  covering  laid  over  the  sleeper 
(1  Sam.  xix.  13). 

Bon'net. 

Originally  a  head  dress  for  men  (Ezek.  xliv. 
18),  a  sense  which  the  word  still  retains  in 
Scotland.  Then  it  was  applied  to  a  head  dress 
for  women  (Is.  iii.  20).  The  R.  V.  renders  it 
head  tires  and  tires  (q.  v.). 

Book. 

Documents  were  early  inscribed  on  clay  or 
graven  on  stone.  Skin  or  parchment  and 
papyrus  came  into  use  at  an  early  period  also. 
When  written  on  skin,  a  long  document  took 
the  form  of  a  roll  with  wi'iting  on  one  or 
both  of  its  sides.  Of  this  type  of  book  there 
is  a  memorial  in  the  word  volume,  Latin 
volumen,  properly,  something  rolled  up  (Ps. 
xl.  7;  Jer.  xxxvi.  2;  Ezek.  ii.  9).  Books  are 
first  mentioned  as  written  by  the  Hebrews 
after  the  sojourn  in  Egypt,  where  written 
literature  had  existed  for  centuries  (Ex.  xvii. 
14).  The  39  books  of  the  O.  T.  and  the  27 
of  the  N.  T.,  which  constitute  the  canon  of 
Scripture,  do  not  represent  the  entire  literary 
activity  of  the  Hebrews  during  the  time  em- 
braced by  the  canon.  There  were,  for  exam- 
ple, the  books  of  the  Apocrypha.  Later  there 
were  memoirs  of  Jesus  (Luke  i.  1).  In  the 
O.  T.  period  there  were  two  poetical  books  at 
least,  the  Book  of  the  Wars  of  Jehovah  and 
the  Book  of  Jashar  (Num.  xxi.  14  ;  Josh.  x. 
13).  The  events  of  the  reigns  of  David  and 
Solomon  were  recorded  in  the  History  of 
Samuel  the  Seer,  the  History  of  Nathan  the 
Prophet,  the  History  of  Gad  the  Seer  (1  Chron. 
xxix.  29;  2  Chron.  ix.  29),  and  also  in  the 
Chronicles  of  King  David,  which  apparently 
mark  the  beginning  of  the  custom  of  keep- 
ing royal  annals  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  24).  The 
reigns  of  Solomon  and  Jeroboam  found  record 
in  the  Visions  of  Iddo  the  Seer  (2  Chron.  ix. 
29),  and  Eehoboam's  reign  in  the  History  of 
Shemaiah  the  Prophet  and  in  the  History  of 
Iddo  the  Seer  (xii.  15).     The  Chronicles  of  the 


Kings  of  Israel  and  the  Chronicles  of  the 
Kings  of  Judah  recorded  the  history  of  the 
two  kingdoms  from  the  time  of  Rehoboam  and 
Jeroboam,  until  as  late  as  the  reign  of  Jehoia- 
kim  (1  Kin.  xiv.  19, 29;2Kin.xxiv.  5;  2Chron. 
xxxvi.  8) ;  see  Kings.  In  addition  to  these 
works,  there  was  quite  a  library  in  existence 
at  the  time  when  the  books  of  Chronicles  were 
written,  consisting  largely  of  monographs, 
of  which  not  a  few  titles  are  cited  (2  Chron. 
ix.  29;  xiii.  22;  xx.  34;  xxiv.  27;  xxvi.  22; 
xxxii.  32;  xxxiii.  18,  19;  xxxv.  25;  see  also 
Prov.  XXV.  1;  1  Kin.  iv.  32,  33). 

Booth. 

A  rude  habitation  designed  in  most  cases 
for  a  longer  occupation  than  a  tent,  but  not 
for  permanence  like  a  house.  It  was  often 
formed  with  branches  of  trees.  Jacob  made 
booths  at  Shechem  for  his  cattle,  the  place 
in  consequence  being  afterwards  called  Suc- 
coth  (Gen.  xxxiii.  17).  The  keeper  of  a  vine- 
yard occupied  a  booth  (Job  xxvii.  18;  Is.  i.  8, 
R.  v.),  which  during  the  vintage  sheltered  the 
owner  and  his  friends.  The  Israelites  were 
required  to  form  booths  of  branches  of  trees, 
palm  leaves,  etc.,  and  dwell  in  them  for  seven 
days  at  the  feast  of  tabernacles.  The  booths 
at  this  harvest  festival  were  a  reminder  of  the 
vintage  life  ;  but  with  this  recollection  there 
was  also  to  be  associated  the  memory  of  their 
deliverance  from  Egypt,  when  tliej^  sojourned 
in  the  wilderness  without  permanent  habita- 
tion (Lev.  xxiii.  39-43;  Neh.  viii.  14). 

Boo'ty. 

The  j)lunder  of  a  conquered  district  or 
town.  It  consisted  of  everything  of  value — 
household  goods,  gold,  silver,  cattle,  and  cap- 
tives to  be  used  as  slaves  (Gen.  xiv.  11,  12, 
16  ;  Num.  xxxi.  9,  26-52 ;  Josh.  vii.  21).  At 
the  conquest  of  Canaan  the  Israelites  were 
required  to  slay  everything  that  breathed 
and  to  destroy  all  idols  and  places  of  idola- 
trous worship,  but  in  foreign  conquests  they 
were  bidden  to  slay  the  men  only,  and  were 
authorized  to  take  the  remaining  spoil  (Num. 
xxxiii.  52  ;  Deut.  xx.  14-16).  Exceptions  were 
occasionally  made  when  everything  was  de- 
voted, the  living  to  destruction,  the  goods  to 
the  treasury  of  the  sanctuary,  or  when  a  cer- 
tain portion  of  the  spoil  was  dedicated  to  the 
Lord  (Num.  xxxi.  26-47  ;  Josh.  vi.  19 ;  1  Sam. 
XV.  2,  3).  David  made  a  law  that  the  troops 
detailed  to  guard  the  baggage  should  share 
equally  with  those  who  engaged  in  the  battle 
(1  Sam.  XXX.  23-25). 

Bo'oz.     See  Boaz. 

Bor'row. 

To  ask  in  loan.  Did  the  Israelites,  when 
the  Egyptians  urged  them  to  leave  the  coun- 
try, borrow  goods  from  the  Egyptians  or  ob- 
tain them  as  gifts  ?  The  word  rendered  bor- 
row in  A.  V.  of  Ex.  iii.  22;  xi.  2;  xii.  35, 
means  simply  a.sk  (R.  V.)  or  request,  whether 
the  object  desired  was  to  be  returned  (2  Kin. 
vi.  5)  or  not  (Judg.  v.  25  ;  viii.  24)  ;  and  the 
word  translated  lend  (Ex.  xii.  36,  A.  V.)  is  a 


Boscath 


95 


Bozrali 


form  of  the  same  verb,  and  means  to  grant  a 
request  or  let  one  have  what  one  asks  (E.  V. ; 
cp.  1  Sam.  i.  28). 

Bos'cath.     See  Bozkath. 

Bo'sor. 

1.  A  town  of  Gilead,  Gilead  being  doubtless 
used  in  a  broad  sense  (1  Mac.  v.  26,  36) ;  per- 
haps Bezcr  in  the  former  territory  of  Reuben 
(Jo.sh.  XX.  8). 

2.  See  Beok. 
Bos'o-ra. 

A  town  of  Gilead  (1  Mac.  v.  26,  28),  either 
Bozrah  in  Edom  or  Bostra  in  Haurau. 

Botch. 

The  rendering  in  A.V.of  Deut.  xxviii.  27,35 
of  tlie  Hebrew  word  elsewhere  translated  boil. 

Bot'tle. 

1.  A  hollow  vessel  of  leather,  or  the  hollow 
hide  of  an  animal,  used  for  holding  liquids 
(Job  xxxii.  19 ;  Mat.  ix.  17).  See  under  Butter. 


Skin  Bottles. 


2.  A  small  vessel  of  earthenware  formed  by 
potters,  and  which  was  capable  of  being  broken 
(Jer.  xix.  1,  10,  11).  If  any  glass  bottle  is  re- 
ferred to  in  Scripture,  it  was  probably  a  small 
lachrymatory  for  holding  tears  (Ps.  Ivi.  8). 

Bow. 

A  weapon  used  for  shooting  arrows  (2  Kin. 


35;  Job  XX.  24),  with  a  cord  stretched  be- 
tween its  two  ends  (Ps.  xi.  2),  and  was  held 
in  the  left  hand  (Ezek.  xxxix.  3).  It  was  used 
both  in  hunting  and  war  ((ien.  xxvii.  3 ; 
xlviii.  22).  Its  use  was  general  among  the 
nations  of  antiquity  (1  Sam.  xxxi.  3;  1  Kin. 
xxii.  34  ;  Jer.  xlvi.  9;  xlix.  35).  There  were 
archers  among  the  soldiers  of  Reuben,  Gad, 
the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh,  Ephraim,  and  es- 
pecially Benjamin  (1  Chrou.  v.  18:  2  Chron. 
xiv.  8;  Ps.  Ixxviii.  9).  The  bow  was  carried 
by  officers  and  soldiers  on  foot,  in  chariots,  or 
on  horseback  {2  Kin.  ix.  24).  The  archers 
carried  the  little  shield  and  a  sword  (1  Sam. 
xviii.  4;  1  Chron.  v.  18;  2  Chron.  xiv.  8), 
and  with  the  slingers  constituted  the  light- 
armed  troops. 

The  arrows  were  of  cane  or  polished  wood, 
and  were  carried  in  a  quiver  (Lam.  iii.  13; 
Is.  xlix.  2;  Ezek.  xxxix.  9).  Their  heads 
were  made  of  iron,  copper,  or  stone,  and  were 
sometimes  poisoned  (Job  vi.  4). 

Bowl.     See  Basin. 

Box. 

1.  A  small  case  or  vessel  with  a  cover.  In 
Scripture  times  they  were  used  to  hold  oil, 
ointment,  etc.  (2  Kin.  ix.  1 ;  Mat.  xxvi.  7). 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  T^'ash- 
shilr,  meaning  a  straight  tree.  Boat  seats  were 
made  of  it  (Ezek.  xxvii.  6,  R.  V.).  With  the 
fir  tree  and  the  pine  tree  it  constituted  the 
glory  of  Lebanon  (Is.  Ix.  13  ;  on  R.  V.  margin 
of  Is.  xli.  19  cypress).  The  species  of  box 
which  grows  on  Lebanon  is  Buxus  lomjifolia, 
a  small  evergreen  tree  about  20  feet  high. 

Bo'zez  [shining]. 

Of  two  crags  near  Gibeah,  the  northern- 
most, in  front  of  Michmash  (1  Sam.  xiv.  4,  5). 
It  overlooked  the  Wady  Suweinit. 

Boz'kath,  in  A.  V.  once  Bos'cath  [elevated, 
stony  ground]. 

A  town  iu  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  39).  Josiah's  maternal  grandfather, 
Adaiah,  was  of  the  place  (2  Kin.  xxii.  1)- 
Exact  site  unknown. 

Boz'rah  [an  enclosure,  a  sheepfold]. 


Bow  used  iu  Battle  between  Assyrians  and  their  Foes. 

vi.  22;  1  Chrou.  xii.  2).     It  was  made  of  a  |       1.  An  important  city  of  Edom  (Gen.  xxxvi. 
strip  of  elastic  wood  or  metal  (2  Sam.  xxii.      33;  1  Chron.  i.  44;  Is.   xxxiv.  6;  Ixiii.  1). 


Bracelet 


96 


Bread 


Amos  predicted  that  its  palaces  should  be 
destroyed  (Amos  i.  12)  ;  aud  Jeremiah  fore- 
told its  utter  destructiou  (.ler.  xlix.  13,  22). 
It  was  noted  for  its  sheej)  (Mic.  ii.  12).  Burck- 
hardt  and  Robinson  located  it  at  el-Buseira, 
a  village  of  some  fifty  houses,  about  18  miles 
southeast  of  the  Dead  Sea.  This  identifica- 
tion is  generally  accepted. 

2.  A  city  of  Moab  mentioned  with  Kerioth, 
Beth-meon,  Dibon,  aud  other  towns  of  the 
plateau  (Jer.  xlviii.  24)  ;  probably  the  same 
as  Bezer  (in  Septuagint,  Bosor). 

Bracelet. 

An  ornament  for  the  wrist  or  for  the  arm, 
worn  by  both  sexes  (Ezek.  xvi.  11).  One  was 
put  on  Eebekah's  wrist  by  Abraham's  servant 
(Gen.  xxiv.  22).  Bracelets  were  given  by  the 
Israelites  in  the  wilderness  to  furnish  gold  or 
silver  for  the  construction  of  the  vessels  of 


Egyptian  Bracelets. 

the  tabernacle  (Num.  xxxi.  50).  Saul  wore 
one,  unless  what  he  had  on  was  rather  an 
armlet  (2  Sam.  i.  10).  For  bracelet  in  A.  V.  in 
Gen.  xxxviii.  18,  25,  R.  V.  substitutes  cord ; 
in  Ex.  XXXV.  22,  brooches;  and  in  Is.  iii.  19, 
on  the  margin,  chains. 

Bram'tole. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  'Atad 
in  Judg.  ix.  14,  15.  The  plant  is  named  from 
its  firmness.  The  R.  V.  renders  it  on  the 
margin  by  thorn,  and  both  versions  so  trans- 
late the  word  in  Ps.  Iviii.  9.  It  is  doubtless  a 
variety  of  Bhamnus.  The  Septuagint  and  Vul- 
gate render  it  by  Rhammm.  This  thorn  is 
quite  common  in  the  warmer  parts  of  Pales- 
tine, especially  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Dead 
Sea  (cp.  Gen.  1. 10),  in  the  Jordan  valley,  and 
about  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  It  is  also  found  at 
Jerusalem.  The  Rhamnus  is  still  called  by  the 
Arabs  'atad  or  nabk,  applying  the  name  not 
only  to  Christ's  Thorn  (Zizyphns  spina  Christi), 
which  takes  its  name  from  the  tradition  that 
the  crown  placed  on  Christ's  head  was  made 
from  its  twigs,  but  apparently  also  to  Rham- 
nus palinrus. 

Branch. 

A  title  applied  to  the  Messiah  as  the  off- 
spring of  David  (Jer.  xxiii.  5 ;  xxxiii.  15  : 
Zech.  iii.  8  ;  vi.  12). 

Brass. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  N'ho- 
sheth  and  the  Greek  Chalkos.  The  margin  of 
the  R.  v.,  however,  at  Gen.  iv.  22  gives  cop- 
per as  a  constant  alternative.  Copper  was 
smelted  from  the  ore  dug  from  the  ground 
(Deut.  viii.  9 ;  Job  xxviii.  2).     Traces  of  an- 


cient copper  works  exist  in  Lebanon  and  in 
Edom.  It  was  obtained  notably  in  the  penin- 
sula of  Sinai,  in  Cyprus,  and  in  Meshech  and 
Tubal  (Ezek.  xxvii.  13).  Brass  is  an  alloy  of 
copper  with  from  28  to  34  per  cent,  of  zinc. 
Unless  accidentally  associated  with  calamine, 
it  does  not  occur  in  nature,  but  is  an  artificial 
product.  The  assertion  used  to  be  made  that 
it  was  not  known  till  it  was  accidentally 
formed  by  the  running  together  of  ditferent 
melted  metals  when  Corinth  was  burned,  146 
B.  c,  by  the  consul  Mummius.  But  vessels 
of  brass  have  been  found  of  much  higher  an- 
tiquity in  Egyptian  tombs.  Bronze  is  another 
artificial  product  from  copper,  being  an  alloy 
of  copper  and  tin.  From  copper  and  its  alloys 
utensils  were  made :  pots,  shovels,  basins, 
pans,  spoons,  snufters  (Ex.  xxxviii.  3;  Lev. 
vi.  28  ;  Num.  xvi.  39 ;  Jer.  Hi.  18) ;  armor, 
also,  such  as  helmets,  coats  of  mail,  greaves, 
shields,  spear  points,  and  even  bows  (2  Sam. 
xxi.  16 ;  xxii.  35,  R.V. ;  2  Chron.  xii.  10) ;  fetters 
also,  mirrors,  city  gates,  musical  instruments, 
idols,  and  in  later  times  coins  (Ex.  xxxviii. 
8  ;  2  Kin.  xxv.  7,  13;  Is.  xlv.  2 ;  Mat.  x.  9  ; 
1  Cor.  xiii.  1 ;  Rev.  ix.  20).  Where  casting  is 
spoken  of,  the  metal  was  bronze.  Thus  were 
made  the  plating  and  railing  for  the  altar, 
the  lavers  and  the  sea  with  its  pedestal  of 
oxen,  and  two  magnificent  pillars  for  the 
temple  (1  Kin.  vii.  41-46;  2  Chron.  iv.  1-17). 

Bra'zen  Ser'pent. 

The  figure  of  a  serpent,  made  of  metal,  aud 
erected  by  Moses  on  a  pole  in  the  wilderness, 
that  the  Israelites  who  were  bitten  by  fiery 
serpents  might  look  at  it  with  faith  in  God's 
promise  to  heal  those  who  looked  (Num.  xxi. 
8,  9).  In  after  years  the  Isi-aelites  began  to 
use  it  as  an  idol,  and  Hezekiah  had  it  broken 
in  pieces,  contemptuously  calling  it  N^hnshtan, 
that  is  to  say,  only  a  piece  of  brass  (2  Kin. 
xviii.  4).  Jesus  in  foi'etelling  his  crucifixion 
explained  its  spiritual  significance  by  com- 
paring it  with  the  rearing  of  the  brazen  ser- 
pent (John  iii.  14,  15). 

Bread. 

The  bread  in  use  among  the  Israelites  con- 
sisted generally  of  small  flat  cakes  of  wheaten 
flour  or,  among  the  poor,  of  barley  flour. 
The  grain  was  ground  daily  in  a  hand  mill, 
and  fresh  bread  baked  everyday.  When  this 
bi-ead  was  to  be  eaten  at  once,  it  was  often 
unleavened  (Gen.  xix.  3;  1  Sam.  xxviii.  24), 
but  the  art  of  making  leavened  bread  was 
also  understood  (Mat.  xiii.  .33).  The  show- 
bread  which  was  edible  after  eight  days  was 
evidently  leavened.  The  flour  was  made  into 
a  paste  or  dough  by  mixing  with  water,  and 
might  be  leavened  some  time  after  mixing ; 
for  example,  at  the  first  passover  the  dough 
was  already  mixed  in  the  troughs,  but  not 
yet  leavened  when  the  order  came  to  march 
(Ex.  xii.  34). 

The  oven  used  by  private  fiimilies  was  a 
poi-table  jar  in  which,  after  it  had  been  heated, 
the  loaves  were  laid  or  were  stuck  against  the 


Breastplate 


97 


Brick 


sides,  tlie  cakes  baked  in  this  later  fashion 
heiii>;  very  thin. 

Besides  the  l)read  l)aked  in  the  oven  (Lev. 
ii.  4),  cakes  also  were  baked  on  a  slightly 
concave  pan  i)Utovera  tii'e.  these  being  some- 
thing like  i)aucakes  (Lev.  ii.  5).  Bread  was 
also  l)aked  on  the  heated  heartli  or  on  any 
hot  stones  after  the  ashes  were  swept  aside  (I 
Kin.  xix.  6).  This  kind  was  made  especially 
when  food  was  wanted  in  a  luirry  (Gen.  xviii. 
ti).  The  Bedouin  at  jiresent  commonly  bake 
by  placing  their  loaves  iu  a  hole  in  the  ground 


distinguished  leader  of  the  Jerusalem  churcli 
(Acts  xii.  17  ;  xv.  13:  <ial.  ii.  It;,  and  was  the 
author  of  the  ejjistle  which  goes  by  his  name. 
In  what  sense  tliey  were  Christ's  "brethren  " 
has  been  much  disputed.  In  very  early  times 
they  were  regarded  as  tiie  children  of  Josci>li 
by  a  former  marriage.  Tlie  disa])i)earance  of 
Joseph  from  the  CiosiJcls  suggests  tliat  he  liad 
died,  and  may  have  been  nnich  older  than 
Mary,  and  may  have  l)ee7i  previously  mar- 
ried. But  this  would  x>revent  Jesus  from 
being  Joseph's  legal  heir,  which  he  is  repre- 


Egyptian  Bakers. 


which  has  previously  held  a  fire  and  then 
been  cleared  out.  The  hole  is  carefullj'  cov- 
ered and  the  bread  allowed  to  bake  all  night. 
This  method  was  probably  well  known  to  the 
Israelites.  Baking  was  ordinarily  done  by 
the  women  (Gen.  xviii.  6:  1  Sam.  viii.  13; 
Lev.  xxvi.  2<5;  but  Judg.  vi.  19),  and  in  large 
hou.seholds  by  the  slaves,  but  in  the  cities 
there  were  also  bakers  who  sold  bread  (Jer. 
xxxvii.  21  ;  cp.  Hos.  vii.  4,  6).  In  the  second 
chapter  of  Leviticus  is  given  a  list  of  the 
different  kinds  of  bread  which  were  accepta- 
ble as  offerings.  In  some  places  the  word  is 
applied  to  all  kinds  of  food  (Luke  xi.  3). 

Breast'plate. 

1.  A  sa(n<l  article  of  dress  w'oni  by  the 
Jewish  high  prie.st  (Ex.  xxviii.  15-30'.  See 
High  Priest. 

"2.  Armor  designed  to  protect  the  body  in 
battle  (Rev.  ix.  9) :  see  Armor.  Figuratively, 
righteousness  (Is.  lix.  17;  Eph.  vi.  14;  Wisd. 
V.  19),  or  faith  and  love,  constitute  a  spiritual 
breastplate  (1  Thes.  v.  8). 

Bretli'ren  of  the  Lord. 

Their  names  are  given  in  the  Gospels  as 
James,  Jose])h  or  Joses,  Simon,  and  .ludas 
(Mat.  xiii.  ?,?,,  E.  Y. ;  Mark  vi.  3).  They  ap- 
pear in  company  with  Mary  (Mat.  xii.  47-50 ; 
Mark  iii.  31-.35:  Luke  viii.  19-21),  moved  to 
Capernaum  with  her  and  Jesus  and  the  lat- 
ter's  disciples  at  the  beginning  of  Christ's 
ministry  (John  ii.  12),  but  are  said  not  to 
have  believed  in  .Jesus  even  toward  the  close 
of  his  life  (John  vii.  4,  5).  After  the  resur- 
rection, however,  they  are  found  united  with 
the  disciples  (Acts  i.  14),  and  are  afterwards 
mentioned  as  Christian  workers  (1  Cor.  ix.  5). 
One  of  them,  James  (Gal.  i.  19),  became  a 


sented  to  have  been  in  Mat.  i.  In  the  fourth 
century  Jerome  proposed  another  view  ;  viz., 
that  they  were  Christ's  cousins  on  his  moth- 
er's side,  the  children  of  Alphseus  (or  Clopas) 
and  Mary's  sister  of  the  same  name.  This  is 
inferred  mainly  from  a  comlnnation  of  Mark 
XV.  40  and  John  xix.  25  (the  latter  being 
thought  to  mention  but  three  women),  and 
from  the  identity  of  the  names  Alphieus  and 
Clopa.s.  On  this  view  one  (James  the  son  of 
Alphfeus)  and  perhaps  more  (Simon  and 
Judas)  of  the  apostles  were  Christ's  brethren. 
But  the  ajjostles  are  distinguished  from  his 
brethren  ;  the  latter  did  not  believe  in  him, 
and  it  is  unlikely  that  two  sisters  had  the 
same  name.  Another  very  old  view  was  that 
they  were  cousins  on  .Joseph's  side,  and  some 
have  even  supposed  they  were  the  children 
of  the  widow  of  Joseph's  brother  (Deut.  xxv. 
5-10).  But  all  these  theories  appear  to  have 
originated  from  a  wish  to  maintain  the  per- 
petual virginity  of  JIary.  That  they  were 
the  children  of  Joseph  and  Mary,  born  after 
Jesus,  is  the  natural  view,  and  that  Mar^-  had 
other  children  is  implied  in  Mat.  i.  25;  Luke 
ii.  7.  This  view  explains  also  the  constant 
association  of  "the  brethren"  with  Mary. 

tJ.  T.  P. 

Brick. 

A  mass  of  clay  tempered,  made  rectangular 
in  shape,  and  hardened  either  by  burning  in 
a  kiln  (Gen.  xi.  3)  or  by  drying  in  the  sun 
(Herod,  ii.  136).  They  were  of  course  sun-dried 
when  the  clay  was  mixed  \\'ith  straw  (Ex.  v.  7). 
Both  bricks  and  tiles  are  often  found  stamped 
w-ith  names  and  in.scriptions.  from  which  we 
have  derived  much  of  our  knowledge  of 
those  ancient  times,  as  well  as  from  the  tab- 


Brickkiln 


98 


Bullock 


lets  of  burnt  clay  specially  prepared  as  docu- 
ments in  a  similar  way  (cp.  Ezek.  iv.  1).  For 
illustration  of  brickmaking,  see  Egypt. 


Brick  bearins  Niime  and  Inscription  of 
Nebucliadnezzar. 

Brick 'kiln. 

A  kiln  for  enclosing  bricks  while  they  are 
being  burned  (2  Sam.  xii.  31  and  Nah.  iii. 
14,  where  R.  V.  margin  translates  brickmould  ; 
Jer.  xliii.  9,  in  R.  V.  brickwork). 

Bri'er. 

The  rendering  of  six  distinct  Hebrew  words 
and  of  one  Greek  word. 

1.  Barkan  ( Judg.  viii.  7,  16) ;  perhaps,  as 
etymology  suggests,  so  named  because  it 
grows  in  stony  ground. 

2.  Shamir,  bristling,  prickly  (Is.  ix.  18 ;  x. 
17 ;  xxvii.  4 ;  xxxii.  13),  such  as  springs  up 
in  abandoned  vineyards  (v.  6;  vii.  23). 

3.  Sirpad  (Is.  Iv.  13).  Septuagint  and  Vul- 
gate render  it  nettle. 

4.  Sarah,  refractory  (Ezek.  ii.  6). 

5.  Sillon  (Ezek.  xxviii.  24  ;  in  ii.  6  rendered 
thorn). 

6.  Hedeh  (Mic.  vii.  4),  used  in  hedges  (Prov. 
XV.  19,  where  it  is  rendered  thorn).  The  cor- 
responding word  in  Arabic  means  the  Egg- 
plant, Mad-apple,  Jew's-appleorBrinjal  {Sola- 
niim  melongeiia),  one  variety  of  which  is  thorny. 
It  is  a  native  of  India  and,  it  is  believed,  of 
Arabia.  It  is  of  the  same  genus  as  the  potato, 
but  tlie  edible  part  is  the  fruit,  which  is  much 
used  in  curries  in  the  East. 

7.  Greek  Akanthn,  a  thorn  or  a  prickly 
]>lant  or  thorny  tree  (Heb.  vi.  8,  A.  V.). 

Brig'an-dine. 

A  name  for  a  coat  of  mail,  composed  of 
light  thin-jointed  scales,  or  of  thin  pliant 
plate  armor  (.Jer.  xlvi.  4 ;  Ii.  3).  The  R.  V. 
substitutes  coat  of  mail. 

Brim'stone. 

Sulphur  (Gen.  xix.  24;  Deut.  xxix.  23). 

Brook. 

A  small  perennial  stream,  as  the  KLshon 
(1  Kin.  xviii.40)  and  the  Jabl)ok  (Gen.  xxxii. 
23,  A.  v.).  Generally,  however,  in  Scripture 
the  word  is  used  for  a  stream  which  flows  in 
the  rainy,  winter  season,  but  is  dry  in  sum- 


mer, as  the  brook  of  Egyjit  (Num.  xxxiv.  .5, 
R.  V. ;  see  River),  the  Zered  (Deut.  ii.  13), 
and  the  Kidron  (2  Sam.  xv.  23  ;  John  xviii.  1, 
R.  v.). 

Broom. 

A  much-branched  bush, with  twiggy,  nearly 
leafless,  branches,  and  clusters  of  pinkish- 
white  flowers,  which  grows  in  the  Jordan 
valley  and  Arabia,  and  is  common  in  the 
peninsula  of  Sinai  (Job  xxx.  4  ;  1  Kin.  xix. 
4).  Its  large  root  stalk  is  made  into  charcoal 
(Ps.  cxx.  4).  In  the  text  of  the  last  two  pas- 
sages in  the  R.  V.,  and  in  all  the  three  in  the 
A.  v.,  it  is  rendered  juniper,  but  the  He- 
brew word  corresponds  to  the  still  existing 
Arabic  name  for  Retama,  broom. 

Broth'er. 

1.  A  kinsman  born  of  the  same  parents  n& 
the  person  to  whom  he  is  brother  (Gen.  xxvii. 
6),  or  at  least  of  the  same  father  (xxviii.  2)  or 
the  same  mother  (Judg.  viii.  19). 

2.  A  man  of  the  same  near  ancestry  (as  a 
nephew.  Gen.  xiv.  16),  or  of  the  same  race  or 
of  a  kindred  nation  (Deut.  xxiii.  7 ;  Neh.  v. 
7  ;  Jer.  xxxiv.  9). 

3.  An  ally  (Amos  i.  9)  or  co-religionist  (Acts 
ix.  17 ;  1  Cor.  vi.  6  ;  2  Cor.  ii.  13)  ;  often  in  the 
plural  applied  to  Christian  disciples  (Mat. 
xxiii.  8;  Rom.  i.  13). 

4.  One  of  the  male  sex  greatly  beloved  or 
politely  addressed  by  the  i)erson  who  calls 
him  brother  (2  Sam.  i.  26;  1  Kin.  xx.  32). 

5.  Any  man  whatever,  the  common  broth- 
erhood of  the  human  race  being  recognized 
(Gen.  ix.  5;  Mat.  v.  22;  xviii.  .35). 

Buckler.     See  Armor. 

Buk'ki  [abbreviation  of  Bukkiah]. 

1.  Prince  of  the  tribe  of  Dan  and  member 
of  the  commission  for  allotting  the  land  (Num. 
xxxiv.  22). 

2.  A  descendant  of  Aaron,  in  the  high- 
priestly  line  of  Phinehas  (1  Chron.  vi.  .5,  51; 
Ezra  vii.  4). 

Buk-ki'ah  [devastation  sent  by  Jehovah]. 

A  Levite,  son  of  Heman,  and  head  of  the 
sixth  of  the  twenty-four  companies  of  twelve 
musicians  each  which  David  appointed  for 
the  service  of  the  sanctuarv  (1  Chron.  xxv. 
4,  13). 

Bui  [growth]. 

The  eighth  month  of  the  Jewish  year  (1 
Kin.  vi.  38).     See  Ye.\r. 

Bull. 

The  male  of  the  species  called  by  natural- 
ists Bos  t((iirus  (Job.  xxi.  10 ;  Ps.  Ixviii.  30 ; 
Is.  xxxiv.  7;  Jer.  Iii.  20);  see  Ox.  A  par- 
ticularly strong  and  tierce  breed  of  bulls  ex- 
isted in  Bashan  (Ps.  xxii.  12). 

The  word  To\  rendered  wild  ox  and  wilil 
bull  in  A.  V.  (Deut.  xiv.  5 ;  Ls.  Ii.  20),  is  trans- 
lated in  R.  V.  by  antelope  'q.  v.). 

Bun'ock. 

A  young  bull,  though  the  Hebrew  word  is 
u.sed  once  of  an  animal  seven  years  old  (Judg. 
vi.  25).  Bullocks  were  used  as  draught  animals- 


Bulrush 


99 


Cabul 


bearing  a   yoke  (.Tor.   xxxi.  18,  A.  V.),  and 
were  largely  oflerod  in  sacrifice  (Ex.  xxix. 
1  :  1  Chron.  xxix.  21). 
Bul'rusli  [bull,  i.  e.  a  large,  rush]. 

1.  llibrew  Gome'  (Ex.  ii.  3;  Is.  xviii.  2, 
A.  \.)  :  luipyrus  ((}.  v.). 

2.  Hebrew  'A<imo)i.  The  etymology  sug- 
gests that  it  grows  in  swam{)s  ;  and  it  is  a  low 
plant  (Is.  ix.  14 ;  xix.  1.")),  bows  the  head 
(Iviii.  5),  and  was  twisted  into  ropes  (Job  xli. 
2.  K.  ^^  margin). 

Bu'nah  [prudence]. 

A  descendant  of  Judah  through  Jerahmeel 
(1  Chron.  ii.  25). 
Bun'ni  [built,  erected]. 

1.  A  Levite  who  lived  before  the  exile 
(Neh.  xi.  15). 

2.  A  Levite,  contemporary  of  Nehemiah 
(Xeh.  ix.  4). 

3.  Eepresentative  of  a  family  or  father's 
house  who  sealed  the  covenant  (Neh.  x.  15). 

Bur'den. 

1.  A  heavy  load  to  be  borne  ;  used  in  a  lite- 
ral or  a  figurative  sense  (Ex.  xxiii.  5;  Num. 
xi.  11,  etc.). 

2.  An  utterance  or  prophecy,  in  almost 
every  instance  denouncing  heavy  judgment 
on  a  place  or  people  (Is.  xiv.  28 ;  xv.  1 ;  Ezek. 
xii.  10;  Hos.  viii.  10;  Nah.  i.  1). 

Bur'i-al. 

Interment,  the  committal  of  a  corpse  to 
tlie  ground,  or  its  disposal  in  another  rev- 
erential way.  When  a  death  occurred  friends, 
especially  women,  hurried  to  the  house  and 
made  loud  lamentation  (Mark  v.  38).  Mourn- 
ers were  even  hired  (Jer.  ix.  17).  The  body 
was  washed  (Acts  ix.  37),  and  wrapped  in  a 
cloth  or  closely  bound  in  bands  (Mat.  xxvii. 
59  ;  John  xi.  44).  The  wealthy  added  spices 
and  perfumes  (John  xii.  7 ;  xix.  .39)  or  burned 
fragrant  materials  (Jer.  xxxiv.  5).  The  body 
was  carried  upon  a  bier  to  the  grave  (2  Sam. 
iii.  31 ;  Luke  vii.  14).  Burial  was  generally 
in  a  cave  or  in  a  sepulcher  scooped  horizon- 
tally in  the  rock  (Gen.  xxv.  9, 10  ;  Mat.  xxvii. 
60)."    See  Mournincj  and  Sepulcher. 

Burnt  Of  fer-ing.     See  Offerings. 

Burnt  Sac'ri-flce,  the  same  as  burnt  offer- 
ing.    See  Offerings. 

Bush. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  S^neh  and 
(ireek  Batos,  a  thorny  bu.sh  (Luke  vi.  44). 
which  Moses  saw  burning  and  from  which 
Jehovah  spoke  (Ex.  iii.  2,  3;  Dent,  xxxiii. 
16;  Mark  xii.  26).  Tristram  believes  it  to 
have  been  the  Acacia  vera  or  nilotica,  the 
Egyptian  thorn.  It  is  a  withered-looking 
thorny  tree.  12  feet  high,  with  bipinnate 
leaves  and  white  flowers.  It  grows  through- 
out a  large  jiart  of  Africa,  also  in  the  Sinai 
Peninsula,  and,  in  Palestine,  on  the  shores 
of  the  Dead  Sea.  It  yields  the  gum  arabic  of 
commerce,  which  naturally  exudes  in  a  nearly 
fluid  state  from  the  trunk  and  branches,  har- 
dening on  exposure  to  the  air. 


2.  Hebrew  SHah  (Job.  xxx.  4,  7;  and  Gen. 
ii.  5,  where  it  is  rendered  ])lant) ;  a  shrub 
large  enough  to  aflbrd  some  shade  (Gen.  xxi. 
15,  where  it  is  rendered  shrub). 

3.  Hebrew  Niih"lol  (Is.  vii.  19),  rendered  in 
the  text  of  K.  V.  by  pasture,  and  on  the  mar- 
gin of  the  .v.  V.  by  commendable  trees. 

Bush'el. 

The  rendering  of  the  Greek  Modios,  a  dry 
measure  containing  more  than  two  gallons 
(Mat.  V.  15 ;  Mark  iv.  21).     See  Measure. 

But'ler.     See  Cupbearer. 

But'ter. 

In  Scripture,  curdled  milk  or  curds  (Gen. 
xviii.  8;  Dent,  xxxii.  14;  Prov.  xxx.  33;  Is. 
vii.  15,  22).  On  margin  of  R.  V.  of  Is.  vii.  15 
the  translation  is  curds.  Thomson  says  that 
neither  the  ancient  nor  the  modern  Orientals 
have  made  butter  in  our  sense  of  the  word. 
The  butter  given  to  Sisera  by  Jael  was  sour 
milk,  called  in  Arabic  leben.  The  butter,  so 
called,  of  Prov.  xxx.  33  is  a  produ<tion  made 
in  this  way.  A  bottle  formed  by  stripping  off 
the  entire  skin  of  a  young  buflalo  is  filled 
with  milk  and  then  perseveringly  kneaded 
or  shaken  by  women.  Then  the  contents  are 
taken  out,  boiled  or  melted,  and  put  into 
bottles  of  goats'  skins.  In  winter  it  resem- 
bles candied  honey,  and  in  summer  is  mere 
oil. 

Buz  [contempt]. 

1.  An  Aramfean  tribe,  descended  from  a 
son  of  Nahor  (Gen.  xxii.  20,  21),  and  proba- 
bly dwelling  in  Jeremiah's  time  near  Dedan 
and  Tema  in  Arabia  (Jer.  xxv.  23). 

2.  A  Gadite,  founder  of  a  tribal  family  or 
house  (1  Chron.  v.  14). 

Bu'zi  [descendant  of  Buz] . 

Father  of  the  priest  and  prophet  Ezekiel 
(Ezek.  i.  3). 

Buz'ite. 

One  belonging  to  the  Arabian  tribe  of  Buz 
(Job.  xxxii.  2). 


C. 


Cab,  in  R.  V.  Kab  [a  hollow  vessel]. 

A  Hebrew  measure  of  capacity  for  dry  ar- 
ticles (2  Kin.  vi.  25).  It  held,  according  to 
Rabbinical  tradition,  the  sixth  part  of  a  seah 
or  one  hundred  and  eightieth  part  of  a  homer. 

Cab'bon  [a  cake,  or  perhaps  a  binding]. 

A  village  of  Judah  in  the  lowland  (Josh. 
XV.  40).  Perhaps  identical  with  Machbenah 
(1  Chron.  ii.  49).  The  radical  letters  are  the 
same  and  the  location  is  suitable. 

Ca'bul  [perhaps,  fettered  land  ;  proverbial 
for  hard,  drj-  land  which  produces  no  fruit]. 

1.  A  town  of  Asher  (Josh.  xix.  27;  Life 
43,  45).  It  is  still  known  as  Kabiil,  a  village 
9  miles  east-southeast  of  Acre. 

2.  A  district  of  Galilee,  that  is,  of  the  north- 
ern part  of  the  territory  of  Naphtali,  for  the 


Caesar 


100 


Caesar 


luost  part  iubabited  liy  people  other  than  Is- 
raelites (Is.  ix.  1).  It  contained  twenty  towns, 
which  Solomon  i)resented  to  Hiram,  king  of 
Tyre,  in  return  for  services  rendered  in  con- 
nection with  the  l)uilding  of  the  temple. 
Hiram  was  displeased  with  the  gift,  and 
therefore  called  the  region  C'abul  (1  Kin.  ix. 
13).  Hiram  thus  apparently  rejected  the 
l>roffered  compensation  as  inadequate,  and 
returned  the  district  to  Solomon,  who  there- 
upon fortified  the  cities  thus  put  back  on  his 
hands,  and  caused  Israelites  to  dwell  in  them 
(2  C'hron.  viii.  2;  Antiq.  viii.  5,  3). 

Cse'sar. 

The  family  name  of  a  branch  of  the  Julian 
house  or  clan  in  Rome.  According  to  Pliny 
(7,  9),  the  first  who  bore  the  name  was  so 
called  quod  casso  mortuie  matris  utero  natus 
fnerit.  Though  it  is  traceable  from  501  B.  c, 
it  did  not  gain  extensive  celebrity  till  it  was 
borne  by  C'aius  Julius  Cai-sar,  who  ranks  with 
Alexander  the  Great  and  Napoleon  as  one  of 
the  three  most  remarkable  conquerors  the 
civilized  world  has  produced.  On  the  assas- 
sination of  Julius  Ca?sar,  44  b.  c,  his  will  re- 
quested his  grandnephew  Octavius,  after- 
wards the  emperor  Augustus,  to  assume  the 
name  of  Cicsar.  Tiberius,  who  succeeded 
Augustus,  and  Caligula,  Claudius,  and  Nero, 
who  followed  in  succession,  were  all  entitled 
by  relationship  to  the  great  dictator  to  bear 
the  family  name  ;  the  seven  succeeding  em- 
perors— Galba,  Otho.  Vitellius,  Vespasian, 
Titus,  Domitian,  and  Nerva — assumed  it,  so 
tliat  it  is  customar,y  to  speak  of  the  twelve 
Csesars.  From  having  been  the  name  of  one 
mighty  conqueror,  and  then  of  a  series  of 
emperors,  the  name  Caesar  became  the  type 
or  symbol  of  the  civil  power  in  general,  and 
it  is  continually  used  in  this  sense  in  discus- 
sions as  to  the  relative  domains  of  civil  and 
ecclesiastical  rulers  (cp.  Mat.  sxii.  17,  21 ; 
Mark  xii.  14,  16,  17;  Luke  xx.  22,  24,  25). 

The  name  Csesar  is  applied  in  the  N.  T.  to : 

1.  Au-gus'tus  Cse'sar,  the  first  Roman 
emperor  (Luke  ii.  1).  In  43  b.  c.  he  was 
named  one  of  the  second  triumvirate,  Marc 
Antony  and  Lepidus  being  the  other  two. 
Lepidus  was  found  incompetent  and  forced 
to  retire ;  and  after  the  defeat  of  Antony 
at  Actium  in  31  B.  c.  Augustus  was  sole 
ruler  of  the  Roman  world,  and  was  given 
the  title  of  emperor.  It  was  in  consequence 
of  a  decree  of  Augustus  that  Joseph  and 
Mary  went  to  Bethlehem  to  be  taxed,  at  the 
time  of  Christ's  birth.  Although  Augustus 
was  not  fond  of  the  Jews,  he  favored  them 
from  policy,  and  caused  sacrifices  to  be  made 
daily  in  the  temple  at  Jerusalem  at  his  ex- 
pense. He  was  friendly  to  Herod,  recogniz- 
ing that  in  him  he  had  a  valuable  ally. 
Csesarea  Philip]ii  and  Csesarea  by  the  Sea 
were  built  in  his  honor  by  Herod.  Augustus 
died  A.  D.  14,  in  the  sixty-seventh  year  of  his 
age. 

2.  Ti-be'ri-us  CiE'sAR,  the  second  Roman 


emperor  (Mat.  xxii.  17 ;  Mark  xii.  14  ;  Luke 
iii.  1 ;  XX.  21,  22;  John  xix.  12),  born  42  b.  c., 
was  the  adopted  son,  also  stepson  and  son-in- 
law,  of  Augustus.  He  was  of  a  morose  and 
gloomy  temper,  and  spent  a  large  part  of  his 
reign  in  voluntary  exile  on  the  island  of 
Capri.   During  his  reign  Judaea  was  governed 


Bust  of  Tiberius. 

by  Valerius  Gratus  and  Pontius  Pilatus.  At 
one  time  he  banished  the  Jews  from  Rome, 
but  later  recalled  the  edict,  and  gave  them 
redress  for  the  severity  of  the  provincial 
governors.  Tiberias,  on  the  sea  of  Galilee, 
was  built  in  his  honor  by  Herod  Antipas.  His 
death  was  hastened  by  the  hand  of  Caligula, 
A.  D.  37. 


Coin  with  Head  of  Claudius. 

3.  Clau'di-us,  the  fourth  Roman  emperor. 
He  was  a  weak,  vacillating  man,  a  nephew 
of  Tiberius.     He  was  made  emperor  almost 


Caesar 


101 


Caesarea 


against  his  will,  and  loft  the  real  power  in 
the  hands  of  unprincipled  favorites.  Ilerod 
Agrippa  I.  had  been  in  Konie,  and  had  as- 
sisted in  his  eoronatitin,  and  in  eonsequenee 
was  given  the  wliole  of  Palestine  as  a  mark 
of  favor.  In  the  beginning  of  his  reign 
Claudius  favored  the  Jews,  and  reinstated 
the  Ale.xandrian  .Tews  in  their  former  privi- 
leges, but  later  he  banished  all  Jews  from 
Rome  (Acts  xviii.  2).  He  died  a.  D.  54,  in  the 
fourteenth  year  of  his  reign. 

4.  Ne'ro,  the  fifth  Komau  emperor  (Acts 
XXV.  1-2,  21  ;  xxvi.  32;  Phil.  iv.  22).  He  was 
the  adopted  son  of  his  predecessor  Claudius, 
and  secured  his  own  position  by  poisoning  his 
stepbrother  Britannicus.  Nero  was  a  mon- 
ster of  lust  and  cruelty,  though,  jierhaps,  his 
crimes  have  been  exaggerated.  In  the  tenth 
year  of  his  reign,  A.  D.  64,  a  great  fire  broke 
out  at  Rome,  in  large  measure  destroying 
three  of  the  fourteen  districts  into  which  the 
city  was  divided.  The  emperor  was  believed, 
apparently  on  iusuliicieut  evidence,  to  have 


Head  of  Nero. 

been  himself  the  incendiary,  and  was  in  con- 
sequence in  danger  of  his  life.  To  screen 
himself,  he  falsely  accused  the  Christians  of 
having  caused  the  fire,  and  put  many  of 
them  to  cruel  deaths,  tradition  adding  that 
both  Paul  and  Peter  were  among  the  sufier- 
ers.  Nero  is  the  "  lion '"  of  2  Tim.  iv.  17. 
Finding  that  he  was  deserted  by  his  troops, 
and  that  he  would  soon  be  put  to  death,  he 
anticipated  his  fate.  Like  Saul,  he  attempted 
suicide,  and,  failing,  induced  one  of  his  sup- 
porters to  complete  the  act  of  slaughter.  He 
died  A.  D.  68,  in  the  thirty-second  year  of  his 
age  and  the  fourteenth  of  his  reign. 

Titus,  son  of  Vespasian,  and  tenth  Roman 
emperor.  In  a.  d.  66  Vespasian  was  sent  to 
Palestine  to  quell  a  revolt  of  the  Jews,  and 
Titus  accompanied  him.  In  69,  when  Ves- 
pasian hurried  from  .Tudjea  to  Rome  to  secure 
the  imperial  oflice  for  himself,  he  left  Titus 
in  command  of  the  army,  and  Titus  con- 
ducted the  siege  of  Jerusalem  in  a.  d.  70 
(War  iii.  1,  3-vii.  3,  1)  ;  see  Jerusalem  II.  3. 


Coin  with  Head  of  Titus. 

Titus  became  emperor  in  79  ;  and  died  in  81, 
in  the  fortieth  year  of  his  age. 

Cses-a-re'a  [pertaining  to  Caesar]. 

A  city  on  the  coast  of  Palestine,  about  23 
miles  south  of  mount  Carmel.  It  was  built  by 
Herod  the  Great,  on  the  site  of  a  town  called 
Strato's  Tower.  Twelve  years,  from  25  to  13 
B.  c,  were  spent  in  its  erection.  A  sea  mole 
was  built  of  stones  50  feet  long,  18  broad,  and 
9  deep.  It  was  200  feet  wide,  stood  in  20 
fathoms  of  water,  and  enclosed  a  harbor  as 
large  as  that  at  Athens.  The  entrance  to  the 
artificial  port  was  on  the  north,  where  there 
was  a  tower.  The  city  was  provided  with  a, 
temple,  a  theater,  and  an  amphitheater,  and 
had  a  complete  system  of  drainage.  Herod 
named  the  place  Csesarea,  after  his  patron 
Augustus  Caesar  (Antiq.  xv.  9,  6 ;  War  i.  21,  5, 
seq.).  It  was  sometimes  called  Caesarea  of 
Palestine,  or  Caesarea  by  the  Sea,  to  distin- 
guish it  from  Caesarea  Philip])i.  It  became 
the  Roman  capital  of  Palestine.  The  gospel 
was  carried  thither  by  Philip  the  evangelist, 
who  made  it  his  residence  (Acts  viii.  40 ;  xxi. 
8).  When  Paul,  soon  after  his  conversion, 
was  in  danger  of  being  murdered  by  the 
Jews  of  Jerusalem,  his  Christian  brethren 
brought  hira  down  to  Caesarea,  whence  he 
sailed  to  his  birthplace.  Tarsus,  in  Asia  Minor 
(ix.  30).  It  was  at  Caesarea  that  the  Romau 
centurion  Cornelius  lived,  to  whom  Peter 
preached  Christ,  and  that  the  calling  of  the 
gentiles  took  place  (x.  1.  24  ;  xi.  11).  Herod 
Agrijjpa  died  at  Caesarea  in  a.  d.  44  (Acts  xii. 
19.  23  ;  Antiq.  xix.  8,  2).  Paul  twice  revisited 
the  city,  and  found  a  church  existing  (Acts 
xviii.  22  ;  xxi.  8.  16).  He  was  afterwards  taken 
thither  as  a  prisoner  (xxiii.  23,  33),  and  it 
was  there  that  his  trial  before  Festus  and 
Agrippa  took  place  (xxv.  1-4,  6-13).  The 
pojjulation  of  the  city  was  mixed,  and  race 
jealousies  existed  to  such  an  extent  that  in 
the  reign  of  Nero  the  Syrians  made  a  whole- 
sale massacre  of  the  Jews,  commencing  the 


Caesarea  Philippi 


102 


Caiaphas 


troubles  which  culminated  in  A.  D.  70  in  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus  (War  ii.  18, 
1).  In  the  second  century  A.  d.  Caesarea  lie- 
came  the  residence  of  a  bishop,  who  down  to 
451  was  metropolitan  of  Palsestina  Prima. 
In  195  a  council  was  held  there.  A  Chris- 
tian school  was  established  in  the  city,  in 
which  Origen  taught  and  where  Eusebius, 
afterwards  bishop  of  Csesarea,  was  educated. 
In  548  the  Jews  and  Samaritans  joined  in 
assaulting  the  Christians.  In  638  the  city 
was  captured  by  the  Mohammedans.  In 
1102  it  was  taken  by  the  crusaders,  led  by 
Baldwin  I.  Saladin  retook  it  from  them  in 
1189  ;  the  crusaders  recovered  it  in  1191,  but 
lost  it  to  the  sultan  Bibars  in  1265. 

The  existing  ruins  are  of  two  periods. 
There  is,  first,  a  Roman  town  with  walls, 
containing  a  theater,  a  hippodrome  (race- 
course), a  mole,  a  temple,  and  aqueducts; 
then,  secondly,  there  is  the  Crusading  town 
with  walls,  a  castle,  a  cathedral,  a  smaller 
church,  and  a  harbor.  The  Roman  wall  ex- 
tends 4800  feet  from  north  to  south,  and  2700 
from  east  to  west.  The  harbor  measures  540 
feet  across.  A  reef  running  into  the  sea  is 
probably  the  old  mole.  Csesarea  is  still  called 
Kaisarieh. 


Tiberius  Caesar  (Antiq.  xviii.  2,  1 ;  War  ii. 
9,  1).  Jesus  and  his  disciples  visited  it  at 
least  once,  and  it  was  there  that  the  remark- 
able conversation  took  place  between  him  and 
Peter  arising  out  of  the  question  "  Who  do 
men  say  that  I  am?"  {Mat.  xvi.  13;  Mark 
viii.  27).  Agrippa  II.  still  further  embellished 
it,  and  changed  the  name  to  Nerouias,  to 
compliment  the  emperor  Nero  ;  but  on  the 
emperor's  death  the  name  speedilj'  lapsed 
(Antiq.  xx.  9,  4).  After  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  Titus  exhibited  gladiatorial  shows 
in  this  town  also,  one  part  of  the  spectacle 
being  Jewish  captives  thrown  to  the  wild 
beasts,  or  compelled  to  encounter  each  other 
in  deadly  warfare  (War  vii.  2,  1  ;  3,  1).  Part 
of  its  fortifications  still  remain,  and  there  are 
Greek  inscriptions  on  the  adjacent  rocks. 
The  town  has  dwindled  to  a  small  village 
called  Banias,  an  alteration  of  its  early  name 
Paneas. 

Cage. 

A  box  or  basket,  Hebrew  K'luh,  in  which 
birds  were  kept,  especially  for  purposes  of 
decoy  (.Ter.  v.  27;  Ecclus.  xi.  30).  Sen- 
nacherib boasts  of  having  shut  up  Hezekiah 
in  Jerusalem  like  a  bird  in  a  cage. 


Ruins  of  Caesarea  Philippi. 


Cses-a-re'a  PM-lip'pi  [Csesarea  of  Philip, 
in  distinction  from  Caesarea  of  Palestine]. 

A  city  at  the  foot  of  mount  Hermon,  at  the 
main  source  of  the  Jordan,  and  in  the  angle 
of  a  small  plain,  with  hills  on  all  sides  of  it 
except  on  the  west.  It  has  sometimes  been 
identified  with  the  O.  T.  Dan,  but  was  more 
probably  Baal-gad.  The  worship  of  the  Ro- 
man god  Pan  long  prevailed  in  the  locality ; 
and  Herod  the  Great  having  built  a  temple 
of  fine  marble  near  the  sacred  spot,  the  place 
was  called  Paneas  (Antiq.  xv.  10,  3).  The 
town  was  afterwards  enlarged  and  adorned 
by  Philip  the  tetrarch,  and  its  name  altered 
to  Caesarea  in  honor  of  the  Roman  emperor 


Ca'ia-phas  [depression]. 

Joseph  Caiaphas,  who  was  appointed  to  the 
high  priesthood  in  A.  D.  26  at  the  latest  by  Va- 
lerius Gratus,  the  Roman  procurator  and  im- 
mediate predecessor  of  Pontius  Pilate  (Antiq. 
xviii.  2,  2).  Caiaphas  and  his  father-in-law 
Annas  (John  xviii.  13)  were  high  priests  when 
John  the  Baptist  commenced  his  ministry 
(Luke  iii.  2).  Caiajihas  proposed  the  death 
of  Jesus,  and,  speaking  of  its  import  more 
significantly  than  he  was  aware,  said  :  "  It  is 
expedient  for  us,  that  one  man  should  die  for 
the  people,  and  that  the  whole  nation  perish 
not "  (John  xi.  49-53 ;  xviii.  14).  At  his  pal- 
ace the  council  of  chief  priests,  scribes,  and 


Cain 


103 


Caleb 


cltUis  was  held  to  devise  measures  for  the 
arrest  of  our  Lord  (Mat.  xxvi.  3-r>).  Wheu 
Jesus  was  apjirehended,  he  was  taken  first  to 
the  palace  of  Annas,  who  sent  him  hound  to 
Caiaphas  (Jolm  xviii.  "24),  whence  lie  was  led 
next  to  the  pnelorium  of  Pilate  (28).  l)eei)ly 
responsible  for  the. judicial  murder  of  the  in- 
nocent prisoner,  t'aia])has  afterwards  t<)ok 
jiart  in  the  trial  of  Peter  and  John  (Acts  iv.  6). 
in  A.  I).  3(i  he  was  deposed  by  Vitellius,  the 
Kdinan  ])resident  of  Syria  (Antiq.  xviii.  4,2). 
Cain  [fabrication,  forged  instrument, smith]. 

1.  The  firstborn  sou  of  Adam,  by  calling  an 
agriculturist.  He  brought  of  the  fruits  of 
tiie  ground  an  otlering  to  (iod,  an  implied 
acknowledgment  of  gratitude  to  tiod  for  the 
jiroduce  of  the  earth.  But  Cain  was  at  heart 
a  wicked  man,  and  his  otlering  was  rejected. 
Then  his  character  was  revealed.  He  showed 
envy  and  anger,  refused  the  exhortation  to 
strive  against  sin,  committed  murder,  denied 
his  guilt ;  and  when  judgment  was  pro- 
nounced, gave  no  evidence  of  repentance  for 
his  sin,  but  only  of  fear  of  the  i)unishment. 
Sent  into  exile,  he  lived  in  the  land  of  Nod, 
eastward  of  Eden.  He  had  a  wife,  one  of  the 
unnamed  daughters  or  granddaughters  of 
Adam.  In  early  ages  no  impropriety  existed 
or  was  felt  in  such  a  marriage  (cp.  Gen.  xi. 
27.  29;  XX.  12).  In  his  exile  Cain  built  a 
fortified  hamlet,  and  became  the  progenitor 
of  a  race  which  made  considerable  progress 
in  the  mechanical  arts  (Gen.  iv.  1-25;  1  John 
iii.  12;  Jude  11). 

2.  The  progenitor  of  the  Kenites.  SeeKAiN. 
.'3.  A  village  in   the  mountains  of  Judah 

(Josh.    XV.   57).     Doubtfully   located   at   the 
ruin  Yukin,  3  miles  southeast  of  Hebron. 

Cai'nan,  in  A.  V.  once  Kenan  (1  Chron.  1. 
2),  as  always  in  R.  V.  of  O.  T. 

1.  Son  of  Enos  (Gen.  v.  9-14  ;  1  Chron.  i.  2  ; 
Luke  iii.  37,  38). 

2.  Son  of  Arphaxad,  and  father  of  Shelah 
(Luke  iii.  36,  E.  V.).  The  corresponding 
genealogy  of  Gen.  xi.  12  has  no  Cainan  ;  the 
Septuagint,  however,  has,  and  it  was  from  the 
Septuagint  that  Luke  quotes. 

Ca'lah. 

A  city  of  Assyria,  built  by  Ninirod  or  by 
people  from  his  country,  and  forming  part  of 
that  complex  of  cities  which  collectively  were 
called  by  the  Hebrews  that  great  city  (Gen. 
X.  11,  12;  cp.  Jon.  i.  2).  According  to  Ashur- 
nasirpal  (about  88.5-860  B.  c.)  it  was  built  or 
rebuilt,  embellished,  and  fortified  by  Shal- 
maneser,  who  reigned  about  1300  b.  c.  Early 
in  the  ninth  century  B.  c.  it  had  fallen  into 
decay,  but  was  restored  by  Ashurnasirpal, 
who  erected  a  palace  and  made  the  city  the 
place  of  royal  residence.  Calah  remained 
the  favorite  dwelling  place  of  the  Assyrian 
kings  for  more  than  one  hundred  and  fifty 
years.  Its  ruins,  now  called  Nimrud,  lie 
about  20  miles  south  of  Nineveh. 

Cal'a-mus  [Greek  kalamos,  a  reed,  a  cane]. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  K'neh  bosem, 


reed  of  fragrance,  and  Kaneh.  cane,  reed, 
when  an  odorous  variety  is  intended.  The 
plant  was  sweet  smelling  (Song.  iv.  14),  a  con- 
stituent of  the  anointing  oil  (Ex.  xxx.  23), 
and  used  in  connection  with  .sacrifice  (Is. 
xliii.  24  and  Jer.  vi.  20,  margin  of  R.  V.).  It 
was  brought  from  a  far  country  (Jer.  vi.  20). 
The  Tyrians  obtained  it  apparently  from 
Javan,  the  regions  of  western  Asia  Minor 
and  Greece  (Ezek.  xxvii.  19).  What  came 
from  Europe  was  probably  the  Acorns  atUimus, 
or  common  Sweet  Sedge  of  England,  an  en- 
dogenous plant,  with  a  spadix  and  spathe, 
akin  to  the  Aroids,  but  belonging  to  the  al- 
lied order  of  the  Oroutiacew  or  Orontiads. 
The  rhizome  or  underground  stem  is  aro- 
matic. If  an  Indian  plant  is  permissible, 
then  the  calamus  was  pi-obably  the  Andro- 
'pogon  calatiiits  (tromaticiis,  a  genuine  grass, 
which,  like  its  near  ally,  the  Lemon  Grass, 
A.  sc]i(rnantliii»,  is  highly  scented. 

Cal'col,  in  A.  V.  once  Chalcol  [sustenance, 
maintenance]. 

One  of  three  sons  of  Mahol,  each  of  whom 
was  celebrated  for  wisdom  (1  Kin.  iv.  31  ;  1 
Chron.  ii.  6). 

Cal'dron.     See  Pot. 

Ca'lel). 

1.  Son  of  Hezron,  and  brother  of  Jerahmeel 
(1  Chron.  ii.  18,  42).  A  variant  form  of  the 
name  is  Chelubai  (ver.  9).  In  tribal  registra- 
tion, his  posterity  constituted  a  subdivision 
of  the  house  of  Hezron,  family  of  Perez,  tribe 
of  Judah  (1  Sam.  xxv.  3  ;  1  Chron.  ii.  3,  R.  V., 
seq.).  Among  his  more  immediate  descend- 
ants were  Hur,  Aaron's  associate,  and  Hur's 
grandson,  the  skilled  artificer  Bezalel  (1 
Chron.  ii.  19,  E.  V.,  seq.). 

2.  Son  of  Jephunneh  the  Kenizzite  and  an 
elder  brother  of  Othniel  (Num.  xxxii.  12,  R. 
V. ;  Josh.  XV.  17  ;  1  Chron.  iv.  15,  cp.  13).  He 
was  the  head  of  a  father's  house  of  the  tribe 
of  Judah ;  was  one  of  the  twelve  men  sent 
to  spy  out  the  land  of  Canaan  :  and  one  of 
the  two  members  of  this  commission  who 
kept  their  faith  in  Jehovah,  and  forty  years 
later  participated  in  the  conquest  of  Canaan 
(Num.   xiii.  1,  3,  6 ;  xiv.  6,  24,  38;  Josh.  xiv. 

6,  14;  1  Mac.  ii.  56).  He  was  85  years  old 
when  the  conquest  was  completed  (Josh.  xiv. 

7,  10).  He  was  one  of  tho.se  appointed  by 
Moses  before  the  conquest  to  portion  out  the 
land  by  lot,  and  he  represented,  as  before,  the 
tribe  of  Judah  (Num.  xxxiv.  19).  He  received 
as  his  own  portion  the  town  of  Hebron  (Josh, 
xiv.  14),  from  which  he  expelled  the  Anakim 
by  whom  it  had  been  previously  occupied 
(xv.  13,  14) ;  see  Hebron.  He  had  also  to 
do  with  the  taking  of  the  adjacent  town  of 
Kirjath-sepher,  or  Debir  (15-19).  The  south 
of  Caleb  mentioned  in  1  Sam.  xxx.  14  was 
probably  the  south  of  the  Hebron  district  or 
the  vicinity  of  Debir. 

In  1  Chron.  ii.  49  (cp.  19,  42.  46)  Achsah, 
the  well-known  daughter  of  Caleb  the  spy,  is 
registered  as  daughter  or  descendant  of  Caleb 


Caleb-ephrathali 


104 


Calvary 


the  brother  of  Jerahmeel.  To  judge  from 
this  register,  Caleb  the  son  of  Jephuuneh 
and  father  of  Aehsah  was  descended  from 
the  elder  Caleb,  and  perhaps  his  concubine 
Maacah,  and  hence  through  Hezrou  and 
Perez  from  Judah.  There  are  many  details 
tobeaccounted  for,  and  the  ordinary  difficulty 
of  interpreting  an  ancient  Hebi-ew  genealogy 
is  in  this  case  greatly  increased  by  the  imper- 
fect state  of  the  test  in  1  Chrou.  ii.  and  iv. 
The  general  explanation  probably  is  that  a 
member  of  the  tribe  of  Kenizzites  became 
identified  with  the  Israelites  by  taking  ser- 
vice with  Judah  before  the  Israelites  went 
into  Egypt,  and  he  or  his  descendant  married 
a  woman  descended  from  Judah  through 
Perez.  Various  modifications  of  this  general 
theory  are  possible.  All  genealogical  and  his- 
torical references,  and  the  peculiarities  of. 
the  register  are  satisfied  by  the  assumption 
that  shortly  before  the  exodus  Jephunneh 
the  Kenizzite  married  a  woman  of  the  house- 
hold of  Caleb  the  brother  of  Jerahmeel,  and 
by  her  had  a  firstborn  son  to  whom  was  given 
the  family  name  Caleb.  This  youth  inherited 
the  prerogatives  of  the  family,  and  in  time 
became  head  of  the  house  and  a  chief  of 
Judah.  Jephunneh  the  Kenizzite  took  a 
second  wife,  by  whom  he  had  Othniel  and 
Seraiah.  Hence  they  are  called  sons  of  Kenez 
or  Kenizzites,  and  are  enrolled  loosely  with 
the  tribe  of  Judah,  and  reckoned  like  Je- 
lihunneh  as  Kenizzites. 

Ca'leb-eph'ra-thah,  in  A.V.  Caleb-eph'ra- 
tah. 

The  community  formed  by  the  descendants 
of  Caleb  and  his  wife  Ephrath  (1  {'hron.  ii. 
19,  24).  The  Septuagint  had  a  slightly  ditter- 
ent  text.  If  the  present  Hebrew  text  is  cor- 
rect, and  the  genealogy  is  here  dealing  strictly 
with  persons,  then  Hezron,  the  father  of 
Caleb,  late  in  life  married  a  grand-daughter 
of  Manasseh.  Their  descendants  were  after- 
wards reckoned  through  the  ancestress  with 
the  tribe  of  Manasseh,  but  in  this  register 
they  are  included  with  Hezron's  descendants 
through  Caleb  and  Ephrath.  In  this  con- 
nection it  is  recorded  that  Hezron  died  in 
Caleb-ephrathah  ;  that  is,  either  in  that  pai-t 
of  Goshen  where  the  branch  of  his  family 
known  as  Caleb-ephrath  resided,  or  in  Pal- 
estine, whither  Caleb  had  gone  back  fi-om 
Egypt. 

Calf. 

A  young  bull  or  cow.  Bos  tnunts.  Calves 
were  killed  for  food  (Gen.  xviii.  7)  and  for 
sacrifice  (Heb.  ix.  12,  19).  Aaron  made  a 
golden  calf  that  the  people  might  worship 
Jehovah  under  this  form  (Ex.  xxxii.  4).  He 
seems  to  have  borrowed  the  idea  from  the 
calf  worship  of  Egypt,  where  the  Israelites 
had  often  seen  the  inhabitants  adore  the  bull 
Apis.  On  the  division  of  the  kingdom  Jero- 
boam instituted  the  calf  worship  anew,  set- 
ting uj)  two  calves,  one  at  Bethel  and  one  at 
Dan  (1  Kin.  xii.  29).     He,  too,  had  seen  the 


Apis  worshiped  in  Egypt  while  he  was  a 
refugee  at  the  court  of  Shishak  (1  Kin.  xi. 
40),  but  he  was  influenced  more  by  the  de- 


Image  of  Apis,  the  Sacred  Bull  of  Egypt. 

sire  to  adhere  to  ancient  traditions,  for  in 
recommending  the  calves  he  quoted  the  words 
of  Ex.  xxxii.  4. 

Cal'neh. 

A  city  of  Babylonia,  belonging  to  the  king- 
dom of  Nimrod  (Gen.  x.^  10).  A  town  of  this 
name  is  also  mentioned  by  Amos  (Amos  vi.  2). 
Not  identified.  Jerusalem  Talmud,  Eusebius, 
Jerome,  indicate  Ctesiphou  easfof  the  Tigris. 
Friedrich  Delitzsch  has  suggested  Kuluuu. 

Cal'no. 

A  city,  probably  in  northern  Syria,  which 
the  Assyrians  cited  as  an  example  of  the 
futility  of  ofl'ering  resistance  to  Assyria  (Is. 
X.  9). 

Cal'va-ry  [skull]. 

A  place  close  to  Jerusalem,  but  outside  the 
city  walls,  where  Christ  was  crucified,  and  in 
the  vicinity  of  M'hich  he  was  buried  (Mat. 
xxviii.  11 ;  John  xix.  17,  20,  41 :  Heb.  xiii. 
11-13).  It  appears  to  have  been  a  consjjicu- 
ous  spot  (Mark  xv.  40;  Luke  xxiii.  49),  and 
was  perhaps  near  a  highway  (Mat.  xxvii.  39). 
The  name  is  derived  from  the  Latin  calvaria, 
more  rarely  calvarium.  a  skull  (Luke  xxiii. 
33),  corresponding  to  the  Aramaic  Golgotha 
(Mat.  xxvii.  33;  Mark  xv.  22;  John  xix.  17, 
41).  Jerome  supposed  that  the  name  arose 
from  uncovered  or  unburied  skulls;  others 
have  thought  rather  of  a  place  of  execution. 
The  common  explanation  is  that  the  name 
w'as  due  to  the  cranial  shape  of  the  rock  or 
hillock,  although  the  expression  mount  Cal- 
vary is  modern. 

The  question  of  the  site  of  the  crucifixion 
is  involved  with  that  of  the  location  of  the 
sepulcher.  The  theory  advanced  by  Fergus- 
.son,  that  the  tomb  was  in  the  rock  under  the 
dome  of  the  Mosque  of  Omar,  has  not  ob- 
tained favor.  Two  sites  contend  for  accept- 
ance: 1.  The  church  of  the  Holy  Sepulcher, 
within  the  walls  of  the  modern  city.  2.  The 
hill  in  which  is  Jeremiah's  grotto,  about  250 


Camel 


lOo 


Camp 


j-arils  northeast  of  the  Damascus  gate.  The 
churcli  of  the  Holy  .Seimk-her  lias  aiu-ient 
tradition  iu  its  favor.  Eiisebiiis,  born  in 
Ctesarea  about  a.  d.  2(51,  is  the  earliest  his- 
torian who  jiives  any  information  on  the  sub- 
ject. He  states  that  impious  men  had  cov- 
ered the  seiiulcher  with  earth  and  built  a 
temjile  to  tiie  goddess  Venus  over  it,  and  that 
the  place  had  long  been  given  over  to  forget- 
fulness  and  oblivion.  Constantine  erected  a 
church  where  the  te7nple  of  Venus  stood,  and 
the  site  of  C'onstantine's  building  is  occnjiied 
by  the  present  church  of  the  Holy  Sepulcher. 
Is  this  church  on  ground  that  was  outside  the 
second  wall?  This  question  can  be  decided 
only  by  costly  excavation  to  determine  the 
course  of  the  second  wall. 

The  theory  that  the  hill  above  Jeremiah's 
grotto  marks  the  site  of  Calvary  is  at  present 
in  the  ascendant.  It  was  suggested  by  Otto 
Thenius  some  thirty  or  tV)rty  years  ago,  and 
has  been  adojjted  or  independently  reached 
by  other  scholars,  and  greatly  elaborated. 
This  location  unquestionably  satisfies  all  the 
conditions  of  the  problem.  The  hill  iu  which 
is  Jeremiah's  grotto  admittedly  rises  beyond 
the  course  of  the  second  wall.  The  rounded 
summit  of  the  hill,  and  the  two  hollow  cave 
entrances  beneath,  present  a  striking  resem- 
blance to  a  skull,  perhaps  that  of  an  animal 
rather  than  a  man.  Its  commanding  position 
renders  it  visible  from  a  distance.  Near  it 
was  the  great  highway  to  the  north.  In  the 
neighborhood  are  gardens  and  rock-hewn 
tombs. 

Cam'el  [borrowed  from  Semitic  gamal]. 

The  one-humped  camel,  which  runs  into 
two  well  marked  varieties,  the  camel  prop- 
erly .so  called,  which  is  a  slow-going  draught 
animal  (2  Kin.  viii.  9),  and  the  dromedary, 
which  is  swift  of  foot  (ep.  Is.  Ixvi.  20,  margin 
of  E.  v.).  The  two-humped  Bactrian  camel 
may  be  referred  to  iu  Tobit  ix.  2.  The  camel 
has  been  called  the  ship  of  the  desert,  and 
its  whole  organization  tits  it  to  cross  sandy 


"n^Jtv 


wastes.  It  is  a  ruminating  animal,  but  be- 
longs to  that  aberrant  portion  of  the  Rnmi- 
nantia   in  which,   in   place  of  the   ordinary 


cloven  hoof,  the  foot  is  enveloped  in  a  hard- 
ened skin,  enclosing  the  cushion-like  soles, 
which  can  be  spread  out  sidewise  so  as  to 
adapt  it  to  walk,  without  sinking  deeply,  over 
soft  and  yielding  sand.  Another  adaptation 
is  that  in  the  walls  of  the  paunch  or  lirst 
stomach  there  are  two  collections  of  water 
cells  on  which  the  animal  can  draw  when  no 
other  water  is  procurable.  Yet  another  adapta- 
tion is  its  ability  to  subsist  on  thr;  poorest 
food.  Even  the  hump  is  another  adaptation. 
It  is  a  storehouse  of  food,  and  becomes  larger 
or  smaller  according  as  the  animal  is  in  good 
or  ill  had  condition.  The  camel  is  stupid,  ill- 
tempered,  and  sometimes  vindictive  :  but  its 
passive  obedience  and  power  of  endurance 
render  it  very  valuable.  It  is  not  now  any- 
where found  wild,  nor  has  it  been  known 
wild  in  historical  times.  Abraham  and  Ja(  oh 
had  camels  (Gen.  xii.  16 ;  xxx.  43),  and  so 
had  later  nomads  in  the  south  of  Palestine 
(1  Sam.  xxvii.  9  ;  2  t'hron.  xiv.  15).  The  Ish- 
maelites  who  bought  Joseph  also  had  camels 
(Gen.  xxxvii.  25).  The  camel  was  not,  how- 
ever, so  much  at  home  in  Palestine,  which  is  a 
hilly  country,  as  iu  the  Arabian  and  the  x\fri- 
can  deserts  (Ex.  ix.  3;  Judg.  vi.  5  ;  1  Kin.  x.  2  ; 
1  Chron.  v.  18-21).  But  it  is  still  bred  abund- 
antly on  the  plains  of  Moab  and  in  the  south 
of  Jndfea.  'The  milk  was  used  (cp.  Gen. 
xxxii.  15),  but  the  animal  was  ceremonially 
unclean  (Lev.  xi.  4).  From  its  hair  a  coarse 
cloth  was  woven,  which  w'as  sometimes  made 
into  clothing  (Mar.  iii.  4)  and  used  for  tents. 
The  burden  was  borne  on  the  hump  (Is.  xxx. 
6).  When  the  camel  is  ridden,  a  saddle  is 
commonly  used,  and  sometimes  a  palanquin 
(cp.  Gen.  xxxi.  34).  The  Arabs  commonly 
deck  their  camels'  necks  with  ornaments  (cp. 
Judg.  viii.  21,  26). 

Ca'mon.     See  Kamon. 

Camp. 

The  station  of  an  army  or  other  body  of  peo- 
ple, where  temporary  structures  are  erected 
for  their  accommodation  (Ex.  xiv.  19  ;  1  Sam. 
iv.  5;  xvii.  4;  2  Kin.  vii.  7).  Strict  regula- 
tions were  prescribed  for  the  army  of  Israel 
in  order  to  secure  cleanliness  iu  their  camp 


Camp  of  Dan 

Dan.^sher^'uphtali . 


Camp 

-r 

Bphraifrj 

tfihraim,' 
Monasseh, 


[ilZD 


Moses      Judah 

Aaron  incluiiutf 

AininiSiva   Judah. 
I  fssachar. 

Zebuion. 


Camp  o/ Reuben 


(Deut.  xxiii.  9-14).  The  arrangement  of  the 
camp  of  the  migrating  Hebrew  nation,  which 
was  adopted  for  the  journey  through  the 
w'ilderuess,  is  described  in  Num.  i.  47-ii.  34 ; 
iii.  14-39  ;    cp.  x.  11-28,  and  see  Shittim. 


CampMre 


106 


Canaan 


It  was,  of  course,  absolutely  regular  only 
when  the  people  were  encamped  on  a  broad, 
level  plain.  For  the  encampments  of  Israel 
during  the  journey  through  the  wilderness, 
see  Wilderness  of  the  Wandering. 

Cam'phire  [old  form  of  English  Camphor ; 
Greek  kaphoura,  Arabic  kafur ;  all  from 
Malay  kapnr,  chalk]. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  Kopher 
in  Song  i.  14 ;  iv.  13.  The  R.  V.  renders  it 
henna. 

Ca'na  [place  of  reeds]. 

A  village,  more  fully  named  Cana  of  Gali- 
lee, the  .scene  of  our  Lord's  first  recorded 
miracle,  the  transformation  of  water  into 
wine  (John  ii.  1,  11 ;  iv.  46).  Nathanael  the 
apostle  was  of  Cana  (xxi.  2).  Possibly  the 
words  "  of  Galilee  "  are  added  to  this  Cana  to 
distinguish  it  from  another  in  Ccelesyria 
{Antiq.  xv.  5,  1).  Josephus  also  mentions 
Cana  of  Galilee  (Life  16,  71).  The  tradi- 
tional site  of  the  N.  T.  Cana  is  at  Kefr  Keuna, 
a  village  about  3?  miles  northeast  of  Nazareth, 
on  the  road  to  Tiberias.  Robinson  advocated 
the  view,  held  by  some  inquirers  in  the 
Crusading  period,  that  Cana  of  Galilee  was 
at  Kana-el-Jelil,  which  is  the  old  name 
scarcely  changed,  about  8  miles  north  by 
east  of  Nazareth.  It  is  a  miserable  village 
on  a  nearly  isolated  hill,  but  has  many  an- 
cient cisterns  in  its  vicinity.  The  Palestine 
explorers,  who  call  the  place  Khurbet  Kana, 
revert  to  the  ti-aditional  view. 

Ca'naan,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  twice  Cha'naan 
[low,  lowland]. 

1.  Son  of  Ham  and  grandson  of  Noah  ;  or 
better,  the  descendants  of  Ham  who  occupied 
Canaan  and  took  their  name  from  that  coun- 
try, and  in  whom  the  low  traits  manifested  by 
their  progenitor  were  .strongly  marked  (Gen. 
X.  6, 1.5  ;  Hos.  xii.  7,  margin).  The  continuance 
of  Ham's  character  in  a  branch  of  his  descend- 
ants had  been  prophesied  by  Noah,  and  the 
consequence  of  yielding  to  the  bestial  im- 
pulses had  been  foretold  (Gen.  ix.  18-27).  In 
this  passage  the  progenitor  of  the  Canaanites 
is  called  Canaan  proleptically  by  a  late  trans- 
mitter of  the  venerable  prophecy.  Wishing 
to  indicate  the  forefather  of  the  Canaanites 
among  the  sons  of  Ham,  the  narrator  gives 
to  their  ancestor  the  name  borne  by  his  de- 
scendants, and  by  which  he  had  come  to  be 
familiarly  known,  irrespective  of  the  ques- 
tion whether  it  was  his  personal  name  or  not. 

2.  A  name  probably  given  at  first  only  to 
the  low-lying  coast  line  of  Palestine  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  the  neighboring  hill  country 
(Num.  xiii.  29;  Josh.  xi.  3).  Afterwards  the 
name  Canaan  was  extended  first  to  the  Jor- 
dan valley,  and  then  to  the  whole  of  Pales- 
tine west  of  the  river,  and  became  one  of  the 
most  common  designations  of  the  country  in- 
habited by  the  Hebrews,  though  what  they 
occupied  was  really  the  liighland  portion  of 
Palestine  and  the  Jordan  valley,  with  little 
of  the  coast  line  (Gen.  xi.  31 ;  Num.  xiii.  2). 


The  language  of  Canaan  after  the  conquest 
of  the  country  by  the  Israelites  was  Hebrew, 
the  .speech  of  the  people  of  God  (Is.  xix.  18). 

The  Hebrews  conquered  Canaan  under  the 
leadership  of  Joshua  after  the  death  of  Moses. 
The  plan  of  the  campaign  included  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  fixed  camp  at  Gilgal.  The  site 
was  on  the  east  of  Jericho,  in  the  plain  (Josh, 
iv.  19;  V.  10).  From  it  the  Israelites  uent  up 
to  Ai  and  Gibeon  (vii.  3  ;  viii.  1, 3  ;  x.  9).  The 
advantages  of  this  location  for  the  camp  of 
Israel  were  great.  At  Gilgal  Joshua  had  no 
enemies  in  his  rear,  had  water  in  abundance 
for  the  people,  could  draw  supplies  from  the 
two  tribes  and  a  half  which  had  settled  in 
the  country  east  of  the  Jordan,  and  had  a 
safe  place  for  hoarding  spoil.  The  charac- 
teristic objects  in  this  camp  were  the  taber- 
nacle (Josh.  vi.  24 ;  cp.  ix.  23 ;  xviii.  1 ;  xxii.  19) ; 
the  ark  (iii.  17;  vi.  11,  etc. ;  vii.  6) ;  the  altar 
(ix.  27  ;  cp.  xxii.  19,  28,  29) ;  Eleazar  the  priest 
(xiv.  1 ;  cp.  6),  besides  other  priests  (vi.  6,  12, 
etc. ;  viii.  33) ;  twelve  stones  which  had  been 
taken  out  of  the  bed  of  the  Jordan  and  set 
up  as  a  memorial  of  the  passage  of  the  river 
(iv.  20).  Joshua's  plan  further  included  a. 
preliminary  campaign  for  the  overthrow  of 
the  enemies  which  threatened  the  camp.  He 
took  Jericho,  the  outpost  of  Canaan,  the  mis- 
tress of  the  valley.  Then  he  marched  into 
the  mountain,  directly  to  the  west,  and  over- 
threw Ai.  This  town  lay  at  the  head  of  the 
valley  which  emerged  opposite  Gilgal,  and 
from  it  troops  might  be  poured  down  against 
the  camp.  After  this  preliminary  campaign 
he  fulfilled  the  injunction  of  Moses  to  erect 
an  altar  on  Ebal  (Josh.  viii.  30-3.5 ;  Deut. 
xxvii.).  According  to  .Tosephus,  this  solem- 
nity was  performed  after  the  conquest  of  the 
entire  country  (Antiq.  v.  1,  19).  At  this 
juncture  ambassadors  from  the  town  of 
Gibeon  appeared,  with  whom  Joshua  made  a 
treaty  without  asking  counsel  of  the  Lord. 
It  was  an  unfortunate  step,  as  will  be  shown 
presently.  Having  obtained  secure  foothold 
in  the  country,  Joshua  proceeded  to  conquer 
Canaan  in  two  campaigns.  The  alliance  of 
the  five  kings  determined  the  southern  expe- 
dition (Josh.  X.).  The  king  of  Jerusalem 
summoned  the  kings  of  Hebron,  Lachish, 
Eglon,  and  Jarmuth  to  war  against  Gibeon  ; 
and  Joshua  was  obliged  to  help  those  with 
whom  he  was  in  treaty.  The  five  kings  were 
routed,  and  fied  down  the  pass  of  Beth-horon. 
Following  up  the  victory,  Joshua  captured 
Makkedah,  in  or  hard  by  the  maritime  plain, 
and  pitched  a  temporary  camp  there ;  took 
Libnah,  which  was  likewise  in  the  plain ; 
Lachish,  where  the  king  of  Gezer  also  was 
defeated ;  Eglon.  where  another  temporary 
camp  was  fixed  ;  and  Hebron.  From  Hebron 
he  turned  and  smote  Debir,  in  the  hill  coun- 
try. Thus  the  entire  region  included  be- 
tween Gibeon,  Gaza,  and  Kadesh-barnea  was 
smitten,  and  Joshua  returned  to  Gilgal. 

It  was  during  this  campaign  that  Joshua 
bade  the  sun  to  stand  still.     This  event  oc- 


Canaan 


107 


Canaan 


curved  ilurin}i::i  niiraclc  period  ;  see  Miracle. 
It  followed  the  miracle  of  the  Jordan  allow- 
ing a  passiige  for  the  Israelites.  But  it  is  cited 
from  the  book  of  Jashar,  which  contained 
poems  accompanied  by  remarks  in  prose.  If 
X.  12-15  are  ([uoted  from  this  book,  the  ([ues- 
tion  arises  whether  tlie  passage  should  not  be 
interpreted  on  the  principles  of  poetr.v,  and 
understood  to  mean  that  Joshua  apostro- 
phized the  sun  and  moon  for  their  ell'ect 
upon  the  army,  not  to  work  a  miracle,  and 
that  before  the  light  of  day  tailed  the  people 
had  avenged  themselves  of  their  enemies. 

Having  conquered  the  central  region  and 
the  south,  Joshua  determined  as  a  matter  of 
expediency,  or  under  compulsion  of  the  north- 
f  rn  confederacy,  to  neglect  the  inconsidera- 
ble towns  on  the  coast  north  of  the  Philistine 
country,  and  to  strike  at  the  populous  and 
powerful  north  (Josh.  xi.).  With  this  end  in 
view,  he  undertook  a  northern  campaign. 
The  king  of  Hazor  was  head  of  a  confed- 
eracy of  petty  monarchs,  and  on  hearing  of 
the  Israelitish  victories  in  the  south  he  sum- 
moned the  remaining  kings  of  the  country 
to  a  united  attempt  to  crush  Joshua.  The 
allied  armies  met  at  the  waters  of  Merom. 
Joshua  had  reached  the  same  neighborhood, 
and  he  attacked  them.  He  routed  them,  pur- 
sued the  fugitives  as  far  as  Sidon  toward  the 
northwest  and  eastward  to  Mizpeh.  He  then 
returned,  and  captured  and  destroyed  the 
town  of  Hazor  and  the  capitals  of  the  other 
petty  kingdoms  which  had  been  in  alliance. 
By  these  campaigns  the  power  of  the  Canaan- 
ites  to  resist  was  broken.  In  xi.  16-xii.  24  a 
summary  of  the  conquest  is  given. 

The  time  occupied  in  the  conquest  of  Ca- 
naan was  long,  because  not  a  city  made  peace 
with  Israel  save  the  five  cities  of  the  Gibeon- 
ites  (xi.  18,  19).  It  may  be  calculated  with  a 
considerable  degree  of  accuracy.  From  the 
sending  forth  of  the  spies  in  the  second  year 
(cp.  Num.  X.  11;  xiii.  20;  Deut.  i.  2)  to  the 
time  of  assigning  the  reconquest  of  Hebron 
to  Caleb  when  the  land  was  about  to  be  dis- 
tributed was  (Josh.  xiv.  7,  10)  45  years;  from 
the  sending  forth  of  the  spies  to  the  crossing 
of  the  Zered  was  (Deut.  ii.  14)  38  years; 
leaving  for  the  conquest  of  the  country,  both 
east  and  west  of  the  Jordan,  about  6  or  7  years. 
From  this  is  to  be  deducted  the  time  con- 
sumed in  the  conquest  of  the  eastern  coun- 
try and  by  the  events  at  Shittim.  The  death 
of  Aaron  (Xum.  xxxiii.  38)  occurred  in  the 
40th  year,  5th  month,  1st  day,  and  the  cross- 
ing of  Jordan  (Josh.  iv.  19)  in  1st  month,  10th 
day  ;  leaving  for  the  conquest  of  the  country 
of  Sihon  and  Og,  and  for  the  events  at  Shit- 
tim, nearly  8  months,  9  days,  of  which  period 
the  events  at  Shittim  occupied  about  two 
months  (cp.  Deut.  i.  3,  4,  with  Josh.  iv.  19; 
Deut.  xxxiv.  8 ;  Josh.  ii.  22.  etc.  ;  Ant.  iv.  8, 
49  and  iv.  8,  1),  leaving  for  the  conquest  of 
western  Palestine  5  or  6  years.     Josephus  as- 

I  signs  5  years  to  this  conquest  (Antiq.  v.  1, 19). 

1       Three  political  blunders  were  committed 


by  .Joshua  :  his  making  a  treaty  with  the 
(ribeonites;  allowing  the  Jebusites  to  hold 
Jerusalem;  and  failure  to  dis])ossess  the 
Philistines  and  control  the  country  to  the 
sea.  A  study  of  the  map  will  show  that,  as 
a  result  of  these  mistakes,  Judah  and  Simeon 
were  isolated  from  the  ri'st  of  the  nation. 
The  main  road  from  Judah  to  the  north  was 
commanded  by  the  Jebusite  stronghold  at 
Jerusalem,  and  was  skirted  for  10  miles  on 
the  west  by  the  settlements  of  the  ftibeonites. 
Between  Jerusalem  and  .Jericho  on  the  east 
was  a  tract  of  wild,  rocky,  uninhabited  moun- 
tain land  crossed  east  and  west  by  impassable 
gorges.  From  Jerusalem  to  the  Mediterranean 
Sea  a  strip  of  country  stretched,  which  was 
occupied  by  foreigners :  first  Gibeonites,  next 
Cauaanites  in  Dan,  then  Philistines  as  far  as 
the  sea.  The  consequences  of  this  isolation 
of  Judah  and  Simeon  were  serious,  distinctly 
affecting  the  course  of  history  in  the  years 
that  followed. 

Was  the  extermination  of  the  Canaanites 
by  the  Israelites  a  justifiable  act?  The  mere 
matter  of  their  dispossessing  the  Canaanites 
presents  no  moral  difficulties.  This  procedure 
accorded  with  the  spirit  of  the  age.  The  Is- 
raelites doubtless  had  as  much  right  to  Ca- 
naan as  had  the  inhabitants  whom  they  drove 
out.  They  despoiled  despoilers.  Nor  does 
the  manner  of  warfare  present  moral  diffi- 
culties, for  the  conduct  of  the  Hebrews  in 
war  compares  favorably  with  the  practices 
of  the  time.  Judged  by  the  standards  of 
their  own  age,  they  were  not  bloodthirsty  or 
cruel.  The  Assyrians  have  pictured  their  own 
wars.  It  was  not  infrequent  for  them  to  de- 
capitate the  inhabitants  of  captured  cities, 
and  pile  the  heads  in  heaps;  to  crucify  or 
impale  prisoners,  pierce  their  eyeballs  with  a 
spear,  or  fiay  them  alive.  In  the  battles  of 
Israel  with  the  Canaanites  there  is  record  of 
death,  but  not  of  torture.  The  moral  diffi- 
culty connected  with  the  extermination  of 
the  Canaanites  is  that  God  commanded  it. 
God's  character  is  involved.  But  it  is  to  be 
remembered  that  God  had  a  twofold  end  in 
view  in  the  utter  extermination  by  death  and 
expulsion  which  he  commanded.  It  was 
punitive  (Gen.  xv.  16;  Lev.  xviii.  25;  Deut. 
ix.  3,  4;  xviii.  12)  and  preventive  (Ex.  xxiii. 
31-.33  ;  xxxiv.  12-16 ;  Deut.  vii.  2-4).  It  was 
to  punish  the  Canaanites  for  their  outrageous 
wickedness,  and  to  prevent  them  from  con- 
taminating the  people  of  God.  It  is  not  as- 
serted that  the  Canaanites  were  sinners  above 
all  men  that  ever  lived.  Their  personal  morals 
were  perhaps  not  worse  than  those  of  other 
heathen  as  described  in  Eom.  i.  The  Canaan- 
ites were  idolaters,  they  indulged  in  shame- 
ful and  abominable  vice,  they  went  beyond 
other  nations  in  practicing  human  sacrifice. 
It  is  appointed  unto  all  men  to  die.  God 
holds  nations  as  well  as  individuals  responsi- 
ble, and  deals  with  them  accordingly.  He 
doomed  the  nations  of  Canaan  to  extermina- 
tion as  a  punishment  for  their  wickedness, 


Canaan 


108 


Canaanite 


and  to  prevent  them  from  seducing  the  people 
of  God.  He  had  exterminated  tlie  wicked 
race  of  men  in  the  days  of  Noah  by  the 
flood ;  he  had  swept  away  the  iniquitous 
cities  of  the  phiin  by  an  eruption,  it  wouUi 
seem,  of  burning  naphtlia ;  he  had  over- 
thrown Pharaoh  and  his  host  in  the  Eed 
Sea  ;  he  had  destroyed  Korah  and  his  rebel- 
lious crew  by  an  earthquake  and  by  fire. 
Now,  instead  of  using  the  forces  of  nature  to 
effect  his  punitory  ends,  he  employed  the 
Israelites  as  the  ministers  of  his  justice;  as 
the  public  executioner,  employed  by  the  civil 
tribunal,  is  the  minister  of  human  justice. 
This  truth  was  taught  to  the  Israelites.  They 
were  informed  that  they  were  the  instru-- 
ments  of  divine  justice.  For  these  reasons 
the  extermination  of  the  Canaanites  by  the 
Israelites  was  just:  the  employment  of  the 
Israelites  for  the  purpose  was  right ;  and  in 
connection  with  the  righteous  judgment  was 
an  intention  to  benefit  the  world.  The  fail- 
ure of  the  Israelites  to  carry  out  God's  com- 
mand fully  was  one  of  the  great  blunders 
which  they  committed,  as  well  as  a  sin,  and 
it  resulted  in  lasting  injury  to  the  nation. 

The  distril)ution  of  the  conquered  territory 
on  the  west  of  the  Jordan  was  made  partly  at 
Gilgal  and  partly  at  Shiloh,  whither  the  taber- 
nacle was  removed  (Josh.  xiv.  1,  2,  6-xviii.  1, 
2).  It  was  conducted  by  Eleazar  the  priest, 
Joshua,  and  ten  heads  of  fathers'  houses  (xvii. 
4  ;  cp.  Num.  xxxiv.  17,  18),  and  was  made  by 
lot  (Josh,  xviii.  6).  The  law  to  govern  the  dis- 
tribution had  already  been  enacted  ;  namely, 
to  the  more  numerous  a  larger  inheritance, 
and  wheresoever  the  lot  falleth  to  any  man 
(Num.  XX  vi. 52-56 ;  xxxiii.  54).  The  rabbis  state 
that  two  urns  were  used  ;  in  one  were  placed 
tickets  with  the  names  of  the  tribes,  and  in 
the  other  were  tickets  with  the  names  of  tlie 
districts.  A  tribe  was  drawn  and  the  district 
which  it  should  possess.  The  size  of  the  ter- 
ritory was  then  determined  by  the  populous- 
ness  of  the  tribe.  Probably,  however,  the 
commission  selected  a  district  without  nar- 
rowly defining  its  boundaries,  and  merely  de- 
termined by  lot  what  tribe  should  possess  it; 
for — 1.  Compare  the  form  of  the  question  in 
Judg.  i.  1.  2.  This  theory  satisfies  Num. 
xxxiii.  54.  3.  Compare  Josh,  xviii.  1-10, 
where  the  land  is  first  described  in  seven  por- 
tions, and  Joshua  then  cast  lots  for  the  tribes. 
4.  This  tbeory  also  satisfies  Josh.  xix.  1,  etc., 
where  it  is  stated  that  at  the  final  allot- 
ment the  second  lot  came  out  for  Simeon,  the 
third  for  Zebulun,  etc.  5.  The  districts  were 
assigned  for  occupation,  not  as  though  de- 
termined by  lot,  but  in  regular  order,  build- 
ing up  the  nation  compactly  as  the  allotment 
proceeded,  and  notleajjing  hither  and  thither. 
6.  Much  was  evidently  left  to  the  discretion 
of  the  supervisors,  (^aleb  must  have  Hebron 
whether  the  lot  of  the  main  body  of  the  tribe 
of  Judah  allowed  them  to  settle  in  that  neigh- 
borhood or  not.  Jacob's  last  wishes  would  ))e 
observed  so  far  as  the  lot  permitted  (Gen. 


xlix.),  though  the  lot  did  not  permit  Zebulun 
to  possess  the  seacoast,  but  his  possession  was 
doubtless  adjusted  as  nearly  as  possible  to  the 
patriarch's  desire.  Mistakes  were  made  and 
rectified.  Before  the  allotment  was  com- 
pleted— and  it  was  not  carried  out  in  a  day 
or  a  week — Judah  reported  that  it  had  been 
granted  too  much  territory.  Tlie  surplus  was 
accordingly  added  to  the  undistributed  do- 
main. The  children  of  Joseph,  on  the  other 
hand,  informed  Joshua  that  they  had  re- 
ceived too  little  land,  and  they  asked  and  re- 
ceived more.  It  was  intended,  in  accordance 
with  Jacob's  wish,  that  Ephraim  and  Mauas- 
seh  should  dwell  side  by  side  :  lience  the  lot 
was  not  cast  for  them  separately,  but  for  them 
unitedly  as  the  children  of  Joseph  (Josh.  xvi. 
1,  4).  In  this  manner  the  nation  was  com- 
pactly built  up,  the  territory  which  lay  near- 
est the  camp  being  distributed  first. 

1.  Southern  hill  coun-    To   Judah,  4th  son  of 

try.  Leah. 

2.  Central  hill  countrv.    To  Joseph,  firstborn  of 

Rachel. 

3.  Intervening         hill    To  Benjamin,  2d  son  of 

country.  Rachel. 

4.  Part  of"  the  surplus    To  Simeon,  2d  son  of 

of  the  southern  hill       Leah. 
country  which  Ju- 
dah gave  back. 
5, 6.  Territory  bounding  (To  Zebulon,  6th  son  of 
central  hill  country  ■(     Leah, 
on  the  north.         "   (To  Issachar,  5th  son  of 
Leah. 

7.  Adjoining  seacoast.      To  Asher,    2d    son    of 

Leah's  maid. 

8.  Territory    north    of    To  Naphtali,  2d  son  of 

Issachar  and  Zebvi-       Rachel's  maid. 
Ion. 

9.  Remaining    part    of    To  Dan,  1st  son  of  Ra- 

Judah's  surplus.  chers  maid. 

Reuben,  firstborn  of  Leah,  Gad,  son  of 
Leah's  maid,  and  half  tribe  of  Manasseli, 
descendant  of  Rachel,  had  obtained  lands 
east  of  the  Jordan.  These  with  Levi,  son  of 
Leah,  did  not  participate  in  the  distribution. 

Ca'naan-ite. 

1.  An  inhabitant  of  Canaan,  especially  one 
of  Hainitic  blood,  although  persons  and  tribes 
incorporated  with  the  descendants  of  Ham  in 
this  region  acquired  the  name.  According  as 
the  geographical  designation  Canaan  is  used 
in  its  broader  or  its  narrower  scn.se,  the  word 
Canaanite  has  a  broader  or  narrower  signifi- 
cation. In  the  narrow  sense,  the  Canaanites 
were  the  people  of  the  coast  and  valleys 
(Gen.  XV.  21;  Josh.  ix.  1).  In  the  broad 
sense,  they  were  the  tribes  <>numerated  in 
Gen.  X.  15-19.  The  Canaanites  were  doomed 
to  destruction  on  account  of  their  sins  (Deut. 
XX.  17).  But  the  Israelites  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent failed  to  carry  out  the  injunction.  They 
in  many  cases  contented  themselves  with 
putting  the  Canaanite  inhabitants  to  tribute 
(Judg.  i.  27-36).  Solomon  levied  on  them  a 
tribute  of  bondservice  ;  in  other  words,  made 
them  perform  forced  labor  (1  Kin.  ix.  20.  21). 
The  Canaanites  eventually  devoted    them- 


PALESTINE 

lis  (lividoil  iiiiioii!;  tlio 

Twelve  Tribes. 

SCALE  OF  MIIES. 


Keforciicc  to  Culuriiii;, 

Showing  ElfVtttiuns  aud  Dciiressiuus. 
f       -ilBuluw  Sen  Ltvcl 

1  I  Sea  Level  to  500  ft.  atiove 

I         1 500  ft.  to  1 .000  ft.  aliove 

I  1 1 .000  ft  .  to  ■-'  .0110  It.    •  • 

I    .    I  a.ooo  ft .  to  :),ooo  ft.  " 

I        "1 3.000  n.  to  5.000  ft.    " 
I         jl  .\bove  5,000  ft. 


I.oriL'itii.te      3^^        Ka^i 


3.'.  :in  '  firccnwioli 


Canaanitess 


i09 


Cane 


selves  extensively  to  trade,  aud  their  name 
became  syuonyinous  with  trader  (Is.  ssiii.  8). 

2.  A  ineuilier  of  a  Jewish  patriotic  party. 
See  Canax.kax. 

Ca'naan-i'tess. 

A  woman  of  t'aiiaan  (1  fbrou.  ii.  3). 

Ca-na-nse'an,  in  A.  V.  Canaanite  [translit- 
eration ol'  the  Aruniaic  word  kait'ihi,  zeall. 

A  member  oCa  Jewish  patriotic  party,  which 

.  was  also  known   hy  the  syiiunynious  (ireek 

name  Zealot  ((j.  v.i.     8imou  the  apostle  bore 

this  epithet  to  distinguish  him  from  Simon 

Peter  (Mat.  x.  4;  ep.  Luke  vi.  13,  K.  V.). 

Can'da-ce. 

A  (jueen  of  Ethiopia,  (.  e.,  probably  of 
Meroe,  in  southern  Nubia.  A  eunuch  of 
great  authority  at  her  court,  when  returning 
home  from  a  visit  to  Jerusalem,  where  he  had 
gone  to  worsliip.  was  converted  to  C'liristiau- 
ity  through  the  instrumentality  (if  Philip  the 
evangelist  (Acts  viii.  26-39).  Strabo,  Dion 
(.'assius,  and  Pliny,  all  concur  in  stating  that 
Meroe  in  the  first  century  of  the  Christian 
era  was  governed  by  a  succession  of  queens, 
each  called  Canrlace. 

Candle.    See  Lamp. 


solid  gold,  and  it  supported  seven  lamps.  It 
stood  on  the  south  side  of  the  sanctuarv  (Ex. 
XXV.  31-40;  xl.  24;  Lev.  xxiv.  2-4).  '  Pure 
olive  oil  was  u.sed  in  the  lamps,  and  the  light 
burned  from  evening  to  nnjrning  (Ex.  xxvii. 
20,  21  :  XXX.  7,  8  :  1  Sam.  iii.  3).  According  to 
Jo.sei)hus,  three  of  the  lamps  were  allowed  to 
burn  by  day  (Antiij.  iii.  f<,  3).  This  continuous 
burning  api>arently  symbolized  the  uninter- 
rupted worshii),  even  by  night,  and  the  unceas- 
ing emission  of  light  liy  the  peojile  of  (iod  (cj). 
Zech.  iv.).  For  the  temjile  Solomon  made  ten 
candlesticks,  five  for  the  right  and  live  for  the 
left  of  the  oracle  (1  Kiu.  vii.  49;  2  Chrou.  iv. 
7).  They  were  carried  away  to  Babylon  (Jer. 
Iii.  19).  Zerubbabel  returned  to  the  earlier  ar- 
rangement, and  had  but  a  single  candlestick  ; 
this  was  carried  oti'  by  Antiochus  Epiphanes 
(1  Mac.  i.  21).  Being  replaced  (iv.  49),  it  con- 
tinued till  the  cajjture  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus, 
when  it  was  carried  oQ'  to  Kome,  figured  in 
Titus"  triumjth,  and  was  sculptured  on  his 
arch  (War  vii.  5,  5). 

Cane  [from  Hebrew  kaneh,  a  reed]. 
The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  Kaneh 
in  Is.  xliii.  24  and  Jer.  vi.  20.     In  both  places 


The  Seven-branched  Candlestick  of  Herod's  Temple.    {From  the  Arch  of  Titus.) 


Can'dle-stick. 

A  stand  for  a  candle.  That  in  the  taber- 
nacle was  for  lamps.  It  consisted  of  a  base 
and  a  shaft  with  six  branches,  beaten  out  of 


on  the  margin  of  the  R.  V.  it  is  rendered 
calamus,  and  so  it  is  elsewhere  translated  in 
both  versions,  where  a  specific  odorous  cane 
is  intended. 


Cankerworm 


110 


Canon 


Can'ker-worm. 

The  reudering  of  the  Hebrew  Yelek  in  Joel 
and  Nahum,  and  also  in  R.  V.  of  Ps.  cv.  34 
and  JtT.  li.  27.  In  the  two  latter  passages  A. 
y.  has  caterpillar.  It  is  a  winged  insect  (Nah. 
iii.  16,  E.  v.),  rough  (Jer.  li.  27),  and  very  de- 
structive to  growing  crops.  As  it  is  men- 
tioned with  the  typical  locust  (Joel  i.  4  ;  Nah. 
iii.  15),  which  it  resembles  also  in  the  num- 
bers in  which  it  appears  (Joel  ii.  25),  it  is  prob- 
ably a  locust  of  some  species  or  in  some  stage 
of  development. 

Can'neh. 

A  place,  evidently  in  Mesopotamia,  per- 
haps the  same  as  Calueh  (Ezek.  xxvii.  23). 

Can'on  [reed,  cane]. 

The  meaning  of  the  word  was  extended  to 
denote  :  (1)  any  straight  rod  or  bar,  such  as  a 
rod  or  level  used  by  masons  in  building  ;  (2) 
figuratively,  anything  which  serves  to  regu- 
late or  determine  other  things,  especially 
classical  books  ;  a  guide  or  model  (Gal.  vi. 
16  ;  Phil.  iii.  16)  ;  (3)  a  type  of  Christian  doc- 
trine, the  orthodox  as  opposed  to  the  hetero- 
dox ;  (4)  the  Scriptures  viewed  as  a  rule  of 
faith  and  conduct.  The  word  is  Greek.  It 
was  first  used  in  this  fourth  sense  by  the 
early  fathers,  but  the  idea  denoted  was  an- 
cient. A  book  entitled  to  a  place  in  the  Bible 
is  called  a  canonical  book,  one  not  so  entitled 
an  uncanonical  book,  and  the  title  itself 
canonicity. 

The  Old  Testament  Canon.  Authorita- 
tive literature  grew  up  by  degrees  and  was 
carefully  preserved.  The  ten  commandments, 
written  on  tables  of  stone,  were  deposited  in 
tlie  ark  (Ex.  xl.  20).  The  book  of  the  law, 
written  by  Moses,  was  put  by  the  side  of  the 
ark  (Deut.  xxxi.  24-26).  Joshua  added  to 
the  collection  what  he  wrote  (Josh.  xxiv.  26). 
Samuel  wrote  the  manner  of  the  kingdom  in 
a  book,  and  laid  it  up  before  the  Lord  (1  Sam. 
X.  25).  In  the  days  of  Josiah  the  book  of  the 
law  of  the  Lord,  the  well  known  book,  was 
found  in  the  temple  and  recognized  by  king, 
priests,  prophets,  and  people,  as  authorita- 
tive and  ancient  (2  Kin.  xxii.  8-20).  Copies 
of  the  law  were  made  (Deut.  xvii.  18-20). 
Prophets  committed  their  words  to  writing 
{e.  g.  Jer.  xxxvi.  32),  and  they  were  acquainted 
with  each  other's  writings  and  quoted  them  as 
authority  (Is.  ii.  2-4  with  Mic.  iv.  1-3).  The 
law  and  the  words  of  the  prophets  were 
recognized  as  authoritative,  inspired  by  the 
Spirit  of  God,  and  jealously  guarded  by  Je- 
hovah (Zech.  i.  4  ;  vii.  7,  12). 

The  law  of  ]\Ioses,  comprising  the  five  books 
of  Moses,  circulated  as  a  distinct  portion  of 
the  .sacred  literature  in  the  time  of  Ezra.  It 
was  in  Ezra's  hand  (Ezra  vii.  14),  and  he  was 
a  ready  scribe  in  it  (6,  11).  At  the  request 
of  the  people,  he  read  the  book  publicly  to 
them  (Neh.  viii.  1,  5,  8).  About  this  time  also, 
before  the  schism  between  the  Jews  and 
Samaritans  had  become  final,  the  Pentateuch 
was  taken  to  Samaria.     The  arrangement  of 


the  minor  prophets  into  a  group  of  twelve  is 
attested  by  Jesus,  son  of  Sirach,  as  in  vogue 
by  tlie  year  200  B.  c.  (Ecclus.  xlix.  10).  His 
language  further  suggests  the  great  group  of 
books — Joshua,  Judges,  Samuel,  Kings,  Isaiah, 
Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  and  the  Twelve  (xlvi.- 
xlix.) — which  constitute  the  second  division 
of  the  Hebrew  canon.  The  existence  of  the 
threefold  division  of  all  the  Scriptures  into 
"the  law,  the  prophets,  and  the  others  that 
have  followed  in  their  steps,"  or  "the  law, 
the  prophets,  and  the  other  books,"  or,  "the 
law,  the  prophecies,  and  the  rest  of  the 
books,"  is  attested  as  early  as  the  year  132 
B.  c,  and  the  exi.stence  of  a  Greek  version 
of  them  at  the  same  time ;  for  the  grandson 
of  Jesus,  son  of  Sirach,  states  these  things 
(Ecclus.  prologue).  Reference  is  made  in  a 
passage  which  dates  from  about  100  b.  c.  to 
"the  sacred  books  which  are  now  in  our 
hands"  (1  Mac.  xii.  9).  Philo  Judseus,  who 
was  born  at  Alexandria  in  20  b.  c,  and  died 
there  in  the  reign  of  Claudius,  had  the  pres- 
ent canon,  and  quotes  from  nearly  all  the 
books  while  he  cites  nothing  from  the  Apoc- 
rypha. 

The  N.  T.  refers  to  "the  Scriptures'"  a's 
a  body  of  authoritative  writings  (Mat.  xxi. 
42 ;  xxvi.  56  ;  Mark  xiv.  49 ;  John  x.  35  ;  2 
Tim.  iii.  16),  as  holy  (Rom.  i.  2 ;  2  Tim.  iii. 
15),  and  as  the  oracles  of  God  (Rom.  iii.  2 ; 
Heb.  V.  12  ;  1  Pet.  iv.  11)  ;  mentions  a  three- 
fold division  into  "  the  law  of  Moses,  and  the 
prophets,  and  the  psalms"  (Luke  xxiv.  44);  and 
quotes  from  or  refers  to  all  the  books  except 
Obadiah  and  Nahum,  Ezra  and  Nehemiali, 
Esther,  Song  of  Songs,  and  Ecclesiastes.  Jo- 
sephus,  a  contemporary  of  the  apostle  Paul, 
writing  about  A.  d.  100,  and  speaking  for 
his  nation,  says:  "We  have  but  twenty- 
two  [books],  containing  the  history  of  all 
time,  books  that  are  justly  believed  in," 
or,  according  to  the  usual  reading,  "be- 
lieved to  be  divine,"  and  he  speaks  in  the 
strongest  terms  of  the  exclusive  authority 
of  these  writings,  continuing:  "From  the 
days  of  Artaxerxes  to  our  own  times  every 
event  has  indeed  been  recorded  ;  but  these 
recent  records  have  not  been  deemed  worthy 
of  equal  credit  with  those  which  preceded 
them,  on  account  of  the  failure  of  the  exact 
succession  of  the  prophets.  There  is  i)ractical 
proof  of  the  spirit  in  which  we  treat  our 
Scriptures;  for  although  so  great  an  interval 
of  time  has  now  passed,  not  a  soul  has  ven- 
tured either  to  add  or  to  remove  or  to  alter  a 
syllable,  and  it  is  the  instinct  of  every  Jew, 
from  the  day  of  his  birth,  to  consider  these 
Scriptures  as  the  teaching  of  God,  and  to 
abide  by  them  and,  if  need  be,  clieerfully  to 
lay  down  his  life  in  their  behalf"  (against 
Apion,  i.  8).  Josei)hus  states  the  contents  of 
Scripture  under  three  heads:  (1)  "Five  be- 
long to  Moses,  which  contain  his  laws  and 
the  traditions  of  the  origin  of  mankind  till 
his  death."  (2)  "From  the  death  of  Moses 
to  Artaxerxes  the  prophets  who  were  after 


Canon 


111 


Canon 


Moses  wrote  down  what  was  done  in  their 
time  in  thirteen  books."  Joscphus  followed 
the  arran^ienient  of  the  Sei)tua>;int  probably, 
and  the  enumeration  of  the  Alexandrians.  The 
thirteen  books  are  jirobably  Joshua,  Judges 
with  Ruth,  Samuel.  Kings,  Chronieles,  Ezra 
with  Nehcmiali,  Esther,  Job,  Daniel,  Isaiah, 
Jeremiah  with  Lamentaticnis,  E/.ekiel,  the 
Twelve  Minor  Pmiiliets.  i'.i)  "  Tlie  remain- 
ing four  Ixioks  contain  hymns  to  (Tod  and 
precepts  for  tlie  conduct  of  human  life." 
These  were  doubtless  Psalms.  Song  of  Songs, 
Proverbs,  Ecclesia.stes. 

So  far  facts.  There  was  also  a  tradition 
current  that  the  canon  was  arranged  in  the 
time  of  Ezra  and  Xehemiah.  Josephus,  as 
already  cited,  exjires-ses  the  universal  belief 
of  his  countrymen  that  no  books  had  been 
added  since  the  time  of  Artaxcrxes — that  is, 
since  the  time  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah.  An 
extravagant  legend  of  the  latter  part  of  the 
first  century  of  the  Christian  era  (2  Esd.  xiv.) 
grew  out  of  the  current  tradition  that  Ezra 
restored  the  law  and  even  the  entire  O.  T. 
(21,  22,  40),  of  which  the  temple  copies  had 
been  lost.  It  attests  that  the  Jews  of  Pales- 
tine in  that  age  reckoned  the  canonical  books 
at  twenty-four  (24  +  70=  94  ;  vers.  44-46,  E. 
v.).  A  passage  of  doubtful  date  and  authen- 
ticity, perhaps  penned  about  100  b.  c.  (2  Mac. 
ii.  13),  alludes  to  Nehemiah 's  activity  in  con- 
nection with  the  second  and  third  divisions 
of  the  canon.  Irenpeus  transmits  the  tradi- 
tion thus:  "After  the  sacred  writings  had 
been  destroyed  in  the  exile  under  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, when  the  Jews  after  seventy  years 
had  returned  to  their  own  country,  He  in  the 
days  of  Artaxerxes  inspired  Ezra  the  priest, 
of  the  tribe  of  Levi,  to  rearrange  all  the 
words  of  the  prophets  who  had  gone  before, 
and  to  restore  to  the  people  the  legi.slation  of 
Moses."  Elias  Levita,  writing  in  1538,  states 
the  belief  of  his  peojtle  in  this  wise:  "In 
Ezra's  time  the  twenty-four  books  were  not 
yet  united  in  a  .single  volume.  Ezra  and  his 
associates  united  them  together  and  divided 
them  into  three  parts,  the  law,  the  prophets, 
and  the  hagiograidia."  This  tradition  con- 
tains truth.  Whether  it  can  be  accepted  in 
every  particular  depends  on  the  settlement 
of  the  date  when  certain  books  were  written, 
such  as  Nehemiah  and  Chronicles. 

The  Pentateuch  as  the  work  of  Moses,  and 
:i-  embodying  the  fundamental  law  of  the 
nation,  formed  one  division  of  the  canon,  and 
with  chronological  fitness  occupied  the  first 
I'lace  in  the  collection.  To  the  second  di- 
\  i-ion   books  written  by  the  i)rophets  were 

-igned.  as  the  name  and  largely  the  con- 

;its  indicate.  The  books  were  eight  in  num- 
ber— Jo.shua,  .Judges,  Samuel,  and  Kings, 
which  came  to  be  known  as  the  f(jrmer 
prophets,  and  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  and 
tlie  Twelve,  which  were  called  the  later 
Iii'oi)hets.  For  Joshua,  regarded  as  a  prophet, 
SI  (■  Ecclus.  xlvi.  1.  The  nucleus  of  the  third 
division  consisted   of  sections  of  the  books 


of  Psalms  and  Proverbs.  They  had  two 
characteristics — they  were  poetry,  and  their 
authors  were  not  ollicial  iiro]>hcts.  They  at- 
tracted to  thcm.selves  all  other,  similar  au- 
thoritative literature.  The  prayer  of  Moses 
(Ps.  xc),  though  written  by  a  prophet,  was 
placed  in  this  division  of  Scrii)ture  because 
it  is  poetry.  So,  too.  Lamentations,  though 
written  by  a  projihet,  yet  being  jxietry,  like- 
wise found  jilace  in  the  third  division  of  the 
Hebrew  canon.  An  additional  reason  ex- 
isted for  separating  it  from  Jeremiah.  It 
was  read  on  the  anniversary  of  the  destruc- 
tion of  both  temples,  and  hence  was  i)ut  with 
four  other  short  books  which  were  read  on 
four  other  anniversaries.  Song,  Ruth,  Eccle- 
siastes,  and  Esther.  They  con.stitute  the  five 
rolls  or  Megilloth.  The  book  of  Daniel  was 
placed  here  because  written  by  a  man  who, 
although  gifted  with  prophecy,  was  not  by 
office  a  prophet.  In  all  probability  Chroni- 
cles was  written,  not  by  a  prophet,  but  by  a 
priest ;  hence  it  belonged  in  the  third  di- 
vision of  the  canon.  The  mere  fact  of  its 
late  authorship  does  not  account  for  its  place 
in  this  division,  for  books  and  sections  of 
books  in  this  division  were  in  existence  be- 
fore Zechariah  and  Malachi,  which  were  put 
in  the  second  division.  It  is  proper  to  add 
that  while  the  contents  of  the  several  di- 
visions of  the  canon  M'ere  fixed,  the  order  of 
the  books  in  the  third  division  varied  from 
time  to  time  ;  and  even  in  the  second  division 
the  Talmud  knew  Isaiah  as  standing  between 
Ezekiel  and  the  Minor  Prophets.  This  order 
of  the  four  prophetical  books  i  Jeremiah,  Eze- 
kiel, Isaiah,  and  Minor  Projihets),  was  evi- 
dently determined  by  size,  the  largest  being 
placed  first.  As  late  as  the  close  of  the  first 
century  A.  D.,  the  right  of  several  books  of 
the  third  division  to  remain  in  the  canon  was 
discussed.  The  books  were  in  the  canon,  none 
questioned  that.  The  discussions  concerned 
the  contents  of  the  books  and  difficulties  in 
reconciling  them  with  other  books;  but  the 
debates  were  proV)ably  mere  intellectual  dis- 
plays. There  was  no  intention  of  removing 
any  book  from  the  canon,  but  rather  the  pur- 
pose to  establish  its  right  to  the  place  it  al- 
ready occu])ied.  J.  d.  d. 

Canon  of  thk  New  Testament.  The 
apostolic  church  received  from  the  Jewish 
the  belief  in  a  written  rule  of  faith.  Christ 
himself  confirmed  this  belief  by  appealing 
to  the  O.  T.  as  the  written  word  of  God  (e.  g. 
John  V.  37-47:  Mat.  v.  17,  18;  Mark  xii.  36, 
37  ;  Luke  xvi.  31),  and  by  instructing  his  dis- 
ciples out  of  it  (Luke  xxiv.  45)  ;  and  the  ai)os- 
tles  habitually  refer  to  the  O.  T.  as  authori- 
tative (c.  g.  Rom.  iii.  2,  21 ;  1  Cor.  iv.  6;  Rom. 
XV.  4;  2  Tim.  iii.  15-17:  2  Pet.  i.  21).  In 
the  next  place,  the  apostles  claimed  for  theii' 
own  teaching,  oral  and  written,  like  author- 
ity with  the  O.  T.  (1  Cor.  ii.  7-13;  xiv.  37;  1 
Thess.  ii.  13 ;  Rev.  i.  3),  and  directed  the  pub- 
lic reading  of  their  epistles  (1  Thess.  v.  27; 
Col.  iv.  16,  17 ;  2  Thess.  ii.  15 ;   2  Pet.  i.  15 ; 


Canon 


112 


Capernaum 


iii.  1,  2),  while  revelations,  given  to  the 
church  through  inspired  prophets,  were  con- 
sidered to  form,  with  apostolic  instruction, 
the  foundation  of  the  church  (Ei)h.  ii.  20). 
It  was  therefore  both  natural  and  right  that 
the  N.  T.  literature  should  be  added  to  the 
Old,  and  thus  the  written  canon  of  faith  be 
enlarged.  In  the  N.  T.  itself  we  may  see 
this  beginning  to  be  done  (1  Tim.  v.  18; 
2  Pet.  iii.  1,  2,  1(5),  and  in  the  generations 
which  followed  the  apostles,  the  writings 
which  were  known  to  have  apostolic  au- 
thority were  gradually  collected  into  the 
second  half  of  the  church's  canon,  and  final- 
ly called  the  New  Testament.  For,  from  the 
beginning,  the  proof  that  a  book  had  a  right 
to  a  place  in  the  canon  was  its  aposfolicity,  by 
which  was  meant  that  it  was  bequeathed  to 
the  church  with  apostolic  sanction,  having 
either  been  written  by  an  apostle  or  else 
guaranteed  by  one  as  authoritative.  This, 
as  we  have  said,  was  the  apostolic  doctrine ; 
and  evidence  is  abundant  that,  in  the  second 
and  third  centuries,  this  was  the  principle  on 
which  the  N.  T.  collection  was  made.  The 
complete  collection,  however,  was  formed 
slowly  for  various  reasons.  At  first  certain 
books  were  known  only  in  some  churches  to 
be  apostolic,  and  it  was  not  until  the  whole 
body  of  believers  throughout  the  Eoman  em- 
pire was  united  in  one  ecclesiastical  con- 
sciousness that  all  the  books,  which  in  the 
several  parts  of  the  chui-ch  were  known  to 
be  apostolic,  were  universally  accepted.  The 
process  of  collection  also  did  not  at  first  have 
the  incentive  which  it  afterwards  received 
through  the  rise  of  hei-esy  and  of  spurious 
writings  claiming  apostolic  authority.  But, 
while  the  process  of  collection  was  slow,  the 
books  which  in  any  church  were  accepted 
were  regarded  as  canonical  because  apostolic. 
The  teaching  of  the  apostles  was  the  rule  of 
faith.  Their  works  were  read  in  public  wor- 
ship. Early  in  the  second  century  we  find 
them  directly  called  Scripture  (Ep.  of  Poly- 
carp  12  ;  Ep.  of  Barnabas  4).  The  books  by 
Mark  and  Luke  were  received  because  stamp- 
ed with  the  authority  of  Peter  and  Paul. 
Even  commentaries  began  to  be  made  upon 
them,  and  their  statements  and  i)hraseology 
saturate  the  literature  of  the  post-apostolic 
age.  Then,  as  to  the  extent  and  rapidity 
with  which  the  collection  itself  was  made, 
the  following  facts  are  the  most  noteworthy. 
The  four  gospels  were  everywhei'e  received 
from  the  beginning  of  the  second  century, 
while  2  Pet  iii.  Hi  shows  that  its  readers 
were  already  familiar  with  a  collection  of 
Paul's  epistles.  Very  early  we  find  the 
phrases  "gospel  "  and  "apostles  "  used  to  de- 
scribe the  two  parts  of  the  new  collection.  The 
evidence  of  the  canonicity  of  The  Acts  like- 
wise carries  us  back  to  the  first  half  of  the 
second  century.  Some  books  indeed  were 
disputed  in  some  sections  of  the  church,  but 
this  only  shows  that  their  final  acceptance 
was  based  on  sutdcient  evidence.     Finally  it 


appears  that  the  Syrian  church  in  the  second 
century  received  all  our  N.  T.  except  Rev., 
Jude,  2  Pet.,  2  and  3  John ;  the  Eoman 
church,  all  except  Heb.,  Epp.  of  Pet.,  Jas., 
3  John  ;  the  North  African,  all  except  Heb., 
2  Pet.,  and  perhaps  James.  These  collections, 
however,  only  contained  the  books  formally 
received  in  the  respective  churches,  and  do 
not  prove  that  no  other  apostolic  books  were 
known.  The  remainder  were  in  fact  univer- 
sally accepted  in  the  course  of  the  third  cen- 
turj%  though  difference  of  opinion  existed 
about  some;  and,  when  the  age  of  councils 
came,  our  present  N.  T.  canon  appears  in  the 
lists  as  the  accepted  one.  In  the  fourth  cen- 
tury ten  fathers  and  two  councils  have  left 
lists  of  canonical  books.  Of  these  three  omit 
Eevelation,  against  which  prejudice  existed 
in  some  quarters,  though  earlier  testimony  to 
it  is  abundant.  The  rest  give  the  N.  T.  as 
we  have  it. 

In  view  of  these  facts  it  should  be  noted  : 
(1)  That  while  the  collection  of  the  N.T.  into 
one  volume  was  slow,  the  belief  in  a  written 
rule  of  faith  was  primitive  and  apostolic. 
The  history  of  the  formation  of  the  collec- 
tion should  not  be  thought  to  give  the  rise 
into  authority  of  a  written  rule  of  faith.  It 
only  shows  the  stages  by  which  the  books 
rightly  belonging  to  the  canon  were  recog- 
nized and  brought  together.  (2)  Differences 
of  opinion  and  usage,  as  to  what  books  were 
canonical,  and  as  to  the  degree  of  certainty 
with  which  a  book  could  be  received,  appear 
in  the  writers  and  churches  even  of  the  sec- 
ond century.  This  fact,  however,  again  only 
marks  the  stages  by  which  the  evidence  for 
the  books  was  gradually  accepted  by  the 
church  as  a  whole,  and  the  carefulness  of 
the  primitive  Christians  in  receiving  Ixmks 
as  apostolic.  In  like  manner  the  occasional 
acceptance  of  spurious  wi'itings  was  corrected 
in  due  time.  (3)  The  proof  on  which  tee 
should  accept  the  several  N.  T.  books  as 
canonical  is  historical  evidence.  As  to  this, 
the  judgment  of  the  early  church  that  our 
twenty -seven  books  are  apostolic  is  entitled 
to  acceptance  unless  it  can  be  proved  false. 
We  should  not,  however,  receive  them  merely 
because  ecclesiastical  councils  decreed  them 
canonical;  nor,  on  the  other  hand,  because 
of  their  contents.  The  question  is  one  of 
historical  evidence  alone.  (4)  Finally,  we 
note  tliat  the  name  cnuoii  is  not  known  to 
have  been  applied  to  the  cfiUection  of  sacred 
books  until  the  fourth  century.  But  while 
this  term,  now  universal,  was  not  at  first 
used,  the  thing  denoted  by  it — viz.  that  the 
sacred  books  were  the  rule  of  faith — was,  as 
we  have  seen,  an  apostolic  doctrine. 

G.  T.  p. 

Can'ti-cles.    See  Song  of  Solomon. 

Ca-per'na-um  [village  of  Nahum  or  of 
consolation]. 

A  town  on  the  northwestern  shore  of  the 
sea  of  Galilee,  near  or  on  the  boundary  be- 


Capernaum 


113 


CaDharsalama 


twiTii  Zohuliiu  jiiul  Nai)htali  (Mat.  i v.  13-16; 
cp.  Luke  iv.  31  ;  Jolin  vi.  17.  '24).  At  an 
early  period  of  our  Lord's  iiiiiiistry  he  re- 
moved tliitlier  from  Nazareth,  and  so  con- 
tinually made  it  the  lieadquarters  of  his 
itinerant  ministry  that  it  came  to  be  called 
his  own  city  (Mat.  ix.  1  ;  cp.  JIark  ii.  1). 
It  was  there  that  he  healed  the  centurion's 
palsied  servant  (Mat.  viii.  5-13;  Lnke  vii. 
1-101,  Peter's  wife's  mother  when  she  was 
prostrate  with  fever  (Mat.  viii.  14-17  ;  Mark 
i.  29-31;  Luke  iv.  38.  39).  tme  of  the  de- 
moniacs (Mark  i.  21-2?^;  Luke  iv.  31-37), 
a  man  atUicted  hy  ])alsy  home  of  four 
(Mark  ii.  1-13:  cp."  Mat.  ix.  1-8),  a  noble- 
man's servant  (.Tohn  iv.  46-54),  with  quite  a 
number  of  other  diseased  people  (Mat.  viii. 
16-17 ;  Mark  i.  32-34 ;  Luke  iv.  23,  40,  41). 
The  discourse   recorded  iu  John  vi.  24-71, 


Genncsaret,  he  says:  "  It  is  also  watered  by 
a  fountain.  The  i>eople  of  the  country  call 
it  C'apharnaum.  Some  have  thought  it  to  be 
a  vein  of  the  Nile,  because  it  produced  the 
coracin  fish,  as  well  as  that  lake  does  which 
is  near  to  Alexandria ''  (War  iii.  10,  8). 

Two  spots  contend  for  the  distinction  of 
being  the  site  of  ( 'apernaum.  They  are  about 
2'  miles  apart.  The  more  northerly  is  called 
Tell  Hum,  and  the  more  southerly  Khan  Min- 
yeh  or  Minia.  Kobinson  decided  in  favor  of 
Khan  Minyeh.  Conder  takes  the  same  view. 
But  the  prevalent  opinion  favors  Tell  Hum. 
Caper  represents  the  Hebrew  word  for  vil- 
lage, and  might  well  be  supplanted  by  the 
Arabic  Tell,  mound,  when  the  place  became 
a  ruin.  Hum  in  Arabic  means  '"a  herd  of 
camels;"  if  Hebrew,  it  is  probably  part  of 
the  word  Nahum.   It  is  in  favor  of  Tell  Hum 


Tell  Hum. 


which  followed  on  the  feeding  of  the  5000, 
with  many  other  addresses,  was  delivered  in 
the  sjTiagogue  at  Capernaum  or  el.sewhere  in 
the  town  (Mark  ix.  33-50).  It  was  at  Caper- 
naum also  that  Jesus  called  to  the  apostleship 
Matthew  or  Levi,  as  he  was  sitting  at  the 
receipt  of  custom  (Mat.  ix.  9-13:  Mark  ii. 
14-17  ;  Luke  v.  27-32  :  cp.  Mat.  xvii.  24).  It 
might  have  been  expected  that  a  place  so 
specially  favored  would  make  proper  use  of 
its  privileges.  It  did  the  opposite,  and  its 
ruin  was  predicted  by  Jesus  because  of  its  im- 
penitence (Mat.  xi.  23,  24;  Luke  x.  15). 

Capernaum  is  not  mentioned  in  the  O.  T., 
and  perhaps  did  not  arise  till  after  the  cap- 
tivity. Josephus  was  carried  with  brui.sed 
wrist  from  near  Julias  (not  far  from  the  spot 
where  the  Jordan  enters  the  sea  of  Galilee) 
into  a  village  named  Cepharnome  or  Caper- 
naum  (Life  72).      Describing  the  plain   of 


that  there  are  extensive  ruins  of  an  ancient 
city  piled  along  the  shore,  and  for  at  least 
800  feet  up  the  hill.  The  houses  must  nearly 
all  have  been  of  black  basalt,  while  the  ruins 
of  a  synagogue,  either  that  in  which  Jesus 
preached  or  its  successor,  are  of  marble,  or 
of  fine  limestone  quarried  in  the  mountains 
northwest  of  the  locality. 

Caph. 

The  eleventh  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet. 
English  K  comes  from  the  same  source  ;  but 
C  and,  especially  before  e  and  i,  or  when  final, 
Ch  are  employed  as  its  representative  in  an- 
glicized Hebrew  names.  Caph  stands  at  the 
head  of  the  eleventh  .section  of  Ps.  cxix.,  in 
which  section  each  verse  begins  with  this 
letter  in  the  original.     See  Beth. 

Caph-ar-sara-ma  [village  of  Salem]. 

A  town  (1  Mac.  vii.  31  :  Antiq.  xii.  10,  4  , 
perhaps  the  later  Carvasalim,  near  Eamleh. 


Caphenatha 


114 


Captivity 


Ca-phen'a-tha.    See  Chaphenatha. 
Caph'tor. 

Au  isle  or  seacoast,  from  which  the  Philis- 
tines originally  came  (Jer.xlvii.  4;  Amosix.  7). 
The  Philistines  as  a  whole  were  Cherethites, 
that  is,  probably  Cretans  (1  Sam.  xxx.  14 ; 
Ezek.  XXV.  16;  Zeph.  ii.  5),  and  C'aphtor  was 
perhaps  the  island  Crete.  However,  an  Egyp- 
tian nome  in  the  delta  bore  the  name  Ka- 
pet-hor.  This  word  may  be  the  original  of 
Caphtor.  If  so,  the  ancestors  of  the  Philis- 
tines went  thence  to  Crete  and  later  to  Pliilis- 
tia,  or  they  went  thither  from  Crete  and  ulti- 
mately to  Philistia. 

Caph'to-rim ;  in  A.  Y.  once  Caphtorims 
and  once  Caphthorim. 

A  tribe  descended  from  the  Egyptians  (Gen. 
X.  14  :  1  Chron.  i.  12),  and  inhabiting  Caphtor 
(Dent.  ii.  23). 

Cap-pa-do'ci-a. 

A  highland  i)rovince  of  Asia  Minor,  bound- 
ed on  the  north  by  Pontus,  on  the  south  by 
Cilicia,  on  the  east  by  Syria  and  Lesser  Ar- 
menia, and  on  the  west  by  Lycaonia.   It  pro-   j 
duced  excellent  wheat  and  horses,  but  was   I 
regarded  as  a  region  of  uncultivated  minds   j 
and  immoral  practices.    Worshipers  from  Cap- 
padocia  were  present  at  the  feast  of  Pente- 
cost, rendered  memorable  by  the  descent  of  • 
the  Holy  Spirit  (Acts  ii.  9).    Some  of  the  Dis- 
persion to  whom  Peter  addressed   his   first 
epistle  sojourned  in  Cappadocia  (1  Pet.  i.  1). 

Cap'tain. 

As  a  military  title,  captain  is  generally  in 
O.  T.  the  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  Sar. 
It  is  a  broad  designation  for  an  official, 
whether  he  be  the  commander-in-chief  of 
the  army  (Gen.  xxi.  22 ;  Judg.  iv.  2 ;  1  Sam. 
xiv.  50  ;  2  Sam.  x.  16),  or  the  commander  of 
a  division  of  the  army  (2  Sam.  xviii.  2  with 
5),  or  part  of  a  division  (1  Kin.  xvi.  9)  ;  an 
officer  over  1000  men  or  100  men  or  50  men 
(Num.  xxxi.  14,  48;  1  Sam.  viii.  12;  xvii.  18; 
xviii.  13 ;  xxii.  7  ;  2  Sam.  xviii.  1 ;  2  Kin.  i.  9  ; 
Is.  iii.  3) ;  the  commander  of  the  king's  body 
guard  (Gen.  xxxvii.  36 ;  and  2  Kin.  xxv.  8 ; 
Dan.  ii.  14,  where  the  word  is  Rah),  or  of  a 
post  of  sentries  (Jer.  xxxvii.  13,  in  Hebrew 
Ba'al).  The  word  rendered  captain  in  A.  V. 
of  Num.  ii.  is  Nasi',  and  denotes  a  tribal 
prince.  Kami  is  thrice  rendered  captain  in 
A.  V.  (Josh.  X.  24;  Judg.  xi.  6,  11),  where  it 
refers  to  leaders  of  the  host ;  but  the  word  is 
a  general  term  for  one  with  whom  decision 
rests,  and  it  is  applied  to  civil  rulers  (Is.  i. 
10;  iii.  6,  7;  Mic.  iii.  1,  9),  whose  duties  in- 
cluded that  of  judging  (Prov.  vi.  7  ;  xxv.  15, 
E.  V.  margin). 

In  N.  T.  the  chief  captain  was  a  chiliarchos, 
a  term  which  originally  denoted  the  com- 
mander of  1000  men,  but  was  used  broadly 
for  the  commandant  of  a  garrison,  and  as  the 
equivalent  of  the  Roman  military  tribune 
(John  xviii.  12,  R.  V.  margin).  He  was  one  of 
the  general  officers  of  a  legion,  and  higher  in 
rank  than  a  centurion  (Acts  xxi.  31,  32,  R.  Y. 


margin  ;  xxii.  25).  The  captain  of  the  guard  at 
Rome  (Acts  xxviii.  16,  A.  Y.)  was  a  stratoped- 
archos,  or  commander  of  a  legion,  in  this  par- 
ticular instance  the  chief  officer  of  the  legion 
known  as  the  praetorian  guard  (R.  Y.  margin). 
The  captain  of  the  temple  was  not  a  military, 
officer,  but  the  commander  of  the  guard  of 
Levites  who  kept  watch  at  the  temple  (Acts 
iv.  1;  V.  24;  2  Mac.  iii.  4;  Antiq.  xx.  6,  2; 
War  vi.  5,  3).  Under  him  were  subordinate 
officers  of  the  several  divisions  of  the  guard 
(Luke  xxii.  4,  52). 

Cap-tiv'i-ty. 

The  state  of  being  in  bondage  to  enemies, 
especially  in  a  foreign  land.  In  O.  T.  times 
the  Assyrians  introduced,  and  the  Babylon- 
ians adopted,  the  practice  of  making  a  whole- 
sale deportation  of  at  least  the  leading  men 
belonging  to  each  country  which  they  con- 
quered, and  locating  them  in  districts  where 
they  would  be  removed  from  familiar  asso- 
ciations and  patriotic  memories,  and  would 
be  under  the  eye  of  the  central  government. 
Deportation  was  generally  resorted  to  as  an 
extreme  measure  when  other  means  failed.. 
The  sti-onger  state  was  usuallj^  content  with 
imposing  tribute.  The  withholding  of  the 
customary  tribute  was  treated  as  rebellion, 
and  was  punished  by  a  military  invasion  and 
pillage  of  the  country.  If  these  harsh  meas- 
ures proved  ineffective,  resort  was  had  to  de- 
portation. 

Two  principal  captivities  are  mentioned  in 
the  Bible  : 

I.  The  Captivity  of  the  Ten  Tribes. 
As  early  as  842  b.  c.  Jehu  paid  tribute  to 
Shalmaneser,  king  of  Assyria.  About  803 
Rammannirari  reports  receiving  tribute  from 
the  Israelites.  But  it  was  not  until  the  reign 
of  Tiglath-pileser,  745-727,  that  the  Assyrians 
began  emptying  the  land  of  the  ten  tribes  of 
its  inhabitants.  That  king  received  tribute 
from  Menahem.  In  the  reign  of  Pekah  he 
captured  cities  of  Naphtali  and  carried  otf 
the  inhabitants  to  Assyria  (2  Kin.  xv.  29). 
He  overran  the  country  east  of  the  Jordan 
and  deported  the  Reubenites,  Gadites,  and 
half  tribe  of  Manasseh  to  Mesopotamia  (1 
Chron.  v.  26).  By  his  connivance  also  Pekah 
was  eventually  slain  and  Hoshea  placed  on 
the  throne.  His  successor  Shalmaneser  be- 
sieged Samaria,  the  city  was  taken  in  the 
accession  year  of  Sargon,  722  b.  c,  and  a 
large  number  of  the  inhabitants  were  trans- 
ported to  Mesopotamia  and  Media  (2  Kin. 
xvii.  5,  6),  and  the  rest  were  placed  under 
tribute.  This  remnant,  in  alliance  with 
Hamath  and  Damascus,  presently  attempted 
to  throw  ofl"  tlie  Assyrian  yoke  ;  but  Sargon 
crushed  the  rebellion  and  began  introducing 
foreigners  into  Samaria,  a  process  which  his 
successors  continued  until  a  new  and  hetei'o- 
geneous  people  occupied  the  former  territory 
of  the  ten  tribes.  Some  of  the  Israelites 
eventually  returned  to  Jerusalem  (Luke  ii. 
36),  but  most  of  them  remained  in  the  coun- 


Carbuncle 


115 


Carmel 


tries  whither  they  h:ul  been  earried,  })re- 
serving  their  i-.ieial  distinetiuns,  continuing 
their  religious  observances,  and  visiting  Jeru- 
siilem  from  time  to  time  (Acts  ii.  9 ;  xxvi.  7). 
II.  The  CAiniviTY  of  Judah.  Senna- 
cherib has  recorded  that  he  removed  'ifKl.OOO 
captives  from  Judali  (cp.  2  Kin.  xviii.  13). 
But  by  the  captivity  of  Judah  is  meant  tlie 
deportation  of  the  peoph>  to  Babyh)nia.  Ju- 
dah's  captivity  was  i)redicted  a  century  and 
a  half  before  its  occurrence  (Is.  vi.  11,  12;  xi. 
12),  and  Babylonia  as  the  i)lace  was  foretold 
by  Micah  (iv.  ID)  and  Isjiiah  (xi.  11  ;  xxxix. 
6).  The  prophet  Jeremiah  announced  that 
it  should  continue  seventy  years  (Jer.  xxv. 
1,  11,  12).  It  was  elTected  by  Nebuchadnez- 
zar. In  60.5  B.  c".,  in  the  third  or  fourth  year 
of  Jehoiakim,  according  to  the  method  of 
reckoning  which  one  adopts,  he  came  unto 
Jeru.salem,  took  the  vessels  of  the  temple  to 
Babylon,  and  carried  off  certain  of  the  seed 
royal  as  captives  (2  Chron.  xxxvi.  2-7  ;  Dan. 
i.  1-3).  Seven  years  later  he  carried  off  Je- 
hoiachin.  the  king's  mother,  wives,  and  chief 
officers,  7000  men  of  might  and  1000  artisans 
(2  Kin.  xxiv.  15,  IG).  Eleven  years  later  his 
army  burned  the  temple,  destroyed  Jerusa- 
lem, and  carried  off  the  residue  of  the  people, 
leaving  only  the  poorest  of  the  land  to  be 
vinedressers  and  husbandmen  (2  Kin.  xxv. 
2-21).  Five  years  after  the  destruction  of 
the  city,  another  batch  was  deported  to  Baby- 
lonia {Jer.  Hi.  30).  In  their  exile  the  Jews 
enjoyed  many  privileges.  They  were  per- 
mitted to  build  and  occupy  houses,  keej)  ser- 
vants, and  engage  in  business  (Jer.  xxix. 
5-7;  Ezra  ii.  65),  and  there  was  nothing  to 
hinder  them  from  rising  to  the  highest  posi- 
tions in  the  state  (Dan.  ii.  48;  Xeh.  i.  11). 
Their  priests  and  teachers  were  with  them 
(Jer.  xxix.  1 ;  Ezra  i.  5),  and  they  had  the 
instructions  and  encouragement  of  Ezekiel 
(Ezek.  i.  1).  In  539  b.  c.  Daniel  understood 
by  the  books  that  the  cajitivity  was  to  last 
for  seventy  years,  and,  as  the  time  was  draw- 
ing to  a  close,  began  to  supplicate  God  for  the 
restoration  of  divine  favor  to  his  people  (Dan. 
ix.  2).  In  538  Cyrus  issued  a  decree  author- 
izing the  Jews  to  return  to  the  land  of  their 
fathers  and  rebuild  the  temple  (Ezra  i.  1-4), 
when  about  43,000  of  them  embraced  the  op- 
portunity (ii.  64).  Many,  however,  preferred 
to  remain  in  Babylonia  and  the  east,  and  with 
the  Israelites  in  Mesopotamia  and  Media 
formed  part  of  what  became  known  as  the 
Diaspora  (Zech.  vi.  10;  Acts  ii.  9).  See  Dis- 
persion. 

Car'bun-cle. 

1.  The  rendering  of  Hebrew  Bareheth  and 
Bar'kath,  .shining  like  lightning.  It  denotes 
a  gem  (Ezek.  xxviii.  13),  and  was  the  third 
stone  in  the  first  row  in  the  high  priest's 
breastplate  (Ex.  xxviii.  17).  In  both  cases 
the  margin  of  the  R.  V.,  following  the  Septua- 
gint,  the  Vulgate,  and  Josephus,  makes  it  an 
emerald. 


2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  ' Ekdnh, 
blaze,  sparkle.  It  denotes  a  precious  stone 
(Is.  liv.  12). 

According  to  Dana  three  distinct  minerals 
are  called  by  Pliny  carbuncles.  They  are  the 
garnet,  the  ruby  spinel,  and  the  sapphire. 
The  garnet  specially  included  under  Pliny's 
carbuncles  is  the  precious  or  Oriental  garnet 
or  almandine.  It  is  of  a  fine  deep  trans- 
parent color;  the  best  are  from  Pegu.  The 
ruby  spinel  is  a  spinel  of  a  clear  red  or  red- 
dish color,  transparent  or  translucent.  For 
the  sapphire,  see  the  article. 

Car'cas. 

One  of  seven  chamberlains  who  .served  in 
the  presence  of  king  Ahasuerus  (Esth.  i.  10). 

Car'che-mish,  in  A.  V.  once  Cliarcheinisli 
(2  Chron.  xxxv.  20). 

The  eastern  capital  of  the  Hittites,  west  of 
the  Euphrates,  at. a  ford  of  the  river,  and 
north  of  the  confluence  with  the  Sajur.  Ad- 
mirably situated  for  commercial  purposes,  it 
became  very  wealthy.  The  Assyrian  king, 
Ashurnasirpal  (885  to  860  B.  c.)  was  about  to 
assault  it,  but  was  bouglit  off  by  the  promise 
of  rich  tril)ute.  In  717  B.  c.  it  was  captured 
by  Sargon,  and  with  it  fell  the  Hittite  empire 
(Is.  X.  9).  Pharaoh-necho,  king  of  Egypt,  was 
heavily  defeated  at  Carchemish  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar in  605  B.  C.  (2  Chron.  xxxv.  20 ;  Jer. 
xlvi.  2).  Its  site  is  called  Jerabis.  It  is  ou 
the  western  bank  of  the  Euphrates,  midway 
between  Birejik  and  the  mouth  of  the  Sajur, 
about  200  miles  northwest  of  Circesium.  Au 
artificial  mound  covers  ruins.  The  human 
figures  on  the  sculptured  blocks  have  boots 
with  upturned  tips,  which  is  believed  to  settle 
conclusively  that  they  are  of  Hittite  origin. 

Ca-re'ah.     See  Kare.\h. 

Ca'ri-a. 

A  country  at  the  southwestern  point  of 
Asia  Minor.  It  was  part  of  the  territory  con- 
quered by  the  Eomans  from  Antiochus  the 
Great.  The  Eoman  senate  bestowed  it  on 
the  Ehodians,  but  released  it  again  in  168 
B.  c.  It  was  still  a  separate  district  in  139 
B.  c.  (1  Mac.  XV.  23),  but  it  was  finally  incor- 
porated in  the  province  of  Asia. 

Car'ites.  .  See  Cherethites. 

Car'mel  [fruitful  field,  garden,  park]. 

1.  A  range  of  hills,  about  8  miles  long,  con- 
nected by  a  chain  of  lower  hills  with  the 
mountainous  region  of  central  Palestine  and 
terminating  in  a  promontory  which  juts  into 
the  Mediterranean  (Jer.  xlvi.  18),  and  con- 
stitutes the  southern  boundary  of  the  bay 
of  Acre.  Near  its  southeastern  end  it  is  1742 
feet  high,  a  little  further  onward  it  is  1715, 
and  it  gradually  falls  more  and  more,  till  at 
the  Oorthwestern  top,  which  constitutes  the 
promontory,  it  is  only  556  feet  high.  The 
range  constitutes  the  southwestern  boundary 
of  the  valley  of  Esdraelon,  through  which 
the  Kishon  runs,  and  at  one  place  that  brook 
washes  the  northern  slope  of  Carmel  (1  Kin. 


Carmi 


116 


Cart 


xviii.  40).  The  summit  of  the  range  consists 
ol'  a  series  of  eminences  with  table-lauds  on 
their  tops,  sometimes  bare  and  rocky,  and 
sometimes  covered  with  shrubs,  especially  the 
prickly  oak  and  the  juniper.  The  strata  are 
of  limestone,  and  there  are  caves  on  the  sides 
of  the  mountain  chain,  though  not  on  its 
summit.  The  view  from  its  higher  parts  is 
line.  It  is  now  called  Jebel  Kurmul.  .  Car- 
mel  was  on  the  southern  boundary  of  Asher 
(Josh.  xix.  26),  within  the  limits  of  that  tribe 
(cp.  xvii.  11).  On  the  top  of  Carmel  Elijah 
brought  to  a  decisive  issue  the  question  be- 
tween Jehovah  and  the  worsliip  of  Baal  (1 
Kin.  xviii.  17-40),  and  from  the  top  of  the 
same  range  his  servant  saw  the  ascent  from 
the  Mediterranean  of  the  little  cloud  like  a 
man's  hand  which  heralded  the  rain  storm 
and  the  termination  of  the  drought  (41-46). 
Carmel  was  visited  by  Elisha  (2  Kin.  ii.  25; 
iv.  2.')).  It  is  believed  to  have  been  anciently 
cultivated  to  the  summit,  with  fruit  trees  in 
orchards  or  gardens,  as  its  name  imports,  and 
as  the  fruitfulness  ascribed  to  it  indicates 
(Is.  xxxiii.  9;  xxxv.  2;  Jer.  1. 19).  A  forest, 
probably  consisting  chiefly  of  fruit  trees,  was 
in  its  midst  (Mic.  vii.  14).  When  in  Song 
vii.  5  the  lover  says  to  the  object  of  his  affec- 
tion, "  Thine  head  upon  thee  is  like  Carmel," 
he  probably  means  covered  with  luxuriant 
hair,  as  Carmel  is  with  fruit  trees.  Amos 
prophesied  :  "  The  top  of  Carmel  shall  wither  " 
(i.  2).  There  has  long  been  a  convent  on 
mount  Carmel,  after  which  the  Carmelite 
monks  are  named. 

2.  A  town  in  the  mountainous  part  of  Ju- 
dah  (Josh.  xv.  55  ;  cp.  1  Sam.  xv.  12  ;  xxv.  2). 
The  churlish  Nabal's  possessions  lay  in  the 
vicinity  (1  Sam.  xxv.  2-40).  The  name  is 
still  retained  in  the  modern  Kurmul,  a  ruin 
about  7  miles  south-southeast  of  Hebron. 
From  this  town  one  of  David's  wives  hailed 
(1  Sam.  XXX.  5),  and  also  one  of  his  mighty 
men  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  35). 

Car'mi  [vinedresser]. 

1.  A  son  of  Reuben,  and  founder  of  a  tribal 
family  (Gen.  xlvi.  9 ;  Ex.  vi.  14 ;  Num.  xxvi.  6). 

2.  A  descendant  of  Judah  and  father  of 
Achan  (Josh.  vii.  1 ;  1  Chron.  ii.  6,  7). 

Car'na-im.    See  Ashtkroth-karnaim. 

Car'pen-ter. 

The  tirst  mention  of  carpentry  in  the  Bible 
as  a  distinct  occupation  is  on  occasion  of  car- 
penters being  brought  from  Tyre  to  build 
David  a  palace  (2  Sam.  v.  11).  Among  car- 
penter's tools  were  the  axe,  saw  (Is.  x.  15), 
measuring  line,  plane,  compass  (xliv.  13), 
iron  nails,  hammers  (Jer.  x.  4  ;  1  Chron.  xxii. 
3).  Joseph,  husband  of  Mary,  was  a  carpen- 
ter (Mat.  xiii.  55),  and  Jesus  in  his  youth 
worked  at  the  same  calling  (Mark  vi.  3). 

Car 'pus  [the  wrist]. 

.  A  resident  at  Troas,  with  whom  Paul  left 
his  cloak,  for  which  he  afterwards  sent  (2 
Tim.  iv.  13). 


Car'riage. 

That  which  is  carried  ;  baggage  (1  Sam. 
xvii.  22  ;  Is.  x.  2S  ;  1  Mac.  ix.  35,  39  ;  Acts  xxi. 
15),  heavy  matters  or  goods  (Judg.  xviii.  21), 
a  burden  (Is.  xlvi.  1).  The  place  of  the  car- 
riage (1  Sam.  xvii.  20;  xxvi.  5,  7,  A.  V.  mar- 
gin) was  the  enclosure  formed  by  the  carts 
which  were  used  to  transport  goods  for  the 
army,  and  which  were  drawn  up  in  a  circle 
around  the  camp.  In  all  passages  K.  V.  has 
abandoned  this  ob.solete  sense  of  carriage  and 
substituted  the  appropriate  modern  word. 

Car'she-na  [perhaps  pillage  of  war,  spoiler]. 

One  of  the  seven  leading  princes  of  Persia 
at  the  court  of  king  Ahasuerus  (Esth.  i.  14). 

Cart. 

A  wheeled  vehicle  employed  in  peaceful  oc- 
cupations, and  distinguished  from  the  chariot, 
which  was  used  for  state  and  war.  It  was 
made  of  wood  (1  Sam.  vi.  14),  was  either  cov- 
ered or  uncovered  (Num.  vii.  3,  where  the 
Hebrew  word  is  I'endered  wagon),  was  drawn 
by  cattle  (vii.  7 ;  1  Sam.  vi.  7 ;  2  Sam.  vi. 
6),  though  horses  occasionally  dragged  the 
threshing  cart,  it  would  seem  (Is.  xxviii.  28), 
and  was  used  in  threshing  in  lieu  of  a  sledge' 
(Is.  xxviii.  27),  for  transporting  goods  (2  Sam. 
•vi.  3),  hauling  grain  (Amos  ii.  13).  and  con- 
veying persons  (Gen.  xlv.  19,  rendered  wag- 


Ancient  Egyptian  Cart. 

on).  In  Egyj)t  a  cart  was  used  like  that 
which  is  now  employed  universally  in  west- 
ern Asia,   with  two  wheels  of  solid  wood. 


Cart  with  Captive  Women  of  Lachlsh. 

Asiatic  carts,  including  the  one  in  which 
Jewish  captive  women  of  Lachish  are  riding 
on  sacks  of  grain,  are  represented  in  As- 
syrian bas-reliefs  as  having  two  wheels  with 
eight,  six,  or  four  spokes  each  and  drawn  by 


Carving 


ii: 


Caterpillar 


oxen.  They  arc  also  depicted  as  drawn  by 
mules,  iir  by  two  men. 

Carv'ing. 

The  art  of  cutting  letters,  images,  or  orna- 
mental designs  in  wood,  stone,  ivory,  or 
other  material.  Heziileel,  a  man  of  Judali, 
and  Aholiah,  a  Hanite,  were  gifted  for  this 
work,  and  wrouglit  the  carving  for  the  taber- 
nacle (Ex.  xxxi.  1-7 ;  xxxv.  30-35).  There  was 
carved  work  in  Solomon's  temple — flowers, 
palm  trees,  and  cherubim  (1  Kin.  vi.  18,  29)  ; 
in  that  of  Zerubbabel  (I's.  Ixxiv.  6),  and  in 
tlie  superior  kind  of  domestic  architecture 
iProv.  vii.  It)). 

Case'ment. 

A  sash  which  moves  on  a  hinge  ;  or  part  of 
a  window,  made  movable  by  a  hinge,  so  that 
it  may  be  opened  while  the  rest  of  the  win- 
dow remains  shut  (Prov.  vii.  (i,  A.  V.).  But 
in  Judg.  V.  28  and  in  R.  V.  of  lioth  passiiges 
the  Hebrew  word  is  rendered  lattice. 

Ca-slph'i-a. 

A  ]ilace  not  fiir  from  the  route  between 
Babylon  and  .Terusaleui,  and  in  or  near  Baby- 
lonia (Ezra  viii.  17). 

Cas'lu-him. 

A  people  descended  from  the  Egyptians  (or 
possibly  only  coucpiered  and  incorporated 
with  them),  and  standing  somewhere  in  the 
ancestral  line  of  the  Philistines  (Gen.  x.  14  ; 
1  Chron.  i.  12).  Apparently  they  were  the 
immediate  ancestors  of  the  Philistines.  Per- 
haps they  were  the  inhabitants  of  Casiotis,  a 
district  on  the  Mediterranean  Sea  extend- 
ing from  the  eastern  mouth  of  the  Nile  to 
Philistia. 

Cas'phor. 

A  fortified  town  east  of  the  Jordan,  cap- 
tured by  Judas  Maccabieus  (1  Mac.  v.  26,  36). 
In  the  latter  verse  A.  V.  gives  the  name  as 
C'asphon.  Josephus  calls  it  Casphoma  (Antiq. 
xii.  8.  3). 

Cas'sia. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  KUl- 
dah  (Ezek.  xxvii.  19).  It  denotes  an  aromatic 
wood,  and  was  an  ingredient  of  the  anoint- 
ing oil  (Ex.  XXX.  24).  The  translation  cassia 
is  .supported  by  the  Syriac  version,  the  Tar- 
gum,  and  the  Vulgate.  If  correct,  the  word 
probably  denotes  a  species  of  the  wood.  On 
the  margin  R.  V.  has  costus.  The  Custits  of 
the  ancients  was  discovered  by  Falconer  to 
be  a  composite  plant  with  purple  flowers  now 
called  A  plot  ax  is  lappa,  growing  in  Cashmere 
from  8CM10  to  90(X)  feet  above  the  sea  level. 
It  is  exported  to  various  countries,  the  valua- 
ble part  being  the  root.  The  Chinese  burn  it 
in  their  temples  for  incense. 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word 
K'.)i'ah.  It  is  fragrant  (Ps.  xlv.  8).  Cassia 
bark  is  derived  from  various  species  of  Cin- 
naniomitiii.     See  CINN.4.MON. 

Cas'ta-net. 

In  the  plural  the  rendering  of  the  Hebrew 
M'iuVaH''im,  moving  to  and  fro  (2  Sam.  vi.  5, 


R.  v.),  a  musical  instrument  which  David  and 
his  subjects  played.  The  margin,  following 
the  Vulgate,  has  sistra,  and  the  A.  V.  cornets. 
Castanets  are  a  pair  of  small  spoon-shaped 
cymbals  fastened  to  the  thumb  and  beaten 
together  by  the  middle  finger.  The  word 
castanets  is  derived  from  castiuiea,  a  chest- 
nut, two  of  these  fruits  being  anciently  at- 
tached to  the  fingers  and  beaten  together. 
Castanets  were  employed  in  Greece  and  Home 
as  an  accomi)animcnt  to  hymns  in  honor  of 
the  goddess  Artemis  or  Diana. 

Cas'tle. 

A  fortified  building  or  stronghold  (Prov. 
xviii.  19).  David  took  the  Jebu.site  castle 
and  converted  it  into  his  residence  ;  and  it 
was  afterwards  called  the  city  of  David  (1 
Chron.  xi.  5,  7).  Jehoshaphat  built  castles  in 
the  cities  of  .Tndah  (2  Chron.  xvii.  12  ;  mar- 
gin of  A.  V.  palaces),  and  Jotham  in  its  forests 
(xxvii.  4).  The  habitations  of  the  descend- 
ants of  Aaron  (1  Chron.  vi.  .54),  and  probably 
those  of  the  Lshmaelite  chieftains  and  of  the 
Midianites  (Gen.  xxv.  16 ;  Num.  xxxi.  10),  were 
encampments  (R.  V.)  and  not  castles  (A.  V.). 

The  castle  which  Nehemiah  erected  was  pre- 
sumably succeeded  by  the  stronghold  event- 
ually known  as  Antonia,  and  in  which  Paul 
was  confined  at  Jerusalem.     See  Antonia, 

TOWEK  OF. 

Cas'tor  and  Pollux. 

Two  Greek  and  Roman  divinities,  born  of 
the  same  mother,  Leda,  but  by  diSerent  fa- 
thers. Castor's  father  was  Tyndareus,  a  Spar- 
tan king,  while  that  of  Pollux  was  Zeus,  the 
Greek  supreme  god.  By  another  account, 
however.  Castor  was  also  the  son  of  Zeus. 
Castor  was  a  great  charioteer  and  horse-mas- 
ter, who  was  eventually  killed  in  a  fight. 
Pollux  was  a  highly  distinguished  pugilist. 
His  father  Zeus  offered  him  immortality,  but 
he  begged  to  be  allowed  to  share  it  day  and 
day  about  with  the  deceased  Castor.  The 
request  was  granted,  and  both  brothers  were 
worshiped,  especially  at  Sparta,  under  the 
name  of  the  Dioscuri,  or  sons  of  Zeus.  They 
were  regarded  as  the  special  protectors  of  dis- 
tressed mariners.  The  Alexandrian  vessel  in 
which  Paul  sailed  from  Melita  to  Puteoli  had 
for  its  sign  or  figurehead  Dioskouroi.  This 
the  R.  V.  renders  The  Twin  Brothers  and  the 
A.  v.,  with  more  latitude.  Castor  and  Pollux 
(Acts  xxviii.  11).  The  constellation  Gemini 
(the  Twins)  is  called  after  the  affectionate 
brothers,  and  its  two  leading  stars  are  named 
Castor  and  Pollux. 

Cat'er-pil-lar. 

The  n  lulering  of  the  Hebrew  word  Hasil, 
devourer.  It  is  associated  with  the  locust, 
and  is  a  destroyer  of  vegetation  (1  Kin.  viii. 
37;  2  Chron.  vi.  28;  Ps.  Ixxviii.  46;  Is.  xxxiii. 
4;  Joel  i.  4;  ii.  25).  Probably  a  species  of 
locust,  or  the  common  migratory  locust  in 
one  stage  of  development  (cp.  Joel  i.  4  ;  ii.  25, 
margin  of  R.  V.).  For  Ps.  cv.  34  and  Jer.  Ii. 
27  of  A.  v.,  see  Cankerworm. 


Cattle 


118 


Census 


Cat'tle. 

A  comprehensive  term  used  in  the  O.  T. 
for  domestic  animals,  large  and  small,  for 
camels,  horses,  sheep,  goats,  oxen,  and  asses 
(Gen.  xiii.  2;  xxvi.  13,  14;  xxx.  32,  A.  V. ; 
xxxi.  8,  9,  38,  41  ;  xlvii.  16-18). 

Cau'da.     See  Clauda. 

Caul. 

1.  A  net  worn  over  the  hair  by  Hebrew  wo- 
men (Is.  iii.  18) ;  rendered  networks  on  the 
margin  of  both  the  11.  V.  and  the  A.  V. 

2.  The  lesser  omentum,  a  layer  of  the  inner 
lining  of  the  cavity  of  the  belly,  partly  en- 
veloping the  liver,  as  the  greater  omentum 
does  the  stomach  (Ex.  xxix.  13,  22;  Lev.  iii. 
4,  10,  15). 

Cave. 

A  hollow  place  or  cavern  in  the  side  of  a 
hill  or  in  any  similar  situation.  Caves  tend 
to  occur  in  all  cliffs  which  are  now  or  have 
at  any  former  time  been  washed  by  sea  waves ; 
they  are,  however,  mo.st  numerous  and  largest 
in  limestone  countries,  of  which  Palestine  is 
one.  Caves  served  as  dwellings  for  the 
aborigines  of  mount  Seir,  as  the  name  Horite 
indicates  (Gen.  xxxvi.  20).  Even  in  later 
times  they  were  used  as  temporary  abodes, 
as  by  Lot  and  his  daughters  after  the  de- 
struction of  Sodom  (xix.  30),  and  by  Elijah 
(1  Kin.  xix.  9).  They  were  natural  tombs, 
and  were  constantly  employed  for  burial  pur- 
l)oses ;  for  example,  the  cave  of  Machpelah 
(Gen.  xxiii.  1-20;  xlix.  29)  and  the  tomb  of 
Lazarus  (John  xi.  38).  In  times  of  war  and 
oppression  they  afforded  a  place  of  refuge 
(Judg.  vi.  2 ;  1  Sam.  xiii.  6  ;  xxiv.  3-10 ;  1 
Mac.  i.  53;  2  Mac.  vi.  11),  the  most  noted 
being  the  caves  at  Makkedah  (Josh.  x.  16-27) 
and  Adullam  (1  Sam.  xxii.  1;  2  Sam.  xxiii. 
13). 

Ce'dar. 

A  famous  tree  of  Lebanon  (1  Kin.  v.  6),  tall 
and  stately  (Is.  ii.  13 ;  Ezek.  xvii.  22 ;  xxxi. 
3).  It  furnished  a  timber  much  prized  in 
the  construction  of  palaces  and  temples  (2 
Sam.  V.  11  ;  1  Kin.  v.  5,  6 ;  vii.  1-12  ;  Ezra 
iii.  7).  From  it  pillars,  beams,  and  planks 
were  cut  (1  Kin.  vi.  9,  10,  18;  vii.  2,  7) ;  idols 
were  hewn  (Is.  xliv.  14) ;  masts  were  made 
for  ships  (Ezek.  xxvii.  5).  It  is  fragrant 
(Song  iv.  11 ;  Hos.  xiv.  7),  and  it  was  used  in 
ceremonial  purifications  (Lev.  xiv.  4 ;  Num. 
xix.  6).  The  tree  is  evidently  the  Cedar  of 
Lebanon  (Abies  cedrus  or  Cedrus  lihani),  is 
called  'erez  in  Hebrew,  and  bears  the  same 
name  in  Arabic,  namely  'arz.  It  is  a  large 
tree  of  dome-shaped  form,  with  long,  spread- 
ing, contorted  branches,  evergreen  leaves, 
and  cones  3  to  5  inches  long.  It  is  wild  on 
mount  Taurus  as  well  as  in  Lebanon.  The 
little  grove  of  trees  on  the  latter  range  gen- 
erally visited  by  travelers  was  long  believed 
to  be  the  only  one  ;  but  others  have  now  been 
discovered  on  the  back  of  the  mountain.  It 
is  doubtful  whether  the  Deodar  of  the  Hima- 
laya mountains  is  really  a  distinct  species. 


Ce'dron.     See  Kidron. 
Cel-o-syr'i-a.     See  Ccelesyria. 

Cen'clire-se,  in  A.  V.  Cenchrea  [millet]. 

The  eastern  of  the  two  pints  of  Corinth, 
that  which  gave  access  to  the  Archipelago. 
It  was  about  9  miles  from  the  city.  It  was 
visited  by  Paul  (Acts  xviii.  18) ;  and  it  pos- 
sessed a  Christian  church,  of  which  Phebe 
was  a  servant  or  deaconess  (Eom.  xvi.  1).  The 
village  of  Kikries  marks  the  site  and  pre- 
serves the  old  name  a  little  changed. 

Cen-de-bse'us,  in  A.  V.  Cendebeus. 

A  general  placed  in  command  of  the  sea- 
coast  of  Judfea  by  Antiochus  VII.  (1  Mac. 
XV.  38).  He  was  routed  by  Judas  and  John, 
sons  of  Simon  Maccabieus  (xvi.  1-10). 

Cen'ser. 

A  vessel  for  holding  incense  whilst  it  is 
being  burned  (Num.  xvi.  6,  7, 39).  Theceusers 
of  the  tabernacle  were  of  brass  (Lev.  xvi.  12 ; 
cp.  Ex.  xxvii.  3,  firepans) ;  those  of  the  tem- 
ple were  of  gold  (1  Kin.  vii.  50 ;  2  Chrou.  iv. 
22 ;  Heb.  ix.  4).  The  censers  of  the  book  of 
Eevelation  (viii.  3,  5)  were  also  of  gold. 

Cen'sus. 

An  enumeration  and  registration  of  a  peo- 
jile,  conveniently  made  among  the  Hebrews 
according  to  tribe,  family,  and  house  (Num. 
i.  18),  and  in  the  wilderness  iirobably  based 
on  the  reports  of  the  officers  over  thousands, 
hundreds,  fifties,  and  tens  (Ex.  xviii.  25 ;  cp. 
round  numbers,  Num.  i.  21,23,  etc.).  Besides 
enumerations  of  classes  of  the  people,  like 
that  of  the  firstborn  (Num.  iii.  43),  a  formal 
census  of  all  the  Israelites  of  military  age  is 
recorded  in  the  O.  T.  as  having  been  taken  on 
three  different  occasions.  The  first  was  taken 
at  mount  Sinai  in  the  second  month  of  the 
second  year  after  they  had  left  Egypt  (Num. 
i).  Omitting  the  Levites  (47-54),  there  were 
of  males  above  20  years  of  age,  and  capable 
of  bearing  arms,  603,5.50  (4.5-47 ;  xi.  21).  The 
recordsof  those  who  had  recently  paid  tribute 
were  probably  used  in  making  uji  the  lists 
(Ex.  xxxviii.  26).  The  Levites  fnmi  one 
month  old  and  upward  were  counted  sepa- 
rately, and  numbered  22,000  (Num.  iii.  39). 
The  second  census  was  taken  38  years  later 
at  the  camp  at  Shittim  in  the  Moabite  coun- 
try at  the  close  of  the  forty  years'  wandering. 
The  number  of  men  had  altered  but  slightly, 
and  now  was  601,730  (Num.  xxvi.  1-51),  Le- 
vites 23,000  (xxvi.  62).  The  third  census  was 
made  by  order  of  David,  who  found  that  there 
were  of  fighting  men  in  Israel  800,000,  in 
Judah  .500,000  (2  Sam.  xxiv.  1-9;  cp.  1  Chron. 
xxi.  1-6).  About  the  same  time  the  Levites, 
from  30  years  old  and  upward,  numbered 
38,000  (1  "Chron.  xxiii.  3).  An  enumeration 
was  made  of  the  exiles  who  rettirned  to  .Teru- 
salem  from  Babj-lonia  with  Zcrubbabel  (Ezra 
ii.),  and  an  enrollment  was  ordered  by  the 
emperor  Augustus  for  the  Roman  empire 
shortly  before  the  birth  of  Christ  (Luke  ii. 
1 ;  see  Quieinius). 


Centurion 


119 


Chaldea 


Cen-tu'ri-on  [from  Latin  centum,  one  hun- 
dred]. 

All  Dtficer  in  the  Roman  army  (Acts  xxi. 
32 ;  sxii.  26),  who  at  first  coninianded  1(X) 
soldiers  and  afterwards  about  that  number 
(cp.  xxiii.  23).  Two  are  mentioned  by  name 
in  tlie  N.  T. :  Cornelius,  stationed  at  (.'a'sarea, 
throufth  whom  it  was  made  evident  that  the 


Roman  Centurion. 

Holy  Spirit  is  given  to  gentile  believers  not 
less  than  to  Jewish  (Acts  x.),  and  Julius,  who 
conducted  Paul  and  other  prisoners  to  Rome 
and  treated  Paul  kindly  (Acts  xxvii.  1,  3, 
43).  Two  centurions,  besides  Cornelius,  be- 
lieved— one  at  Capernaum  (]Mat.  viii.  5-13), 
the  other  at  the  cross  (xxvii.  54). 

Ce'phas  [Aramaic,  rock  or  stone]. 

An  appellation  given  by  Jesus  to  the  apos- 
tle Simon  (John  i.  42  ;  1  Cor.  i.  12 ;  iii.  22  ;  ix. 
5  ;  XV.  5  ;  Gal.  ii.  9)  ;  from  it  his  best-known 
name  Peter,  which  is  the  Greek  equivalent  of 
Cephas,  arose. 

Chal-ced'o-ny  [from  Chalkedmi,  Kalkedon, 
a  town  in  Asia  Minor  where  the  mineral  was 
found] . 


A  precious  stone,  the  third  foundation  of  the 
wall  ofthe  New  Jerusalem  (Hev.xxi.lJ)).  Chal- 
cedony u.sed  to  be  regarded  as  a  distinct  .species 
of  siliceous  ( tlinty )  mineral,  but  is  now  reduced 
to  a  variety  of  the  species  quartz.  It  is  hard, 
its  largest  ingredient  being  silica.  It  is  of  a 
waxy  luster,  and  therefore  much  duller  than 
typical  quartz.  It  is  white-gray,  brown,  blue, 
etc.  It  is  not  perfectly  crystallized, 
but  often  coats  crystals  of  quartz.  It 
occurs  mas.sive,  in  veins,  in  nodules 
of  botryoidal  form  (/.  e.  resembling  a 
(Ulster  of  grapes),  or  in  stalactites. 
This  stone,  however,  did  not  receive 
the  name  chalcedony,  it  is  believed, 
until  the  Middle  Ages,  so  that  John, 
it  would  seem,  had  a  dilferent  stone 
of  Chalcedon  in  mind,  perhaps  the 
Chalcedonian  emerald  or  the  Chal- 
cedonian  jasper  which  are  mentioned 
by  Pliny  (37,  18  and  37). 

Chal'col.     See  Calcol. 

Chal-de'a  [akin  to  Hebrew  A'«s- 
(Vim,  and  perhaps  meaning  land  of  the 
conquerors  or  of  the  Cushlanders]. 

Originally  the  southern  portion  of 
Babylonia,  at  the  head  of  the  Persian 
Gulf,  but  the  designation  was  ulti- 
mately extended  to  the  whole  of  the 
alluvial  plain  stretching  from  above 
Hit  to  the  gulf.  In  the  southern  por- 
tion were  situated  Ur  and  Erech  ;  in 
the  northern  part  Babylon,  Cutha. 
Sippara.  There  were  other  cities  in 
the  country  which  are  not  mentioned 
in  the  Scriptures  or  are  not  identified. 
There  is  no  evidence  that  the  term 
Chaldea  included  the  plateau  to  the 
north,  in  whole  or  in  part.  The 
theory  that  it  did  is  ultimately  based 
on  the  identification  of  the  river 
Chebar,  which  was  in  the  laud  ofthe 
Chaldeans  (Kzek.  i.  3),  with  the  river 
of  Mesopotamia  called  by  the  Greeks 
Chaboras.  But  this  identification  can- 
not be  maintained,  for  the  Hebrews 
distinguished  the  two  rivers  by  names 
radically  difterent,  K'^bar  and  Habor. 
Again,  the  presence  of  people  called  Chal- 
deans in  the  mountains  of  Kurdistan  dur- 
ing the  retreat  of  the  ten  thousand  under 
Xenophon  (Anabasis  iv.  3,  4,  etc.),  and  of 
others  in  Pontus  mentioned  by  Strabo  (.549) 
has  been  urged  as  proof  that  the  primitive 
home  of  the  Chaldeans  was  in  Armenia.  That 
theory  seems  now  to  be  abandoned ;  partly 
doubtless  because,  although  the  Kurdish 
mountains  and  adjacent  country  were  re- 
peatedly traversed  by  the  armies  of  Assyria 
during  a  period  of  seven  hundred  years,  be- 
ginning in  the  fourteenth  century  B.  C.  and 
the  geographical  notices  in  the  records  of 
these  military  expeditioiisare  full  and  minute, 
yet  there  is  no  report  of  the  Assyrians  having 
found  a  people  or  country  called  Kaldu  in  all 
that  region.     If  the  people  called  Chaldeans 


Chaldean 


120 


Chariot 


by  the  classical  writers  referred  toare  jjroperly 
named,  aud  have  any  couuectiou  with  the 
Chaldeans  of  the  south,  they  are  late  immi- 
grants, relics  perhajis  of  the  imperial  army 
of  Babylonia,  rather  than  the  original  stock. 
Chal-de'an,  in  N.  T.  Chaldaean. 

1.  A  native  or  inhabitant  of  C'haldea.  Chal- 
deans are  mentioned  in  the  literature  of 
Babylonia  and  Assyria  in  documents  of  the 
ninth  century  B.  c,  as  already  established 
on  the  shores  of  the  Persian  gulf  and  having 
Bit-yakin  for  their  capital.  Under  Merodacb- 
baladan  they  conquered  Babylonia,  aud  later 
gave  their  name  to  the  whole  of  that  country. 
Job  speaks  of  their  predatory  bands  (i.  17), 
Isaiah  mentions  their  maritime  tendencies 
(xliii.  14),  and  Ezekiel  desci-ibes  their  luxury 
and  display  (xxiii.  15). 

2.  One  of  the  priests  of  Bel-marduk  at 
Babylon  (Herod,  i.  181,  183),  who  were  es- 
teemed as  possessors  of  wisdom  (Dan.  i.  4; 
ii.  2,  4). 

Chal-dees'. 

A  variant  form  of  Chaldeans  used  in  the 
expression  Ur  of  the  Chaldees  (Gen.  xi.  31 ; 
Neh.  ix.  7),  and  also  sometimes  in  A.  V.  when 
there  is  no  mention  of  Ur  (2  Kin.  xxiv.  2 ; 
XXV.  4,  10,  13,  25,  26 ;  2  Chron.  xxxvi.  17 ;  Is. 
xiii.  19). 

Chalk'stone. 

A  stone  taken  from  the  limestone  rocks 
which  constitute  a  marked  feature  of  Pales- 
tine (Is.  xxvii.  9). 

Chal'pM,  in  A.  V.  CalpM. 

Father  of  Judas,  one  of  the  two  captains 
who  stood  by  Jonathan  Maccabseus  at  Hazor 
(1  Mac.  xi.  70). 

Cliam'ber-lain. 

One  who  looks  after  the  private  chambers 
of  a  palace  or  mansion  ;  as  Blastus,  who  was 
over  Herod's  bedchamber  (Acts  xii.  20) ;  or 
one  who  has  charge  of  the  treasure  chamber, 
as  Erastus,  the  treasurer  of  the  city  of  Corinth 
(Rom.  xvi.  23,  A.  V.  ;  in  R.  V.  treasurer).  In 
the  O.  T.  the  word  rendered  chamberlain  sig- 
nifies eunuch,  and  is  often  translated  so;  see 
Eunuch. 

Cha-me'le-on  [the  ground  lion]. 

A  reptile  which  belongs  to  the  same  order 
as  lizards,  but,  according  to  the  present  classi- 
fication, not  to  the  same  group.  The  name  is 
found  in  Lev.  xi.  30.  In  R.  V.  it  is  the  ren- 
dering of  the  Hebrew  Tinshemeih,  breathing, 
inflation  (in  A.  V.  mole),  whereas  in  A.  V.  it 
represents  the  Hebrew  word  Koah  (in  R.  V. 
land  crocodile;  see  Lizard).  The  lungs  of 
the  lizard  are  very  large  and,  when  ex- 
jianded,  render  it  semi-transparent.  Its  eye- 
balls protrude  from  the  head,  and  are  inde- 
pendent in  their  action,  so  that  it  can  turn 
one  eye  up  and  the  other  down,  or  look  in 
difierent  directions  and  at  different  objects  at 
the  .same  time.  It  has  also  the  faculty  of 
changing  its  hue  in  accordance  with  the  color 
of  the  objects  about  it  or  with  its  temper 


when  disturbed.  This  power  is  due  to  the 
presence  of  clear  or  pigment-bearing  cells  in 
the  skin,  their  contractions  and  dilatations 
being  controlled  by  the  nervous  system.  It 
lives  in  trees.  Its  feet  are  fitted  for  use  as 
hands  and  its  tail  is  prehensile,  so  that  it  is 
able  to  cling  to  the  branches.  It  feeds  upon 
insects  which  it  captures  by  means  of  its  long 
tongue  covered  at  the  end  with  a  viscous  sub- 
stance. 

Cham'ois. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Zemei;  leaper. 
The  animal  is  ruminant.  (Deut.  xiv.  5).  It 
is  not  the  real  chamois,  which  is  a  native  of 
the  European  mountains  from  the  Pyrenees 
to  the  Caucasus,  but  does  not  occur  in  Pales- 
tine. 

Cham-paign'  [open  country]  (Deut.  xi.  30, 
A.  v.).     See  Arabah. 

Cha'naan.    See  Canaan. 

Cha-phen'a-tha,  in  A.  V.  Caphenatha. 

Apparently  a  portion  of  the  eastern  wall 
of  Jerusalem,  perhaps  one  of  the  towers  or 
other  mural  fortifications  (1  Mac.  xii.  37),  and 
possibly  even  the  tower  that  stood  out  from 
the  upper  house  of  the  king  (Neh.  iii.  25). 

Chap'i-ter. 

The  capital,  i.  e.  the  head  or  uppermost 
part  of  a  column,  pillar,  or  pilaster  (1  Kin. 
vii.  16).  It  can  be  varied  in  form  and  orna- 
mentation, according  to  the  order  of  archi- 
tecture used  in  the  building  (Ex.  xxxvi.  38; 
xxxviii.  17,  19;  1  Kin.  vii.  19,  20). 

Chap 'man. 

Originally  a  merchant ;  then  a  mere  ped- 
lar (2  Chron.  ix.  14). 

Char'a-shim  [craftsmen],  in  R.  V.  Ge-har- 
ashim  [valley  of  craftsmen]. 

A  valley  in  Judah  (1  Chron.  iv.  14),  in- 
habited after  the  exile  by  the  tribe  of  Ben- 
jamin (Neh.  xi.  35).  Conder  suggests  the 
ruin  Hirsha  as  an  echo  of  the  name,  on  the 
slope  of  a  wady  1|  miles  southeast  of  Aijalon 
and  11  miles  west-northwest  of  Jerusalem. 

Char'clie-inish.    See  Carchemish. 

Char'ger. 

A  large  dish  or  platter.  The  name  is  ap- 
propriately used  in  the  English  version  for 
the  dish  on  which  the  head  of  John  the  Bap- 
tist was  brought  to  Herodias'  daughter  (Mat. 
xiv.  8),  and  for  the  silver  dishes  of  1.30 
shekels'  weight  presented  by  the  tribal  princes 
at  the  dedication  of  the  altar  (Num.  vii.  13). 
The  Hebrew  word  rendered  charger  in  the 
last  passage  denotes  the  golden  dishes  which 
stood  on  the  table  of  showbread  (Ex.  xxvi. 
29  ;  Num.  iv.  7). 

Char'i-ot. 

A  two-wheeled  vehicle,  of  various  forms, 
drawn  by  horses  (2  Sam.  viii.  4),  and  used 
for  military  (Ex.  xiv.  9;  1  Sam.  xiii.  5),  state 
(Gen.  xii.  43  ;  2  Sam.  xv.  1  ;  1  Kin.  i.  5),  and 
private  purposes  (Gen.  xlvi.  29  ;  2  Kin.  v.  9; 
Acts  viii.  28).    The  bed  was  open  behind,  and 


Charity 


121 


Chemarim 


rested  on  the  axle  without  springs.  The 
wheels  were"  not  clumsy,  but  cousisted  of 
felloes,  spokes,  and  naves,  and  were  often 
of  metal  (1  Kin.  vii.  33j.  Chariots  were  hut 
poorly  adapted  to  the  hills  of  l^alestine,  and 
were  not  much  used,  but  they  were  common 
among  the  Canaauites  iu  the  valley  (Josh. 
xvii.  16 ;  Judg.  iv.  3),  and  among  the  Egyp- 
tians (Is.  xxxi.  ll,  Ethiopians  (2  Chron.  xvi. 
8),  Syrians  (2  Kin.  v.  9),  Hittites  (2  Kin.  vii. 


Royal  Assyrian  Chariot. 

6),  and  Assyrians  (Xah.  ii.  3,  4  ;  iii.  2).  The 
war  chariots  commonly  carried  a  driver  (2 
Chron.  xviii.  33),  and  occasionally  a  shield- 
bearer,  besides  the  warrior  himself.  Probably 
among  the  Hebrews  a  third  person,  perhaps 
shieldbearer,  sometimes  occupied  the  chariot 
(2  Kin.  ix.  25).  The  war  chariot  was  at  times 
constructed  of  iron  or  covered  with  iron 
plates  (Josh.  xvii.  16,  18  ;  Judg.  i.  19;  iv.  3). 
The  Persians  armed  the  axles  and  sometimes 
the  tongue  with  scythes.  Cruel  chariots  of 
this  sort  were  seen  iu  Palestine  in  the  Seleuci- 
dan  period  (2  i\Iac.  xiii.  2).  A  four-wheeled 
vehicle  may  be  intended  in  Eev.  xviii.  13. 
See  additional  illustration  under  Bow. 

Char'i-ty. 

Love,  often  manifested  by  almsgiving.  The 
charity  described  iu  1  Cor.  xiii.  is  not  alms- 
giving, as  is  evident  from  ver.  3;  it  is  love, 
charity  in  the  broad  sense,  love  toward  all. 
It  is  so  rendered  by  the  R.  V. 

Char'ran.     See  Haran. 

Che'bar. 

A  river  in  the  land  of  the  Chaldeans,  on 
the  banks  of  which  some  of  the  .Jewish  ex- 
iles, including  the  prophet  Ezekiel,  were  set- 
tled. It  was  there  that  the  prophet  saw  sev- 
eral of  his  visions  (Ezek.  i.  1,  3;  iii.  15,  23  ;  x. 
15,  20).  It  is  not  the  river  called  by  the  Greeks 
Chaboras,  which  rises  near  Nisibis  in  upper 
Mesopotamia,  and  falls  into  the  Euphrates 
at  Circesium,  for  the  Hebrew  name  of  this 
river  was  Habor.  The  Chebar  was  doubtless 
a  Babylonian  canal.  These  streams  were 
known  by  the  name  nar,  river. 

Ched-or-la'o-mer  [Elamite,  servant  of  the 
god  Lagamar]. 

A  king  of  Elam.  who  evidently  held  the 
sovereignty  over  Babylonia.     In  the  days  of 


Abraham,  in  alliance  with  Amraphel,  king  of 
Shinar,  Ariocli,  king  of  EUasar,  and  Tidal, 
king  of  Goiim,  he  made  an  expedition  to  the 
west  and  subjugated  the  country  about  the 
Dead  Sea.  The  i)eople  of  the  plain  served 
him  twelve  years  and  then  revolted.  The 
next  year  Chedorlaomer  came  with  his  allies 
and  smote  the  region  east  of  the  Jordan  from 
Bashan  southward,  the  land  of  Edoni  to  the 
head  of  the  Red  Sea,  the  country  afterwards 
inhabited  by  the  Amalekites,  and  the  pli'.iu 
about  the  Dead  Sea.  This  conquest  gave 
him  control  of  the  caravan  routes  from 
Arabia  past  the  head  of  the  Red  Sea  to 
Egypt,  Canaan,  and  the  north.  But  he 
carried  oti'  Lot  from  Sodom.  This  in- 
duced Abraham  to  lead  his  numerous 
servants  and  his  allied  chieftains  to  the 
pursuit.  They  fell  upon  Chedorlaomer 
by  night  at  Dan,  put  him  and  his  fol- 
lowers to  flight,  and  recovered  the  captives 
and  the  spoil  (Gen.  xiv.  1-16).  Much  light 
has  been  thrown  on  this  narrative  by  the 
cuneiform  inscriptions  on  the  Assyrian  and 
.  Babylonian  monuments.  Kudurnanhundi, 
king  of  Elam.  plundered  the  city  of  Erech 
in  Babylonia  about  2285  B.  c.  Later  the 
sovereignty  over  Babylonia  was  exercised  in 
succession  by  the  Elamite  kings  Simtishil- 
hak  and  his  son  Kudurmabug.  The  latter 
appears  to  have  ruled  over  Canaan  also,  and 
he  was  not  the  first  Babylonian  king  by  any 
means  who  had  been  master  in  the  far  west. 
His  son  was  Eriaku,  king  of  Larsa,  probably 
Arioch,  king  of  Ellasar.  Chedorlaomer's 
name,  in  its  native  form  Kudurlagamar, 
proves  that  he  was  an  Elamite,  and  his  as- 
sociation with  Arioch  and  the  extent  of  his 
sway,  strongly  indicate  that  he  was  a  mem- 
ber of  this  dynasty  and  a  successor  of  Kudur- 
mabug. 

Cheese. 

The  curd  of  milk,  coagulated,  separated 
from  the  whey,  and  pressed  (Job  x.  10  ;  cp. 
1  Sam.  xvii.  18 ;  2  Sam.  xvii.  29).  A  valley 
at  Jerusalem  bore  the  name  Cheesemongers 
(War  V.  4,  1). 

Che'lal  [consummation,  completion]. 
A  son  of  Pahath-moab,  whom  Ezra  induced 
to  divorce  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  30). 

Che'lub  [wicker  basket ;  bird's  cage]. 

1.  A  brother  of  Shuah.  whose  lineage  is  not 
traced  but  who  was  entitled  to  registry  in  the 
tribe  of  Judah  (1  Chron  iv.  11). 

2.  The  father  of  David's  officer  over  the 
cultivators  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  26). 

Che-lu'bai.     See  Caleb  1. 

Cheru-hi,  in  A.  V.  Chel'luh. 

A  son  of  Bani,  whom  Ezra  induced  to  di- 
vorce his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  35). 

Chem'a-rim,  in  text  of  A.  Y.  Chemarims. 

Priests  of  the  high  places  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  5, 
margin),  of  the  calves  at  Bethel  (Hos.  x.  5, 
margin),  and  of  Baal  (Zeph.  i.  4). 


Chemosh 


122 


Cherub 


Cbe'mosh  [probably  subduer]. 

The  god  of  the  Moabites  (Num.  xxi.  29 ; 
Jer.  xlviii.  40  ;  Moabite  Stone  3),  worshiped  in 
the  same  manner  as  was  Molech,  by  the  sac- 
rifice of  children  as  burnt  oflerings  (2  Kin. 
iii.  27).  His  identity  with  Molech  appears 
further  from  Judg.  xi.  24,  where  the  god  of 
the  Ammonites,  who  was  Molech  (1  Kin.  xi. 
7),  is  called  Chemosh.  Solomon  erected  a 
high  place  for  him  near  Jerusalem  (1  Kin.  xi. 
7),  which  was  afterwards  defiled  by  Josiah  (2 
Kin.  xxiii.  13). 

Che-na'a-nali  [feminine  of  Canaan]. 

1.  A  Benjamite.  family  of  Jediael  (1  Chron. 
vii.  10). 

2.  The  father  of  the  false  prophet  Zedekiah 
who  deluded  Ahab  (1  Kin.  xxii.  11 ;  2  Chron. 
xviii.  10). 

Cben'a-ni  [firm]. 

A  Levite  who  assisted  in  bringing  the  re- 
turned exiles  to  such  a  frame  of  mind  that 
they  agreed  to  enter  iuto  a  covenant  to  wor- 
ship Jehovah  (Neh.  ix.  4). 

Chen-a-ni'ah  [Jehovah  is  firm]. 

A  chief  of  the  Levites  in  David's  reign,  of 
the  house  of  Izhar,  who  was  appointed  super- 
intendent of  the  outward  business,  such  as 
judging  (1  Chron.  xxvi.  29),  and  the  trans- 
portation of  the  ark  (xv.  22,  27,  margin  ;  in 
text,  song). 

Che-phar-arn'mo-ni,  in  A.  V.  Che-phar- 
ha-am'mo-nai  [village  of  the  Ammonite]. 

A  village  of  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii.  24). 
Site  unknown. 

Che-pM'rah  [village]. 

A  city  of  the  Gibeonites  (Josh.  ix.  17),  al- 
lotted to  the  Benjamites  (xviii.  26).  It  con- 
tinued to  exist  after  the  captivity  (Ezra  ii. 
25  ;  Neh.  vii.  29).  Its  site  is  the  ruin  Kef  ireh, 
8  miles  west-northwe.st  of  Jerusalem. 

Che'ran  [possibly  cither  or  lute] . 

A  Horite,  a  son  of  Dishon  (Gen.  xxxvi.  26 ; 
1  Cliron.  i.  41). 

Cher'eth-ites,  in  A.  V.  once  Cherethims 
[probably  Cretans] . 

A  nation  or  tribe  inhabiting  the  Philistine 
country  or  its  southern  portion  (1  Sam.  xxx. 
14  ;  Ezek.  xxv.  16  ;  Zeph.  ii.  5,  6).  They  may 
be  identical  with  the  Philistines  who  came 
from  Caphtor  (q.  v.),  or  may  represent  a  di- 
rect emigration  from  Crete.  Some  of  them 
were  members  of  David's  bodyguard  (2  Sam. 
viii.  18  with  xxiii.  23;  xv.  18).  In  three 
places  the  name  Carite  appears  in  their  stead 
(2  Sam.  XX.  23;  2  Kin.  xi.  4,  19,  both  E.  V.). 
It  has  been  suggested  that  this  name  preserves 
the  memory  of  Carian  inhabitants  of  Crete, 
alluded  to  by  classical  writers. 

Che'rith  [cut,  gorge]. 

A  brook  before  Jordan,  by  which  Elijah 
sojourned  (1  Kin.  xvii.  3,  5).  Whether  east 
or  west  of  the  Jordan  is  uncertain. 

Cher'ul),  plural  Cher'u-biin ;  in  A.  V. 
Cherubims. 

1.  Guardians  placed  east  of  the  garden  of 


Eden  to  prevent  the  approach  of  our  first  pa- 
rents to  the  tree  of  life  after  thefr  expulsion 
from  the  garden  (Gen.  iii.  24).  When  the  ark 
was  constructed  for  the  tabernacle,  cherubim 
wrought  of  ^Id  were  placed  facing  each, 
other,  one  at  each  side  of  the  mercy  seat, 
overshadowing  it  with  their  wings  (Ex.  xxv. 
18-20;  xxxvii.  7-9).  They  symbolized  the 
presence  and  unapproachability  of  Jehovah, 
whose  glory  was  manifested  between  them 
(Lev.  xvi.  2),  who  thus  dwelt  in  the  midst  of 
his  people,  and  was  present  in  the  tabernacle 
to  receive  worship  (Ex.  xxv.  22;  Lev.  i.  1). 
Frequent  reference  is  made  to  Jehovah  dwell- 
ing between  the  cherubim  (Num.  vii.  89;  1 
Sam.  iv.  4  ;  2  Sam.  vi.  2  ;  2  Kin.  xix.  15  ;  Ps. 
Ixxx.  1;  xcix.  1;  Is.  xxxvii.  16).  Cherubim 
were  also  embroidered  on  the  hangings  of  the 
tabernacle  (Ex.  xxvi.  1).  For  the  grander 
temple  Solomon  had  two  gigantic  cherubs 
made.  The  height  was  ten  cubits,  or  about 
fifteen  feet,  and  the  expansion  of  their 
wings  as  many  more.  They  were  of  olive 
wood,  and  were  overlaid  with  gold  (1  Kin.  vi. 
23-23;  viii.  7:  2  Chron.  iii.  10-13;  v.  7,  8; 
Heb.  ix.  5).  Cherubs,  with  palm  trees  and 
open  flowers,  were  also  carved  all  round  the 
walls  of  the  temple  (1  Kin.  vi.  29).  In  a 
poem  David  represented  Jehovah  as  riding 
upon  a  cherub  and  flying  (2  Sam.  xxii.  11 ; 
Ps.  xviii.  10).  Ezekiel  had  a  vision  of  cherubs 
by  the  river  Chebar.  Each  had  four  faces 
and  four  wings  (Ezek.  x.  1-22  ;  cp.  is.  3),  and 
since  they  seem  to  be  identical  with  the 
four  living  creatures  previously  seen  by  the 
prophet,  these  four  faces  were  those  of  a  man, 
a  lion,  an  ox,  and  an  eagle  (cp.  i.  5-12  with 
X.  20,  21).  They  carried  the  throne  of  Jeho- 
vali  (i.  26-28 ;  ix.  3).  Finally  the  apostle  John 
in  the  apocalypse  describes  four  living  crea- 
tures, who  had  faces  like  those  of  the  same 
four  animals  (Rev.  iv.  6  9). 

It  is  possible,  though  not  yet  proven,  that 
the  Assyrians  had  acquaintance  with  the 
same  idea.  Their  winged,  man-headed  bulls 
have  a  certain  external  physical  resemlilauce 
to  cherubim  as  sometimes  described  in  the 
Hebrew  Scriptures  ;  and  they  performed  the 
same  function,  being  placed  at  the  entrance 
of  palaces  and  temples  whore  majesty  dwelt. 
It  is  especially  ])remature,  however,  to  assert 
that  the  bulls  of  Assyria  bore  a  name  similar 
to  that  of  the  Hebrew  cherubim. 

The  varying  forms  assumed  by  the  cherubim 
in  art  and  poetic  imagery  show  that  they 
were  symbols.  But  symbols  of  what  ?  The 
flaming  sword  (Gen.  iii.  24).  and  the  dark- 
ness under  Him  who  did  ride  upon  a  cherub 
and  flew  upon  the  wings  of  the  Mund  (Ps. 
xviii.  10),  have  been  cited  as  the  main  sup- 
port of  the  theory  that  the  cherub  is  in  ulti- 
mate analy.sis  the  storm  cloud.  It  is  true 
that  the  cherubim  might  represent  some 
power  of  nature,  or  all  the  powers  of  nature, 
as  the  servants  of  Jehovah  and  guardians  of 
his  abode.  But  the  biblical  writers  represent 
the  cherubim,  symbolically  at  least,  as  ani- 


Chesalon 


123 


Chorazin 


mate  beings  with  the  intelligence  of  man, 
the  strength  of  the  ox,  thi\  courage  of  the 
lion,  and  the  free  motion  of  the  eagle  through 
the  air.  The  facts  at  preseut  obtainable  in- 
dicate an  order  of  angels. 

2.  A  place  in  Babylonia,  from  which  cer- 
tain persons  came  who  could  not  prove  their 
Israelite  descent  (Ezra  ii.  59;  Neh.  vii.  Gl). 
Situation  unknown.     Pronounced  ke'rub. 

Ches'a-lon  [trust,  hope]. 

A  town  on  the  boundary  line  of  Judah,  on 
mount  Jearim  (Josh.  xv.  10),  commonly  iden- 
tilied  with  the  village  of  Kesla,  10  miles  west 
of  Jernsiileni. 

Che'sed  [jierhaps  the  noun  from  which 
Kdxd'nn,  Chaldoans.  is  derived]. 

A  son  of  Xahor  by  his  wife  Milcah  (Gen. 
xxii.  22). 

Che'sil  [a  fool]. 

A  village  in  the  most  southerly  region  of 
Judah  (Josh.  xv.  30)  ;  apparently  called  also 
Bet  lull  and  Bethuel. 

Chesfnut.    See  Plank. 

Che- sul 'loth  [trusts,  or  perhaps  the  loins 
or  slojics]. 

A  town  on  the  boundary  line  of  Issachar 
(Josh.  xix.  18),  probably  the  same  as  Chisloth- 
tabor  (q.  v.). 

Cheth,  in  E.  V.  Heth. 

The  eighth  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet. 
English  H,  which  developed  out  of  the  same 
original,  and  Ch,  though  neither  ispronounced 
with  the  guttural  sound  of  cheth,  represent 
it  in  anglicized  Hebrew  names,  as  Haran, 
Chezib.  It  stands  at  the  beginning  of  the 
eighth  section  of  Ps.  cxix.  in  several  versions, 
in  which  section  each  verse  begins  with  this 
letter. 

Che'zib.    See  Achzib. 

Chi'don  [a  javelin]. 

A  name  for  the  threshing  floor  at  which 
Uzza  was  struck  dead  for  touching  the  ark 
(1  Chron.  xiii.  9).  In  2  Sam.  vi.  6  called 
Nachon.  The  diflerence  of  name  has  not 
been  satisfactorily  explained.  Exact  site  un- 
known. 

Chil'e-ab. 

David's  second  son,  born  at  Hebron.  His 
mother  was  Abigail  (2  Sam.  iii.  3).  He  is 
called  in  1  Chron.  iii.  1  Daniel. 

CMl'i-on  [a  wasting  away]. 

The  vounger  son  of  Elimelecli  and  Xaomi 
(Ruth  i'.  2,  5). 

Chil'mad. 

A  ])lace  which  traded  with  Tyre,  mentioned 
in  connection  with  Sheba  and  Asshur  (Ezek. 
xxvii.  23). 

CMm'liain  [longing]. 

The  son  of  Barzillai  the  Gileadite.  When 
the  father  was  invited  by  David  to  Jerusalem, 
and  declined  the  honor  on  account  of  liis  ad- 
vanced age,  Chimham  was  sent  in  his  place 
(2  Sam.  xix.  37,  3b;.     He  seems  to  have  set- 


tled in  the  vicinity  of  Bethlehem  and  erected 
a  caravansary  (Jer.  xli.  17). 

CMn'ne-retli  and  Chinneroth,  in  A.  V.  once 
Cinneroth  d  Kin.  xv.  20)  [lute,  harp]. 

1.  A  fortified  city  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  xix. 
35;  cj).  also  Deut.  iii.  17). 

2.  The  region  around  the  city  of  Chinnereth 
(1  Kin.  XV.  20  ;  cp.  also  Josh.  xi.  2),  com- 
monlv  identified  with  the  plain  of  Gennesaret 
(Mat."xiv.  34). 

3.  The  sheet  of  water  adjacent  to  the  forti- 
fied city  and  region  of  Chinnereth  (Num. 
xxxiv.  11:  Josh.  xii.  3;  xiii.  27;  1  Kin.  xv. 
20).  In  later  times  known  as  the  lake  of 
Gennesaret  (Luke  v.  1)  and  sea  of  Galilee  or 
Tiberias  (John  vi.  1). 

Chi'os. 

An  island,  now  called  Scio  or  Chio,  in  the 
Greek  Archipelago,  at  the  entrance  of  the 
Gulf  of  Smyrna.  It  has  Lesbos  on  the  north 
and  Samos  on  the  south.  It  is  about  32  miles 
long  from  north  to  south,  18  broad  from  east 
to  west,  and  has  an  area  of  about  400  square 
miles.  Paul's  vessel  passed  it  on  his  last  voy- 
age to  Palestine  (Acts  xx.  15). 

Chis'lev,  in  A.  V.  Chisleu. 
The  ninth  month  of  the  Hebrew  year  (Neh. 
i.  1;  Zech.  vii.  1 ;  1  Mac.  i.  54).     See  Year. 

Chis'lon  [trust,  hope]. 
Father  of  the  prince  of  Benjamin  in  the 
time  of  Moses  (Num.  xxxiv.  21). 

Chis'lotli-ta'bor  [the  flanks  of  Tabor  or 
the  trust  of  Tabor]. 

A  town  at  the  lower  part  of  mount  Tabor, 
on  the  boundary  line  of  Zebulun  (Josh.  xix. 
12) ;  probably  the  same  as  Chesulloth,  a  town 
on  the  border  of  Lssachar  (ver.  18).  The  two 
names  are  radically  identical ;  they  differ 
merely  in  the  vocalization,  and  this  difler- 
ence of  pronunciation  is  not  supported  by 
the  Septuagint.  Eusebius  mentions  a  vil- 
lage Chasalus  in  the  plain  near  mount  Tabor. 
The  place  is  commonly  identified  with  the 
modern  village  of  Iksal  or  Ksal,  which  stands 
on  a  rocky  eminence  west  of  Tabor. 

CMth'lisli,  in  A.  Y.  Kithlisn. 

A  village  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  40). 

CMt'tim.     See  Kittim. 

CM'un. 

A  word  occurring  but  once  in  the  Hebrew 
Bible,  in  Amos.  v.  26,  and  of  doubtful  mean- 
ing. It  is  probably  the  planet  Saturn,  known 
to  the  Syrians  as  Kewan  or  Kaivan,  and  which 
was  looked  upon  as  unpropitious. 

Chlo'e  [the  fir,st  shoot  of  green  grass]. 

A  Christian  woman,  apparentlv  of  Corinth 
(1  Cor.  i.  11). 

Chor-a'shan.     See  Ashan. 

Cho-ra'zin. 

A  town  mentioned  along  with  Bethsaida 
and  Capernaum,  and  probably,  like  them, 
near  the  sea  of  Galilee.     Like  the  two  other 


Chozeba 


124 


Chronicles,  Books  of  the 


places,  Choraziu  had  at  times  been  the  scene 
of  the  Saviour's  preaching  and  beneficent 
miracles ;  but  it  tailed  to  turn  its  spiritual 
privileges  to  account,  and  was  di)omed  to 
suft'er  the  penalty  of  its  neglect  (Mat.  xi.  21 ; 
Luke  s.  13).  Eusebius,  in  the  fourth  cen- 
tury, said  that  it  was  2  Eonian  miles  from 
Capernaum.  In  1842  the  Ke»-.  G.  Williams 
believed  that  he  had  found  it  at  Kerazeh, 
about  2}   miles  north  of   Tell   Hum.     The 


name  was  first  given  at  Antioch,  about  a.  d. 
43,  and  apparently  by  foes  rather  than  friends 
(Acts  xi.  2(j).  Though  destiued  ultimately  to 
become  universal,  yet  it  took  root  so  slowly 
that  it  is  found  only  twice  again  in  the  N.  T., 
once  in  the  mouth  of  Agrippa  II.,  when  Paul 
preached  repentance  and  remission  of  sins 
through  Jesus  and  testified  to  the  resurrec- 
tion of  Christ  (Acts  xxvi.  1«,  23,  28),  and 
once  in  a  letter  from  Peter  to  comfort  the 


Kerazeh,  Site  of  Chorazin. 


identification  is  now  generally  accepted.  It 
is  a  little  inland,  in  a  side  valley  branching 
off  from  another  one  which  goes  down  to  the 
lake.  The  spot  is  marked  by  extensive  ruins, 
including  a  synagogue. 

Cho-ze'ba.     See  Cozeba. 

Christ  [Greek,  anointed]. 

The  Anointed  One.  a  title  corresponding  to 
the  Hebrew  name  Messiah,  which  denoted 
the  anointed  king  of  Israel,  and,  after  Saul's 
reign,  the  royal  son  of  David.  The  term  was 
borrowed  from  the  Septuagint,  specially  from 
Ps.  ii.  2  ;  Dan.  ix.  25.  When  used  in  the  N. 
T.  it  generally  has  the  word  the  prefixed,  and 
means  the  Messiah  of  O.  T.  prophecy  (Mat. 
xvi.  16,  20  ;  xxvi.  63  :  Mark  viii.  29  ;  Luke  iii. 
la:  John  i.  41).  Sometimes  (he  is  omitted 
(Mat.  xxvi.  68;  John  iv.  25). 

Christ,  though  really  used  in  the  primary 
sense,  is  so  constantly  appended  to  Jesus,  the 
distinctive  personal  name  of  our  Lord,  given 
from  his  birth,  as  virtually  to  constitute  part 
of  the  .proper  name  (John  i.  17  ;  Acts  xi.  17  ; 
Rom.  i.  1  ;  v.  1  ;  Philemon  1,  etc.). 


Chris 'tian. 

A  follower  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ. 


The 


faithful  whose  adherence  to  Christ  brought 
persecution  upon  them  (1  Pet.  iv.  16). 

Chron'i-cles,  Books  of  the. 

Two  historical  books  of  the  O.  T.  They 
are  evidently  the  work  of  a  single  author, 
for  they  have  unity  of  plan  and  purpose,  and 
are  incomplete  if  one  is  sundered  from  the 
other.  In  fact  they  actually  formed  one  book 
in  the  old  Hebrew  canon.  The  Septuagint 
translators  divided  them  into  two,  and  this 
division  was  finally  admitted  into  priuted 
editions  of  the  Hebrew  canon.  The  Hebrew 
name  of  the  books  is  "  Acts  of  the  Days,"  ;.  e. 
of  the  Times.  The  Septuagint  calls  them 
Paraleipomena,  or  things  left  over.  The  title 
is  unfortunate,  since  it  incorrectly  implies 
that  the  book  was  intended  as  a  suii])lement, 
whereas  it  has  an  indejiendent  aim.  The 
name  Chronicles  is  derived  from  the  title 
Ch  ro)iico)i  applied  to  these  writings  by  Jerome, 
who  describes  them  as  "a  chronicle  of  the 
whole  of  sacred  history." 

The  work  naturally  divides  itself  into  two 
parts:  1.  The  genealogies,  especially  of  Jndah, 
Benjamin,  and  Levi,  from  the  creation  to  the 
return  from  the  Babylonian  exile  (1  Chron. 


Chronicles,  Books  of  the 


125 


Chronology 


i.-viii.),  with  a  rejiister  of  those  who,  prob- 
ably before  the  exile,  dwelt  in  Jerus;ileui  (ix. 
1-84).  The  transition  to  part  seeond  is  af- 
forded by  means  of  the  genealogy  and  death 
of  Saul  and  Jonathan  (ix.  35-x.  14).  2.  His- 
tory of  the  Israelites,  more  esjiecially  of 
Judah,  from  the  accession  of  David  to  the 
return  from  the  Babylonian  exile  (xi.-2 
C'hron.  xxxvi.). 

The  abrupt  conclusion  of  the  work,  and 
the  identity  of  its  closing  verses  with  the 
opening  verses  of  Ezra,  have  been  thought 
to  indicate  that  Chronicles  and  Ezra  were 
originally  one  continuous  history.  But  the.se 
verses  are  a  quotation  either  in  both  Chroni- 
cles and  Ezra  from  the  same  state  document, 
or,  more  probably,  in  one  book  from  the 
other.  The  books  themselves  never  consti- 
tuted one  work.  They  are  entirely  different 
in  plan,  and  ancient  tradition  never  reckoned 
them  as  one.  They  may,  however,  have  had 
one  and  the  same  author. 

The  first  datum  which  bears  on  the  ques- 
tion as  to  when  the  work  was  composed  is 
found  in  the  genealogies.  The  line  of  David  is 
brought  down  to  a  date  later  than  any  other. 
The  grandchildren  of  Zerubbabel  are  men- 
tioned (1  Chron.  iii.  19-21),  consequently  the 
work  cannot  have  been  composed  a  great 
while  before  the  time  of  Ezra.  It  is,  how- 
ever, frequently  affirmed  that  yet  later  de- 
scendants of  Zerubbabel  are  registered,  even 
the  sixth  generation  after  him  (21-24).  But 
there  is  not  the  shadow  of  i)roof  that  the 
families  enumerated  in  verse  21,  latter  part, 
were  descendants  of  Hananiah,  son  of  Zerub- 
babel. Their  descent  and  that  of  Shecaniah, 
whose  posterity  is  given  at  considerable 
length  (21-24).  are  not  indicated.  The  phe- 
nomenon of  unattached  families  is  of  com- 
mon occurrence  in  these  genealogies,  and, 
when  the  text  is  not  at  fault,  indicates  that 
the  family  thus  loosely  catalogued  belonged 
to  the  clan  or  tribe  with  which  it  is  registered, 
though  its  connection  is  not  traced.  The 
four  families  enumerated  in  verse  21  be- 
longed to  the  lineage  of  David,  and  were  col- 
lateral with  the  royal  line  which  descended 
through  Hananiah.  son  of  Zerubbabel.  The 
other  indications  likewise  point  to  the  time 
of  Ezra.  The  amount  contributed  toward 
the  erection  of  the  temple  is  stated  in  Per- 
sian coins,  not  in  Greek  (1  Chron.  xxix.  7, 
R.  v.,  darics),  which  indicates  that  the  Greek 
empire  had  not  supplanted  the  Persian  when 
the  work  was  composed.  The  designation 
of  the  temple  as  "the  Birah,"  the  castle  or 
the  palace  (1  Chron.  xxix.  1,  19),  indicates  a 
time  not  later  than  Xehemiah  ;  for  after  his 
time  '■  the  Birah  "  denoted  not  the  temple, 
but  a  structure  erected  by  him  (Xeh.  ii.  8; 
vii.  2.  both  R.  V.),  which  came  to  be  distin- 
guished from  the  temple  and  all  other  build- 
ings as  the  castle;  see  Axtoxia,  Tower  of. 

Ancient  opinion  was  that  Chronicles  was 
written  by  Ezra.  This  tradition  cannot  be 
proved,  and  it  is  not  vital  that  it  should  be. 


But  there  is  no  valid  objection  to  it ;  and  it 
is  strengthened  by  peculiarities  of  language 
common  to  Chronicles  and  Ezra.  These  i)ecu- 
liarities  have  led  most  modern  critics,  even 
when  inrtuenced  by  the  unwarranted  inter- 
l)retation  of  the  genealogy  in  iii.  19-24  to  as- 
sign a  late  date  to  Chronicles,  nevertheless  to 
hold  that  the  two  books  in  their  jtresent  form 
are  from  the  siime  hand. 

Chronicles  stands  among  the  Hagiographa, 
the  last  division  of  the  Hebrew  canon,  and 
not  among  "  the  prophets."  This  is  evidence 
that  the  author  was  not  a  prophet ;  see 
Canon.  The  Masorites,  followed  as  a  rule 
by  Spanish  manuscripts,  placed  Chronicles 
first  in  order  among  the  Hagiographa  and 
immediately  before  the  Psalms.  In  the 
printed  editions  of  the  Hebrew  Bible,  and 
in  German  and  French  manuscripts,  it  fol- 
lows Ezra-Nehemiah,  and  is  the  last  book  in 
the  division.  This  position  it  probably  oc- 
cui)ied  at  the  time  of  Christ,  for  Zechariah  is 
cited  as  the  la.st  [named]  prophet  who  suf- 
fered a  violent  death  (JIat.  xxiii.  35;  Luke 
xi.  51 ;  cp.  2  Chron.  xxiv.  20-22). 

Chro-nol'o-gy. 

The  nations  of  antiquity  did  not  have  a 
uniform  system  of  chronology  ;  nor  did  they 
entertain  the  same  notions  and  feel  the  same 
need  of  an  exact  and  unvarying  chronological 
method  as  does  the  modern  world.  The  As- 
syrians and  Babylonians  ajipear  to  have  been 
confident  of  their  ability  to  date  events  of  re- 
mote antiquity  :  but,  so  far  as  known,  they  did 
not  ha^e  an  era  serving  as  a  fixed  standard 
from  which  to  reckon  all  occurrences,  but 
named  each  year  after  a  public  official,  and 
kept  a  list  of  these  annual  eponyms.  An 
event  having  been  dated  by  the  eponymy  in 
whicli  it  happened,  its  remoteness  was  readily 
ascertained  by  counting  on  the  list  or  canon 
the  number  of  eponyms  that  had  intervened. 
In  Babylonia,  Assyria,  Palestine,  and  Egypt, 
documents  were  frequently  dated  by  the  reg- 
nal year  of  the  reigning  monarch.  Unfortu- 
nately the  scribes  did  not  always  reckon  uni- 
formly; but  under  the  same  king  some  re- 
garded the  accession  year  as  the  first  regnal 
year,  while  others  considered  the  civil  twelve- 
month which  followed  the  accession  as  the 
first  year  of  the  reign.  Furthenuore,  a  son 
was  not  infrequently  associated  with  his 
father  on  the  throne,  and  some  scribes  treated 
the  first  year  of  a.ssociation  with  the  father, 
and  others  the  first  year  of  sole  reign,  as  the 
first  regnal  year.  The  deficient  sense  of 
chronology,  estimated  by  modern  concep- 
tions, is  seen  in  the  fact  that  Josephus  deter- 
mines the  duration  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel 
by  simply  adding  together  the  number  of 
years  that  each  king  ruled,  regardless  of  the 
fact  that  the  reigns  regularly  overlapped  one 
year,  since  the  death  of  a  king  and  the  ac- 
ces.sion  of  his  successor  fell  in  the  same  year, 
and  this  year  was  apt  to  be  reckoned  to  both 
reigns.    Pursuing  this  method,  he  states  that 


Chronology 


126 


Chronology 


the  kingdom  of  Israel  lasted  240  years,  7 
months,  and  7  days  (Antlq.  ix.  14,  1)  ;  yet  by 
other  calculations,  which  he  makes  on  the 
basis  of  the  reigns  of  the  kings  of  Judah,  he 
implies  that  the  period  was  263  years  (e.  g. 
Antiq.  x.  8,  5  with  viii.  7,  8  and  x.  9,  7).  The 
same  lack  of  a  nice  chronological  sense  ap- 
pears in  the  fact  that  Josephus  estimates  the 
number  of  years  that  elapsed  from  the  ex- 
odus to  the  founding  of  the  temple  at  592 
(Antiq.  viii.  3,  1),  at  other  times  at  612  (xx. 
10  ;  con.  Apion.  ii.  2),  the  Hebrew  writer  at 
480  (1  Kin.  vi.  1),  and  Paul  apparently  at 
about  574  (Acts  xiii.  18-21  and  1  Kin.  ii.  11 ; 
vi.  1).  These  diverse  statements  appear  con- 
tradictory to  the  modern  reader  who  lacks 
the  historic  sense  and  cannot  divest  himself 
of  modern  chronological  conceptions ;  but 
they  are  accurate  in  the  sense  in  which  they 
were  intended,  and  in  which  they  were  un- 
derstood. 

The  era,  as  it  is  used  in  modern  chronology, 
came  into  use  at  a  comparatively  late  date. 
The  exodus  from  Egypt  served  the  Hebrews 
for  a  brief  time  as  a  point  from  which  to 
reckon  (Ex.  xvi.  1  ;  Num.  is.  1 ;  x.  11 ;  xxxiii. 
38).  The  Eomans  dated  all  documents  by 
the  name  of  the  consul  in  office,  and  later 
they  added  the  regnal  year  of  the  emperor. 
Their  historians  began  to  date  from  the  foun- 
dation of  the  city,  A.  u.  c,  but  the  custom 
did  not  arise  until  some  centuries  after  the 
event.  Varro's  date  for  the  founding  of  the 
city,  753  B.  c,  is  generally  accepted  as  the 
commencement  of  this  era.  The  Greeks 
reckoned  by  periods  of  four  years  called 
Olympiads.  The  first  began  in  776  b.  c,  the 
year  in  which  Coroebus  was  victor  in  the 
Olympic  games.  The  Syrians  used  the  Se- 
leucidan  era,  beginning  with  October  312 
B.  c.  It  was  used  by  the  Jews  in  Maccabsean 
times  (1  Mac.  i.  10).  The  Mohammedans  date 
from  the  Hegira,  or  flight  of  Mohammed  from 
Mecca,  in  a.  d.  622.  The  Jews  use  a  world's 
era,  dating  from  the  creation,  which  they 
place  in  the  year  3760-61  b.  c.  Christian 
nations  have  adopted  the  birth  of  Christ  as 
an  era.  At  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury, the  Eoman  abbot  Dionysius  in  his 
Easter  tables  counted  from  the  incarnation 
of  the  Lord.  The  abbot  erred  in  his  calcula- 
tion of  the  date  of  Christ's  birth,  but  the 
year  which  he  fixed  upon,  A.  u.  c.  754,  has 
been  accepted  as  the  commencement  of  the 
Christian  era.  The  Christian  era  began,  not 
with  no  year,  but  with  a  first  year.  Events 
which  occurred  within  the  civil  year  which 
included  Christ's  birth  are  dated  in  the  first 
year. 

Dates  were  placed  in  the  margin  of  A.  V. 
in  1701.  They  represent  the  chronological 
scheme  of  Usher,  archbishop  of  Armagh, 
which  he  published  in  his  Annales  Veteris  et 
Novi  Testamenti  in  1650-54.  His  work  was 
careful  and  scholarly,  and  served  a  useful 
purpose  for  two  centuries  and  a  half.  But 
it  is  inaccurate  and  obsolete.     It  gives  only 


one  of  several  possible  arrangements.  It  is 
based  in  critical  points  on  Usher's  private  in- 
terpretation of  disputed  passages,  in  some  of 
which  he  clearly  erred,  as  has  been  proved  in 
recent  years.  His  system  was  worked  out 
from  the  standpoint  of  modern  chronologica.1 
conceptions,  and  fails  to  do  justice  to  the 
diti'erent  notions  which  prevailed  in  an- 
tiquity. It  was  constructed  without  the  in- 
valuable aid  of  data  which  have  been  brought 
to  light  by  modern  research.  But  although 
Usher's  system  is  obsolete,  it  cannot  as  yet  be 
superseded  by  a  complete  and  final  scheme. 
A  few  dates  are  fixed,  and  the  chronology  of 
certain  periods  is  established.  Other  dates 
are  still  under  investigation  or  are  awaiting 
disclosure  from  undiscovered  ancient  records. 
Much  is  tentative. 

Feom  the  Creation  of  the  World  to 
THE  Birth  of  Abraham. 

The  data  are  furnished  by  the  Hebrew 
records  in  Gen.  v.  1-32 ;  vii.  11 ;  xi.  10-26. 
There  are  several  possible  methods  of  inter- 
preting them,  among  which  may  be  men- 
tioned : 

I.  The  genealogy  was  constructed  by  the 
ancient  writers  in  the  same  manner  that  it 
would  be  framed  by  people  of  the  present 
day. 


Adam           having  lived  130  years, 

begat 

Seth,           who  "         ' 

105 

' 

Enosb,           "     "         < 

90 

' 

Kenan,          <<     "         ' 

70 

Mahalalel,    "     "         " 

65 

' 

Jared,            "     <<         < 

162 

' 

Enoch,           '<     "         ' 

65 

' 

Methuselah,"     "         ' 

187 

' 

Lamech,        <■     "         ' 

182      " 

Noah,  in  whose 

600th  yeai 

the  flood 

From  the  creation  to 

came. 

the  flood. 

1656  ye 

ars. 

Noah  having  lived  500  years,  begat 

Shem,         who   "         "100      "  '' 

Arpachshad"     "        "      35      "  " 

Shelah,         "     "         "      30      " 
Eber,  "     "         "      34      " 

Peleg,  "     "         "      30      "  " 

Eeu,  "     "         "      32      " 

Serug,  "     "         "      30      " 

Nahor,  "     "         "      29      "  " 

Terah,  "     "         "      70      " 

Abram.  Nahor,  and 
Haran,  890  years  after  birth 

of  Noah. 
290     "     after     the 

flood. 
1946     "     after     the 

creation. 

The  two  years  of  Gen.  xi.  10  are  added  to 
this  result  by  Usher,  according  to  whom 
Terah  begat  his  sons  1948  years  after  the 
creation.  On  this  interpretation  Shem  was 
not  the  eldest  son  of  Noah,  as  is  generally  be- 


Chronology 


127 


Chronology 


lieved,  born  when  his  father  was  500  yoai-s  old 
(Geu.  V.  32).  But  xi.  10  has  another  exphina- 
tiou.  Interpreting  the  data  of  the  genealogy 
as  before,  Noah  having  lived  500  years  begat 
Shem,  who  having  lived  100  years,  begat 
Arpachshad.  Arpachshad  was  thus  born  in 
the  GOlst  year  of  Noah's  life.  He  was  born 
in  the  second  civil  year  after  the  flood  year, 
counting  it  the  first.  The  flood  year  was  the 
600th  of  Noah's  life  (vii.  6,  11).  the  flood 
itself  prevailing  during  five  mouths  of  that 
year.  Noah  lived  350  full  years  after  the 
flood  year,  counting  it  the  first  (ix.  28).  In 
the  flood  year  he  was  599  years  and  some 
months  old.  As  he  lived  350  years  longer,  he 
died  when  he  was  949  years  and  some  months 
old,  in  the  950th  year  of  his  age  (ix.  29).  There 
are  discrepancies  between  the  Hebrew,  the 
Septuauint,  and  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch. 
The  Hebrew  text  is  evidently  the  most  ac- 
curate one  with  respect  to  dates.  The  Sep- 
tuagint,  probably  on  the  ground  that  the  long- 
lived  antediluvians  were  not  likely  to  beget 
a  sou  while  they  were  less  than  150  years  old, 
took  the  liberty  of  adding  a  century  to  the 
Hebrew  date,  where  it  was  said  that  they 
had  done  so,  as  in  the  case  of  Adam,  Seth, 
Enosh,  Kenan,  Mahalalel,  and  Enoch.  The 
minor  variations  are  that  to  Lamech  the 
Alexandrian  text  and  Lucian  assign  188  + 
565  =  753  vears ;  and  Lucian  divides  Methu- 
selah's life  into  167  +  802  =  969  years.  The 
Samaritan  Pentateuch,  on  the  contrary,  ap- 
parently on  the  ground  that  an  antediluvian 
was  not  likely  to  have  lived  150  years  with- 
out begetting  his  first  son,  finding  by  the  He- 
brew text  that  Jared  did  so  at  162,  Methuse- 
lah at  187  {according  to  Lucian  at  167),  and 
Lamech  at  182,  cut  the  figures  down  to  62,  67, 
and  53.  This  reduced  the  total  length  of  their 
lives,  whereas  the  Septuagint  had  carefully 
balanced  its  additions  to  the  first  part  of  the 
lives  by  corresponding  subtractions  from  the 
later  part,  so  that  the  total  length  of  each  life 
was  the  same  in  that  version  as  in  the  He- 
brew original,  except  in  the  case  of  Lamech. 
Similarly,  in  the  case  of  the  postdiluvian  pa- 
triarchs who  preceded  Abraham,  the  Septua- 
gint hesitates  to  allow  them  to  beget  a  son  till 
they  are  100  years  old.  It  adds  100  years  to 
the  ages  at  which  sons  were  begotten  by 
Arpachshad,  Shelah,  Eber,  Peleg,  Reu,  and 
Serug,  and  50  (Alexandrian  manuscript  and 
Lucian)  to  the  time  of  life  when  Nahor  begat 
Terah.  After  Arjmchshad  it  inserts  Kenan, 
and  states  that  he  begat  Shelah  when  1.30 
years  old.  The  Samaritan  Pentateuch  allows 
them  to  beget  a  son  after  50 ;  and  in  the  case 
of  Arpachshad,  Shelah,  Eber,  Peleg,  Reu,  and 
Serug  adds  100  years  to  the  age  assigned  by 
the  Hebrew  text,  and  50  years  in  the  case  of 
Nahor. 

II.  Many  links  are  omitted.  As  in  other 
Hebrew  genealogies,  each  member  is  said  to 
have  begotten  his  successor,  although  the 
latter  may  be  a  grandson  or  even  remoter 
descendant;  as  in  the  royal  genealogy  given 


in  Matthew,  the  three  kings  Ahaziah,  Joash, 
and  Amaziah  are  passed  over  and  Joram  is 
said  to  have  begotten  Uzziah,  his  great-great- 
grandson  (i.  8,  R.  v.).  Only  prominent  mem- 
bers of  the  line  are  enumerated,  or  else,  as  an 
aid  to  memory,  a  definite  number  is  chosen  ; 
in  Matthew  groups  of  twice  seven,  in  Genesis 
groups  of  ten. 

Adam,  at  the  age  of  130  begat 
Seth,  who  at  the  age  of  105  begat 

Ancestor  of  Enosh  or  Enosh  himself. 
Enosh,  at  the  age  of  90  l)egat 

Ancestor  of  Kenan  or  Kenan  himself. 
Kenan,  at  the  age  of  70  begat 

Ancestor  of  Mahalalel  or  Mahalalel  him- 
self. 

According  to  this  theory,  the  Hebrew  records 
aflbrd  no  basis  for  a  chronology  from  Adam 
to  Abraham.  It  assumes,  further,  that  the 
age  assigned  to  the  patriarchs  is  that  of  their 
natural  life.  Adam  lived  930  years.  This 
extraordinary  longevity  is  accounted  for  by 
the  fact  that  sin,  which  has  a  physical  effect 
and  works  disease  and  death,  had  only  be- 
gun its  malign  influence  on  the  race,  and  had 
not  reached  its  normal  hereditary  power. 
The  balance  between  man  in  a  sinless  state 
and  man  in  the  condition  of  sinner  had  not 
been  attained. 

III.  The  names  denote  an  individual  and 
his  family  spoken  of  collectively ;  as  Israel 
denotes  a  patriarch  and  his  descendants,  Kain 
is  used  for  the  Kenites  (Num.  xxiv.  22,  R.  V.), 
David  for  the  royal  house  (1  Kin.  xii.  16), 
Sometimes  the  family  takes  its  name  from  its 
progenitor  or  later  leading  member  of  the 
tribe ;  sometimes  the  name  of  the  tribe  or 
of  the  country  it  inhabits  is  applied  to  its 
chief  representative,  as  to-day  men  are  con- 
stantly addressed  by  their  family  name,  and 
nobles  are  called  by  the  name  of  their  duchy 
or  county.  In  Gen.  x.  the  names  in  the  gen- 
ealogy are  sometimes  individuals,  sometimes 
peoples,  sometimes  cities,  sometimes  coun- 
tries; and  in  the  pedigree  of  Abraham  given 
in  this  chapter  Arpachshad,  whom  Shem  be- 
gat (x.  22),  is  apparently  a  country  whose  in- 
habitants were  descendants  of  Shem,  and  this 
country  produced  Shelah.  The  longevity  is 
the  period  during  which  the  family  had 
prominence  and  leadership. 

Adam,  1 

F'amilvof  Seth  originated  when  Adam 
was"l30  years  old  (v.  3).  130 

Adam  and  his  direct  line  were  at  the 
head  of  affairs  for  930  years  (ver.  5), 
when  thev  were  superseded  by 
Family  of  Seth,  930 

In  Seth,  105  years  after  it  attained 
headship,  the  family  of  Enosh  took 
its  rise  (ver.  6).  1035 

After  being  at  the  head  of  affairs  for 
912  years  (ver.  8),  Seth  was  suc- 
ceeded by 


Chronology 


128 


Chronology 


1842 
1932 


2747 

6848 

7030 

7625 

8125 
8225 

8227 


Pamily  of  Eiiosh, 

Niuety  years  after  Euosh  attained  to 
headship  there  spraug  from  it  the 
family  of  Kenau  (ver.  9). 
After  Euosh  had  held  the  leadership 
815  years  longer  (ver.  10),  Euosh 
gave  place  to 
Family  of  Kenan, 
Family  of  Lamech, 

Family  which  took  its  name  from  Noah 

originated, 
Lamech  is  succeeded  by 
Family  of  Noah, 

Shem,  Ham,  and  Japheth  born  about 
Flood, 

Arpachshad  originates. 
The  race  of  Shem,  as  distinct  frbm  the 
other  descendants  of  Noah,  become 
preeminent,  8575 

Hence  the  years  from  the  creation  of  Adam 
to  the  flood  were  8225,  and  from  Adam  to  the 
death  of  Terah  may  be  11,571.  This  outline 
exhibits  one  application  of  the  theory;  but 
it  must  he  remembered  that  at  different  points 
in  the  genealogy  various  interpretations  are 
possible,  which  must  be  subject  to  individual 
preference  until  further  data  come  to  light. 

From  the  Birth  of  Abraham  to  the 
Exodus. 

How  long  after  the  flood  Abraham  was 
born  cannot  be  determined  from  the  biblical 
record,  not  even  by  the  flrst  method  enume- 
rated above  and  employed  by  Usher  in  inter- 
preting the  genealogy  from  Adam  to  Abra- 
ham, for  the  age  of  Terah  at  the  birth  of  Ab- 
raham is  not  so  stated  in  Gen.  xi.  26, 32  as  to  be 
unquestionable  ;  see  Abraham.  According 
to  Usher,  Abraham's  birth  occurred  in  1996 
B.  c.  The  period  from  the  birth  of  Abraham 
to  the  descent  into  Egypt  can  be  measured  : 

Birth  of  Abraham  to 

"     "    Isaac    100  years  (Gen.  xxi.  5). 
"     "    Jacob    60  years  (Gen.  xxv.  26). 
Jacob's  age  at  de- 
scent into  Egypt    130  years  (Gen.  xlvii.  9). 

290  years. 
The  sojourn  of  the  children  of  Israel  in 
Egypt  was  430  years  (Ex.  xii.  40,  41).  But 
from  what  initial  date  is  this  period  reck- 
oned ?  From  the  covenant  with  Abraham 
(Gen.  XV.),  when  he  was  between  75  and  85 
years  old  (xii.  4  ;  xvi.  3),  as  Usher  and  many 
others  believe,  or  from  the  descent  into 
Egypt?  Probably  from  the  latter  event; 
see  Egypt  III.  3. 

It  is  generally  believed  that  Eamses  II. 
was  the  Pharaoh  of  the  oppression,  and  one 
of  his  successors,  probably  Mer-n-ptah  (a  name 
more  familiar  in  the  form  Meneptah),  was 
the  Pharaoh  of  the  exodus  ;  see  Egypt  III.  8. 
The  date  of  Eamses  II.  may  be  approxi- 
mately fixed  by  the  fact  that  Amen-hetep,  or  as 
the  Greeks  pronounced  the  name,  Amenophis 
IV.  of  Egypt  was  a  contemporary  of  Ashuru- 


ballit  of  Assyria.  Tukulti-adar,  fifth  in  descent 
from  Ashuruballit,  reigned,  according  to  a 
statement  of  Sennacherib,  about  1300  B.  c. 
The  fifth  or  sixth  king  on  the  throne  of  Egypt 
after  Amenophis  IV.  was  Ramses  II.,  an  indi- 
cation that  Ramses  II.  reigned  about  1300  B.  c. 
The  date  of  Meneptah's  reign  was  deter- 
mined in  the  following  manner  :  Menophres, 
apparently  Meneptah,  is  the  king  in  whose 
reign  the  Sothic  period  of  1460  years  is  said 
to  have  begun.  According  to  Theon  the  as- 
tronomer, the  Sothic  period  ended  in  A.  D. 
139.  It  began,  therefore,  in  1321  B.  c.  Hence 
Meneptah's  reign  included  the  year  1321. 
On  the  basis  oi"  these  calculations  for  the  date 
of  the  reigns  of  Ramses  II.  and  Meneptah, 
the  exodus  has  been  provisionally  fixed  at 
about  1320.  This  date  will  be  lowered  about 
forty  years  if  Dr.  Mahler,  astronomer  at 
Vienna,  proves  to  be  correct  in  his  opinion, 
founded  on  astronomical  data,  that  Ramses 
II.  reigned  from  1348  to  1281  b.  c. 

From  the  Exodus  to  the  Foundation 
OF  Solomon's  Temple. 

This  interval  was  doubtless  reckoned  as 
twelve  periods  of  forty  years  each  (1  Kin. 
vi.  1),  of  which  the  first  covered  the  sojourn 
in  the  wilderness  (Ex.  xvi.  35  ;  Num.  xiv.  33), 
six  certainly,  and  probably  eight,  were  al- 
lowed for  the  time  of  the  judges  proper,  the 
oppression  and  rest  being  frequently  included 
in  the  statement  (Judg.  iii.  11,  30 — double 
period  ;  v.  31 ;  viii.  28 ;  xiii.  1 ;  and  prob- 
ably X.  1-4  and  xii.  7-14),  the  high  xiriest- 
hood  of  Eli  counted  as  one  (1  Sam.  iv.  18), 
Saul's  reign  probal)ly  as  another  (Acts  xiii. 
21),  while  David's  reign  made  the  twelfth 
(1  Kin.  ii.  11).  But  the  forty  years  are  a 
round  number,  and  not  always  exact.  The 
periods  enumerated  were  sometimes  in  whole 
or  in  part  contemporary ;  see  Judges.  Jeph- 
thah  speaks  of  the  Israelites  having  occupied 
the  country  about  Heshbon  for  300  yeai-s 
(Judg.  xi.  26),  some  seven  periods  of  forty 
years.  Josephus,  reckoning  in  a  diflerent  man- 
ner, estimates  the  time  from  the  exodus  to  the 
temple  at  592  or  612  years  (Antiq.  viii.  3,  1 ; 
XX.  10),  while  Paul,  according  to  the  received 
text,  refers  to  the  period  of  the  judges  as 
lasting  about.  450  years  (Acts  xiii.  20).  As 
already  pointed  out,  these  diverse  results  do 
not  contradict  each  other,  although  they  do 
not  agree.  The  variations  are  due  to  the 
difi'ereut  methods  employed  in  calculating. 
The  sum  was  not  supposed  to  represent  the 
exact  duration  of  the  period,  as  would  a 
modern  chronological  statement.  The  length 
of  the  period  cannot  be  given  in  modern 
terms  until  new  data  come  to  light. 

From  the  Found.vtion  of  the  Temple  to 
THE  Exile  and  Return. 

The  temple  was  founded  in  the  fourth  year 
of  Solomon  (1  Kin.  vi.  1).  Solomon  reigned 
forty  years,  and  was  succeeded  by  Rehoboam, 


Chronology 


129 


Chronology 


ou  whose  ascensiou  of  the  throne  the  teu 
tribes  revolted.  The  data  obtained  from  both 
Hebrew  and  foreign  sources  may  be  arranged 
according  to  the  following  scheme.  For  dis- 
cussion of  the  details,  see  the  articles  in  this 
Manual  which  are  devoted  to  the  several 
kings,  and  a  brief  monograph  on  the  chronol- 
ogy by  Prof.  Davis  in  the  Piesbyteridii  and  Re- 
formed Kevieir,  l.s91.  pp.  98-114.  In  general  it 
may  be  remarked  that  this  scheme  recognizes 
the  existence  of  co-reigns.  They  were  com- 
mon in  the  neighboring  monarchies,  and  are 
proven  in  individual  cases  for  the  Hebrews. 
David  when  incajiacitated  by  age  for  govern- 
ment, and  in  danger  of  having  his  throne 
usurped,  had  Solomon  made  king  (1  Kin.  i.). 
When  Uzziah  was  compelled  to  seclude  him- 
self because  he  had  become  a  leper,  Jotham 
assumed  the  duties  of  royalty  (2  Kin.  xv.  5). 
The  scheme  further  recognizes  that  among  the 
Hebrews,  as  among  neighboring  nations,  no 
fixed  rule  existed  as  to  whether  the  acces.siou 
year  of  a  king  or  the  civil  year  which  fol- 
lowed should  be  counted  as  the  first  regnal 
year.  Some  recorders  followed  one  method, 
others  another.  Examples  might  be  multi- 
plied ;  one  will  suffice.     In  Ptolemy's  canon 

1  K.  14  :  21.       Rehoboam.  i 

2 

2  C.  11  :  17.  Three  years'  godliness.         3 

4 
1  K.  14  :  25.  Shishak's  invasion.  5 

6 


604,  the  civil  year  following  accession  is 
treated  as  the  first  regnal  year.  So  it  is  by 
Josephus  also,  and  likewise  in  the  record 
whence  Jer.  Hi.  28-30  is  taken.  On  the  other 
hand  Jeremiah  himself  and  Daniel  and  Pales- 
tinian writers  of  their  day  generally  num- 
bered the  accession  year  of  Nebuchadnezzar 
his  first  year,  synchronizing  Jehoiakim  4 
with  Nebuchadnezzar  1,  and  Zedekiah  11  with 
Nebuchadnezzar  19.  It  will  be  oli.served, 
finally,  that  two  events,  the  slaughter  of 
Ahaziah  of  Judah  and  Jehoram  of  Israel  by 
Jehu  and  the  fall  of  Samaria,  divide  the  his- 
tory of  the  divided  monarchy  into  three 
])eriods,  each  chronologically  complete  in 
itself.  The  dates  of  these  two  events  are 
established.  The  chronology,  therefore,  of 
each  of  these  periods  must  be  settled  by 
itself.  Ditliculties  whicli  arise  in  matters 
of  adjustment  atiect  only  their  own  period, 
not  the  others. 

This  scheme  is  not  offered  as  final  in  every 
particular.  Slightly  different  arrangements 
of  the  data  are  possible  at  several  points :  for 
exam])le,  in  the  matter  of  Athaliah's  usurpa- 
tion. Such  minor  modifications,  however,  do 
not  affect  the  chrouologv  as  a  whole. 


1    Jeroboam. 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 


1  K.  14  :  20. 


IK  15 

2  C.  13 


1  K.  15  :  9, 10. 


2  C.  14  :  1. 


2  C.  14  :  9-15. 


2  C.  15  :  10 
15:19)* 
16:  1-2/ 


17  915  17 

Abijam.  1 18 

2  19 

Asa  ascends  throne       .  .  .  ^ 20 

1st  regnal  year.  (      1  21 

I      2 12-    Nadab.  1  Kin.  15  :  25. 

Land  quiet  ten  years.   \      ^  •  ■  g„,-   "   ' '  ?,    ^aasha.  1  K.  15 :  28-33. 

[    10  8 

f     11  9 

War    with    Zerah    be-   I     12  .900           10 

tween  years  11  and  14   ]     13  11 

t    14  12 

Reformation.                         15  13 

Buys  aid  of  Benhadad        16  14 

against  Baasha. 

25  887            23 

26 1 2<  .  Elah.  1 K.  16  :  8. 

27 Vf.  .   .  Zimri  (7  days).  IK.  16:10,15. 

28  2       Omri.  1  K.  16 :  15, 16. 

29  3 

30  4 
31 5 


LXX.1K.16:28. 
2  C.  16  :  12. 


36 


876 


10 


Omri  prevails  and  reigns  with  un- 
disputed authority.  1  K.  16  :  22,  23. 


Jehoshaphat  associated. 1 11 

2-38 12. 

Asa  diseased  3  39 

4  40 


1    Abab. 


fLXX  IK.  16: 29. 
t     Heb.        do. 


♦The  dates  35  and  36  given  in  these  verses  in  the  Hebrew  text  were  explained  by  the  older 
commentators  as  reckoned  from  the  commencement  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah.  The  immbers  are 
then  correct.  Modern  interpreters  generally  regard  the  Hebrew  text  as  corrupt,  and  read  15  or  25 
and  16  or  26  for  35  and  .36  respectively.  They  are'doubtless  ripht  in  doing  so  :  for  the  text  of  Chron- 
icles has  not  been  transmitted  as  carefully  as  it  should  have  been,  and  the  phrase  "  year  of  Asa  " 
•or  other  king  always  refers  to  his  regnal  year,  and  Baasha  was  dead  before  the  3.3th  and  36th  years 
of  Asa. 


Chronology 


130 


Chronology 


IK.  22:41,42. 


2  K.  8  :  25, 26. 
2  C.  22  : 1. 


Jehoshaphat.  5  41 

1st  vear  of  sole  reign.  1 
2 

Marries  his  first-born  (  3 
Jehoram  to  daugh--  4 
ter  of  Aliab.  (      5 


870 


Jehoram  associated. 


19 

20 

1  21 


Ahaziah.  l  K.  22  :  51. 

Ahab  and  Benhadad  defeated  by 
Shalmaneser  near  Hamath.  Ob.  54. 


2  K.  8:16,17. 


2  C.  21  :  18,  19. 
2  K.  9  :  jy. 
2  K.  8  :  25, 26. 

2  K.  11 :  1-3. 


Jehoram  sole  king. 


2..18 

3  19 

4  20 

5  21 

1  . 


4 

5 
Sorely  disea.sed,  hence      6 
Ahaziah  made  regent.  .   .  7 
Ahaziah,  king.  .  .  8 

Slain  by  Jehu. 
Joash,  sole  surviving  heir 
and  legitimate  king. 
In  concealment  torsi.\; 
years  from  Athaliah, 
who  usurped  the 
power. 


2  K.  11 :  4 ;  12 : 1.    Placed    on  throne    and 
Athaliah  slain. 


850 


840 


Jehoram. 

War  with  Moab. 


2  K.  1:17;  3:1. 
2  K.  3:  4seq. 


Shalmaneserat  war  with  Benhadad. 
Shalmaneserat  war  with  Benhadad. 
Benhadad  besieges  Samaria. 

2  K.  6  :  24. 

Shalmaneser  at  war  with  Benhadad. 

Benhadad  murdered  and  succeeded 
by  Hazael  between  845-3. 

Jehoram  slain  by  Jehu. 
Jehu  seizes  the  throne. 

Jehu    and    Hazael    pay  tribute  to 
Shalmaneser.  III.  K.  5,  No.  6, 40-65. 


Shalmaneser  at  war 
with  Hazael. 


Obelisk  102. 


2  K.  12  :  6. 


2  K.  12  :  17 


2  Chron.  24  :  25. 


Ant.  ix.  9  :  3. 


2K. 
2K. 


2  K.  14  :  17. 
2  K.  14  :  19. 

2  K.  14  :  22. 
2  K.  15  :  1. 

2  K.  15  :  5. 


Kenewed  attempt  to  re-    23 
pair  temple. 

28 
Hazael    against    <";ath 
and.lerusalem.  When 
he  ili'iiarts.he  leaves 
Joash  sorely  diseased.      37  . 
Amaziah      accordingly         1 , 
undertakes  the  govern- 
ment. 2 

Joash  slain  and  Ama-     (40)  3 
ziah  sole  king. 


Defeated  and  his  cap- 
ital taken  by  Je- 
hoash. 


Conspired  against. 
Uzziah  <>r  Azariah  pro- 
claimed by  populace. 


On  account  of  Jehu's  increasing 
age  and  incapacity  for  war, 
....    21  1    Jehoahaz  associated.  Antiq.  ix.  8,  5, 
820  2  and  2  K.  13  :  10,  correcting  ver.  1. 

3        Hazael  against  Israel.  2  K.  10  :  32. 


1 


Amaziah  survives  Je- 

hoash  15  years. 
Amaziah  slain  and  Uz-  (29)  11 

ziah  supreme.  12 

Builds  Elath  after 

death  of  Amaziah. 
In  special  sense 

"  reigns." 


Becomes  leprous. 


(28 


803 


791      15 


775 


•>7 

25 

28 

36 
37 

750 

39 
40 

Jehoahaz  alone.  2  K.  10  :  36. 

Hazael    continues    to 
oppress  Israel  all  the 
days  of  Jehoahaz.     2  K.  13  :  3,  22. 
Jehoash.  2  K.  is  :  lo. 


[Bin-addn]-mari,  king  of  Damascus, 
besieged  by  Kamman-nirari. 

Moabites  invade  Israel.  2  K.  13  :  20. 
Jehoash  victorious  over 
Benhadad.  2  K.  13  :  25. 


Jeroboam  ascends. 
1st  regnal  year. 


2  K.  11 :  23. 


Ant.  ix.  10,  3- 


Earthquake  hereabouts. 


Chronology 


131 


Chronology 


2  K.  15  :  32, 33.    Jotham. 


2  K.  lv> :  32. 
2K.  16:  1,2. 


2K.  18:1,2. 
Ant.  ix.  13,  1. 


2  K.  18  :  9 :        1 
Ant.  ix.  14,  1.  J 

2  K.  18  :  10. 


2K.  18:  13;  1 
2C.  32:  1-8;^ 
Is.  36  :  1.  ) 
2  K.  20  :  1-6 ;  1 
Is.  38  :  1-8.     J 


2  K.  20  :  12. 
Is.  39  :  1. 


Is.  20  :  1. 


1  38|   .   . 

2  (39)  I   ■.   '. 


Ahaz  associated. 


Uzziah  dies  and 
Jotliam  sncceeds. 
Ahaz  alone. 


Hezekiah  ascends. 
1st  regnal  year. 
Ahaz  dies." 
Hezekiah  sole  king. 


3 
4 
5 

9 
10 
11 
12 

13  (50) 
14 

15  (52) 

■«}. 


740 


9 
10 
11 

12  .  (20) 


30 


Sennacherib    invades 
Judah. 

Hezekiah  sick. 

Receives  embassy  from 
Merodach-baladan 
about  this  date. 

Sargon  against  Ashdod. 


720 

715 


713 
712 


711 
710 


2K. 

18 

14  seq. 

Besieged  by  Senna- 

27 

701 

cherib. 

28 
29 

700 
699 

Dies  and                     ~) 

2K. 

21 

1. 

Manasseh      ascends  V 
throne.                      J 

698 

1st  year. 

1 
2 

697 
696 

2K. 

19 

37. 

18 
30 

680 
668 

2C. 

11. 

Carried  in   chains   to 
Babylon   by  the  As- 
•syrians,  probably  at 
this  time. 

Dies  and                      \ 
Amon  ascends  throne,  j 

5 
55 

648-7 

643 
642 

2K. 

21 

19. 

1st  year. 

1 
2 

641 
640 

.  1 


13 

14 3 

15  1 4 

16  2  5 
3  6 
4 7 

5  8 

6  .   .    722    .    .  9 

7  721 


Contemporary  with  Jotliam. 

1  (;.  5  :  17. 
Zechariali.  2  K.  15  :  8. 

Shallum.  2  K.  15  :  13. 

Menahem  ascends.  2  K.  15  :  17. 

1st  regnal  year. 

Pul,  i.  e.  Tiglath-pilescr,  ascends 

throne  of  Assyria. 
.\zariah  of  Judah  mentioned  by 

Tighith-pileser  about  this  time. 

Menahem  ])avs  tribute  to  Pul. 

2  K.  1.') :  19. 
PekaMah.  2  K.  15  :  23. 

Pekah.  2  K.  15 :  27.* 

Tiglath-pileser  captures  Gaza. 

Tiglath-pileser  against  Damascus. 
"        "  still  against  Damascus. 
Receives  tribute  from  Ahaz. 
Hoshea.  2  K.  15  :  30. 

2  K.  17  :  1. 

Tiglath-pileser  succeeded  by  Shal- 
maneser. 

Hoshea  seeks  an  alliance  with  So 
of  Egypt.  2  K.  17  :  4. 

Fall  of  Samaria. 

1st  year  <if  Sargon,  who  had  as- 
cended the  throne  of  Assyria  in 
loth  month  of  the  preceding  year. 

Defeats  Sibe,  i.  e.  So,  of  Egj'pt. 

Assyrian  troops  in  Samaria  and 
Arabia.    Tribute  from  Egypt. 

Assyrian  troops  "subJuKatcd  Ju- 
dah," perhajis  under  command 
of  Sennacherib,  probably  end  of 
715  or  beginning  of  714.  Nimr. 
tablet. 

Judah  tributarv  to  Assyria  (Octag. 
Cyl.    32-35).    "Merodach-baladan 
incites       neighboring      nations 
against  Assyria. 
Sargon  against  Ashdod, 
Sargon  dethrones  Merodach- 
baladan. 
Sennacherib  ascends  throne  of  As- 
syria. 

Against  Hezekiah  and  Jerusalem. 


Esarhaddon. 

Receives  tribute  from  Manasseh 
of  Judah. 

Ashurbanipal. 

Captures  Babylon  and  dethrones 
its  king,  who  had  incited  peoples 
from  Elam  to  the  Mediterranean 
to  revolt  against  Assyria.  Re- 
ceives tribute  from  Manasseh  of 
Judah  [about  647  (Schrader)]. 


*  Usher  and  the  older  chronologists  assumed  that  anarchy  prevailed  for  several  years  between 
the  death  of  Pekah  and  the  accession  of  Hoshea.  Both  the  Hebrew  and  the  Assyrian"  records,  how- 
ever, clearly  indicate  that  no  interregnum  occurred,  but  that  Hoshea  slew  Pekah  and  succeeded 
him  on  the  throne.    For  the  twenty  years  assigned  to  the  reign  of  Pekah,  see  Pek.\h. 


Clironology 


132 


Chronology 


K.: 


2  C.  34  :  3. 

2  C.  34  :  3. 
Jer.  1 : 1,  2. 


Jer.  25  :  1, 3. 


2  K.  23  :  29. 
2  K.  23  :  31. 
2  K.  23  :  36. 


Jer.  25  :  1 ;  46 
Ant.  X.  6,  1. 

Jer.  36  :  9. 


Josiah. 


Seeks  Jehovah. 


Ant.  X 
Dan.  2 


10,3. 
:  1. 


2  K.  24  :  1. 
Ant.  X.  6,  1. 


2K.  24:8-1- 
2  C.  36  :  10. 


2  K.  24  :  18. 

Jer.  51 :  59. 

2  K.  25  :  1. 
Jer.  32 : 1. 
2  K.  25  :  8,  9 ; 
Ant.  X.  8,  5; 
C.  Apion.  i.  21. 
Ezek.  33  :  21. 

Jer.  44  :  30. 

Jer.  52  :  30. 
Ant.  X.  9,  7. 


2  K.  25  ;  27. 


2  C.  36  :  22,  23. 

Ezra.  3  ;  8. 
C.  Apion  i.  21. 


Begin.s  to  purge  nation. 
Jeremiah  begins. 


13th  Josiah  to  4th  Je- 
hoiakim  inclusive  = 
23  years. 


8hiin  by  Necho. 
Jehoahaz  king  3  months. 
Jehoiakim. 


He  and  Necho  subju- 
gated by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar. 

9th  month,  public  fast. 
Jeremiah's  roll 
burned. 

Two  years  nfler  the  de- 
struction   of    Egypt 
Nebuchadnezzar 
dreams. 

Pays  tribute  to  Neb. 
three  years. 

Yields  to  Neb. 
Jehoiachin,  3  montlis. 
Goes  captive  to  Baby- 
lon toward  close  of 
year. 
Zedekiah. 

Visits  Babylon. 

Jerusalem  besieged. 

Temple  burned  in  5th 
month. 

News  reaches  Ezekiel. 

Hophra,  i.  e.  Apries, 
mentioned. 

Captives  carried  to 
Babylon  5th  yr.  after 
destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem =  23d  Neb. 


37th    year   of   Jehoia- 
chin's  captivity. 

Rebuilding  of  temple 
authorized. 

Reltuilding  begun    in] 
2d  month,  having  re- 
mained waste  for  50 
years— I.   e.  49  years 
and  9  months. 


1 

639 

2 

638 

8 

632 

12 

628 

13 

627 

14 

626 

15 

625 

30 

610 

31 

609 

I 

608 

1 

2 

607 

3 

606 

4  . 

605 

5 

604 

6  . 

.  603 

601 


598 


597 

594 

589 
588 

587 


,582 

568 

562 
561 

539 
538 


Nabopolassar. 

Necbo.  king  of  Egypt. 

Nebuchadnezzar. 

2d  or  1st  year. 
3d  or  2d  year. 

4th  year. 

8th  or  7th  year. 


Psammetick  II.  of  Egj-pt. 

Apries,  king  of  Egypt. 
18th  or  17th  of  Nebuchadnezzar. 

19th  or  18th  of  Nebuchadnezzar. 


23d  of  Nebuchadnezzar. 


Nebuchadnezzar  invades  Egypt  in 
37th  year  of  his  reign. 

Evil-merodacli. 

1st  year. 

Cyrus  takes  Babylon. 
1st  year. 


2d  year. 


From  the  Return  from  Exile  to  the  Birth  of  Christ. 

Cyrus  on  throne  of  Babylon. 


Judaoa  under  Persian  rule. 

Zerubbabel  leads  back  42,000  Jews  to  Jerusalem. 
Foundation  of  the  temple  laid,  but  the  work 
is  soon  interrupted. 


Haggai  and  Zechariah  exhort  the  people  to  re- 
sume work  on  the  temple. 

Temple  completed  in  12th  month  of  6th  year, 
in  the  early  spring. 


539 

538 
537 

529 
521 

520 

515 


Cambyses. 
Darius  Hystaspis. 


Clironology 


133 


Chronology 


Ezra  leads  back  1755  Jews  to  Jerusalem. 
Neheiiiiali  sent  by  Artaxerxes  to  Jerusalem  in 

luiinth  Nisan. 
Kei>air  (if  city  wall  begun  on  3d  day  of  5th 

month,  and"  completed  on  25th  of  Elul,  the 

fith  month. 
Nehemiah  returns  to  the  Persian  court. 


Alexander  the  Great  visits  Jerusalem,  and  is 
met  by  the  high  priest  Jaddua. 


Judaea  annexed  to  Egypt  by  Ptolemy  Soter. 
He  ca|itnre.s  Jerusalem  and  plants  colonies  in 
Alexandria  and  Cvrene. 


After  the  battle  of  Raphia,  217  B.  c,  Ptolemy 
Philopator  sacrifices  at  Jerusalem.  Being  pre- 
vented from  entering  the  holy  of  holies,  he 
attempts  to  destroy  the  Jews  in  Alexandria. 

Antiochus  takes  Jerusalem. 

Scopas  recovers  Juda-a  for  Egypt. 
Judsea  annexed  to  Syria,  being  finally  wrested 

by  Antiochus  from  Egypt  at  the  battle  of  Paneas. 

The  high  priest  Onias  removed,  and  Jason  of 

the  Grecian  party  put  in  office. 
Antiochus  takes  Jerusalem,  massacres  citizens, 

and  defiles  the  temple. 
Antiochus  orders  an  idolatrous  altar  to  be 

erected  on  the  temple  altar  and  heathen 

sacrifices  to  be  offered. 
The  priest  Mattathias  raises  the  standard  of 

revolt. 
Tlie  Maccabees.    Judas  placed  in  command. 
Defeats  <  ;nri;ias. 
Defeats  Lysias,  and  on  25th  Chislev  rededicates 

the  temple. 


Falls  in  battle,  and  is  succeeded  by  Jonathan. 


Jonathan  Maccabseus  murdered  by  Tryphon, 

and  succeeded  by  Simon. 
First  year  of  the  Freedom  of  Jerusalem  and 

of  Simon,  high  priest  and  captain. 

Simon  murdered;    succeeded  by    John  Hyr- 

canus. 
Pompey  takes  Jerusalem. 
Julius  Csesar  appoints  Antipater  procurator  of 

Judsea. 

Assassination  of  Antipater, 
Parthians  take  Jerusalem  and  place  .vntigonus, 
the  Maccabee,  on  the  throne.    The  Roman 
senate,  however,  toward  the  end  of  the  year 
appoint  Herod  to  be  king  of  Judsea. 
Herod  takes  Jerusalem,  slays  Antigonus.  the 
last  of  the  Maccabaean  priest-kings,  and  be- 
comes king  of  Judsea. 


490 
486 
480 

479 
465 
459-8 
445 


434-33 

424 

359 

338 

336 

334 
333 
332 

331 
330 
323 
320 


312 
223 


203 
199 
198 

175 
174 

170 

168 


166 
165 


162 
160 
1.50 
146 


143 

142 

138 
135 

63 
47 

44 
43 
40 


37 
31 


Defeated  by  the  Greeks  at  Marathon. 
Xerxes,  called  by  the  Jews  Ahasuerus. 
Persians  victorious  alTherraopyla,',  but 

(U'rcateil  at  Salaniis. 
Persians  defeated  at  Plata-a. 

Artaxerxes  Longimanus. 


Darius  Nothus. 

Ochus. 

Arses  or  Amgus. 

Darius  Codomannus. 

Alexander  ascends  throne  of  Macedon. 
Alexander  victorious  at  the  (iranicus. 
"  "  "  Issus. 


Alexander  defeats  Darius  at  Arbela. 
Darius  assassinated. 
Death  of  Alexander. 


Seleucus   founds  the  kingdom  of  the 

Seleucidte. 
Antioclius  tbe  Great. 


Antiochus  Epiphaues. 


Death  of  Antiochus  and  accession  of 
Antiochus  Eupator. 
Demetrius  I. 

Alexander  Balas. 

Antiochus  VI.  ascends  the  throne  with 
the  aid  of  his  general  Tryphon.  De- 
metrius 11.  his  rival. 


Murder  of  Antiochus. 
Antiochus  VII.  regent  until  128. 


Assassination  of  Julius  Caesar. 


Augustus  becomes  Roman  emperor. 


Chrysolite 


134 


Chrysoprase 


Rebuilding  of  the  temple  begun. 
Uirth  of  Jesus  Christ.    Close  of 

or  beginning  of 
Death  of  Herod  and  division  of  the  kingdom 

among  liis  tliree  sons,  Archelaus  receiving 

Judsea. 


Fkom  the  Death  of  Herod  to  the  Destruction  of  Jerusalem. 

The  chronology  of  the  life  of  Christ  and  of  Paul  is  treated  under  the  respective  articles, 
chronology  of  Paul's  life  hinges  on  the  date  of  Festus'  appointment  to  the  procuratorship. 

B.  c. 
On  the  death  of  Herod  the  Great  his  kingdom  is  4 

<livided  among  his  three  sons:  Archelaus  be- 

omes  king  of  Judfea  ;  Herod  Antipas,  tetrarch 

of  Galilee   and    Peraa;    Philip,    tetrarch    of 

Itursea  and  Trachonitis.  A.  D. 

Deposition  of  Archelaus;   Judfea  and  Samaria  6 

incorporated  with  the  province  of  Syria,  and 

placed   under   procurators.       Coponius    pro- 
curator. 
Marcus  Ambivius  procurator.  10 


The 


Valerius  Gratus  fourth  procurator. 

Pontius  Pilate  procurator. 

Jesus  begins  his  public  ministry  (Luke  iii.  1,  23; 
op.  John  ii.  20)  probably  early"  in 

Death  of  Philip  the  tetrarch.  His  tetrarchy  is 
annexed  to  Syria. 

Pontius  Pilate  deposed  by  Vitellius,  governor  of 
Syria,  and  sent  to  Rome. 

Herod  Antipas  attends  Passover  at  Jerusalem; 
Caligula  appoints  Herod  Agrippa  to  be  king 
of  the  tetrarchies  of  Philip  and  Lysanias,  and 
sends  MaruUus  to  be  procurator. 

Herod  Antipas  banished  to  Gaul,  and  his  tet- 
rarchy given  to  Icing  Herod  Agrippa. 

Claudius  makes  Herod  Agrippa  king  of  Judsea 
and  Samaria. 

Death  of  Herod  Agrippa.  Judfea  again  placed 
under  procurators.  Cuspius  Fadus  procurator. 

Tiberius  Alexander,  renegade  Jew  of  Alexan- 
dria, procurator. 

Ventiiiius  (yumanusprocurator,  probably  jointly 
with  Felix. 

Antonius  Felix  procurator. 


46 


52 


or,  as  some  believe,  13.  Tiberius  asso- 
ciated with  Augustus,  receiving  from 
the  senate  imperium  proconsulare  in  all 
provinces. 

Augustus  dies  Aug.  19th,  and  Tiberius  is 
emperor. 


Tiberius    smothered    March    16th,    and 
Caligula  is  emperor. 


Caligula    assassinated    Jan.    24th, 
Claudius  becomes  emperor. 


and 


Porcius  Festus  succeeds  Felix;  but  if  the  pro-    59  or  60 
curatorship  of  Felix  be  reckoned  from  a.  d.  48, 
it  is  possible  to  date  Festus'  appointment  in  55 
or  56. 

Albinus  procurator. 

Ge.ssius  Florus  procurator. 

Outbreak  of  the  Jewish  war. 


62 
64 
66 
68 


69 


Destruction  of  Jerusalem. 

Ohrys'o-lite,  iu  A.  V.  Chrysolyte  [Greek, 
gold  stonel. 

A  unisilicate  mineral  consisting  mainly  of 
magnesia  and  silica.  There  are  two  varieties 
of  it,  one  precious,  the  other  common.  The 
former,  which  is  transparent  and  of  a  piile 
yellowish-green,  is  brought  from  the  Levant. 
It  is  disputed  whether  the  chry.solite  of  Pliny 
and  of  tlie  N.  T.  was  a  gold-colored  chryso- 
lite or  a  topaz.     It  constitutes  the  seventh 


Claudius  expels  the  Jews  and  sorcerers 

and  astrologers  from  Rome. 
Claudius  dies  of  poison  Oct.  13th,  and 

Nero  becomes  emperor. 


Persecutions  under  Nero  begin. 

Nero  ends  his  life.  Galba  and  Otho 
become  emperors  successively  and  die 
violent  deaths. 

Vitellius  obtains  the  empire  and  is 
slain. 

Vespasian  becomes  emperor. 


foundation  of  the  New  Jerusalem  (Eev.  xxi. 
20). 

Chrys'o-prase,  in  A.  V.  Chrysoprasus 
[Greek,  golden-green  stone]. 

A  variety  of  chalcedony  of  an  apple-green 
hue,  the  color  being  produced  by  the  pres- 
ence of  oxide  of  nickel.  Its  best-known  lo- 
cality is  in  Silesia.  It  constitutes  the  tenth 
foundation  of  the  New  Jerusalem  (Rev.  xxi. 
20). 


Chub 


135 


Circumcision 


Chub.    See  Cub. 
Chun.     See  Berothai. 

Church  [probablj-from  Greek,  kmnakon,  the 
Lord's  liousc]. 

The  reudering  in  the  N.  T.  of  the  Greek 
Ekklesia,  which  in  the  states  of  Greece 
meant  the  assembly  of  citizens  summoned 
for  legislative  or  other  purposes  (Acts  xix. 
3"2,  41,  rendered  asi^enibly).  The  sacred  wri- 
ters use  the  word  ckklcsia  to  denote  an  organ- 
ized comnuinity  acknowledging  the  Lord 
Jesus  Christ  as  their  supreme  ruler,  and 
meeting  statedly  or  as  opportunities  otler  for 
religious  worship  (Mat.  xvi.  18;  xviii.  17; 
Acts  ii.  47;  v.  11;  Eph.  v.  23,  25).  As  fol- 
lowers of  Jesus  arose  in  many  different  cities, 
the  plural  "churches"  began  to  be  em- 
ployed, the  Christian  community  in  each 
separate  locality  being  considered  a  church 
(Acts  ix.  31 ;  xv.  41 ;  Rom.  xvi.  4 ;  1  Cor.  vii. 
17;  1  Thes.  ii.  14).  Church  is  nowhere  un- 
equivocally used  in  the  N.  T.  for  the  build- 
ing in  which  any  particular  Christian  com- 
munity met.  The  Protestant  doctrine  of  the 
church  is  that  the  church  may  exist  without 
a  visible  form,  because  it  is  both  invisible 
and  visible.  The  invisible  church  is  com- 
posed of  all  who  are  really  united  to  Christ 
(1  Cor.  i.  2 ;  xii.  12,  13,  27,  28 ;  Col.  i.  24 :  1 
Pet.  ii.  9,  10).  It  is  not  an  external  organ- 
ization. Its  members  are  known  to  God, 
though  they  cannot  always  be  infallibly  de- 
tected by  the  human  eye,  and  many  of  them 
are  in  heaven  or  are  yet  to  be  born.  The 
visible  church  consists  of  all  who  profess  to 
be  united  to  Christ. 

The  apostles  occupied  a  peculiar  position 
of  authority  (Acts  v.  2  ;  vi.  6 ;  1  Cor.  xii.  28 ; 
Eph.  ii.  20 ;  2  Pet.  iii.  2)  ;  but  they  were  not 
the  sole  governing  body,  the  elders  or  bishops 
also  exercised  rule  (Acts  xv.  2,  4,  6,  22,  23  ; 
1  Tim.  iv.  14  ;  V.  17  ;  1  Pet.  v.  1).  The  officers 
of  the  local  churches  were  elders  or  bishops 
and  deacons  (Acts  vi.  3 ;  xiv.  23 ;  xx.  17 ;  1 
Tim.  iii.  1,  8  ;  Titus  i.  5-9).  The  apostles 
sometimes  appointed  commissioners  for  spe- 
cial work  (1  Tim.  i.  3  ;  Titus  i.  5). 

The  public  worship  of  the  church  was  en- 
grafted upon  the  synagogue  service.  It  con- 
sisted of  preaching  (Mat.  xxviii.  20  ;  Acts 
XX.  7;  1  Cor.  xiv.  19,  26-36),  reading  of 
Scripture  (Jas.  i.  22 ;  Col.  iv.  16 ;  1  Thes.  v. 
27  ;  cp.  Acts  xiii.  15),  prayer  (1  Cor.  xiv.  14, 
16).  singing  (Eph.  v.  19;  Col.  iii.  16;  and  cp. 
the  hymns  Eph.  v.  14  ;  1  Tim.  iii.  16),  admin- 
istration of  the  sacraments  of  baptism  and 
the  Lord's  Supper  (Mat.  xxviii.  19;  Acts  ii. 
41 ;  1  Cor.  xi.  18-34),  and  almsgiving  (1  Cor. 
xvi.  1,  2).  When  the  spiritual  gift  was  pres- 
ent, there  were  alsoprophesyingsand  tongues. 

Chu'shan-rish-a-tha'im.      See    Cushan- 

RISHATHAIM. 

Chu'za  [perhaps  Aramaic  knza',  modest,  or 
jug]. 
Herod  the  tetrarch's  steward,  whose  wife 


Joanna  ministered  to  the  wants  of  Jesus 
(Luke  viii.  3). 

Ci-li'ci-a. 

A  province  of  Asia  Minor,  separated  on 
the  north  by  the  Taurus  mountains  from 
Cappadocia,  Lycaouia,  and  Isauria,  and  on 
the  east  by  mount  Auianus  from  Syria ; 
bounded  on  the  south  by  the  Mediterranean, 
and  on  the  west  by  Pamphylia.  It  was  an- 
ciently divided  into  two  portions,  the  western 
one,  which  was  mountainous,  called  the 
Rough,  and  the  eastern  one,  which  was  level, 
the  Plain  Cilicia.  The  chief  town  in  the  lat- 
ter was  Tarsus,  the  birthplace  of  St.  Paul 
(Acts  xxi.  39;  xxii.  3;  xxiii.  34).  Cilicia 
formed  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Syria ;  and 
when  in  148-7  B.  c.  Demetrius  II.  landed  on 
its  shores  and  set  himself  up  for  king  of 
Syria,  the  bulk  of  its  inhabitants  supported 
him  (1  Mac.  xi.  14;  Antiq.  xiii.  4,  3).  Jews 
from  Cilicia  disputed  with  Stephen  (Acts  vi. 
9).  The  gospel  reached  it  very  early  (xv. 
2i3),  planted  apparently  by  Paul  (ix.  30;  Gal. 
i.  21).  Afterwards,  passing  through  it,  he  con- 
firmed the  churches  which  had  been  founded 
(Acts  XV.  41).  Subsequently  on  his  voyage  as 
a  prisoner  to  Rome  he  sailed  over  the  sea  of 
Cilicia  (sxvii.  5). 

Cin'na-mon. 

A  fragrant  wood  (Song  iv.  14 ;  Rev.  xviii.  13). 
It  was  an  ingredient  in  the  sacred  anointing 
oil  used  in  the  consecration  of  Aaron  and  his 
successors  (Ex.  xxx.  23).  It  was  used  in  after 
times  to  perfume  beds  (Prov.  vii.  17).  It  is 
the  aromatic  bark  of  a  tree,  Cinnamomum  sey- 
lanicum,  belonging  to  the  laurel  order,  and 
cultivated  in  Ceylon,  of  which  it  is  a  native. 
The  bark  of  the  tree  yields  an  essential  oil, 
which  is  obtained  from  it  by  distillation.  It 
is  of  a  golden-yellow  color,  has  an  agreeable 
smell,  and  is  used  in  perfumery.  The  tree 
has  been  grown  in  Arabia. 

Cin'ne-roth.     See  Chinnereth. 

Cir-cum-cis'ion  [a  cutting  around]. 

The  initiatory  rite  into  the  covenant  priv- 
ileges of  the  family  of  God  rci)resented  by 
Abraham  and  his  descendants  through  Isaac, 
and  the  token  of  the  covenant  (Gen.  xvii.  1- 
10,  21).  As  a  rite  of  the  religion  of  this 
people,  it  was  instituted  by  God  and  en- 
joined upon  Abraham,  who  was  himself 
to  be  circumcised,  as  were  all  his  male 
children  and  his  male  slaves,  whether  born 
in  his  house  or  bought  with  money.  The 
act  consists  in  removing  the  foreskin,  and  it 
was  performed  on  the  child  by  the  father  of 
the  house  or  some  other  Israelite,  and  even 
by  the  mother  (Ex.  iv.  25  ;  1  Mac.  i.  60).  The 
proper  time  to  carry  out  the  rite  was  when 
the  child  was  eight  days  old,  but  those  born 
before  the  institution  of  the  ordinance  were 
to  be  circumcised  at  any  time  of  life.  Abra- 
ham was  circumcised  when  be  was  99.  and 
Ishmael  when  13  (Gen.  xvii.  11-27).  The  rite 
was  observed  during  the  bondage  in  Egypt, 
but  was  neglected  in  the  wilderness.    Before 


Cis 


136 


City  of  Refuge 


the  entry  into  Canaan,  however,  Joshua  made 
knives  of  flint  and  circumcised  the  people 
(Josh.  V.  2-9).  By  this  time  metal  was  known, 
but  there  is  a  strong  conservatism  in  religion, 
and  antique  arrangements  tend  to  remain 
after  the  necessity  for  them  has  passed  away ; 
so  flint  held  its  own  against  metal  for  cen- 
turies after  the  time  that  the  former  might 
have  been  superseded  (cp.  Ex.  iv.  25).  For- 
eigners who  wished  to  become  members  of 
the  commonwealth  of  Israel  were  required 
to  submit  to  the  rite,  whatever  their  age 
might  be  (Gen.  xxxiv.  14-17,  22 ;  Ex.  xii. 
48).  Shortly  before  the  Christian  era,  the  con- 
quered Edomites  and  Iturseans  were  by  force 
added  thus  to  the  Jewish  nation  (Antiq.  xiii. 
9,  1  ;  11,  3).  Though  there  were  other  circum- 
cised nations  as  well  as  the  Hebrews,  espe- 
cially the  Egyptians  (con.  Apion.  ii.  14 ;  Herod, 
ii.  104),  and  they  as  early  as  3000  b.  c,  yet 
the  Philistines,  the  Phoenicians,  the  Moabites, 
the  Ammonites,  the  Syrians,  the  Assyrians, 
the  Babylonians,  and  various  other  national- 
ities with  whom  the  Jews  were  in  contact 
were  uncircumcised ;  so  that  the  word  "  un- 
circumcised,"  as  a  term  of  reproach,  meant 
almost  practically  (not  etymologically)  the 
same  as  heathen  (Gen.  xxxiv.  14  ;  Judg.  xiv. 
3 ;  XV.  18  ;  1  Sam.  xvii.  26,  36  ;  xxxi.  4  ;  2 
Sam.  i.  20  ;  1  Chron.  x.  4  ;  Ezek.  xxviii.  10  ; 
xxxi.  18  ;  xxxii.  19-32).  "The circumcision," 
on  the  contrary,  used  in  the  N.  T.  meant  the 
Jewish  church  and  nation  (Gal.  ii.  8;  Col. 
iv.  11).  Circumcision  was  an  act  of  religious 
purification  (Herod,  ii.  37),  and  in  its  full  sig- 
nificance betokened  the  putting  away  of  car- 
nal lust  (Col.  ii.  11).  To  circumcise  the  heart 
is  so  to  regenerate  it  that  its  irreligious  ob- 
stinacy will  disappear  (Deut.  x.  16),  and  it 
will  be  able  and  willing  to  love  God  with  all 
its  powers  (xxx.  6).  Circumcision  is  uni- 
versal among  the  Mohammedans  as  well  as 
the  Jews. 

Cis.     See  Kish. 

Cis 'tern. 

A  small  artificial  reservoir  dug  in  the  earth 
and  enclosed  by  stone  or  brick  work,  or 
scooped  in  a  rock  to  collect  and  retain  rain 
water  (Deut.  vi.  11  ;  Jer.  ii.  13).  Cisterns 
were  very  numerous  in  Palestine,  as  the 
populace  was  largely  dependent  upon  rain 
water  (cp.  War  iii.  7,  12,  and  13  ;  iv.  1,  8). 
In  the  cities  they  were  constructed  on  the 
top  of  the  towers  of  the  city  wall  (War  v.  4, 
3).  They  were  also  excavated  under  the 
houses  and  in  the  courtyards  (cp.  2  Sam. 
xvii.  18 ;  Jer.  xxxviii.  6),  jirovided  with 
bucket  and  windlass  (Ecc.  xii.  6),  and  sup- 
plied with  water  conducted  to  them  from  the 
roof.  In  the  open  country  the  mouth  is 
closed  with  a  large  stone  and  frequently,  es- 
pecially in  the  wilderness,  is  covered  with 
earth  to  conceal  it. 

Cit'y. 

In  Hebrew  usage,  a  collection  of  permanent 
human  habitations,  whether  few  or  numer- 


ous, especially  if  surrounded  by  a  wall  (Gen. 
iv.  17 ;  xviii.  26  ;  xix.  20  ;  Num.  xiii.  19  ; 
Josh.  iii.  16  ;  x.  39  ;  xiii.  17 ;  Judg.  xx.  15 ; 
Luke  ii.  4;  xxiii.  51).  Walled  and  unwalled 
cities  are  distinguished  (Deut.  iii.  5 ;  Esth. 
ix.  19,  Hebrew).  Cities  were  built  on  hills 
(Josh.  xi.  3 ;  1  Kin.  xvi.  24 ;  Mat.  v.  14  ; 
War  iii.  7,  7),  where  the  situation  rendered 
defense  easy ;  and  in  fertile  spots,  where 
water  and  soil  invited  man  to  dwell.  They 
were  usually  fenced  with  high  walls,  gates 
and  bars  (Num.  xiii.  28  ;  Deut.  iii.  5 ;  Josh. 
ii.  5,  15;  vi.  5;  Neh.  iii.  3;  Acts  ix.  24,  25), 
and  further  defended  bv  towers  (Neh.  iii.  1, 
11,  25  ;  War  v.  4,  3).  Walls  of  the  thickness 
of  20  to  30  feet  were  not  unusual.  The  gate 
was  a  massive  structure,  with  a  room  over 
the  gateway  (2  Sam.  xviii.  33).  In  time 
of  need  a  guard  was  posted  at  the  gate 
(2.  Kin.  vii.  10 ;  Neh.  xiii.  19),  and  a  watch- 
man was  stationed  on  the .  roof  of  gate- 
house or  tower  (2  Sam.  xviii.  24 ;  2  Kin. 
ix.  17 ;  War  v.  6,  3).  In  open  places  at  the 
gate  public  business  was  transacted,  cases 
at  law  adjudicated,  and  markets  held  (Gen. 
xxiii.  10  ;  Kuth  iv.  1-11 ;  2  Sam.  xv.  2  ;  1  Kin. 
xxii.  10;  2  Kin.  vii.  1;  Neh.  viii.  1).  The 
streets  were  as  a  rule  narrow  (Antiq.  xx.  5, 
3  ;  War  ii.  14,  9 ;  15,  5 ;  v.  8,  1),  but  not 
always  (2  Sam.  xv.  1  ;  1  Kin.  i.  5 ;  Jer.  xvii. 
25) ;  and  some  streets  were  devoted  to  bazaars 
(1  Kin.  XX.  34  ;  Neh.  iii.  31 :  Jer.  xxxvii. 
21). 

Cit'y  of  Da'vid.    See  David,  City  of. 

Cit'y  of  Refuge. 

Six  Levitical  cities  designed  to  shelter  the 
person  who  had  accidentally  committed  man- 
slaughter from  the  pursuit  of  the  avenger 
of  blood  (Num.  xxxv.  9-14  ;  Ex.  xxi.  13)  ; 
see  Avenger.  Moses  appointed  the  three 
east  of  the  Jordan  :  Bezer  in  the  territory  of 
Eeuben.  Ramoth-gilead  in  that  of  Gad,  and 
Golan  in  Bashan  in  the  tribe  of  Manasseh 
(Deut.  iv.  41-43).  After  the  conquest  of 
Canaan,  Joshua  and  the  heads  of  the  tribes 
designated  the  three  west  of  the  river,  setting 
apart  Kedesh  in  the  territory  of  Naphtali, 
Shechem  in  Ephraim,  and  Kirjath-arba,  which 
is  Hebron,  in  the  mountain  of  Judah  (Josh.  xx. 
7).  No  jiart  of  Palestine  was  far  from  a  city 
of  refuge.  To  the  nearest  the  manslayer  fled. 
He  might  be  overtaken  on  the  way  and  slam 
by  the  avenger;  but  if  he  reached  a  city  of 
refuge  he  was  received  into  it  and  obtained  a 
fair  trial.  If  guilty  of  willful  murder  he  was 
delivered  to  death.  If  he  had  slain  a  fellow 
creature  by  accident  or  in  self-defense,  actual 
or  constructive,  he  was  granted  asylum  in 
the  city.  If  he  left  the  city  before  the  death 
of  the  high  priest  he  did  so  at  his  own  risk. 
On  the  death  of  the  high  priest  he  was  at 
liberty  to  return  to  his  home  and  enjoy  the 
protection  of  the  authorities  (Num.  xxxv. ; 
Deut.  xix. ;  Josh.  xx.).  The  matter  was  be- 
tween man  and  God  ;  and  the  death  of  the 
high  priest,  who  represented  the  people  be- 


Clauda 


137 


Cloud 


fore  God,  closed  a  period  of  theocratic  life 
(cp.  the  rokase  at  the  year  of  jubilee). 

Clau'da. 

A  small  island  off  the  southwest  of  Candia 
or  Crete.  Paul's  ship  ran  under  its  lee  when 
caufiht  by  the  tempest  off  t'rote  (Acts  xxvii. 
16).  It  was  also  called  Cauda  (K.  V.  text)  and 
Gaudos  (Pliny,  Hist.  nat.  iv.  42).  The  Greeks 
still  call  it  Claudancsa,  or  Gaudonesi,  which 
the  Italians  have  corrupted  into  Gozzo. 

Clau'di-a. 

A  Christian  woman  who  joined  Paul  iu 
sending  a  salutation  to  Timothy  (2  Tim.  iv. 
21). 

Clau'di-us.     See  Cjesar. 

Clau'di-us  Ly'si-as. 

A  (hiliarch  or  commander  of  1000  men, 
who  seems  to  have  been  the  military  tribune 
in  charge  of  the  whole  garrison  at  Jerusalem. 
Each  legion  had  as  its  officers  six  such  trib- 
unes. He  resided  in  the  castle  of  Antonia. 
and  sent  soldiers  to  deliver  Paul  from  fanat- 
ical Jewish  rioters.  Immediately  afterwards 
he  was  on  the  brink  of  committing  the  ille- 
gality and  injustice  of  having  Paul  scourged 
without  inquiring  into  his  nationality.  He 
presently  frustrated  a  conspiracy  against  the 
apostle  by  sending  him  during  the  night  un- 
der a  large  escort  to  Caisarea  with  a  letter  to 
Felix,  the  Eoman  procurator  (Acts  sxii.  24- 
xxiii.  35). 

Clem'ent  [kind,  merciful]. 

A  Christian  who  labored  along  with  Paul, 
apparently  at  Philippi  (Phil.  iv.  3).  He  may 
have  been  the  same  individual  as  the  apos- 
tolic father,  Clement  of  Kome. 

Cle'o-pas. 

One  of  the  two  disciples  who  journeyed  to 
and  from  Emmaus  on  the  evening  of  the 
Eesurrection  day  (Luke  xxiv.  18).  Appar- 
ently not  the  same  as  Clopas  or  Cleophas, 
though  some  Christian  fathers,  not  of  early 
date,  assumed  the  identity  of  the  two. 

Cle-o-pa'tra. 

A  name  borne  by  many  Egyptiau  prin- 
cesses. One  was  daughter  of  Ptolemy  VI. 
and  wife  of  Alexander  Balas  (1  Mac.  x.  57, 
58).  Her  father  afterwards  took  her  from 
Balas  and  married  her  to  Demetrius  Nicator 
when  he  invaded  Syria  (xi.  12;  Antiq.  xiii. 
4,  7).  During  the  captivity  of  Demetrius  in 
Parthia,  she  married  his  brother  Antiochus 
VII.  (Antiq.  xiii.  7,  1  ;  9,  3 ;  10,  1).  She  had 
two  sons  by  Demetrius  ;  the  elder  she  mur- 
dered, and  then  raised  to  the  throne  the 
younger,  Antiochus  VIII..  called  Grypus. 
As  he  was  unwilling  to  gratify  her  ambitious 
designs,  she  attempted  to  make  away  with 
him  by  offering  him  a  cup  of  poison,  but  was 
compelled  to  drink  it  herself,  120  B.  c. 

Clo'pas,  in  A.  V.  Cle'o-plias.  See  Alph^us. 

Cloth'ing. 

Man  at  first  went  naked  (Gen.  ii.  25).  The 
first  clothing  consisted  of  the  skins  of  beasts 


(iii.  21).  Subsequently  the  materials  used  for 
clothing  were  wool  (xxxi.  19;  Lev.  xiii.  47; 
Job  xxxi.  20),  linen  (Ex.  ix.  31  ;  Lev.  xvi.  4), 
byssus,  a  fabric  made  of  cotton  or  flax  (Gen. 
xli.  42  ;  Luke  xvi.  19),  silk  (Ezek.  xvi.  10, 
13  ;  Rev.  xviii.  12),  goats'  hair  (Kev.  vi.  12), 
and  camels'  hair  (Mat.  iii.  4).  The  essential 
articles  of  the  apparel  of  men  and  women 
were  two  :  1 .  An  undergarment  or  tunic,  com- 
monly called  coat,  less  frequently  garment, 
in  the  English  versions.  It  usually  had  short 
sleeves  and  reached  nearly  to  the  knees, 
though  a  longer  form  with  sleeves  of  full 
length  was  in  use  (Gen.  xxxvii.  3  ;  2  Sam. 
xiii.  18,  R.  V.  margin).  This  tunic  was  some- 
times woven  without  seam  (John  xix.  23,  24). 
It  was  confined  at  the  waist  by  a  girdle. 
2.  An  upper  garment  or  mantle  (Ruth  iii.  15, 
R.  v.;  1  Kin.  xi.  30;  Acts  ix.  39),  a  large, 
square  piece  of  cloth,  provided  with  tassels 
(Num.  XV.  38;  Mat.  xxiii.  5).  It  was  thrown 
over  the  left  shoulder  and  brought  over  or 
under  the  right  arm.  The  pendant  ends 
were  called  skirts  (Hag.  ii.  12;  Zech.  viii.23). 
The  garment  of  hair  worn  by  prophets  (2 
Kin.  i.  8;  Zech.  xiii.  4)  may  have  consisted 
of  a  sheepskin  or  goatskin  (cp.  Heb.  xi.  37), 
but  was  more  probably  made  of  coarse  cam- 
el's hair  (cp.  Mat.  iii.  4).  An  occasional  gar- 
ment was  worn  between  the  tunic  and  the 
mantle  by  men  and  women  of  distinction 
and  officially  by  the  high  priest  (Lev.  viii.  7; 
1  Sam.  ii.  19  ;  xviii.  4  ;  xxiv.  4  ;  2  Sam.  xiii. 
18;  1  Chron.  xv.  27  ;  Job  i.  20,  margin).  It 
was  a  long  vestment,  with  or  without  sleeves, 
tied  round  with  a  girdle  (Antiq.  iii.  7,  4).  The 
girdles,  which  confined  the  undergarments  at 
the  waist  to  prevent  them  as  far  as  possible 
from  impeding  the  action  of  the  limbs,  were 
made  of  leather,  linen,  or  byssus  (2  Kin.  i.  8  ; 
Jer.  xiii.  1  ;  Ezek.  xvi.  10)  ;  often  elaborately 
wrought  and  richly  decorated  (Ex.  xxviii. 
39  ;  XX xix.  29  ;  Daii.  x.  5  ;  Rev.  i.  13).  The 
sword  was  worn  in  the  girdle  and  money  was 
carried  there  (Judg.  iii.  16 ;  1  Sam.  xxv. 
13;  Mat.  x.  9,  R.  V.  margin).  When  outside 
of  a  room  they  wore  sandals,  an  imperfect 
shoe  consisting  of  a  sole  of  wood  or  leather 
(Ezek.  xvi.  10),  fastened  to  the  bare  foot  by 
straps  passing  over  the  instep  and  around  the 
ankle  (Gen.  xiv.  23;  Is.  v.  27;  Acts  sii.  8). 
Probably  people  commonly  went  bareheaded ; 
still  turbans  were  on  occasion  worn  by  both 
sexes  (Job.  xxix.  14,  R.  V.  margin  ;  Is.  iii.  20; 
Ezek.  xxiii.  15).  The  veil  was  worn  by  women 
in  the  presence  of  strangers  (Gen.  xxiv.  65  ; 
Song  V.  7) ;  but  it  was  not  uncommon  for  them 
to  go  with  face  unveiled  (Gen.  xxiv  15 ;  xxvi. 
8 ;  Judith  x.  7,  14).  By  the  Mosaic  law  a 
man  was  forbidden  to  wear  a  garment  that 
pertains  to  a  woman,  and  a  woman  to  wear 
that  belonging  to  a  man  (Dent.  xxii.  5 ;  cp.  1 
Cor.  xi.  6,  14). 

Cloud. 

As  agents  in  connection  with  rain,  clouds 
are  the  bearers  of  moisture  (2  Sam.  xxii.  12  ; 
Job  xxvi.  8  ;  xxxvii.  11 ;  Ecc.  xi.  3),  and  dis- 


Cnidus 


138 


Colors 


charge  it  upon  the  earth  (Judg.  v.  4 ;  Ps. 
Ixxvii.  17).  A  cloud  iu  the  west  was  a  har- 
binger of  rain  (1  Kin.  xviii.  44 ;  Luke  xii. 
54). 

The  Pillar  of  Cloud  was  a  miraculous  cloud 
taking  the  form  of  a  pillar,  which  moved  in 
front  of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness  to 
indicate  to  them  the  way  along  which  God 
wished  them  to  advance  (Ex.  xiii.  21,  22  ; 
Neh.  ix.  19).  When  the  evening  was  too  far 
iidvaneed  for  it  to  be  seen,  it  shone  with  light 
as  a  pillar  of  fire.  When  God  designed  to 
show  his  presence  to  the  Israelites  he  did 
it  in  the  pillar  of  cloud  (Num.  xii.  5  ;  Deut. 
xxxi.  15),  and  when  he  designed  to  trouble 
the  Egyptians  he  looked  at  them  with  hos- 
tile gaze  through  the  pillar  of  cloud  (Ex. 
xiv.  24). 

Cni'dus. 

A  city  of  Caria,  on  the  southwest  coast  of 
Asia  Minor,  over  against  the  isle  of  Cos,  which 
is  about  10  miles  away.  It  was  a  Doi'ian  col- 
ony. Extenisive  ruins  exist  at  the  spot,  con- 
taining fine  remains  of  Grecian  architecture. 
A  small  island  just  off  the  coast,  now  joined 
to  the  mainland,  constitutes  a  peninsula  called 
■Cape  Crio.  Paul's  vessel  passed  near  it  during 
the  voyage  to  Rome  (Acts  xxvii.  7). 

Goal. 

In  Scripture  this  is  not  the  mineral  sub- 
stance coal,  but  charcoal  made  by  burning 
wood.  Hence  we  read  of  coals  of  juniper 
(Ps.  cxx.  4).  It  was  used  to  furnish  warmth 
in  winter  (Is.  xlvii.  14  ;  John  xviii.  18),  for 
culinary  purposes  (Is.  xliv.  19  ;  John  xxi.  9), 
and  by  the  smith  (Is.  xliv.  12  ;  liv.  16). 

Coat.     See  Clothing  and  High  Peiest. 

Coat  of  Mail.     See  Armor. 

Cock. 

The  male  of  the  well-known  domestic  fowl 
{jallus  domesticufi.  It  is  figured  on  the  ancient 
Egyptian  monuments.  The  cock  is  mentioned 
in  the  N.  T.  (Mat.  xxvi.  34,  74.  75).  Cock- 
crowing,  as  a  portion  of  time,  is  the  third 
watch  of  the  night  (Mark  xiii.  35).  See  Night. 

Cock'a-trice  [Old  French  cocatriee,  a  cor- 
ruption of  Latin  crocodilus,  a  crocodile]. 

A  fabulous  monster,  created  by  the  fancy 
of  Europeans,  and  reputed  to  be  hatched  from 
a  cock's  egg  brooded  by  a  serpent.  The  A.  V. 
so  renders  the  Hebrew  word  Siph'oni  (Is. 
xi.  8 ;  lix.  5 ;  Jer.  viii.  17),  and  Sepha'  (Is. 
xiv.  29) ;  but  iu  Prov.  xxiii.  32  it  translates 
the  word  by  adder.  The  E.  Y.  everywhere 
alters  it  to  basilisk,  or  in  the  margin  to 
adder. 

Cock'le. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Bo\ihah,  mal- 
odorous plant  (Job  xxxi.  40).  But  the  cockle, 
a  plant  which  is  found  in  grain  fields  and 
grows  one  or  two  feet  high,  does  not  have  a 
bad  smell.  The  margin  has  noLsome  weeds, 
which  is  a  more  exact  rendering. 

C(Bl'e-s3rr'i-a,  in  A.  V.  Celosyria  [hollow 
Syria]. 


The  valley  between  the  Lebanon  and  An- 
ti-Lebanon mountains.  It  is  watered  by  the 
two  streams  Orontes  and  Litanj-,  which  rise 
in  the  vicinity  of  Baalbek  and  flow  in  oppo- 
site directions.  The  term  had,  however,  a 
wider  application  (1  Mac.  x.  69).  It  included 
the  western  side  of  tlie  Jordan  valley  as  far 
as  Bethshean  (Antiq.  xiii.  13,  2)  and  the  re- 
gion extending  from  Dama.scus  southward 
thnmgh  Trachonitis,  Persea,  and  Idnnijea  to 
the  borders  of  Egypt  (cp.  Antiq.  i.  11,  5).  It 
was  distinct  from  Phoenicia  (2  Mac.  iii.  5). 

Col-ho'zeh  [all-seeing  one]. 

Father  of  Shall un  aud  perhaps  one  with 
the  father  of  Baruch  (Neh.  iii.  15;  xi.  5). 

College. 

A  mistranslation  of  the  Hebrew  word  Mish- 
neh  in  A.  V.  of  2  Kin.  xxii.  14,  aud  2  Chron. 
xxxiv.  22.  The  M'ord  is  correctly  rendered 
"  the  second  [part]  "  in  Zeph.  i.  10.  In  these 
passages  R.  V.  has  "  the  second  quarter." 

Col'o-ny. 

A  settlement  of  Roman  citizens  authorized 
by  the  senate,  in  conquered  territory.  The 
decree  of  the  senate  fixed  the  amount  of  land 
to  be  set  apart  for  the  colony,  the  manner  iu 
which  it  was  to  be  distributed,  and  the  bur- 
dens to  be  borne.  Philippi  was  a  colony 
(Acts  xvi.  12). 

Col'ors. 

Colors  are  presented  to  the  eye  by  nature 
(Esth.  i.  6)  and  were  early  imitated.  In 
Babylonia  different  clays  were  employed  to 
produce  orange,  red,  and  yellow  bricks. 
Bricks  of  blue  were  obtained  by  vitrifaction. 
The  ancient  Egyptians  prepared  colors  from 
various  metallic  and  earthy  substances.  The 
Hebrews  dyed  skins  in  various  colors  (Ex. 
XXV.  5),  and  wove  and  embroidered  cloth  out 
of  threads  of  various  hues  (Ex.  xxvii.  16; 
Judith  X.  21).  A  reddish  purple  dye  (Ex. 
xxvii.  16  ;  1  Mac.  iv.  23  ;  Acts  xvi.  14)  was  ob- 
tained from  the  secretion  of  a  species  of  shell 
fish,  Mnrex  trnnculus,  found  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean. Blue  (Num.  iv.  7;  Ezek.  xxiii.  6) 
was  obtained  from  another  shell  fish.  Helix 
ianthina.  Scarlet  or  crimson  was  made  from 
a  worm  (Ex.  xxv.  4  ;  Is.  i.  18).  They  used 
a  vermilion  pigment  for  decorating  walls, 
beams,  idols,  and  the  like  (Jer.  xxii.  14  ;  Ezek. 
xxiii.  14;  Wisd.  xiii.  14).  In  addition  to 
these  artificial  coloring  matters,  allusion  is 
made  in  the  Bible  to  white  (Gen.  xlix.  12  ; 
Is.  i.  18),  black,  including  brown  (Gen.  xxx. 
32 ;  Song  i.  6 ;  Mic.  iii.  6,  R.  V.),  red  (Gen. 
xxv.  25,  30 ;  2  Kin.  iii.  22 ;  Prov.  xxiii.  31), 
reddish  (Lev.  xiii.  19),  sorrel  (Zech.  i.  8 ;  in 
A.  V.  speckled  ;  margin,  bay),  greenish  (Ps. 
Ixvii.  13  ;  in  Eng.  vers,  yellow ;  Lev.  xiii. 
49). 

Symbolism  was  connected  with  colors. 
The  temple  of  the  seven  lights  at  Borsippa, 
in  Babylonia,  consisted  of  seven  stages,  each 
colored  in  a  hue  appropriate  to  the  planet  it 
represented.  Beginning  at  the  lowest  stage, 
the  succession  of  colors  was  black,  orange, 


Colossae 


139 


Colossians 


blood-red,  gold,  pale-yellow,  blue,  and  prob- 
ably silver,  according  with  the  planets  Saturn, 
Jupiter,  Mars,  the  sun,  ^'euus,  Mercury,  and 
the  moon.  In  the  Scripture  white  is  the  con- 
stant emblem  of  purity  (Mark  xvi.  5  ;  Rev. 
iii.  4  ;  xix.  11,  14)  and  joy  (Ecc.  ix.  8).  The 
white  horse  signifies  victory  in  Kev.  vi.  2. 
The  black  horse  is  typical  of  famine  and 
death  (5,  6).  Eed  commonly  tj-pifies  blood, 
in  which  is  life,  or  war  and  carnage  (4).  Blue 
is  the  familiar  color  of  the  sky,  and  purple 
was  worn  by  princes  and  the  rich  in  their 
magnificence  (Judg.  viii.  26 ;  Esth.  viii.  15 ; 
Luke  xvi.  19). 

Co-los'sae,  in  A.  V.  Colosse. 

A  city  of  southwestern  Phrygia,  in  Asia 
Minor,  lying  on  the  river  Lycos  not  far  east 
of  its  confluence  with  the  Meander.  It  was 
originally  on  the  trade  route  from  west  to 
east  and  was  a  place  of  much  importance 
(Herod,  vii.  30;  Xen.  Anabasis  I.  ii.  6).  But 
the  road  system  was  changed,  and  the  neigh- 
boring cities  of  Laodicea  and  Hierapolis  (Col. 


Co-los'si-ans,  E-pis'tle  to  the. 

An  epistle  written  when  the  apostle  Paul 
was  a  prisoner  (iv.  3,  10,  18)  probably  at 
Rome  during  the  two  years  of  his  first  im- 
prisonment there  (Acts  xxviii.30,  31),  though 
some  believe  that  it  was  written  from  Ca*sarea 
(Acts  xxiii.  3.5  ;  xxiv.  27).  From  Col.  ii.  1  it 
appears  evident  that  he  had  never  himself 
preached  at  Colossa;  ;  and  i.  7  seems  to  imply 
that  Epaphras  had  been  the  founder,  or  at 
least  had  assisted  in  the  establishment  of  the 
Colossian  church.  The  church  may  have 
been  founded  while  Paul  was  laboring  in 
Ephe.sus  (Acts  xix.  10).  Epaphras  had  re- 
cently joined  the  apostle  (i.  8),  and  his  report 
of  the  condition  of  the  church  prompted  the 
writing  of  the  letter.  It  was  sent  by  the 
hand  of  a  certain  Tychicus  (iv.  7,  8),  who  was 
also  intrusted  with  the  letter  to  the  Ephe- 
sians  (Eph.  vi.  21),  written  at  the  same  time. 
With  him  went  Onesimus  (Col.  iv.  9),  who  also 
bore  the  letter  to  Philemon,  a  resident  of 
Colossse,  whose  slave  Onesimus  had  formerly 


r 


Modern  Colossse. 


ii.  1 ;  iv.  13)  surpassed  it  in  position  and 
wealth,  so  that  the  importance  of  Colossse 
declined.  A  Christian  community  grew  up 
at  Colossje  under  the  ministrations  of  Epa- 
phras and  later  of  Archippus  (Col.  i.  7;  iv. 
17;  Phile.  2).  Of  this  church  Philemon  was 
an  active  member,  and  also  Onesimus  (Col. 
iv.  9  ;  Phile.  2).  The  town  was  picturesquely 
situated  in  front  of  mount  Cadmus,  which 
rises  in  vast  precipices  and  is  divided  by  a 
great  chasm  through  which  the  Lycos  flows. 
It  was.  however,  like  Laodicea.  famous  for 
its  fine  wool,  and  it  retained  municipal  inde- 
pendence under  the  Romans.  In  later  times 
its  location  was  almost  forgotten,  but  modern 
exploration  has  recovered  the  site,  though 
its  memorials  are  few. 


been.  The  Archippus  mentioned  in  Phile. 
2,  probably  Philemon's  son,  is  also  mentioned 
in  Col.  iv.  17.  The  salutations  which  the 
letter  contains  (iv.  10-17)  indicate  that  while 
Paul  had  not  labored  in  Colossae  Eis  friends 
had,  and  that  he  himself  was  well  acquainted 
with  some  of  the  Colossians.  In  fact,  Phile- 
mon was  one  of  his  converts  (Phile.  19),  made, 
perhaps,  in  Ephesus.  The  reports  of  Epaphras 
had  shown  that  the  Colossian  Christians  were 
threatened  by  false  teachers,  who  seemed  to 
have  combined  ritualistic,  ascetic,  and  specu- 
lative tendencies.  That  they  were  Jewish 
appears  from  ii.  11,  16.  But  they  were  also 
ascetic  (ii.  16,  20-23),  a  feature  which  may 
have  come  from  the  Jewish  sect  of  Essenes. 
With  this  they  united  a  mystic  philosophy 


Couaniah 


140 


Convocation 


(ii.  8),  which  seems  to  have  claimed  superior 
knowledge  of  divine  things  (ii.  18)  and  to 
have  introduced  the  worship  of  angels  (ii.  18), 
thus  infringing  on  the  all-sufficiency  and  the 
supremacy  of  Christ.  These  false  teachers, 
therefore,  were  different  from  the  Judaizers 
whom  Paul  opposed  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Ga- 
latiaus.  They  represent  a  new  form  of  error, 
and  in  certain  respects  appear  as  the  forerun- 
ners of  the  Gnostics.  They  united  with  ritual- 
ism that  theosophical  tendency  which  was 
almost  characteristic  of  oriental  thought,  and 
therefore  demanded  an  immediate  refutation 
l)y  the  apostle.  The  epistle  naturally  falls  into 
four  parts :  (1)  the  introduction  and  thanks- 
giving (i.  1-8) ;  (2)  the  doctrinal  section  (i.  9- 
iii.  4) ;  (3)  practical  exhortations  (iii.  5-iv.  6) ; 
(4)  concluding  salutations  (iv.  7-18).  The  doc- 
trinal section  is  of  great  importance.  Begin- 
ning with  a  prayer  for  their  growth  in  knowl- 
edge and  holiness,  he  rises  to  a  description  of 
the  preeminence  of  Christ  in  his  relation  to 
God,  the  universe,  and  the  church.  Then 
in  ch.  ii.  he  sets  forth  Christ's  preeminence 
as  against  the  errorists,  assuring  believers  of 
their  completeness  in  him,  since  he  has  once 
for  all  triumphed  over  their  spiritual  foes, 
and  nothing  but  union  with  him  by  faith  is 
requisite  for  the  full  experience  of  salvation. 
As  against  asceticism  he  further  urges,  in  his 
practical  exhortations,  to  a  .spiritual  morality 
and  to  social  order.  The  epistle  is,  therefore, 
christ< (logical  in  character.  It  assumes  the 
doctrines  of  salvation  taught  in  previous 
epistles,  but  more  explicitly  states  the  pre- 
eminence of  Christ's  person  and  the  suffi- 
ciency of  his  work.  Tliis  epistle,  together 
with  Philemon  and  Ephesians,  was  probably 
written  comparatively  early  in  Paul's  Eoman 
imprisonment,  perhaps  in  the  early  spring  of 
A.  D.  62.  The  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians  has 
many  remarkable  coincidences  of  language 
and  thought  with  that  to  the  Colossians, 
though  their  differences  are  equally  note- 
worthy; see  Ephesians.  While  evidently 
written  at  the  same  time,  Ephesians  presents 
a  further  unfolding  of  the  truths  which  the 
specific  needs  of  his  Colossian  readers  led 
him  to  write  to  them.  g.  t.  p. 

Con-a-ni'ah,  in  A.  V.  twice  Cononiali 
[Jehovah  hath  established]. 

1.  A  Levite  who  had  charge  of  the  tithes 
and  offerings  in  Hezekiah's  reign  (2  Chron. 
xxxi.  12,  13). 

2.  A  Levite  of  high  station  in  the  reign  of 
Josiah  (2  Chron.  xxxv.  9). 

Con'cu-bine. 

In  the  Bible  a  secondary  wife  under  the 
system  of  polygamy.  Concubines  were  com- 
monly taken  from  among  the  purchased  slaves 
or  captives ;  as  Hagar  (Gen.  xvi.  2,  3 ;  xxi. 
10),  Bilhah  (xxix.  29;  xxxv.  22),  Gidecm's 
concubine  (Judg.  viii.  31 ;  ix.  18).  They 
could  be  more  easily  put  away  than  a  wife 
(,Gen.  xxi.  10-14),  yet  their  rights  were  recog- 


nized and  guarded  by  the  Mosaic  law  (Ex. 
xxi.  7-11 ;  Deut.  xxi.  10-14). 
Co'ney. 

The  coney  of  England  is  the  rabbit ;  that 
of  Scripture  is  probal)ly  the  rock-badger 
(Lev.  xi.  5).     See  Kock-badger. 

Con-gre-ga'tion. 

In  Scripture  the  word  is  used  mainly  for : 
1.  The  body  politic  of  Israel,  including  men, 
women,  and  children  (Ex.  xii.  3,  19,  47 ;  xvi. 
1,  22  ;  Lev.  iv.  13,  15  ;  xxiv.  14  ;  Num.  i.  2  ; 
xiv.  1 ;  XV.  26;  xvi.  9;  xx.  11  ;  Judg.  xx.  1). 

2.  An  assemblage  of  the  peojjle,  especially 
for  religious  purposes  (1  Kin.  viii.  14,  65  ;  2 
Chron.  xxx.  2,  4  ;  Ps.  xxii.  22,  25),  or  the 
community  regarded  as  ever  summoned  and 
assembled  for  worship.  In  R.  V.  the  word 
assembly  is  often  preferred  (Num.  x.  7 ;  xvi. 
3  ;  xix.  20  ;  xx.  4  ;  Josh.  viii.  35  ;  and  so  also 
sometimes  in  A.  V.  Judg.  xx.  2),  and  in  Acts 
xiii.  43  the  word  synagogue. 

3.  In  A.  V.  the  tabernacle  of  the  congre- 
gation designates  the  tent  of  meeting  (R.  V.), 
the  appointed  place  where  Jehovah  and  his 
people  met  (Ex.  xxvii.  21 ;  cp.  xxv.  22  ;  xxix. 
42  ;  xxx.  36). 

Co-nl'ah.    See  Jeconiah. 
Con-o-ni'ah.     See  Conaniah. 
Con-se-cra'tion. 

The  act  whereby  a  person  or  thing  is  dedi- 
cated to  the  service  and  worship  of  God.  It 
includes  ordination  to  a  sacred  office  (Ex. 
xxix.  9),  ordination  to  sacred  service  (Lev. 
viii.  33  ;  1  Chron.  xxix.  5 ;  2  Chron.  xxix. 
31),  and  the  setting  apart  of  things  from  a 
common  to  a  sacred  use  (Josh.  vi.  19  ;  2  Chron. 
xxxi.  6). 

Con-ver-sa'tion. 

In  the  English  versions  the  word  conver- 
sation is  used  in  its  obsolescent  sense  and  de- 
notes manner  of  life. 

1.  The  rendering  in  the  A.  V.  of  the  Greek 
words  Politeuo  and  Politeuma  (Phil.  i.  27 ;  iii. 
20).  The  words  refer  to  civil  life,  as  is  recog- 
nized by  R.  V.  Christians  are  citizens  of  the 
heavenly  kingdom  and  their  daily  civil  con- 
duct should  correspond  with  the  teachings  of 
the  gospel  of  the  kingdom. 

2.  The  rendering,  in  many  passages  of  the 
A.  v.,  and  even  in  R.  V.  of  Ps.  1.  23,  of  vari- 
ous words^  especially  of  the  Greek  Auas- 
trophe.  It  means  conduct,  or  mode  of  life, 
especially  with  respect  to  morals  (Ps.  xxxvii. 
14 ;  Eph!  iv.  22  ;  Heb.  xiii.  5  ;  1  Pet.  i.  15). 

Con-vo-ca'tion. 

A  festival  on  which  the  Israelites  were 
summoned  to  assemble  together  and  when  no 
servile  work  was  allowed  to  be  done.  The 
holy  convocations  were  every  sabbath  (Lev. 
xxiii.  1-3),  the  first  and  seventh  days  of  the 
feast  of  unleavened  bread  (Ex.  xii.  16  ;  Lev. 
xxiii.  6,  7;  Num.  xxviii.  18,  25),  Pentecost 
(Lev.  xxiii.  15-21),  the  first  and  seventh  days 
of  the  tenth  month,  the  latter  being  the 
great  day  of  atonement  (Lev.   xxiii.  24-28, 


Coos 


141 


Corinth 


35 ;  Xum.  xxix.  1),  and  the  first  ami  eifjbth 
days  of  the  feast  of  taberuacles,  which  began 
on  the  loth  of  the  seventh  mouth  (Lev.  xxiii. 
34-3G;  Neh.  viii.  18). 

Co'os.     See  Cos. 

Cop'per.    See  Brass. 

Cor.    See  Measures. 

Cor'al. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Ra'moth  in 
Job  xxviii.  18  and  Ezek.  xxvii.  Iti.  It  was 
regarded  as  very  valuable.  Syria  disposed 
of  coral  with  other  articles  of  commerce  in 
the  markets  of  Tyre.  It  was  obtained  in  the 
Mediterranean  and  Red  seas,  and  was  made 
into  beads  and  charms.  Coral  is  properly  the 
calcareous  skeleton  of  certain  animals  of  low 
orgauization,  popularly  but  erroneously  called 
coral  insects.  They  are  radiated  animals, 
with  a  central  mouth  surrounded  by  fleshy 
limbs;  and  are  either  attached  singly  to  a 
rock,  or  so  bud  from  parents  as  to  make  a 
compound  being  of  many  half  distinct,  half 
united  individuals.  The  carbonate  of  lime 
of  which  the  coral  skeleton  is  made  is  ob- 
tained from  the  sea  water.  The  coral  is  often 
beautifully  branched  like  a  tree  or  shrub, 
whence  these  animals  are  often  called  Zoo- 
phytes (Plant  animals).  Some  species  form 
great  reefs,  and  many  of  the  islands  with 
which  the  hotter  parts  of  the  Pacific  ocean 
are  studded  have  been  wholly  built  by  the 
coral  polyps.  So  also  are  the  Bermuda 
Islands  in  the  Atlantic,  the  waters  sur- 
rounding them,  brought  by  the  Gulf  stream, 
being  warm  enough  to  allow  the  coral  animals 
to  live  and  work. 

Coral  is  also  a  marginal  rendering  of  the 
Hebrew  Pniinivi,  rendered  rubies  in  the  text 
(Lam.  iv.  7  ;  Job  xxviii.  18  ;  Prov.  iii.  15). 

Cor-a'shan.     See  Ashan. 

Cor'ban  [Hebrew  korban,  offering]. 

An  offering  or  oblation,  either  of  a  bloody 
or  an  unbloody  sacrifice,  given  to  God  (Lev. 
i.  2,  3;  ii.  1;  iii.  1;  Num.  vii.  12-17;  where 
the  word  occurs  in  the  Hebrew  text).  A 
word  korhnnas,  from  the  same  root,  is  ren- 
dered in  Mat.  xxvii.  6  "  treasury,"  and  on  the 
margin  of  the  R.  V.  "sacred  treasury."  Cor- 
ban  is  used  for  money  or  service  dedicated  to 
God  (Mark  vii.  11).  The  reprehensible  prac- 
tice arose  of  children  giving  no  aid  to  parents 
needing  their  support,  on  the  pretense  that 
the  money  or  service  which  would  otherwise 
have  been  available  for  the  parents  had  been 
dedicated  to  God,  and  that  it  would  be  sacri- 
lege to  divert  it  from  this  sacred  purpose. 
Josephus  relates  that  a  clamorous  mob  beset 
the  tribunal  of  Pontius  Pilate  when  he  took 
the  sacred  money  called  Corban  and  ex- 
pended it  on  aqueducts  designed  to  improve 
the  water  supply  of  Jerusalem.  This  doubt- 
less was  a  public  benefit,  but  the  .Tews  evi- 
dently thought  that  money  once  dedicated  to 
<  lod  could  never  again  be  lawfully  used  for  a 


secular  purpose,  however  conducive  to  the 
public  welfare  (War  ii.  9,  4). 
Co're.     See  Korah. 

Co-ri-an'der. 

A  plant,  called  in  Hebrew  Gad,  which  had 
white  seeds  (Ex.  xvi.  31 ;  Num.  xi.  7).  Very 
probably  it  was  the  Coriander  {Coriandnim 
sativum),  called  in  Punic  Gold;  a  branched 
annual,  with  cut  leaves,  umbels  of  pink  or 
white  flowers,  and  a  small  globular  fruit  used 
to  season  dishes.  It  is  wild  in  Arabia,  north- 
ern Africa,  and,  perhaps,  in  southern  Europe. 
In  Palestine  it  is  found  in  cultivated  grounds 
and  in  the  Jordan  valley. 

Cor'intli. 

One  of  the  leading  cities  of  Greece,  about 
48  miles  west  of  Athens,  well  situated  for  the 
growth  of  commerce  and  wealth.  It  stood  on 
the  narrow  isthmus  connecting  the  Pelopon- 
nesus, now  the  Morea,  with  the  mainland  of 
Greece.  Traffic  conducted  by  land  between 
these  places  had  to  pass  through  Corinth.  The 
Salonic  Gulf,  now  that  of  ^Egina,  to  the  east 
of  the  isthmus,  and  the  Gulf  of  Corinth,  now 
that  of  Lepanto,  on  the  west,  afforded  a  high- 
way for  commerce  by  water  between  Asia  and 
the  west.  The  short  portage  was  made  at 
Corinth.  The  Phcenician  mariners  seem  to 
have  been  the  first  to  appreciate  the  advan- 
tages of  the  situation.  They  built  a  village 
on  the  top  of  a  mountain,  subsequently  called 
Acrocorinthus,  or  the  citadel.  The  ^-Eolian 
Greeks  possessed  it  next,  calling  it  Ephyra. 
About  1074  B.  c.  the  power  passed  from  the 
iEolians  to  the  Dorian  Heracleidae.  These 
struggles  were  not  merely  between  rival 
Greek  races ;  the  aristocracy  and  the  democ- 
racy each  contended  for  the  mastery.  In  146 
B.  c.  the  Roman  consul  Mummius  burned  it 
to  ashes.  The  accidental  fusing  together  of 
different  metals  during  the  conflagration  is 
said  to  have  led  to  the  discovery  of  Corinthian 
brass.  The  city  was  rebuilt  by  Julius  Caesar 
about  46  B.  c. ;  became  the  capital  of  the 
Roman  province  of  Achaia,  and  was  ruled 
by  a  proconsul.  The  moral  reputation  of 
Corinth  was  not  high.  People  of  all  nation- 
alities congregated  here  ;  and  wealth  pro- 
duced idleness  and  idleness  vice :  so  that  to 
"corinthiauize"  had  a  bad  meaning.  Paul 
reached  Corinth  probably  in  a.  d.  52  and  la- 
bored there  for  a  year  and  a  half,  lodging  with 
Aquila  and  Priscilla,  and  supporting  himself 
by  tent-making.  At  first  he  spoke  in  the 
synagogues  and  then  in  the  house  of  Justus, 
till  at  length  he  was  dragged  before  the  tri- 
bunal of  the  proconsul  Gallio  (Acts  xviii.  1- 
18).  After  Paul's  departure,  Apollos  contin- 
ued the  work  (xviii.  24-28).  On  three  several 
occasions  later  the  apostle  sent  a  letter  to  the 
Corinthian  church  (1  Cor.  v.  9).  The  Chris- 
tian community  continued  to  increase  ;  and 
by  the  second  century  its  bishop  possessed 
great  influence  in  the  church  at  large.  The 
capture  of  Constantinople  by  the  Venetians 
and  the  crusaders  in  1204  was  immediately 


Corintliians 


142 


Corinthians 


followed  by  the  surrender  of  Corinth.  In 
1446  the  Turks  took  it,  and  in  1687  the  Vene- 
tians retook  it;  the  Turks  capturing  it  again 
in  1715.  In  1823  it  joined  in  the  successful 
great  rebellion.  In  February,  1858,  it  was 
nearly  destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  but  has 
since  been  restored.   It  is  now  called  Gortho. 

Co-rin'tM-ans,  E-pis'tles  to  the. 

The  First  Epistle  of  Paul  to  the  Corinthians 
was  written  during  the  apostle's  long  sojourn 
in  Ephesus  (xvi.  8,  9,  19;  Actsxix.),  probably 
early  in  A.  D.  57.  He  had  had  much  anxiety 
over  the  state  of  the  Corinthian  church,  which 
he  had  founded  a  few  years  before.  The  Co- 
rinthians had  written  him  a  letter  asking  in- 
structious  on  the  subject  of  marriage  and 
social  purity,  and  he  had  replied  (v.  9). 
This  letter  has  not  been  preserved.  Ap- 
parently also  a  deputation  from  Corinth 
had  been  sent  to  him  (xvi.  17),  and  from 
other  sources  reports  of  divisions  among 
them  had  reached  him  {i.  11).  He  had 
previously  sent  Timothy  to  Corinth  by 
way  of  Macedonia  (iv.  17 ;  xvi.  10),  but  the 
later  news  moved  him  immediately  to  write 
this  epistle.  It  is  even  thought  by  many 
that  he  had  himself  made  a  brief  unrecorded 
visit  to  Corinth  from  Ephesus  for  the  pur- 
pose of  exercising  discipline  in  the  church. 
This  is  inferred  from  2  Cor.  xii.  14 ;  xiii.  1, 
where  he  speaks  of  being  about  to  visit  them 
a  third  time,  though  The  Acts  speaks  of  only 
one  previous  visit.  If  so,  the  unrecorded  visit 
must  be  located  before  1  Cor.  was  written, 
since  2  Cor.  i.  15-23  implies  that  he  had  not 
visited  them  between  the  two  epistles.  But 
in  1  Cor.  he  takes  up  in  order  the  prac- 
tical and  doctrinal  points  on  which  they 
needed  instruction.  The  epistle  is  carefully 
written.  It  combines  cogent  doctriual  dis- 
cussion, and  skillful  dealing  with  moral  and 
ecclesiastical  problems.  It  clearly  reflects 
the  actual  conditions  of  the  churches  among 
the  gentiles.  Hence  its  great  importance. 
The  subjects  discussed  are,  after  the  intro- 
ductory salutation  (i.  1-9)  : 

1.  The  divisions  in  the  church  (i.  10-iv. 
21).  Factions  had  arisen,  claiming  to  follow 
particular  leaders,  and  doubtless  character- 
ized by  special  theological  tendencies.  He 
mentions  a  Paul-party,  an  Apollos-party,  a 
Peter-party,  and  a  Christ-party.  Against 
them  all  he  sets  forth  the  dependence  of  all 
believers  on  Christ  crucified,  the  inspired  au- 
thority with  which  the  gospel  had  first  been 
preached  to  them,  and  the  subordinate  char- 
acter of  every  one  by  whom  it  was  adminis- 
tered, even  though  he  were  an  apostle  ;  so 
that  none  should  be  made  the  head  of  a  party, 
but  glory  given  to  God  in  Christ  alone. 

2.  The  duty  of  exercising  and  honoring 
church  discipline  (v.,  vi.),  especially  in  the 
case  of  offenders  against  purity,  of  which 
there  had  been  one  conspicuous  example. 

3.  Directions  on  the  subject  of  marriage 
and  divorce  (vii). 


4.  Directions  concerning  practical  ques- 
tions arising  from  contact  with  heathen 
society  (viii.-xi.  1).  These  pertained  espe- 
cially to  the  eating  of  food  which  had  been 
offered  to  idols ;  in  regard  to  which  self-de- 
nial should  control  their  liberty  (viii.),  even 
as  he  sought  to  have  it  do  in  his  own  life  (ix.). 
While  not  needlessly  inquiring  as  to  the  ori- 
gin of  the  food  they  bought  or  ate,  they 
should  be  careful  not  to  seem  to  participate 
in  recognition  of  the  idol  (x.). 

5.  Warnings  against  certain  abuses  in  pub- 
lic worship  (xi.  2-34)  with  respect  to  the 
prophesying  of  women  and  the  administra- 
tion of  the  Lord's  Supper. 

6.  Directions  as  to  the  estimate,  exercise, 
and  regulation,  of  miraculous  gifts  (xii.- 
xiv.). 

7.  Instruction  concerning  the  doctrine  of 
the  resurrection  of  the  dead,  which  some 
were  disposed  to  doubt  (xv.). 

8.  Directions  about  the  collections  being 
made  for  the  saints  in  Judaea,  and  concluding 
remarks  about  his  own  movements  and  other 
personal  matters  (xvi.). 

The  Second  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians  was 
written  from  Macedonia  (ii.  13;  vii.  5;  ix.  2, 
4)  shortly  after  Paul  left  Ephesus  (Acts  xx. 
1),  and  therefore  in  the  summer  or  early  au- 
tumn of  A.  D.  57.  Timothy  was  now  with 
him  again  (i.  1).  Titus  and  another  had  re- 
cently been  sent  from  Ephesus  to  Corinth 
(ii.  13;  vii.  6,  7,  13,  14,  15;  xii.  18)  with  di- 
rections to  have  the  church  immediately  dis- 
cipline an  offender,  probably  the  incestuous 
person  of  1  Cor.  v.  1,  who  had  openly  defied 
the  apostle's  authority  and  whose  continued 
sin  threatened  the  very  stability  of  the 
church.  Titus  was  to  rejoin  Paul  at  Troas, 
but  the  apostle,  not  finding  him  there,  had 
gone  on  to  Macedonia  in  great  distress  of 
mind.  At  last,  however,  Titus  came  with 
the  good  news  that  the  Corinthians  had  dis- 
ciplined the  offender,  and  that  the  latter  had 
humbly  acknowledged  his  sin.  Thereupon 
this  epistle  was  written,  and  Titus,  with  two 
others  (viii.  16-24),  was  sent  back  with  it  to 
Corinth.  The  epistle  bears  witness  to  the 
intense  anxiety  of  the  apostle  lest  the  Co- 
rinthians should  be  false  to  him,  and  to  the 
terrible  strain  he  had  been  under  because  of 
their  spiritual  perils.  It  is  the  least  method- 
ical and  the  most  personal  of  his  epistles.  It 
falls,  however,  into  three  main  divisions: 
(1)  i.-vii.,  in  which,  after  grateful  recogni- 
tion of  God's  goodness  to  him  even  amid 
trial  (i.  1-14),  he  vindicates  himself  from 
the  charge  of  vacillation  (i.  15-ii.  4),  bids 
them  not  carry  too  far  their  zeal  against  the 
offender  (ii.  5-11),  and  describes  the  spir- 
itual (iii.),  honest  (iv.  1-6),  suffering  (iv.  7- 
18).  hopeful  (v.  1-9),  solemn  (v.  10, 11),  Christ- 
impelled  (v.  12-17)  ministry  of  reconciliation 
(v.  18-21)  with  which,  as  a  co-worker  with 
God,  he  had  been  intrusted  (v.  18-vi.  2),  in 
which  he  had  appeared  himself  (vi.  3-10),  on 
the  ground  of  which  he  appealed  to  them 


Cormorant 


143 


Cotton 


(vi.  ll-li?),  and  iu  their  acknowledgment  of 
which  he  found  boldness  and  joy  (vii.).  (2) 
viii.,  ix..  iu  which  he  treats  of  the  collections 
for  the  Judfean  sjiints  and  urges  liberality. 
{'3)  x.-xii..  in  which  he  again  gives  a  pathetic 
but  confident  testimony  to  his  apostolic  office 
and  authority.  He  closes  with  a  renewed 
warning  against  their  besetting  sins,  and  de- 
clares that  if,  when  he  comes  to  them,  he  find 
them  uncorrected,  he  will  exercise  his  author- 
ity upon  them  unsparingly.  G.  T.  P. 

Cor'mo-rajit. 

1.  The  rendering  of  Hebrew  Shalnk.  plun- 
cer ;  a  bird  ceremonially  unclean  (Lev.  xi. 
17;  Deut.  xiv.  17).  It  is  probably  the  com- 
mon cormorant  (Phalacrocorax  carho),  a  large 
swimming  bird  of  the  Pelican  family,  but  dis- 
tinguished from  the  pelican  by  not  having  a 
pouch  below  the  lower  mandible.  Birds  of 
the  Cormorant  genus  are  widely  diffused  over 
the  world,  the  common  cormorant  found  in 
America  being  the  same  species  as  that  which 
builds  on  rocky  islands  off  the  coast  of  North- 
umberland in  England,  and  as  that  which 
lives  on  the  coast  of  Palestine,  on  the  sea  of 
Galilee,  and  elsewhere.  The  appetite  of  a 
cormorant  is  proverbial ;  and  Tristram  de- 
scribes its  favorite  occupation  in  Palestine  to 
be  to  sit  on  the  snag  of  a  tree  where  the  Jor- 
dan enters  the  Dead  Sea.  and  catch  the  fishes 
while  they  are  stupefied  by  being  carried  into 
the  salt  brine.  He  mentions  that  another 
species,  Fhalacrocomx  pigmseus,  the  Pigmy 
Cormorant,  occurs,  though  sparingly,  on  the 
streams  which  flow  through  Palestine  to  the 
Mediterranean. 

2.  The  rendering  of  Hebrew  Ka'ath  in  text 
of  A.  V.  (Is.  xxxiv.  11 ;  Zeph.  ii.  14)  ;  see 
Pelican. 

Com. 

The  generic  name  for  the  several  cereal 
grasses  cultivated  in  Palestine,  and  so  staple 
that  com  and  wine  stand  figuratively  for  the 
entire  vegetable  produce  of  the  fields  (Gen. 
xxvii.  28;  Deut.  vii.  13,  etc.).  The  chief 
were  wheat,  barley,  spelt,  and  millet  (Deut. 
viii.  8  ;  and  E.  Y.  of  Is.  xxviii.  25  and  Ezek. 
iv.  9). 

Cor-ne'li-us. 

One  of  the  centurions  of  a  Roman  regi- 
ment called  the  Italian  band,  once  stationed 
at  Csesarea.  A  devout,  generous,  and  God- 
fearing man.  his  prayers  and  alms  were  ac- 
cepted by  God.  An  angel  in  a  vision  directed 
him  to  send  to  Joppa  for  Peter,  who  would 
indicate  to  him  the  path  of  duty.  He  did 
so.  His  messengers  found  Peter  prepared  for 
their  coming  by  the  vision  of  the  sheet  let 
down  from  heaven  with  animals  clean  and 
unclean,  the  latter  as  well  as  the  former  to 
be  slaughtered  for  food  if  he  desired.  The 
apostle,  accompanied  by  some  Christian 
fnends.  went  to  Csesarea.  preached  the  gos- 
pel to  Cornelius,  and  was  the  means  of  con- 
verting him  and  his  household.  Divine  con- 
firmation of  what  had  been  done  was  at  once 


given  by  the  descent  upon  them  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  with  the  impartation  of  the  gift  of 
tongues.  The  event  was  one  of  prime  im- 
portance in  the  early  church.  It  commenced 
the  long-promised  calling  of  the  gentiles  and 
revealed  that  the  Spirit  is  given  to  believers 
irrespective  of  nationality  (Acts  x.  1-48). 

Cor'ner  Stone. 

A  stone  placed  at  the  angle  where  two  walls 
of  a  building  meet,  and  helping  to  bind  them 
together.  Any  stone  in  this  position,  from  the 
foundation  (Job  xxxviii.  6 ;  Is.  xxviii.  16) 
to  the  roof  (Ps.  cxviii.  22;  Zech.  iv.  7),  is  a 
corner  stone.  Figuratively,  Christ  is  the 
chief  corner  stone  at  the  foundation  (Rom. 
ix.  33  ;  Eph.  ii.  20;  1  Pet.  ii.  6)  and  also  the 
head  of  the  corner  (Mat.  xxi.  42 ;  1  Pet.  ii.  7). 

Cor 'net. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Shophar 
in  1  Chron.  xv.  28;  2  Chron.  xv.  14;  Ps. 
xcviii.  6 ;  Hos.  v.  8.  Elsewhere,  as  in  Lev. 
XXV.  9,  it  is  translated  trumpet  (q.  v.). 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  M'na'an''im 
in  2  Sam.  vi.  5,  A.  V.  The  R.  V.  renders  the 
word  castanets  (q.  v.). 

3.  The  rendering  of  the  Aramaic  Karna\ 
corresponding  to  the  Hebrew  Keren  in  Dan. 
iii.  5,  7,  10,  15.  It  means  a  horn,  and  is  so 
rendered  in  viii.  20.  This  instrument  orig- 
inally consisted  of  the  hollow  horn  of  some 
mammal :  but  later  it  was  generally  made  of 
metal,  and  was  curved,  like  many  animals*^ 
horns,  instead  of  being  straight. 

Cor-rup'tion,  Mount  of. 

A  hill  to  the  east  of  Jerusalem  (2  Kin. 
xxiii.  13 ;  cp.  1  Kin.  xi.  7).  Solomon  built 
altars  on  its  southern  side  to  the  gods  wor- 
shiped by  his  heathen  wives.  By  common 
consent  it  is  the  southern  portion  of  the 
mount  of  Olives.  It  is  more  familiarly  known 
in  tradition  as  the  mount  of  Offense. 

Cos,  in  A.  V.  Coos. 

An  island,  now  called  Stanko  or  Stanchio, 
in  the  Archipelago  off  the  coast  of  Caria  in 
Asia  Minor,  in  a  gulf  between  Cnidus  and 
Halicamassus.  It  lies  between  Miletus  and 
Rhodes,  about  a  day's  sail  from  the  latter  city 
(Acts  xxi.  1 ;  mentioned  1  Mac.  xv.  23).  It 
is  about  21  miles  long  by  6  broad.  Its  prin- 
cipal city  has  been  more  than  once  seriously 
injured  by  earthquakes.  Cos  was  celebrated 
for  its  "wines,  its  ointments,  and  its  purple 
dyes. 

Co'sam. 

A  descendant  of  David  through  Nathan 
and  an  ancestor  of  Zerubbabel  and  Christ 
(Luke  iii.  28). 

Cot'ton. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Karpas  in 
the  margin  of  the  R.  Y.  in  Esth.  i.  6.  In  the 
court  of  the  royal  palace  at  Shushan  were 
hangings  of  fine  white  cotton  and  blue.  The 
word  which  corresponds  to  karpas  in  San- 
scrit, Persian,  Armenian,  and  Arabic,  denotes 
cotton.     Cotton  is  the  bunch  of  threads  sur- 


Council 


144 


Counselor 


rounding  the  ripe  seeds  of  the  cotton  plants. 
They  belong  to  the  genus  Gossypium,  which 
is  one  of  the  mallow  order.  The  leaves  have 
three  or  five  lobes;  the  flowers,  which  are 
large  and  showy,  and  often  of  a  yellow  color, 
are  surrounded  by  an  outer  involucre  or  calyx 
of  three  great  leaves.  The  Indian  cotton 
(Gussypium  herbaceuin)  was  early  cultivated 
in  Persia,  and  was  probably  that  of  Esther. 

Coun'cil. 

The  Jewish  governing  body.  The  Persians 
granted  to  the  Jews  jurisdiction  over  their 
own  affairs  (Ezra  vii.  25,  26 ;  x.  14).  After 
the  fall  of  the  Persian  empire  similar  privi- 
leges were  enjoyed  by  the  Jews.  A  govern- 
ing body  arose  and  became  known  as  gerousia 
or  senate  (Antiq.  xii.  3,  3),  and  more  fully  as 
the  senate  of  the  nation  (1  Mac.  xii.  G).  It 
was  composed  of  elders  (ci>.  xiv.  20).  It 
represented  the  nation  (xii.  3),  and  united 
with  Jonathan,  their  high  priest  and  leader, 
in  making  offensive  and  defensive  alliance 
with  the  Spartans.  Jonathan  also  called  the 
elders  of  the  people  together  and  consulted 
with  them  about  building  strongholds  in 
Judsea  and  increasing  the  height  of  the 
walls  of  Jerusalem  (3.5 ;  cp.  further  xiii. 
36;  xiv.  20,  28,  and  47).  Under  Gabinius, 
proconsul  of  Syria,  .57-55  B.  c,  Judaja  was 
divided  into  five  districts,  each  under  a 
sunedrion  or  sunodos — i.  e.  assembly  or  sanhe- 
drin  (Antiq.  xiv.  5,  4  ;  War  i.  8,  5).  Hence- 
forth the  highest  body  at  Jerusalem  was 
called  sunedrion,  though  not  to  the  exclusion 
of  gerousia  or  houle.  The  arrangement,  how- 
ever, did  not  last  long.  In  47  b.  c,  Caesar 
extended  the  jurisdiction  of  the  sanhedrin 
of  Jerusalem  once  more  over  all  Judfea  (cp. 
Anti(i.  xiv.  9,  3-5;  War  i.  10,  7).  At  the  be- 
ginning of  his  reign  Herod  the  Great  put 
forty-five  of  its  members  to  death  (Antiq. 
xiv.  9,  4;  XV.  1,  2),  but  did  not  abolish  the 
council  (xv.  6,  2).  Under  the  Koman  procu- 
rators, A.  D.  6-66,  its  powers  were  extensive. 
According  to  Jewish  authorities,  it  was  com- 
posed of  71  members  (cp.  the  mock  council. 
War  iv.  5,  4),  and  only  Israelites  whose  de- 
scent was  above  question  were  eligible  to 
membership.  The  .seventy  ordinary  members 
corresponded,  probably,  to  the  seventy  elders 
appointed  by  Moses  to  assist  him  as  judges. 
The  seventy-first  member  was  the  high  priest, 
the  oflJcial  president  of  the  body.  It  was  the 
highest  court,  with  power  of  life  and  death 
(Antiq.  xiv.  9,  3  and  4;  Mat.  xxvi.  3,  57; 
Acts  iv.  5.  6,  15  ;  v.  21,  27,  34,  41 ;  vi.  12,  15  ; 
vii.  1 ;  xxiii.  2),  though  apparently  it  had  no 
recognized  authority  to  execute  its  sentence 
of  death,  but  must  submit  its  action  to  the 
review  of  the  Roman  authorities.  It  had 
the  general  administration  of  the  govern- 
ment and  of  justice,  so  far  as  this  was  not 
exercised  by  the  procurator  and  subordinate 
officials  (cp.  Acts  xxii.  30).  In  the  time  of 
Florus,  at  least,  the  revenue  was  collected  by 
the   rulers    and    councilors,    who    dispersed 


themselves  among  the  villages  for  that  pur- 
pose (War  ii.  17,  1).  It  had  police  at  com- 
mand and  could  make  arrests  on  its  own 
authority  (Mat.  xxvi.  47;  Mark  xiv.  43). 
Jesus  was  tried  before  the  council  (Mat. 
xxvi.  59;  Mark  xiv.  55;  xv.  1;  Luke  xxii. 
66 ;  John  xi.  47).  It  was  before  the  council 
that  Peter,  John,  and  the  other  apostles  were 
brought  (Acts  iv.  5,  6,  15;  v.  21.  27,  34,  41). 
Stephen  was  taken  before  the  council  (Acts 
vi.  12),  so  also  was  Paul  (xxii.  30  ;  xxiii.  15; 
xxiv.  20).  The  sanhedrin  was  swept  away 
at  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem. 

2.  A  body  of  advisers  selected  by  the 
highest  Roman  otficial  of  a  province,  in 
Judsea  the  procurator,  to  assist  him  in  the 
administration  of  justice,  before  whom,  with 
the  official  as  president,  cases  were  tried 
(Acts  XXV.  12  ;  Antiq.  xvi.  11,  1  seq. ;  War  ii. 
16,  1). 

Coun'cil  House. 

A  building  in  Jerusalem  west  of  the  temple, 
near  the  gymnasium  and  adjoining  the  inner- 
most city  wall  (War  v.  4,  2).  It  was  burned 
by  the  Romans  under  Titus  in  the  course  of 
their  struggle  for  the  possession  of  the  city 
(vi.  6,  3).  The  council  house  was  probably 
the  place  where  the  sanhedrin  met:  for  1. 
Its  name  in  Greek  was  bouleuterion,  and  a 
member  of  the  sanhedrin  was  called  bouleutes 
(Luke  xxiii.  50,  51 ;  cp.  War  ii.  17,  1).  2. 
The  council  is  called  by  Josephus  sunedrion — 
i.  e.  sanhedrin — and  boule  indifferently  (Antiq. 
xiv.  9,  3  and  4,  with  xx.  1,  2;  War  ii.  15,  6). 
3.  According  to  Jewish  authorities,  the  san- 
hedrin met  in  the  lishkath  haggazith  or  cham- 
ber of  the  gazith,  which  probably  denoted  a 
chamber  by  the  gymnasium.  According  to 
the  Mishna,  it  is  true,  the  lishkath  haggazith 
was  situated  at  the  east  corner  of  the  court 
of  the  temple.  But  gazith  means  hewn,  es- 
pecially hewn  stone  (Ex.  xx.  25 ;  1  Kin.  vi. 
36  et  pas.) ;  and  as  the  chambers  of  the  tem- 
ple were  largely  constructed  in  this  manner, 
the  name  gazith  could  not  distinguish  one 
from  another.  Now  the  council  house  stood 
near  or  adjoined  the  xystos  or  gymnasium  ; 
but  xystos  is  the  Greek  equivalent  of  gazith, 
and  is  one  of  the  words  used  in  the  Sep- 
tuagint  to  translate  gazith  into  Greek  (1 
Chron.  xxii.  2  ;  Amos  v.  11).  It  can  scarcely 
be  doubted,  therefore,  that  the  xystos  was 
called  the  gazith  by  one  who  chanced  to 
be  speaking  Hebrew,  and  that  the  name 
lishkath  haggazith  meant  the  hall  by  the  xys- 
tos (cp.  Schiirer,  Stud.  u.  Krit.,  1878).  Sim- 
ilar twin  names  are  Christos,  Messiah  ;  Peter, 
Cephas  ;  The  pavement,  Gabbatha ;  Place  of 
a  skull,  Golgotha ;  Field  of  blood,  Aceldama 
(John  i.  41,  42 ;  xix.  13,  17;  Acts  i.  19).  This 
evidence  is  perhaps  sufficient  to  override  the 
fact  that  the  chamber  of  the  gazith  is  stated 
in  the  Mishna,  as  already  mentioned,  to  have 
been  within  the  court  of  the  temple. 

Coun'sel-or. 

The  seven  counselors  of  Artaxerxes  (Ezra 


Court 


145 


Crane 


"vii.  14)  were  probably  the  seven  princes  of 
Media  and  Persia  who  saw  the  king's  face 
and  sat  first  in  the  kingdom,  and  from  whom 
the  king  sought  advice  (Esth.  i.  14).  These 
princes  were  perhaps  the  heads  of  the  seven 
chief  families  of  Persia  (Herod,  iii.  84). 

Court. 

An  enclosed  but  uncovered  area  either  con- 
nected with  a  private  house  and  often  con- 
taining a  well  (2  Sam.  xvii.  18  ;  Neh.  viii.  16) ; 
<ir  in  a  palace  (1  Kin.  vii.  8,  9,  12  ;  Jer.  xxxii. 
2),  in  front  of  the  royal  apartments  (Esth.  iv. 
11;  v.  1 ;  vi.  4)  and  sometimes  containing  a 
garden  (i.  5);  or  around  the  tabernacle  and 
temple  (Ex.  xxvii.  9;  xl.  8;  1  Kin.  vi.  36). 
As  the  area  about  the  temple  was  divided 
(2  Kin.  xxi.  5),  the  word  is  generally  used  in 
the  plural  (Ps.  Ixv.  4  ;  ixxxiv.  2). 

Cov'e-nant. 

An  agreement  between  two  or  more  per- 
sons. Various  covenants  between  man  and 
man  are  mentioned  in  Scripture,  but  they 
are  no  longer  important  (Gen.  xxi.  27,  32  ;  1 
Sam.  xviii.  3;  xxiii.  18;  1  Kin.  xx.  34).  It 
is  otherwise  with  those  in  which  God  conde- 
scended to  be  a  covenanting  party.  His  cov- 
enant with  man  is  a  free  promise  on  his  part, 
generally  based  upon  the  fulfillment  of  certain 
conditions  by  man.  He  made  a  pi-oraise  of 
continued  life  and  favor  to  man  on  condition 
of  obedience,  coupled  with  a  penalty  for  dis- 
obedience (Gen.  ii.  16,  17).  He  established  a 
covenant  with  Noah,  that  Noah  should  be 
saved  when  the  old  world  perished  (vi.  18), 
and  that  there  should  be  no  other  great 
deluge,  the  rainbow  being  the  token  of  the 
covenant  (ix.  12,  15,  16)  ;  with  Abraham  and 
his  posterity,  of  which  circumcision  was  to 
be  the  sign,  to  be  their  God  and  to  give 
them  the  land  of  Canaan  for  an  inheritance 
(xiii.  17;  xv.  18;  xvii.  2,  4,  7,  11,  13,  14, 
19;  2  Kin.  xiii.  23;  1  Chron.  xvi.  15-18  ;  Ps. 
cv.  9-11 ;  Acts  vii.  8;  Rom.  iv.  1.3,  17)  ;  with 
the  Israelites  as  a  nation,  to  continue  to  be 
their  God  and  to  grant  national  protection, 
of  which  a  sign  was  to  be  the  Sabbath  (Ex. 
xxxi.  16),  and  the  keeping  of  the  ten  com- 
mandments its  condition  (Deut.  iv.  13,  23). 
This  covenant  was  made  at  Horeb  (Deut.  v.  2 ; 
xxix.  1)  and  was  renewed  with  the  next 
generation  on  the  plains  of  Moab  (Deut. 
xxix.  1).  There  was  a  covenant  with  the 
Levites  (Mai.  ii.  4,  8),  and  one  specially  with 
Phinehas  to  give  him  and  his  descendants 
an  everlasting  priesthood  (Num.  xxv.  12,  13). 
There  was  a  covenant  with  David  that  his 
posteritv  should  forever  occupv  his  throne 
(Ps.  Ixxxix.  20-28,  34  ;  cp.  2  Sam.  vii.  1-29 
and  1  Chron.  xvii.  1-27;  2  Chron.  vii.  18; 
Jer.  xxxiii.  21).  In  contrast  with  the  cov- 
enant at  Sinai,  there  w-as  to  be  a  new  cov- 
enant, also  with  the  Israelites,  which  was  to 
be  of  a  more  spiritual  character  than  its 
predecessors  (Jer.  xxxi.  31-34 ;  Heb.  viii.  8- 
11),  administered  by  the  Spirit  (John  vii.  39  ; 
Acts  ii.  32,  33  ;  2  Cor.  iii.  6-9).  based  on  faith 
10 


(Gal.  iv.  21-31),  and  designed  for  all  nations 
(Mat.  xxviii.  19,  20,  Acts  x.  44-47).  Of  this 
Christ  is  the  Mediator  (Heb.  viii.  6-13 ;  ix.  1 ; 
X.  15-17;  xii.  24).  With  reference  to  it  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments  would,  perhaps, 
better  have  been  called  the  Old  and  New 
Covenants. 

The  two  tablets  of  stone  on  which  were 
engraved  the  ten  commandments,  which  were 
the  fuudanieutal  law  of  God's  covenant  with 
Israel,  were  called  the  tables  of  the  covenant 
(Deut.  ix.  11),  and  the  ark,  in  which  these 
tables  were  deposited,  was  designated  the  ark 
of  the  covenant  (Num.  x.  33).  The  book  of 
the  covenant  consisted  of  the  ten  command- 
ments with  the  accompanying  ordinances, 
contained  in  Ex.  xx. -xxiii.,  which  were 
written  by  Moses  in  a  book,  formally  accepted 
by  the  Israelites,  and  ratified  as  a  covenant 
between  the  Lord  and  his  people  (Ex.  xxiv. 
3-8) ;  see  Theocracy.  Later  the  term  is 
used  as  synonymous  with  the  book  of  the 
law  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  2  with  xxii.  8,  11)  and  in- 
cluded Deuteronomy  (Deut.  xxxi.  9,  26 ;  2 
Kin.  xiv.  6  with  Deut.  xxiv.  16). 

Cow. 

Cows  w'ere  early  domesticated.  Egypt, 
Philistia,  and  Palestine,  aflbrded  excellent 
pasturage,  and  cows  were  kept  in  these  lauds 
(Gen.  xli.  2;  Deut.  vii.  13;  1  Sam.  vi.  7). 
Cows  were  herded  by  Abraham  and  his  de- 
scendants (Gen.  xii.  16;  xxxii.  15).  Their 
milk  served  for  food  (2  Sam.  xvii.  29).  They 
found  use  in  concluding  a  covenant  (Gen. 
XV.  9),  in  the  ceremony  attending  the  pro- 
fes.sion  of  innocence  of  a  death  caused  by  an 
undiscoverable  murderer  (Deut.  xxi.  3),  for 
a  peace  oflFering  (Lev.  iii.  1),  for  a  sin  ofi'ering 
for  uncleanness  arising  from  contact  with  the 
dead  (Num.  xix.  2;  Heb.  ix.  13),  and  in  ex- 
ceptional cases  for  a  burnt  oifering  (1  Sam. 
vi.  14). 

Coz.     See  Hakkoz. 

Coz'bi  [mendacious]. 

A  daughter  of  Zur,  prince  of  Midian.  In 
the  idolatrous  rites  to  which  the  Midiauites 
seduced  Israel  the  woman  was  publicly  taken 
by  a  prince  of  the  Simeonites.  Both  were 
thrust  through  by  Phinehas,  son  of  the  high 
priest,  and  shortly  afterwards  her  father  also 
was  slain  (Num.  xxv.  6-S,  14, 15, 18  ;  xxxi.  S). 

Co-ze'ba,  in  A.  V.  Chozeba  [deceitful]. 

A  village  in  Judah,  X'eopled  chiefly  by  de- 
scendants of  Shelah  (1  I'hron.  iv.  22).  It  is 
generally  believed  to  be  the  same  as  Achzib 
and  Chezib.  Conder,  however,  locates  it  at 
Kueiziba,  54  miles  north-northeast  of  Hebron, 
at  the  head  of  Pilate's  aqueduct  to  Jerusalem. 

Crane. 

Hebrew  'Agiir,  a  migratory  bird  which  has 
a  note  like  a  chatter  (Is.  xxxviii.  14 ;  Jer. 
viii.  7).  The  crane  is  the  type  of  a  family 
of  long-legged  wading  birds.  It  is  a  large 
and  elegant  bird,  breeding  in  the  north  of 
Europe  and  of  Asia,  and  migrating  southward 


Creation 


146 


Creation 


at  the  approach  of  winter.  On  these  flights 
cranes  go  in  large  flocks  of  wedge-shaped 
form  or  in  long  lines.     See  Swallow  2. 

Cre-a'tion. 

The  act  or  operation  of  God  whereby  he 
calls  into  existence  what  did  not  before  ex- 
ist. The  verb  always  has  God  for  its  subject, 
and  the  result  is  an  entirely  new  thing.  God 
created  the  heavens  and  the  earth  (Gen.  i.  1), 
aquatic  and  aerial  life  (21).  man  (27),  the  stars 
(Is.  xl.  26),  the  wind  (Amos  iv.  13).  He  creates 
the  clean  heart  (Ps.  li.  10).  Jehovah  com- 
manded and  the  heavens,  with  all  their  hosts, 
angels,  sun,  moon,  and  stars,  and  the  waters 
that  be  above  the  heavens,  were  created  ( Ps. 
cxlviii.  5).  He  spake  and  it  was  done.  Upon 
him  all  living  creatures  depend ;  his  hand 
provides  for  them,  his  look  preserves  them, 
the  hiding  of  his  face  destroys  them,  and  his 
creative  breath  renews  animate  life  on  earth 
(Ps.  civ.  27-30).  God  created  the  worlds  by 
the  Word,  who  is  the  Son  (John  i.  3  ;  Eph. 
iii.  9;  Col.  i.  16;  Heb.  i.  2). 

The  designation  creation  is  used  specially 
for  the  original  formation  of  the  universe  by 
God.  In  Genesis  a  general  account  of  the 
creation  of  the  universe  is  first  given  (i.  1- 
ii.  3),  which  is  followed  by  a  particular  ac- 
count of  the  formation  of  man  and  his  sur- 
roundings (ii.  4-25).  The  general  account 
describes  six  successive  acts,  or  sometimes 
groups  of  logically  related  acts  and  processes, 
which  were  willed  by  God  on  as  many  days ; 
see  Days.  All  facts  at  present  available 
indicate  that  between  the  successive  days 
long  periods  of  time  intervened.  The  omis- 
sion of  the  definite  article  in  the  enumeration, 
one  day  and  day  second,  instead  of  the  first 
day,  the  second  day,  etc.,  is  favorable  to  this 
view.  And  the  parallel  tradition,  as  pre- 
served by  the  Babylonians,  expressly  refers 
to  intervals  between  the  successive  acts  of 
creation  and  assigns  to  them  long  duration. 

The  earliest  extant  form  of  the  Babylonian 
account  is  found  as  the  introduction  to  the 
myth  of  the  sun-god  Marduk's  conflict  with 
Tiamat  the  watery  deep,  represented  as  a  she- 
dragon  who  has  attempted  to  reduce  the  or- 
dered universe  to  chaos.  The  tablet  was  in- 
scribed about  650  b.  c,  but  the  tale  itself 
can  be  traced  much  farther  back.  It  states 
thatr- 

At  the  time  when  on  high  the  heaven  announced 

not, 
Below  earth  named  not  a  name, 
[That  is  to  say :  When  heaven  and  earth  did 

not  exist] 
Then  primeval  ocean,  their  generator,  [and] 
Mummu  Tiamat  [the  watery  deep],  the  bearer 

of  their  totality, 
United  their  waters  as  one  : 
When  no  field  had  been  formed,  no  reed  was  to 

be  seen. 
At  a  time  when  none  of  the  gods  had  been 

brought  into  existence, 
When  a  name  had  not  been  named,  destiny  not 

determined, 
Then  were  made  the  gods 


The  gods  Lahmu  and  Lahamu  were  brought 

into  existence 

And  grew  up 

Anshar  [the  host  of  heaven]  and  Kishar  [the 

host  of  earth]  were  made 

Many  days  passed  by 

God  Anu  [heaven] 

Here  the  tablet  is  broken  ofi",  but  this  part 
of  the  tale  has  also  been  related  by  Damas- 
cius.  He  says  :  "The  Babylonians  assumed 
two  principles  of  the  universe,  Tauthe  and 
Apason  [i.  e.  Tiamat  the  watery  deep,  and 
Apsu  the  primeval  ocean] ;  making  Apason 
the  husband  of  Tauthe  and  naming  her  the 
mother  of  the  gods.  Of  these  two  there  was 
born  an  only-begotten  son,  Moymis.  From 
these  same  another  generation  proceeded, 
Lache  and  Lachos.  Then  also  from  the  same 
[original  pair]  a  third  generation,  Kissare 
and  Assoros ;  from  whom  sprang  Anos 
[heaven],  lUinos  [earth's  surface,  with  the 
atmosphere],  and  Aos  [the  waters  of  earth] ; 
and  of  Aos  and  Dauke  Belos  [the  sun  of 
spring]  was  born,  the  fabricator  of  the 
world."  In  these  narratives  of  creation  the 
Babylonians  fail  to  give  God  glory  ;  but  apart 
from  this  radical  defect,  these  traditions  of 
theirs  preserve  fundamentally  the  same  ac- 
count of  the  development  of  the  world  as  the 
Hebrew  prophet  does.  Stripped  of  poly- 
theistic phraseology,  the  Babylonian  tradi- 
tion taught  that  the  primeval  universe  was  a 
chaotic  watery  mass  (cp.  Gen.  i.  2).  Out  of 
this  mass  there  proceeded  not  only  Moymis 
and  Lache  and  Lachos  or  Lahmu  and  Laha- 
mu, who  are  doubtless  natural  objects  or 
forces,  but  have  not  been  identified  as  yet, 
but  also  by  a  series  of  generations,  to  use 
Damascius'  figure  (cp.  Gen.  ii.  4),  the  com- 
prehensive heavens  and  earth  (cp.  Gen.  i. 
6-8),  then  sky  and  dry  land  and  sea  (cp.  Gen.  i. 
9, 10),  and  then  the  sun  (cp.  Gen.  i.  14).  How 
natural  objects,  like  the  heavens  with  all 
their  host,  came  to  be  spoken  of  as  gods  is 
explained  in  the  paragraph  devoted  to  As- 
syrian and  Babylonian  religion  in  the  article 
on  Assyria. 

As  to  the  history  of  the  interpretation  of 
the  first  chapter  of  Genesis  it  may  be  said  that, 
although  the  proper  meaning  of  the  word  day 
was  early  considered  doubtful,  the  current 
understanding  of  the  account  was  that  God 
created  the  universe  in  one  week  of  seven 
consecutive  days  of  twenty-four  hours  each. 
When  geologists  began  to  study  the  orderly 
succession  of  the  rocks  and  to  investigate  their 
origin  and  history,  they  became  convinced 
that  thousands,  not  to  say  millions,  of  years 
must  have  been  required  to  produce  all  the 
changes  of  which  they  had  obtained  evidence. 
At  first  the  tendency  in  Christian  circles  was 
to  regard  the  claim  for  so  enormous  an  exten- 
sion of  the  time  as  unfounded.  At  length  it 
became  apparent  that  the  geological  claim  for 
extended  time  rested  on  substantial  grounds. 
Dr.  Thomas  Chalmers  adopted  the  result  and 
publicly  declared  in  1804  that  "  the  writings 


Creation 


147 


Cricket 


of  Moses  do  not  fix  the  antiquity  of  the 
globe."  Afterwards,  in  his  Eridencesof  Chris- 
tianiii/,  which  was  published  in  1813.  he  more 
fully  explained  his  view  that  between  the 
first  act  of  creation  described  in  Gen.  i.  1, 
and  the  others  commencing  with  verse  2, 
there  may  have  been  an  interval  of  many 
ages.  The  same  view  was  adopted,  appar- 
ently independently,  by  Canon  Buckland, 
afterwards  Dean,  himself  a  great  geologist, 
in  his  inaugural  lecture  published  at  Oxford 
in  18"20.  Geology  made  a  fresh  claim,  namely, 
that  the  transition  from  the  one  geological 
period  to  the  other  was  gradual,  and  without 
any  break  in  the  succession  of  life.  This 
view  was  accepted  and  the  six  days  were  in- 
terpreted by  Cuvier  of  Paris  in  1798  in  the 
preliminary  discourse  to  his  Ossements  Fos- 
silea.  and  by  Hugh  Miller  in  1857  in  his  Tes- 
timony of  ihe  Bocks,  as  six  geological  ages, 
and  a  correspondence  was  traced  between 
the  successive  stages  of  creation  as  told  in 
Gen.  i.  and  as  written  in  the  rocks.  This 
simple  age  theory  was  modified  by  the  vision 
theory,  j)ublished  by  Kurtz  on  the  Continent 
and  independently  by  Mr.  James  Sime  in 
England.  The  narrative  in  Gen.  1.  was  sup- 
posed to  be  founded  on  a  series  of  six  visions, 
in  which  the  chief  characteristics  of  succes- 
sive geological  ages  were  presented  to  the  eye 
of  the  inspired  writer.  So  geology  itself  has 
often  spoken  of  the  carboniferous  age,  the 
age  of  fishes,  the  age  of  mammals.  In  con- 
clusion, the  general  remark  may  be  made 
that  the  Hebrew  narrative  exhibits  sym- 
metry and  grouping,  which  may  be  plausibly 
explained  as  intentional  arrangement.  The 
chronological  order  has  been  observed  in  the 
main  at  least,  but  it  remains  to  be  discovered 
whether  it  has  been  followed  in  every  detail. 
At  any  rate  the  works  of  the  six  days  were  more 
than  six  acts ;  God  spake,  to  use  a  significant 
biblical  term,  eight  times  (vers.  3,  6,  9,  11.  14, 
20,  24,  26),  and  on  the  third  day  the  com- 
mand went  forth  for  both  dryland  and  vege- 
tation, on  the  fifth  day  for  fish  and  for  fowl, 
and  on  the  sixth  day  for  beast  and  for  man. 
Moreover,  the  six  days  form  two  interrelated 
groups :  the  first  day  saw  light,  and  the 
fourth  day,  the  first  of  the  second  group,  saw 
the  luminaries  ;  on  the  second  day  the  waters 
were  divided  and  the  sky  appeared,  and  on 
the  second  day  of  the  other  group  fish  were 
divinely  willed  in  the  waters  and  fowl  to  fly 
in  the  expanse  of  the  sky ;  on  the  third  day 
dry  land  and  vegetation  were  decreed,  and 
on  the  corresponding  day  of  the  second  group 
land  animals,  including  man,  were  made,  and 
vegetation  was  granted  them  for  food.  The 
several  works  of  creation  have  been  logically 
distributed  into  six  groups.  Hence  the  fiat  of 
the  Almighty  which  called  the  dry  land  into 
being  is  not  recorded  alone,  but  with  it  is  the 
command  for  vegetation.  God  contemplated 
the  land  as  clothed  with  verdure.  The  two 
acts  of  the  divine  will  are  in  reality  and  in 
purpose  one,  even  though  plant  life  possibly 


did  not  respond  to  the  divine  decree  until  the 
sun  appeared. 

Creeping  Thing. 

Any  animal  which  creeps  (Gen.  1.  24,  25), 
whether  a  land  or  a  water  reptile  (vi.  7 ;  Ps. 
civ.  25),  and  whether  crawling  on  the  belly 
or  creeping  on  four  or  more  feet  (Lev.  xi.  41, 
42). 

Cres'cens  [growing,  increasing]. 

A  Christian,  who  was  for  a  time  at  Rome 
while  I*aul  was  a  prisoner  there,  and  then 
departed  to  Galatia  (2  Tim.  iv.  10). 

Crete. 

A  large  island  in  the  INIediterranean,  lying 
southeast  of  Greece,  and  now  widely  known 
as  Candia.  The  Turks  retain  the  old  name 
in  the  modified  form,  Kiridi.  It  is  about  160 
niiles  long  by  6  to  35  broad.  It  is  traversed 
from  east  to  west  by  a  chain  of  mountains, 
of  which  mount  Ida,  near  the  center,  is 
7674  feet  high.  Homer  speaks  of  its  fair  land, 
its  countless  men  of  different  races  and  its 
hundred  cities  (II.  ii.  649  ;  Odys.  xix.  174). 
The  half-mythic  legislator,  Minos,  lived  in 
Crete,  and  the  fabulous  Minotaur  was  feigned 
to  dwell  there  too.  Crete  was  conquered  by 
the  Romans,  6S-6G  B.  c.  Many  Jews  settled 
in  the  island  (Acts  ii.  11 ;  cp.  1  Mac.  xv.  19- 
23,  Gortyua  being  in  Crete).  Christianity- 
was  early  introduced  ;  and  Titus  was  left 
there  to  arrange  the  aflairs  of  the  churches 
and  to  counteract  Judaizing  doctrine  (Titus 
i.  5,  10,  14).  Paul  sailed  along  its  whole 
southern  coast  on  his  vovage  to  Rome  (Acts 
xxvii.  7,  12,  13,  21).  The  rejiutatiou  of  the 
Cretans  was  bad.  They  were  admitted  to  be 
excellent  bowmen,  but  their  uncliastity  and 
untruthfulness  were  proverbial.  In  a.  d. 
823  the  island  was  conquered  by  the  Saracens, 
who  built  a  fort  called  Khandax,  the  Great 
Fortress,  now  corrupted  into  Candia,  which, 
properly  speaking,  is  the  name  of  the  capital 
onlv.  The  Greek  emperor  took  tlie  island 
from  the  Saracens  in  961.  From  1204  to  1665 
it  was  held  by  the  Venetians,  who  obtained 
it  at  first  by  purchase.  In  the  last-named 
year  the  Turks  repossessed  themselves  of  it. 
It  secured  autonomy  in  1897. 

Creta,  Latin  for  chalk  or  Cretan  earth,  was 
named  from  the  island. 

Crib.    See  Manger. 

Crick'et. 

The  rendering  in  the  text  of  the  R.  V.  of 
the  Hebrew  Hargol,  which  belongs  with  grass- 
hoppers and  locusts,  and  which  does  not 
creep  but  leaps,  is  winged,  and  can  be  eaten 
(Lev.  xi.  22).  The  chief  leaping  insects  be- 
long to  three  families  of  Orthoi){era,  viz.  the 
grasshoppers,  the  locusts,  and  the  crickets. 
The  hargol  almost  certainly  belongs  to  one  of 
the  three,  though  to  which  of  them  cannot 
now  be  determined.  The  crickets  have  long 
antennse  like  the  grasshoppers,  but  the  wing- 
cases  lie  flat  on  the  body  instead  of  meeting 
over  it  like  a  roof.     Among  the  few  known 


Crispus 


148 


Crown 


species  are  the  house  cricket  (Gryllm  domes- 
ticus)  and  the  field  cricket  {G.  campestrin). 
The  A.  V.  renders  hargol  beetle,  but  the  most 
typical  species  of  the  Coleoptera,  or  beetle 
order,  are  not  leaping  insects. 

Crls'pus  [curled]. 

The  ruler  of  the  Jewish  synagogue  at  Cor- 
inth. After  listening  to  Paul's  reasonings, 
he  with  all  his  household  believed  in  Jesus 
(Acts  xviii.  8),  and  was  one  of  the  few  per- 
sons whom  Paul  personally  baptized  (1  Cor. 
i.  14). 

Croc'o-dile.      See  Leviathan  and  Liz- 
ard. 
Cross, 

This  word  does  not  occur  in  the  O.  T.,  but 
crucifixion  was  common  among  various  na- 
tions of  antiquity  ;  see  Crucifixion.  Cross 
is  used  iu  a  figurative  sense  by  Jesus  (Mat. 
X.  38;  xvi.  24).  From  the  narrative  of  the 
crucifixion  it  is  evident  that  the  cross  was  of 
wood  (Col.  ii.  14),  and  was  heavy,  but  still 
not  too  much  so  to  be  borne  by  a  strong  man 
(Mat.  xxvii.  3-2;  Mark  xv.  21;  Luke  xxiii, 
26 ;  John  xix.  17),  and  can  scarcely,  there- 
fore, have  been  one  of  the  massive  structures 
Avhich  some  painters  depict.  It  was  raised 
from  the  earth  either  before  or  after  the  vic- 
tim had  been  affixed  to  it ;  probably,  in  most 
cases,  before.  Crosses  are  of  three  leading 
types:  one,  generally  called  the  St.  Andrew's 
cross,  like  the  letter  X  ;  another  like  the  let- 
ter T  ;  and  the  third  of  the  dagger  form,  f, 
with  which  we  are  so  familiar.  The 
cross  of  Christ  was,  probably,  as  artists 
believe,  of  the  last-named  type,  which 
more  easily  than  the  others  allowed  the 
name,  title,  or  crime  of  the  victim  to 
be  affixed  to  the  upper  part  (Mat.  xxvii. 
37;  Mark  xv.  26  ;  Luke  xxiii.  38;  John 
xix.  19).  Up  to  the  death  of  Christ,  and 
even  after,  the  cross  was  evidently  as 
much  a  name  of  horror  and  loathing  as 
is  the  gallows  now  (John  xix.  31 :  1  Cor. 
i.  23 ;  Gal.  iii.  13  ;  Phil.  ii.  8  ;  Heb.  xii. 
2;  xiii.  13),  so  that  to  bear  the  cross 
meant  to  incur  great  reproach  and  ob- 
loquy ;  but  after  the  crucifixion  the  more 
zealous  followei's  of  Jesus  regarded  the 
cro.ss  with  wholly  altered  feelings.  Paul 
gloried  in  the  cross  of  Christ  (Gal.  vi. 
14),  by  which  he  meant  the  atonement 
resulting  from  his  crucifixion  (Eph.  ii. 
16 ;  Col.  i.  20). 

The  pre-Christian  cross  of  one  form 
or  another  was  in  use  as  a  sacred  sym- 
bol among  the  Chaldeans,  the  Phoeni- 
cians, the   Egyptians,  and  many  other 
oriental  nations.     The  Spaniards  in  the  16th 
century  found  it  also  among  the  Indians  of 
Mexico  and  Peru.    But  its  symbolic  teaching 
was  quite  ditferent  from  that  which  we  now 
associate  with  the  cross. 

In  the  fifth  century  Socrates,  the  church 
historian,  and  Theodoret,  bishop  of  Cyprus, 
relate  that  Helena,  the  mother  of  Constan- 


tine,  was  instructed  in  a  dream  to  repair  to 
Jerusalem  and  seek  for  the  sepulcher  of 
Christ.  While  there  (a.  d.  325)  she  found 
three  crosses,  one  of  which  cured  a  dying 
woman,  and  was,  therefore,  known  to  be  the 
true  cross  of  Christ.  She  gave  part  of  it  to 
the  city  of  Jerusalem,  and  sent  the  other 
part  to  the  emperor,  who  placed  it  within  his 
statue,  regarding  it  as  the  palladium  of  the 
empire.  Eusebius,  however,  who  fiourished 
iu  the  fourth  century,  and  was  a  contempo- 
rary of  Helena,  and  on  terms  of  friendship 
with  the  imperial  family,  knew  nothing  of 
the  story,  which  meets  with  no  acceptance 
from  modern  scholars.  It  is  believed  that  the 
practice  was  to  burn,  instead  of  to  bury,  the 
crosses  on  which  real  or  alleged  criminals  had 
been  crucified. 

Crown. 

1.  An  ornamental  headdress  worn  as  a 
badge  of  authority  or  dignity.  Especially 
(1)  The  royal  crown.  It  was  generally  a 
circlet  of  gold  (Ps.  xxi.  3),  and  was  often 
studded  with  gems  (2  Sam.  xii.  30 ;  Zech.  ix. 
16).  Sometimes  several  crowns  were  com- 
bined or  intertwined  (vi.  11 ;  1  Mac.  xi.  13). 
The  crown  which  David  took  at  Kabbah 
from  the  Ammonites  probably  belonged  to 
the  idol  Malcam  (2  Sam.  xii.  30,  R.  V.  mar- 
gin). Its  weight  was  a  talent  of  gold,  and 
in  it  were  precious  stones.  The  ordinary 
headdress  of  the  Persian  king  (Esth.  i.  11  ; 
vi.  8)  was  a  stiff  cap,  probably  of  felt  or  of 
cloth,  encircled  by  a  blue  and  white  band. 


Crowns  of  Egypt  and  .Vssyria  and  the  common 
Radiated  Diadem. 

which  was  the  diadem  proper.  The  royal 
crown  of  Assyria  was  a  conical  cap,  sometimes 
tapering  in  a  compound  curve,  but  more  fre- 
quently shaped  like  the  modern  Turkish  fez, 
only  higher  and  ending  in  a  round  blunt 
point,  it  was  adorned  with  bands  of  wrought 
gold  and  jewels.  The  king  is  also  represented 
wearing  a  simple  fillet,  and  it  is  probable  that 


Crucifixion 


149 


Cubit 


this  was  a  common  custom,  the  crowu  royal 
being  reserved  for  state  occasions.  In  Egypt 
there  were  two  royal  crowns.  The  one  for 
Upper  Egypt  was  a  high  round  white  cap 
tapering  to  a  knob ;  the  crowu  for  Lower 
Egypt  was  a  flat-topped  red  cap,  rising  in  a 
high  point  at  the  back  and  having  a  projec- 
tion with  a  curled  end  springing  diagonally 
toward  the  front.  When  the  two  kingdoms 
were  united  under  one  sovereign,  he  wore 
the  two  crowns  combined,  the  crowu  of 
Lower  Egypt  being  superimposed  upon  that 
of  Upper  Egypt.  The  Egyptian  king  is  also 
frequently  depicted  witli  a  band  or  diadem. 
The  royal  headdress,  of  whatever  shape,  is 
nearly  always  surrounded  by  the  Uneus,  the 
sacred  serpent  of  the  Egyptians,  symbolizing 
power  over  life  and  death.  See  also  illustra- 
tions under  Phakaoh.  The  radiated  diadem 
was  a  form  of  crown  familiar  to  the  Greeks 
and  Eomans  and  to  the  peoples  under  their 
influence.  A  crown  or  garland  of  some 
thorny  plant  was  placed  by  the  Eoman 
soldiers  around  the  temples  of  Jesus,  with 
the  twofold  intention  of  torturing  him  and 
mocking  his  kingly  claims  (JIat.  xxvii.  291. 
(2)  The  high  priest's  crown.  It  consisted 
of  a  golden  plate  (Lev.  viii.  9),  inscribed 
with  the  legend  "  Holiness  to  the  Lord,'' 
and  fiistened  on  a  lace  of  blue  to  the  fore- 
front of  the  miter  (Ex.  xxviii.  36,  'AT;  xxix. 
6).  (3)  The  crown  of  victory  (2  Tim.  ii.  5  ; 
iv.  8 :  Heb.  ii.  9).  It  might  consist  merely 
of  a  wreath  of  leaves  or  be  made  of  metal. 

2.  Anything  resembling  a  crown,  as  the 
border  or  moulding  round  about  the  ark.  the 
table,  and  the  altar  (Ex.  xxv.  11,  24,  25 ; 
XXX.  3.  4). 

Cru-ci-fix'ion. 

The  act  or  operation  of  fixing  a  victim  to 
a  cross  for  the  purpose  of  capital  punish- 
ment. This  was  done  either  by  tying  his 
hands  and  feet  to  it,  or  in  the  more  cruel 
way  of  fixing  them  to  it  by  nails  driven 
through  their  fleshy  portions.  This  method 
of  punishment  existed  in  many  ancient  na- 
tions. Alexander  the  Great  crucified  a  thou- 
sand Tyrians.  According  to  Josephus,  Cyrus 
introduced  into  his  edict  for  the  return  of  the 
Jews  from  Babylon  a  threat  of  crucifying 
anyone  who  attempted  to  prevent  the  missive 
from  being  carried  into  execution  (Antiq.  xi. 
1,  3;  4,  6).  Darius  the  Persian  threatened 
this  death,  apparently,  to  those  who  refused 
obedience  to  his  decrees  (Ezra  vi.  11).  Anti- 
ochus  Epiphanes  crucified  faithful  Jews  who 
would  not  abandon  their  religion  at  his  bid- 
ding (Ant.  xii.  5.  4),  and  Alexander  Jaunseus 
(War  i.  4,  6)  and  the  Pharisees  crucified  their 
enemies  (War  i.  5,  3).  Among  the  Romans 
crucifixion  was  a  penalty  inflicted  only  on 
slaves,  or  on  freemen  who  had  committed  the 
most  heinous  crimes :  the  ordinary  Eoman 
citizen  was  exempted  from  it  by  express  legal 
enactment.  The  preliminary  cruelties  of 
scourging  the  victim  (Mat.  xxvii.  26 ;  Mark 


XV.  15;  John  xix.  1),  and  then,  when  his 
body  was  lacerated,  compelling  him  to  bear 
his  cross  (xix.  17),  were  not  rare  (cp.  the 
proverb,  Mat.  x.  38).  Thus  the  Roman  pro- 
curator Florus  (War  ii.  14,  9)  and  Titus,  at 
least  on  one  occasion,  had  those  scourged  first 
who  were  afterwards  to  be  crucified.  If  the 
victim  was  simply  tied  to  the  cross,  this  was 
no  injury  sufficient  to  produce  death,  which 
did  not  take  place  till  thirst  and  hunger  had 
done  their  work  ;  and  this  was  sometimes  the 
case  even  when  the  hands  and  feet  were 
pierced  by  nails.  If  it  was  expedient  on  any 
ground  to  get  rid  of  the  victims  before  nat- 
ural death  had  released  them  from  their  tor- 
tures, the  end  was  sometimes  hastened  by 
breaking  their  legs,  as  was  done  in  the  case 
of  the  robbers  crucified  with  Jesus  (John 
xix.  31-33).  Many  Jews  were  crucified  after 
Titus  took  Jerusalem  (Life  75).  Constantine 
abolished  punishment  by  crucifixion  in  the 
Eoman  empire. 

Cruse. 

A  small  pot  or  jug  used  for  carrying  water 
during  a  journey  (1  Sam.  xxvi.  11 ;  1  Kin. 
xix.  6)  and  for  holding  oil  (1  Kin.  xvii.  12; 
Judith  X.  5).  For  cruse  of  honey  (1  Kin.  xiv. 
3),  a  different  word  in  Hebrew,  the  margin 
substitutes  bottle  ;  and  the  cruse  of  salt  (2 
Kin.  ii.  20)  was  rather  a  dish. 

Crys'tal. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word 
Z'kukith,  in  A.  V.  of  Job  xxviii.  17.  The  E. 
V.  makes  it  glass,  since  crystal  occurs  in  the 
next  verse.  The  corresponding  word  in 
Syriac  is  used  for  glass  in  Eev.  iv.  6. 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Gabish,  ice 
and  crystal,  another  reputed  product  of  cold 
(Job  xxviii.  18;  in  A.  V.  pearl). 

3.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word 
Kerah  (Ezek.  i.  22;  cp.  Ex.  xxiv.  10).  The 
E.  V.  has  ice  on  the  margin,  which  is  an  es- 
tablished meaning  of  the  word  (Job  vi.  16 ; 
xxxviii.  29  ;  Ps.  cxlvii.  17). 

4.  The  rendering  of  the  Greek  Krustallos 
(Eev.  iv.  6  and  xxii.  1).  It  is  either  ice  or 
rock-cry.stal,  which  is  quartz,  transparent,  and 
when  pure  colorless. 

Cub,  in  A.  V.  Chub. 

A  people  mentioned  with  Ethiopia,  Put, 
and  Lud  (Ezek.  xxx.  5,  E.  V.).  The  Seventy 
apparently  read  Lub,  i.  e.  Libya. 

Cu'bit  [from  Latin  cubUum,  an  elbow,  a 
cubit]. 

A  measure  of  length  based  on  the  length 
of  the  forearm.  The  Babylonian  cubit  was 
20.65  or  21.26  inches.  The  royal  Babylonian 
cubit  was  longer  than  the  common  one  by 
three  finger-breadths  (Herod,  i.  178).  The 
Egyptian  cubit  contained  .six  hand-breadths 
or  palms  (ii.  149).  The  royal  cubit  was  a 
palm  longer  and  was  equal  to  20.64  inches, 
as  appears  from  measuring  sticks  found  in 
the  tombs.  The  Hebrews  also  had  two 
cubits,  the  common  and  perhaps  older  cubit 
(Dent.  iii.  11 ;  2  Chron.  iii.  3)  and  a  cubit 


Cuckoo 


150 


Cushan-risliathaini 


which  was  a  haud-breadth  longer  than  the 
common  one  (Ezek.  si.  5;  xliii.  13).  The 
table  of  Hebrew  lineal  measure  is  4  fingers= 
1  hand-breadth  or  palm  ;  3  hand-breadths= 
1  span  ;  2  spans  =  1  cubit  (Ex.  xxv.  10,  with 
Antiq.  iii.  6,  5;  Mishna,  Chelim.  xvii.  9).  It  is 
not  unlikely  that  the  royal  Egyptian  cubit  and 
the  cubit  of  Ezekiel  were  theoretically  equal 
to  the  Babylonian  cubit ;  so  that  the  common 
Hebrew  cubit  was  17.70  or  18.22  inches,  or, 
if  only  three  fingers  shorter  than  the  long 
cubit,  18.3(;  or  18.9  inches. 

Cuck'oo,  the  A.  V.  has  Cuckow,  using  the 
obsolete  spelling  [English,  from  the  voice  of 
the  bird]. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Shnhaph, 
emaciated  bird,  in  the  A.  V.  A  bird  ceremoni- 
ally unclean  (Lev.  xi.  16;  Deut.  xiv.  15). 
The  cuckoo,  Cacnlus  canorus,  is  a  well-known 
climbing  bird,  which,  coming  in  spring  from 
the  south,  on  its  annual  migration,  remains 
till  the  fall  of  the  year,  being  frequently 
heard,  but  rarely  seen.  The  R.  V.,  following 
the  Septuagint  translators,  renders  shahaph 
not  cuckoo  but  seamew. 

Cu'cum-ber. 

The  correct  rendering  of  the  Hebrew 
Kisshii',  a  vegetable  which  the  Israelites  ob- 
tained while  they  were  slaves  in  Egypt,  and 
longed  for  when  they  could  not  have  it  in 
the  wildBrness  (Num.  xi.  5).  It  is  Cucumis 
chdte,  which  is  very  common  in  Egypt  and 
somewliat  sweeter  than  the  common  cucum- 
ber, Ciicnmissatiras.  Tlie  cucumber  was  raised 
in  gardens  in  Palestine  (Is.  i.  8 ;  Baruch  vi. 
70),  and  both  the  species  mentioned  are  grown 
there  to-day. 

Cum'min  [from  Hebrew  Icamrnon,  Arabic 
kammun,  Greek  knminon]. 

A  cultivated  plant  sown  broadcast  and, 
when  rijje,  beaten  with  a  rod  to  detach  its 
seeds  (Is.  xxviii.  25,  27).  It  was  one  of  the 
trifles  of  which  the  Pharisees  were  particular 
in  paying  titlies  (Mat.  xxiii.  23).  Cummin 
is  the  Cuminttm  cyminum  of  botanists,  a  fen- 
nel-like plant  bearing  umbels  of  small  white 
flowers.  It  was  cultivated  in  Palestine  for 
its  seeds,  which  were  eaten  as  a  spice  or  rel- 
ish with  food.  They  are  now  in  large  meas- 
ure superseded  by  caraway  seeds,  which  are 
more  agreeable  to  the  taste  and  more  nutri- 
tious. 

Cun.     See  Berothai. 

Cup. 

1.  A  small  drinking  vessel  (2  Sam.  xii.  3), 
of  earthenware  or  metal  (Jer.  li.  7),  held  in 
the  hand  (Gen.  xl.  11),  and  used  for  water 
(Mark  ix.  41),  or  wine  (Ps.  Ixxv.  8  ;  Jer.  xxv. 
1.5).     See  Basin. 

2.  Figuratively,  the  contents  of  the  cup, 
whether  pleasant  or  bitter  ;  that  which  falls 
to  one's  lot  (Ps.  xxiii.  5;  Is.  li.  17;  Jer.  xvi. 
7  ;  Mat.  xxvi.  39). 

Cup'bear-er. 

The  official  who  poured  drink  into  the  cup 


and  gave  it  to  the  king  (Gen.  xl.  9-14,  where 
the  Hebrew  word  is  rendered  butler;  Neh. 
i.  11 ;  ii.  1, 2).  The  oflice  was  one  of  the  most 
dignified  in   an  oriental  kingdom,  and  re- 


Assyrian  Cupbearer. 

quired  moral  trustworthiness  in  its  occupant, 
lest  he  be  bribed  to  present  poisoned  wine  to 
the  king  (Antiq.  xvi.  8,  1).  It  said  much  for 
the  character  of  Nehemiah  that  he,  a  stranger 
and  a  foreigner,  should  have  been  appointed 
to  such  an  office  at  the  Persian  court. 

Cush  [Hebrew  Kiish,  Old  Egyptian  Knsh, 
Kesh,  and  Kish,  Ethiopia]. 

1.  A  son  of  Ham  and  his  descendants  col- 
lectively. They  constituted  five  principal 
peoples,  Seba,  Havilah,  Sabtah,  Raamah,  Sab- 
teca,  and  were  located  in  central  and  south- 
ern Arabia,  except  Seba,  which  is  probably  to 
be  sought  on  the  neighboring  African  coast 
(Gen.  X.  6-8  ;  1  Chron.  i.  8-10). 

2.  The  land  where  the  Cushites  dwelt  dur- 
ing any  period.  In  Gen.  ii.  13,  R.  V.,  the  term 
denotes  territory  in  the  same  great  basin  as 
the  countries  drained  by  the  Tigris  and 
Euphrates.  In  all  subsequent  passages  it 
designates  Ethiopia  in  Africa  (2  Kin.  xix. 
9 ;  Esth.  i.  1  ;  Ezek.  xxix.  10).  Herodotus 
describes  Asiatic  Ethiopians  in  the  army  of 
Xerxes,  who  were  diflerent  from  the  African 
Ethiopians  (vii.  70). 

3.  A  Benjamite,  perhaps  of  Ethiopian  de- 
scent (the  Seventy  read  Cushi),  who  was  a 
foe  to  David  (Ps.  vii.  title). 

Cu'shan  [a  name  formed  from  Cush]. 

A  country  or  its  inhabitsiuts  mentioned  in 
connection  with  Midian,  and  hence  probably 
Arabia  as  occupied  by  Cushites  (Hab.  iii.  7; 
see  Cush).  A  reference  is  not  apparent  to 
Cushan-rishathaim  (Judg.  iii.  5),  called 
Cushan  by  Josephus  (Antiq.  v.  3,  2). 

Cu'shan-rish-a-tlia'im,  in  A.  V.  Cbushan- 


Cushi 


151 


Csrrene 


risbatliaim  [etymology  and  meauiug  un- 
kiuiwiij. 

A  king  of  Mesopotamia,  who  held  the 
Israelites  iu  siibjeetioii  for  eight  years.  De- 
liverance was  achieved  under  the  leadership 
of  Othniel,  Caleb's  younger  brother  (Judg. 
iii.  5-11). 

Cu'sM  [an  Ethiopian]. 

1.  All  ancestor  of  that  Jehudi  who  lived 
in  Jeremiahs  time  (Jer.  xxxvi.  14). 

2.  Father  of  the  prophet  Zephaniah  (Zeph. 
i.  11. 

3.  According  to  the  A.  V.  one  of  the  two 
men  who  carried  David  the  news  of  the  vic- 
tory over  his  rebellious  sou  Absalom  ;  but  the 
Hebrew  has  "  the  Cushi,"  evidently  meaning, 
as  the  K.  \'.  jenders  it,  "the  Cushite,"'  i.  e. 
the  Ethio]>iau.  The  actual  name  of  the  run- 
ner is  unknown  (2  Sam.  xviii.  21-23,  31,  32). 

Cush'ite. 

An  Ethiopian  (Num.  xii.  1,  E.  Y.  and  mar- 
gin of  A.  V. :  2.  Sam.  xviii.  21,  E.  V.). 

Cuth  and  Cu'thah  [of  doubtful  meaning]. 

A  city  of  Babylonia,  often  mentioned  in 
connection  with  Babylon  and  Borsippa,  and 
whose  tutelary  deity  was  Xergal.  Colonists 
were  brought  from  this  place,  among  others, 
to  Samaria  after  the  deportation  of  the  ten 
tribes  (2  Kin.  xvii.  24,  30).  Its  site  is  now^ 
fixed  at  the  mounds  of  Tell  Ibrahim,  north- 
west of  Babylon. 

Cym'bal  [from  Greek  kumbalon  (1  Cor. 
xiii.  1 1]. 

A  musical  instrument  (2  Sam.  vi.  5 ;  1 
Chroii.  xvi.  5>,  named  in  Hebrew  from  a  root 
signifying  to  tinkle  or  clang.  One  form  of 
the  name  is  in  the  dual  number,  which  im- 
plies that  the  instrument  is  of  two  distinct 


Eastern  Cymbals. 

parts.  This  undoubtedly  suggests  cymbals, 
as  the  Septuagiiit  renders  the  word,  which 
are  concave  plates  of  brass  (1  Chron.  xv.  19), 
one  form  of  them  being  nearly  flat,  another 
consisting  of  hollow  cones  designed  to  be 
clashed  together  for  their  sound.  See  Music. 
Cy'press  [from  Latin  cupressus,  cyparissus, 
Greek  knpari^^sos]. 

1.  The  rendering  in  A.  Y.  of  Is.  xliv.  14 
of  the  Hebrew  word  Tirsah,  referring  to  the 
hardness  of  the  wood.  The  E.  Y.  translates  it 
the  holm  tree. 

2.  The  marginal  rendering  of  the  Hebrew 


T''ashshur  in  R.  Y.  of  Is.  sli.  19  ;  Ix.  13.   The 
text  of  both  versions  has  box. 

3.  Rendering  of  B'ro.NA,  margin  R.Y.  SeeFiK. 
The  Cypress,  Cupressus  semperrirens,  is  the 
typeof  the  sub-order  CK/jces.'jea?,  ranking  under 
the  order  Pinacex  (Conifers).  About  ten  spe- 
cies of  the  genus  Cupressus  are  known.  The 
common  cypress  is  an  evergreen  running 
into  two  well-marked  varieties,  one  a  tall 
tree  60  feet  high  with  erect  closely  appressed 
branches,  and  the  other  smaller,  with  the 
branches  spreading.  The  cypress  is  a  na- 
tive of  Persia  and  the  Levant.  It  is  exten- 
sively planted  in  cemeteries  of  the  East. 

Cy'prus  [so  called  from  Kupris,  a  name  of 
Aphrodite,  the  Greek  Yenus.  who  was  greatly 
worshiped  in  Cyprus]. 

An  island  in  the  northeastern  part  of  the 
Mediterranean  Sea,  about  60  miles  from  the 
coast  of  Cilicia.  41  from  Syria,  and  2.38  from 
Port  Said  in  Egypt.  The  more  compact  part  of 
the  island  is  110  miles  in  length  by  30  to  50  or 
60  in  breadth  ;  besides  which  there  runs  from 
its  northeastern  extremity  a  narrow  strip  of 
land,  40  miles  long  by  5  or  6  broad,  project- 
ing from  the  rest  of  the  island  like  a  bow- 
sprit from  a  ship.  The  area  of  Cyprus  is  about 
3584  square  miles.  The  island  is  mountainous, 
with  intermediate  valleys,  which  are  at  cer- 
tain seasons  unhealthy.  The  mountains  yield 
copper,  and  the  mines  were  at  one  time  farmed 
to  Herod  the  Great  (Antiq.  xvi.  4.  5).  Its 
ancient  inhabitants  were  Kittim,  a  branch  of 
the  Greek  race  (Gen.  x.  4),  but  Phcenicians 
from  the  coast  of  Syria  colonized  the  island. 
They  built  as  their  capital  the  town  of  Kition 
or  Citium.  Later  other  bodies  of  Greeks  rein- 
forced the  original  stock  (cp.  Herod,  vii.  90), 
so  that  to  this  day  about  three-fourths  of  the 
population  belong  to  that  race.  Cyprus  was 
for  a  short  time  an  imperial  Roman  province 
or  part  of  one  :  but  iu  the  year  27  b.  c.  Au- 
gustus handed  it  over  to  the  senate,  and 
henceforth  it  was  under  a  propraetor  with 
the  title  of  proconsul.  Many  Jewish  com- 
munities existed  in  the  island  (1  Mac.  xv.  23 ; 
Acts  iv.  .36).  There  were  Cliristians  con- 
nected with  it  before  Stephen's  martyrdom  ; 
and  during  the  persecution  which  followed 
some  of  them  returned  to  it,  preaching  the 
go.spel  (Acts  xi.  19,  20).  It  was  visited  for 
missionary  purposes,  first  by  Barnabas  and 
Paul  (Acts  xiii.  4),  and  afterwards  by  Barna- 
bas and  Mark  (xv.  39|.  Paul  sailed  past  it 
at  least  twice  without  landing  (xxi.  3,  16: 
xxvii.  4).  Since  1571  it  has  constituted  a 
portion  of  Turkey,  though  by  a  treaty,  dated 
June  4,  1878,  Great  Britain  administers  and 
holds  it  as  a  place  of  arms,  while  Russia  re- 
tains Batoum  and  Kars.     See  Kittim. 

Cy-re'ne. 

An  important  Greek  colonial  city  in  North 
Africa,  beautifully  situated  on  a  tableland 
many  hundred  feet  above  the  sea  level,  and 
a  few  miles  distant  from  the  Mediterranean. 
It  constituted  one  of  five  Greek  cities  called 


Cyrenius 


152 


Daberath 


Pentapolis,  situated  in  Libya  Cyrenaica,  now 
Tripoli.  It  is  believed  that  it  was  founded 
by  Dorians  about  the  year  632  b.  c.  During 
the  time  of  the  Ptolemies,  in  the  third  cen- 
tury B.  c,  many  Jews  became  resident  in 
Cyrene  (con.  Apiou  ii.  4  ;  Antiq.  xiv.  7,  2). 
Simon,  who  was  compelled  to  carry  the  cross 
of  Jesus,  seems  to  have  been  a  Cyrenian  Jew 
(Mat.  xxvii.  32).  Cyrenians  joined  with 
Libertines  and  others  in  forming  a  synagogue 
at  Jerusalem  (Acts  vi.  9).  Men  of  Cyrene  early 
became  converts  and  preachers  (xi.  20). 
Among  them  was  a  certain  Lucius,  a  promi- 
nent man  in  the  church  at  Antioch  (xiii.  1). 
Extensive  ruins  of  Cyrene  still  exist,  now 
called  el-Krenna. 

Cy-re'ni-us.    See  Quirinius. 

Cy'rus  [Elamite  and  Persian,  K'ur'ush]. 

A  king  twice  named  in  Isaiah's  prophecies 
as  anointed,  and  predestined  to  achieve  great 
conquests  over  kings  and  fortified  places, 
and.  when  his  power  was  established,  set  the 
Jews  free  from  the  captivity  (Is.  xliv.  28 ; 
xlv.  1-14).  Daniel,  referring  to  the  conquest 
of  Babylonia  by  the  Medes  and  Persians,  re- 
cords that  during  the  night  which  followed 
a  great  feast  Belshazzar,  the  king  of  the  Chal- 
deans, was  slain  and  Darius  the  Mede  re- 
ceived the  kingdom  (Dan.  v.  30,  31).  Darius 
was  predecessor  of  Cyrus,  or  his  regent,  in 
Babylonia  (vi.  28).  Ezra  relates  that  Cyrus, 
king  of  Persia,  in  the  first  year  of  his  reign 
issued  a  proclamation  permitting  the  Jews  to 
return  to  their  own  land,  and  urging  rather 
than  simply  allowing  them  to  rebuild  the  tem- 
ple, for  the  use  of  which  he  returned  the 
sacred  vessels  taken  by  Nebuchadnezzar  (Ezra 
i.  1-11 ;  V.  13,  14;  vi'.  3).  Many  of  the  Jews 
availed  themselves  of  the  permission,  and 
returned  to  Jerusalem.  Enemies  attempted, 
with  some  success,  to  render  the  edict  of 
Cyrus  abortive,  but  it  was  never  formally 
revoked  (iv.  1-5).  According  to  Babylonian 
inscriptions,  written  at  the  time  of  the  cap- 
ture of  the  city,  Cyrus  was  son  of  Cambyses, 
grandson  of  Cyrus,  great-grandson  of  Teispes, 
all  of  whom  reigned  as  kings  of  Ansan,  a 
designation  which  appears  to  denote  eastern 
Elam  with  Susa  as  its  capital.  About  the 
year  550  B.  c,  the  sixth  year  of  Nabuna'id 
or  Nabonidus,  king  of  Babylon,  Istuvegu  or, 
in  Greek,  Astyages,  king  of  the  people  of 
Manda,  marched  against  Cyrus,  but  was  be- 
trayed by  his  own  army  and  delivered  into 
the  hands  of  Cyrus.  Cyrus  then  took  Ecba- 
tana  and  carried  its  spoil  to  his  own  city. 
For  several  years  Nabonidus  is  reported  as 
residing  in  Teva,  while  his  son  is  with  the 
army  in  northern  Babylonia.  In  547  B.  c, 
Nabonidus'  mother  died  at  the  camp  and 
was  publicly  mourned  by  the  king's  son  and 
the  army.  In  Nisan  of  this  year  Cyrus,  now 
called  king  of  Persia,  led  the  Persian  army 
across  the  Tigris  near  Arbela  and  carried  his 
conquest  into  the  western  country.  Accord- 
ing to  Greek  authorities,  he  conquered  Lydia 


about  this  time,  taking  Sardis  and  making  a 
prisoner  of  Croesus,  its  king.  In  539  B.  c, 
the  seventeenth  year  of  Nabonidus,  in  the 
month  Tammuz,  Cyrus  met  the  Babylonians 
in  battle  ;  on  the  14th  day  he  took  Sippara 
and  Nabonidus  tied.  Two  days  later,  on  the 
16th,  Ugbaru  or  Gobryas,  governor  of  Gutium, 
at  the  head  of  a  detachment  of  Cyrus'  army, 
entered  Babylon  without  fighting.  Nabonidus 
was  afterwards  captured  at  Babylon.  On  the 
3d  of  Marchesvan  Cyrus  himself  entered 
Babylon,  his  governor  Ugbaru  proclaimed 
peace  to  the  province,  governors  were  ap- 
pointed, and  an  order  issued  for  the  restora- 
tion of  many  captive  foreign  idols  to  their 
several  native  sanctuaries.  About  the  27th 
of  Adar  the  king's  wife  died.  A  public 
mourning  for  her  was  observed  for  a  week, 
followed  by  religious  services  conducted  by 
Cambyses,  son  of  Cyrus.  Cyrus  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Cambyses  in  529  b.  c.  So  far  the 
inscriptions.  According  to  Herodotus  (i.  190, 
191),  Cyrus  captured  Babylon  by  turning  the 
waters  of  the  Euphrates  temporarily  into  a 
lake  excavated  for  the  purpose,  and  then  en- 
tering from  the  nearly  dry  bed  of  the  river 
by  the  gates  which  had  been  left  open  on  the 
night  of  a  festival  while  the  inhabitants  were 
engaged  in  revelry.  The  account  given  by 
the  Babylonian  priest,  Berosus,  who  lived 
about  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  is  as 
follows:  "In  the  17th  year  of  Nabonidus, 
Cyrus  came  out  of  Persia  with  a  great  army, 
and,  having  conquered  all  the  rest  of  Asia, 
came  hastily  to  Babylonia.  When  Nabonidus 
perceived  that  he  was  advancing  to  attack 
him,  he  assembled  his  forces  and  opposed 
him ;  but  he  was  defeated  and  fled  with  a 
few  of  his  attendants  and  shut  himself  in 
the  city  of  Borsippa  [the  twin  of  Babylon]. 
Whereupon  Cyrus  took  Babylon  ;  and  he 
gave  orders  that  the  outer  walls  should  be 
demolished,  because  the  city  had  proved  very 
troublesome  to  him  and  ditficult  to  take.  He 
then  marched  to  Borsippa  to  besiege  Nabo- 
nidus :  but  as  Nabonidus  delivered  himself 
into  his  hands  without  holding  out  the  place, 
he  was  at  first  kindly  treated  by  Cyrus,  who 
sent  him  out  of  Babylonia  but  gave  him  a 
habitation  in  Carmania,  where  he  spent  the 
remainder  of  his  life  and  died  "  (contra  Apion. 
i.  20). 


D. 


Dalj'a-reh.    See  Daberath. 

Dab'be-sheth,  in  A.  V.  Dabbasheth  [hump 
of  a  camel]. 

A  town  on  the  boundary  line  of  Zebulon 
(Josh.  xix.  11).  Conder  locates  it  at  Dabsheh, 
near  Jokneam. 

Dab'e-rath,  in  A.  V.  once  Dabareh  errone- 
ously (Josh.  xxi.  28)  [probably  pasture  land]. 

A  city  within  the  territory  of  Issachar, 
given  with  its  suburbs  to  the  Gershonites 
(Josh.  xix.  12 ;  xxi.  28  ;  1  Chron.  vi.  72  ;  War  ii. 


Dagon 


153 


Damascus 


21,  3;  Life  62).  It  has  been  identified  as  the 
village  of  Deburieh  at  the  base  of  mount 
Tabor,  on  the  northwestern  side  of  the  hill. 

Da'gon  [the  name  probably  has  no  refer- 
ence to  either  tish  or  grain]. 

The  national  god  of  the  Philistines.  At 
Gaza,  at  Beth-dagon.  and  especially  at  Ash- 
dod,  he  had  a  temple  (Judg.  xvi.  21,  23  ;  1 
Sam.  V.  1-7  ;  1  Chron.  x.  10).  Jonathan 
Maceaba?us,  after  defeating  the  Philistines, 
drove  them  into  the  temple  of  Dagon  in 
Ashdod,  and  set  tire  both  to  the  city  and  the 
temple  (1  Mac.  x.  84 ;  xi.  4).  Dagon  was 
worshiped  to  some  extent  in  Phoenicia  and 
also  in  Assyria.  The  idol  is  considered  to 
have  had  the  head,  arms,  and  upper  parts  of 
human  form  (1  Sam.  v.  4),  while  the  lower 
parts  tapered  away  into  the  tail  of  a  fish. 
Diodorus  Siculus  (ii.  4)  mentions  an  idol, 
called  Dercetus.  of  similar  form,  as  having 
existed  at  Ashkelon,  another  Philistine  town. 
It  is  questionable  whether  the  image  of  a 
man  with  the  extremities  of  a  fish,  which 
■was  found  at  Khorsabad,  represents  Dagon. 

Da-la'iah.     See  Delaiah. 

Da'leth. 

The  fourth  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet. 
The  English  letter  D  has  the  same  origin, 
and  represents  it  in  anglicized  Hebrew  names. 
It  stands  at  the  head  of  the  fourth  section 
of  Ps.  cxix.,  in  which  section  each  verse  of 
the  Hebrew  begins  with  this  letter. 

The  two  Hebrew  letters,  daleth  and  resh 
(r),  are  somew'hat  similar  now,  and  at  certain 
stages  of  their  development  were  distinguish- 
able only  when  carefully  written  and  on 
close  scrutiny.  In  the  Siloam  inscription,  for 
example,  they  are  written  ^  and  ^  and 
on  Hebrew  coins  C^  and  <J.  This  similarity 
caused  constant  difficulty  to  readers  and  copy- 
ists, and  frequently  misled  them  as  to  the 
true  spelling  of  words,  especially  of  obscure 
names  where  no  guide  to  the  original  form 
existed. 

Dal-ma-nu'tha. 

A  place  on  the  western  shore  of  the  sea 
of  Galilee  in  the  vicinity  of  Magdala  (Mark 
viii.  10;  cp.  Mat.  xv.  39).  The  exact  situation 
is  unknown. 

Dal-ma'ti-a. 

A  region  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Adri- 
atic Sea,  with  the  small  but  numerous  adja- 
cent islands.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Julian 
continued  as  the  Dinaric  Alps,  a  part  of  the 
giant  rauge  separating  Italy  from  France, 
Switzerland,  and  Germany.  The  mountain 
tribes  were  subdued  in  A.  V>.  9  by  the  Eomans 
under  Augustus  Csesar  and  Tiberius,  the 
future  emperor,  and  the  province  of  Dalmatia 
was  erected.  It  was  regarded  as  part  of 
lUyricum,  which  constituted  the  limit  of 
Paul's  missionary  journeys  in  that  direction 
(Rom.  XV.  19).  His  associate  Titus,  after 
being  for  a  time  with  Paul  in  the  Italian 
capital,    departed    to   Dalmatia,   perhaps  to 


plant  the  gospel  among  its  wild  inhabitants 
(2  Tim.  iv.  10). 

Dal'phon. 

A  sou  of  Haman  (Esth.  ix.  7). 

Dam'a-ris. 

A  woman  converted  through  Paul's  preach- 
ing at  Athens  (Acts  xvii.  34). 

Dam-a-scene'. 

A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Damascus  (2  Cor. 
xi.  32). 

Da-mas'cus. 

A  city  of  Syria,  on  a  plateau  watered  by 
the  rivers  Abana  and  Pharpar  (2  Kin.  v.  12). 
The  tableland  is  about  2200  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea,  at  the  eastern  foot  of  the 
Antilibanus  chain  of  mountains,  and  contains 
about  500  square  miles.  Where  watered  by 
channels  from  the  rivers,  it  is  exceedingly 
fertile,  so  that  the  city  is  embosomed  in 
gardens  and  orchards,  in  refreshing  contrast 
to  the  neighboring  desert.  Three  great  trade 
routes  center  at  Damascus;  one  leads  south- 
westward  to  the  Mediterranean  seacoast  and 
Egypt,  another  runs  south  to  Arabia,  and  the 
third  crosses  the  desert  to  Bagdad.  The  city 
is  very  ancient.  It  is  mentioned  as  early  as 
the  time  of  Abraham  (Gen.  xiv.  15).  In  the 
days  of  David,  Damascus  was  one  of  several 
petty  states  of  southern  Syria.  It  was  cap- 
tured aud  garrisoned  by  David  (2  Sam.  viii. 
5,  6 ;  1  Chron.  xviii.  5,  6).  After  he  smote 
the  Syrian  kingdom  of  Zobah,  a  man  called 
Rezou,  a  former  subject  of  the  king  of  Zobah, 
collected  a  band  of  men,  seized  Damascus, 
and  founded  the  Syrian  kingdom,  which 
henceforth  was  so  often  in  conflict  with 
Israel  (1  Kin.  xi.  23,  24).  Damascus  was  the 
capital  of  Hezion,  Tabrimmon,  and  the  Beu- 
hadads  (1  Kin.  xv.  18,  20;  xx.  34;  2  Kin. 
viii.  7),  of  Hazael  (1  Kin.  xix.  17;  2  Kin. 
viii.  8-15),  aud  of  Rezin  (xvi.  5).  Tabrimmon 
and  the  first  Benhadad  were  in  league  with 
the  king  of  Israel  (1  Kin.  xv.  18 ;  2  Chron. 
xvi.  2).  Ahab  renewed  the  covenant,  obtain- 
ing the  right  to  establish  streets  of  bazaars  in 
Damascus  (1  Kin.  xx.  34).  At  this  period 
Damascus  took  a  leading  i>art  among  the 
western  nations  in  resistance  to  Assyria.  In 
alliance  with  kings  of  the  seacoast  and  Ahab 
of  Israel  it  met  Shalmaneser  at  Karkar  in 
854  B.  c,  but  was  defeated.  In  841  its  king 
Hazael  was  also  defeated  by  Shalmaneser.  It 
was  the  residence  of  Naaman,  captain  of  the 
army  under  the  second  Benhadad  (2  Kin.  v. 
1,  121.  When  Rezin  of  Damascus  and  Pekah 
of  Israel  planned  to  as.sault  Jerusalem,  Ahaz 
of  Judah  called  in  Tiglath-pileser,  king  of 
Assyria,  who  captured  Damascus,  carried  the 
inhabitants  captive  to  Kir,  and  killed  Rezin 
(2  Kin.  xvi.  5-9;  Is.  vii.  1-viii.  6:  x.  9).  This 
destruction  is  referred  to  by  Amos  (i.  3-5). 
But  Damascus  soon  regained  its  prosperity 
(Ezek.  xxvii.  18).  From  the  Assyrians  Da- 
mascus passed  to  the  Babylonians,  from  them 
to  the  Persians,  and  then  to  the  Macedonian 
Greeks.     It  was  one  of  the  ten  cities  origin- 


Dan 


154 


Dan 


ally  forming  the  Decapolis.  It  was  taken  by 
the  Roman  general  Metellus,  and  in  the  year 
63  B.  c.  became  a  Roman  province.  Many 
Jews  dwelt  in  Damascus,  and  supported  sev- 
eral synagogues  (Acts  ix.  2;  War  ii.  20,2). 
Near  Damascus  Saul  of  Tarsus,  when  on  his 
way  to  persecute  the  Christians  of  the  city, 
was  smitten  to  the  earth  and  heard  the  heav- 
enly voice  (Acts  ix.  2,  3,  10;  xxii.  6,  10,  11, 
12;'  xxvi.  12) ;  and  from  the  walls  he  was  let 
down,  now  himself  a  Christian,  to  escape  the 
fury  of  the  Jews  (Acts  ix.  24,  25 ;  cp.  xxvi. 
20  ;'  Gal.  i.  17).  The  traditional  street  called 
Straight  is  about  two  miles  long,  and  runs 
from  northeast  to  southwest,  almost  through 
the  center  of  the  city.  It  is  a  poor  street  now, 
but  in  the  time  of  Paul  it  was  a  magnificent 
thoroughfare,  flanked  with  Corinthian  col- 
umns. At  its  eastern  end  is  the  east  gate  of 
the  city.     The  large  gateway,  38  feet  high 


East  Gate  of  Damascus. 
The  small  gate  on  the  nonli  of  the  closed  Roman  arch- 
way leads  to  the  northern  Roman  .side  gate,  and  is  the 
present  entrance  to  the  city.    A  mmaret  rises  above 
the  gate. 

and  20  feet  wide,  and  the  two  smaller  side 
gates  were  built  by  the  Romans,  probably  as 
early  as  the  time  of  Paul.  Of  these  the  cen- 
tral and  southern  archways  have  long  been 
built  up  with  masonry,  leaving  only  the 
small  northern  side  gate  open.  In  Paul's 
time  the  city  was  in  the  hands  of  Aretas, 
king  of  Arabia  Petrtea,  but  it  soon  reverted 
to  the  Romans  (2  Cor.  xi.  32).  In  A.  D.  634 
Damascus  was  invested  and  in  635  captured 
by  the  Arabs  under  Omar.  In  1300  it  was 
plundered  by  the  Tartars,  and  in  1400  by 
Timur  the  Tartar.  Since  1516  it  has  been 
held  by  the  Turks.  In  July,  1860,  6000 
oriental  Christians  were  massacred  by  a  Mo- 
hammedan mob  composed  of  Druses  and 
Bedouin,  assisted  by  Turkish  soldiers. 

Dan  [a  judge]. 

1.  A  sou  of  Jacob  by  Bilhah  (Gen.  xxx. 
5,  6),     He  had  one  son,  Hushim  (Gen.  xlvi. 


23)  or  Shuham  (Num.  xxvi.  42).  The  future 
destiny  of  his  descendants  was  thus  predicted 
by  Jacob:  "Dan  shall  judge  his  people,  as 
one  of  the  tribes  of  Israel.  Dan  shall  be  a 
serpent  in  the  way,  an  adder  in  the  path, 
that  biteth  the  horse's  heels,  so  that  his  rider 
falleth  backward  "  (Gen.  xlix.  16,  17,  R.  V.) ; 
meaning  that  his  tribe  would  contend  with 
the  foes  of  Israel  as  earnestly  and  craftily  as 
would  any  of  the  tribes.  Speaking  on  the 
same  subject  Moses  compared  Dan  to  a  lion's 
whelp  that  leapeth  forth  from  Bashan  (Deut. 
xxxiii.  22). 

2.  The  tribe  to  which  Dan  gave  origin,  and 
the  territory  in  Canaan  which  it  obtained  by 
allotment  (Num.  i.  12,  38.  39).  Its  assigned 
territory  contained,  among  other  towns, 
Zorah,  Ajalon,  Ekron,  Eltekeh,  and  ended 
opposite  Japho — i.  e.  Joppa  (Josh.  xix.  40-46 ; 
xxi.  5,  23;  cp.  Judg.  v.  17).  The  Danites, 
however,  did  not  possess  themselves  of  all 
this  region,  but  were  restricted  by  the  Amor- 
ites  to  the  hill  country  (Judg.  i.  34,  35). 
Cramped  for  room,  they  sent  spies  to  the  ex- 
treme north  of  Palestine  to  look  for  a  new 
location,  who  found  what  they  desired  in  the 
town  of  Laish,  occupied  by  foreigners.  The 
Danites  sent  an  expedition,  seized  the  place, 
slew  its  inhabitants,  and  rebuilt  it  under  the 
new  name  of  Dan  (Josh.  xix.  47  ;  Judg.  xviii. 
1-31).  Aholiab  and  Samson  wei"e  Danites  (Ex. 
xxxi.  6 ;  Judg.  xiii.  2,  24). 

3.  A  town  in  the  extreme  north  of  Pales- 
tine, the  phrase  "from  Dan  to  Beersheba  " 
or  "from  Beersheba  to  Dan"  denoting  the 
land  in  its  entire  extent  from  north  to  south 
(Judg.  XX.  1 ;  1  Chron.  xxi.  2).  The  town 
was  originally  called  Laish,  lion,  or  Leshem, 
perhaps  place  of  lions  (Leshani  from  lai/ish,  as 
Etam  from  'ayit).  The  name  Dan  was  given  to 
it  after  its  capture  by  the  Danites  (Josh.  xix. 
47;  Judg.  xviii.).  Abraham  pursued  Chedor- 
laomer  as  far  as  Dan  (Gen.  xiv.  14) ;  thought 
by  some  to  be  Dan-jaan  (q.  v.).  But  Dan- 
jaan  may  be  Laish,  that  is  Dan  ;  if  so,  the 
familiar  name  Dan  has  supplanted  the  older 
designation  in  Genesis  (cp.  Deut.  xxxi  v.  1) 
At  Dan  Jeroboam  fixed  one  of  his  golden 
calves  (1  Kin.  xii.  29,  30;  2  Kin.  x.  29  ;  Amos 
viii.  14).  Bcnhadad  destroyed  the  town  with 
other  places  in  its  vicinity  (1  Kin.  xv.  20  ;  2 
Chron.  xvi.  4) ;  but  it  was  rebuilt  (Ezek. 
xxvii.  19).  Dan  was  in  a  fertile  valley  by 
Beth-rehob  (Judg.  xviii.  9.  28),  near  Lebanon, 
at  the  sources  of  the  lesser  Jordan  (Antiq.  v. 
3,  1 ;  viii.  8,  4),  near  the  marshes  of  the 
waters  of  Merom  (War  iv.  1,  1),  and  four 
Roman  miles  west  of  Pancas  (Onom).  These 
statements  indicate  Tell  el-Kadi,  which  sig- 
nifies mound  of  the  judge,  and  thus  pre- 
serves, though  perhaps  accidentally,  the  sense 
of  the  old  name  Dan.  At  the  base  of  this 
mound  are  two  springs,  whose  waters  pres- 
ently unite  and  form  the  river  Leddan,  the 
shortest  but  most  abundant  in  water  of  the 
three  streams  which  flow  together  a  few  miles 
below  and  form  the  Jordan. 


Dance 


155 


Daniel 


Dance. 

On  joyous  occasions  of  a  secular  or  seiui- 
secuhir  character  danciug,  accomiianitd  by 
music,  was  i)racticcil  among  the  Hebrews  by 
women,  either  singly  or  in  groups,  especially 
iu  welcomiug  a  victor  home  (Judg.  xi.  34  ;  1 
Sam.  xviii.  (i,  7  ;  xxix,  5  ;  cp.  Jer.  xxxi.  4,  13). 
Children,  apparently  of  both  sexes,  took  part 
iu  dances  (Job  xxi.  11 ;  Mat.  xi.  17 ;  Luke  vii. 


manifest  uncompromising  principle,  even 
when  it  brought  them  face  to  face  with 
death.  They  were  given  service  at  court, 
and  Daniel  continued  in  it  with  varying 
prominence  during  the  existence  of  the  dy- 
nasty (21).  In  Nebuchadnezzar's  .second 
year  Daniel  intei-preted  the  dream  in  which 
the  king  saw  the  great  image  ( ii.  1-4G),  which 
I   led  to  the  prophet's  being  made  ruler  over 


Two  i^teps  in  an  Ancient  Egyptian  Dance, 
Followed  by  a  revolution  of  the  body  in  two  movements  without  uuclaspiug  the  hands. 


32).  Jlen  probably  engaged  in  dances  among 
themselves,  as  they  did  iu  Egypt  (Ps.  xxx. 
11;  Lam.  v.  15:  Ecc.  iii.  4;  Luke  xv.  25). 
Only  on  one  occasion  do  we  find  a  Jewish 
princess  dancing  publicly  in  an  assembly  of 
men  after  the  Eoman  manner ;  acting  a  myth- 
ological story  with  the  face  masked,  but  with 
the  body  clothed  so  as  to  exhibit  the  beauty 
of  the  figure  (Mat.  xiv.  6;  Mark  vi.  22). 
Dancing  as  part  of  a  religious  ceremony  or 
as  an  act  of  worship  seems  to  have  been  com- 
mon among  the  Hebrews.  It  was  practiced 
chiefly  by  women  (Ex.  xv.  20  ;  Judg.  xxi.  21, 
23),  but  occasionally  by  men,  as  in  the  well- 
known  instance  of  David's  dancing  before  the 
ark  (2  Sam.  vi,  14-23 ;  1  Chron.  xv.  29 ;  Ps. 
cxlix.  3;  cl.  4).  Dancing  before  images  was 
common  among  idolaters  (Ex.  xxxii.  19;  1 
Kin.  xviii.  26). 

Dan'iel  [God  is  my  judge]. 

1.  Son  of  David  and  Abigail,  bom  at  He- 
bron (1  Chron.  iii.  1).  He  is  called  Chileab 
in  2  Sam.  iii.  3. 

2.  The  celebrated  JeAvish  prophet  at  the 
Babylonian  court.  He  sprang  from  good 
family  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  (Dan.  i.  1-7). 
When  a  youth,  he  was  carried  ofl"  with  other 
captives  by  Nebuchadnezzar  after  his  first 
siege  of  Jerusalem,  iu  the  third  year  of  king 
Jehoiakim,  about  605  b.  c.  (i.  1 ;  cp.  2  Kiu. 
xxiv.  1-5  :  2  Chron.  xxxvi.  5-8).  With  three 
companions,  the  future  prophet  obtained 
leave  from  the  master  of  the  eunuchs,  under 
whom  he  and  they  had  been  put  for  instruc- 
tion, to  substitute  simple  food  for  the  viands 
assigned  them  by  the  king  and  which  were 
liable  to  be  contrary  to  the  Mosaic  law  and 
defiled  by  heathen  rites  (Dan.  i.  8).  The  four 
young  exiles  all  became  proficient  in  learn- 
ing, while  the  grace  of  God  enabled  them  to 


the  province  of  Babylon,  and  head  over  its 
wise  men  (46-49).  He  afterwards  interpreted 
the  vision  which  revealed  the  approaching 
madness  of  Nebuchadnezzar  (iv.).  About 
this  time  Ezekiel  cited  Daniel  as  a  notable 
example  of  righteou.sness  and  wisdom  i  Ezek. 
xiv.  14  ;  xxviii.  3).  In  the  first  year  of  Bel- 
shazzar  he  himself  had  a  vision  aud  saw, 
under  the  figure  of  animals,  four  successive 
Asiatic  kingdoms  to  the  time  when  the  an- 
cient of  days  should  sit,  and  one  like  a  son 
of  man  come  with  the  clouds  of  heaven  to  set 
up  a  spiritual  kingdom  which  should  endure 
eternally  (vii.).  The  scene  of  the  vision 
of  the  third  year  of  Belshazzar  was  at  Shu- 
shan  (viii.  2),  the  Elamite  capital,  and  resi- 
dence of  the  already  renowned  Cj-rus,  king 
of  Persia  (viii.  20;  and  see  Cyeus).  The 
prophet  himself  was  probably  at  Babylon 
(cp.  Ezek.  viii.  1-3).  In  this  vision  he  saw 
a  ram  trampled  by  a  goat,  and  from  the  head 
of  the  latter,  when  its  power  was  in  turn 
broken,  four  horns  appearing,  from  one  of 
which  a  little  horn  sprang  and  wrought 
proudly,  especially  toward  the  glorious  land 
aud  its  sanctuary ;  whereby  were  symbolized 
the  Medo-Persiau  and  Macedonian  empires, 
the  division  of  the  latter  into  four  kingdoms, 
the  rise  of  a  fierce  king  and  his  desecration 
of  the  sanctuary  (viii.).  On  the  fall  of  the 
Babylonian  empire,  Darius,  in  behalf  of  the 
conqueror,  appointed  120  satraps  over  the 
new  kingdom,  with  three  presidents  over 
them,  Daniel  being  one  of  the  three  (vi.  1.  2  ; 
see  Cyrus).  In  the  first  year  of  Darius, 
Daniel  concluded  from  the  statements  of 
Jeremiah  (xxv.  11,  12;  xxix.  10)  that  the  cap- 
tivity was  approaching  its  close  (Dan.  ix.  1,  2). 
He  humbled  himself,  confessed  his  sins,  and 
prayed,  in  consequence  of  which  he  had  re- 
vealed to  him  the  prophecy  of  the  seventy 


Daniel 


156 


Daniel 


weeks  (ix.  2).  It  was  during  this  reign  that 
he  was  thrown  into  tlie  lion's  den,  and  then 
miraculously  delivered.  In  the  third  year 
of  Cyrus,  king  of  Persia,  he  had  a  vision  of 
the  overthrow  of  the  Persian  empire  (x.- 
xii.).  As  Daniel  had  prophesied  during  the 
dynasty  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  so  he  did  during 
the  reigns  of  Darius  the  Mede  and  Cyrus  the 
Persian  (vi.  28).  He  must  have  lived  to  an 
advanced  age.  The  time  and  manner  of  his 
death  are  unknown.  Daniel  is  referred  to 
in  Ezek.  xiv.  14 ;  xxviii.  3;  2  Esdras  xii.  11  ; 
1  Mac.  ii.  60  ;  Mat.  xxiv.  15  ;  Mark  xiii.  14  ; 
Heb.  xi.  33. 

The  Book  of  Daniel  is  a  book  of  the  O.  T. 
which  in  the  Septuagint  and  English  versions 
follows  Ezekiel,  but  in  the  Hebrew  canon  is 
placed  in  the  third  division.  That  it  was  not 
put  with  the  prophets  indicates  that  its  writer, 
although  called  a  prophet  (Mat.  xxiv.  15  ; 
Antiq.  x.  10,  4  and  fi),  and  one  of  the  greatest 
of  them  (Antiq.  x.  11,  7),  and  although  he  was 
marvelously  gifted  by  the  Spirit  of  prophe- 
cy, was  not  regarded  as  officially  a  prophet. 
He  had  the  donum  pi-opheticnm,  but  not  the 
munus  propheticiim  ;  the  prophetic  gift,  not  the 
prophetic  vocation.  He  was  officially  a  states- 
man. He  does  not  use  the  common  pi-ophetic 
declaration,  "Thussaith  the  Lord,"  and  he 
does  not  exhort  his  contemporaries,  as  it  was 
the  function  of  the  prophets  to  do.  The 
greater  part  of  the  book  is  in  Hebrew  ;  but 
the  portion  which  is  concerned  with  the  life 
of  the  Jews  in  a  foreign  land  and  with  the 
deeds  of  foreign  kings  and  with  prophecies 
concerning  foreign  empires,  beginning  with 
the  middle  of  verse  4,  chap,  ii.,  and  extend- 
ing to  chap,  vii.,  verse  28,  is  in  Aramaic,  the 
commercial  and  diplomatic  language  of  the 
time  (cp.  similar  phenomenon  in  Ezra).  The 
kings  mentioned  in  the  book  are  Nebuchad- 
nezzar (i.  1 ;  ii.  1 ;  iii.  1)  ;  Belshazzar,  his  son 
or  descendant  (v.  1,  2,  18,  22) ;  Darius  the 
Mede  (v.  31 ;  vi.  1 ;  ix.  1)  ;  and  Cyrus  the 
Persian  (vi.  28).  The  book  maj^  be  divided 
into  three  sections :  1.  Introduction,  the  prep- 
aration of  Daniel  and  his  three  companions 
for  their  work  (i.).  2.  Witness  borne  by  God 
through  the  four,  at  a  foreign  court  and 
largely  to  foreigners,  of  his  omnipotent  and 
omniscient  control  of  the  powers  of  the 
world  in  their  development  and  in  their  re- 
lation to  the  kingdom  of  God  (ii.-vii.).  This 
section  is  written  in  Aramaic.  It  includes 
Nebuchadnezzar's  dream  of  the  image  made 
of  four  metals  and  its  destruction  (ii.)  ;  the  at- 
tempt against  Daniel's  three  companions  and 
their  deliverance  from  the  lierj'  furnace  (iii.)  ; 
Nebuchadnezzar's  dream  of  the  tree  hewn 
down  (iv.) ;  the  writing  on  the  wall  at  Bel- 
shazzar'sfeast  (v.)  ;  the  plot  to  destroy  Daniel, 
and  his  deliverance  from  the  lion's  den  (vi.)  ; 
Daniel's  vision  of  the  four  beasts  (vii.).  This 
last  is  placed  out  of  chronological  order  that 
it  may  form  the  transition  to  3.  Supi)lenien- 
tary  visions  of  Daniel,  having  the  fortunes 
of  God's  people  specially  in  view  (viii.-xii.). 


comprising  three  visions:  (1)  Concerning  the 
cessation  of  sacrifice,  desolation  of  the  sanc- 
tuary, opposition  to  the  prince  of  princes 
(viii.  ;  cp.  13,  25).  (2)  In  view  of  the  near 
completion  of  the  predicted  seventy  years 
of  exile,  Daniel  prepared  for  the  great  event 
by  confessing  national  sins  and  supplicating 
forgiveness.  From  prophecies  gone  before, 
it  might  be  sujjposed  that  the  kingdom  of 
Messiah  would  be  established  immediately  at 
the  expiration  of  the  captivity ;  but  in  a 
vision  Daniel  is  informed  that  70  weeks 
must  elapse  after  the  decree  to  rebuild  Jeru- 
salem is  issued  (cp.  Neh.  ii.  3-6),  before  recon- 
ciliation is  made,  and  everlasting  righteous- 
ness brought  in  (Dan.  ix.).  (3)  He  is  further 
informed  by  a  vision  in  the  third  year  of  the 
founder  of  the  Persian  empire  in  regard  to 
the  overthrow  of  that  empire,  the  persecu- 
tion of  God's  people  that  shall  ensue,  and  the 
final  relief  of  the  saints  and  the  resurrection 
to  glory  (x.-xii.). 

The  essential  integrity  of  the  book  is  not 
questioned  ;  it  was  written  by  one  man.  In 
the  first  seven  chapters  Daniel  is  spoken  of 
in  the  third  person  and  sometimes  in  com- 
mendatory terms  (i.  19,  20  ;  ii.  14 ;  v.  11,  12 ; 
vi.  3  ;  cp.  Paul  of  himvself,  2  Cor.  ii.  15  ;  x.  8 ; 
xi.  5,  23  seq.) ;  and  in  the  subsequent  chap- 
ters he  speaks  in  the  first  person.  Many 
critics  deny  that  the  book  was  composed  bj^ 
Daniel ;  and  their  denial  extends  to  those 
parts  in  which  the  first  person  is  used  as  well 
as  to  that  part  where  the  third  jierson  is  em- 
ployed. They  date  its  publication  about 
168  or  167  B.  c,  and  believe  that  it  was 
penned  to  support  the  faith  of  the  Jews  un- 
der the  dreadful  persecution  then  raging 
under  Antiochus  Epiphanes.  The  chief  ar- 
guments against  the  genuineness  of  the  book 
are :  (1)  Daniel  is  not  mentioned  among  the 
worthies  by  the  son  of  Sirach  in  the  book  of 
Ecclesiasticus,  about  200  b.  c.  (xlix.),  although 
he  mentions  Ezekiel,  Nehemiah,  and  the 
minor  prophets.  (2)  The  writer's  use  of  Greek 
words,  which  indicate  that  he  lived  in  the 
Grecian  period.  (3)  Historical  inaccuracies, 
which  show  that  he  was  not  an  eyewitness 
of  the  events  which  he  describes,  but  lived 
at  a  remote  period  from  them.  (4)  The 
prophecies  give  details  of  history  until  the 
death  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  only. 

These  arguments  are  answered  as  follows : 

(1)  The  son  of  Sirach  neglects  to  mention 
Daniel,  it  is  true  ;  but  he  also  fails  to  mention 
Ezra  and  other  notable  men,  like  Gideon^ 
Samson,  and  Jehoshaphat. 

(2)  The  Greek  words  are  confined  to  the 
names  of  musical  instruments  and  are  all 
found  in  one  verse,  iii.  5.  The  (ireek  origin 
of  at  least  two  of  these  names  is  freely 
granted :  p'sant'riu  for  the  Greek  psalterion, 
and  sumpon'ya  for  sumphonia.  But  does  this 
fact  militate  against  the  composition  of  the 
book  by  Daniel  in  Babylon  about  530  B.  c.  ? 
By  no  means;  for  instruments  such  as  those 
described  were  in  use  in  the  Tigris  and  Eu- 


Daniel 


157 


Dan-jaan 


phrates  valleys  in  Daniel's  day.  Moreover, 
there  is  no  question  tliat  at  that  time  and  in 
that  region  music  was  a  feature  in  triumphal 
processions  and  court  life.  Captives  from 
distant  lands  were  employed  to  play  on  their 
own  instruments  of  music.  Ashurbanipal  so 
used  Elamites.  Sennacherib  carried  off  from 
Judah  singing  men  and  singing  women.  Of 
the  captive  Jews  the  songs  of  Zion  and  the 
music  of  the  harp  were  demanded  (Ps. 
cxxxvii.  1-3).  There  was  sufficient  inter- 
course also  between  the  empires  on  the  Tigris 
and  the  western  peoples  to  have  led  to  the 
introduction  both  of  the  Greek  instruments 
and  their  names.  Assyrian  kings  from  Sar- 
gon,  7'2i2  B.  c.  onward,  not  to  speak  of  earlier 
monarchs,  had  led  ofl'  prisoners  and  received 
tribute  from  Cyprus,  Ionia,  Lydia,  and  Cilicia, 
which  were  Greek  lands.  Nebuchadnezzar 
warred  against  the  cities  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean. It  would  be  in  accordance  with  custom 
for  these  conquerors  to  introduce  Greek  in- 
struments and  Greek-speaking  musicians  to 
their  courts.  Finally,  the  language  of  the 
passage  in  question  is  Aramaic,  not  Baby- 
lonian. The  Aramseaus  had  for  centuries 
been  in  contact  with  the  west.  Their  language 
was  the  international  language  of  diplomacy 
(cp.  2  Kin.  xviii.  26),  and  they  were  the  inter- 
mediaries of  trade,  who  handled  the  goods 
of  Orient  and  Occident.  Their  language  ac- 
quired an  admixture  of  foreign  words  from 
these  sources.  The  writer  of  the  Book  of 
Daniel  is  using  Aramaic,  and  doubtless  em- 
ploys the  names  which  were  current  among 
the  Aramaeans  for  instruments  of  this  kind. 
It  is  for  those  who  base  an  argument  on 
these  words  against  the  genuineness  of  the 
Book  of  Daniel,  to  show  that  they  were  not 
current  Aramaic   before   the   sixth   century 

B.  C. 

(3)  The  asserted  historical  inaccuracies  are 
not  statements  which  are  disproved  by  his- 
tory, but  only  statements  which  have  seemed 
difBcult  to  harmonize  with  the  meager  ac- 
counts of  secular  historians.  No  contradic- 
tion between  Daniel's  record  and  established 
history  has  been  proven.  The  asserted  his- 
torical inaccuracies  have,  moreover,  been 
steadily  diminishing  before  the  increasing 
knowledge  of  the  times  of  Cyrus.  The  ex- 
istence of  king  Belshazzar  was  scouted  :  but 
now  the  records  contemporary  with  the  cap- 
ture of  Babylon  have  made  him  a  well-known 
historical  character  ;  explained  why  he  raised 
Daniel  to  the  third  place  of  power  in  the 
kingdom  instead  of  the  second,  for  his  father 
and  he  already  occupied  the  two  higher 
places  of  authority :  and  have  made  clear 
why  he  and  not  Nabonidus  is  mentioned  as 
king  at  Babylon  on  the  night  of  the  capture 
of  the  city,  for  Nabonidus  was  absent  at  the 
time.  They  do  not  yet  clear  up  the  reference 
to  Darius  the  Mede  receiving  the  kingdom, 
but  they  show  that  the  appointment  of  a  re- 
gent for  Babj-lonia  by  Cyrus  was  in  accord 
with  his  policy.      The  queen's  allusion   to 


Belshazzar  as  a  descendant  of  Nebuchadnez- 
zar is  satisfactorily  explained  by  the  plausi- 
ble assumption  that  Nabonidus  had  married 
a  priucess  of  the  family  of  Nel)U(hadnezzar. 
Moreover,  Nabonidus  claimed  that  descent 
for  himself.  In  his  coronation  inscription  he 
calls  himself  the  mighty  descendant  of  Nebu- 
chadnezzar and  Neriglissar  (i?(f6.  and  Orievial 
Record,  Sept.,  1896).  In  view  of  the  revela- 
tions of  the  cuneiform  inscriptions,  it  is  bold 
to  assert  that  there  are  historical  inaccuracies 
in  the  Book  of  Daniel. 

(4)  The  prophecies  do,  indeed,  give  his- 
torical details  until  the  death  of  Antiochus 
Epiphaues  (viii.).  But  are  the  prophecies  not 
definite  for  the  times  after  Antiochus?  The 
fourth  kingdom  described  in  chap.  ii.  and  vii. 
can  be  none  other  than  the  Roman  empire  : 
for  (1)  A  writer  of  the  time  of  Antiochus, 
who  had  the  acquaintance  with  the  history 
of  Babylon,  Persia,  and  Greece,  which  is  dis- 
played in  the  book,  could  not  have  regarded 
the  kingdom  of  Antiochus  as  greater  than 
the  empires  which  had  preceded  (ii.  40 ;  vii. 
19,  23).  (2)  The  second  empire,  the  Medo- 
Persian,  cannot  be  divided  into  two.  since 
the  Median  kingdom  in  its  separate  existence 
was  never  an  empire  of  world-wide  sway. 
Historically,  Media  and  Persia  were  one  em- 
pire in  the  days  of  Median  supremacy.  There 
was  a  change  of  dynasty,  a  Persian  prince 
obtained  the  throne  of  Media,  and  then  the 
Medo-Persian  career  of  universal  conquest 
began.  (3)  Daniel  speaks  of  the  Medo- 
Persian  empire  as  one  (v.  28 ;  vi.  8  ;  viii.  20). 
(4)  To  divide  the  Medo-Persian  empire  into 
two  empires  requires  the  iudentification  of 
the  leopard  with  Persia  instead  of  with 
Greece.  But  the  leopard  has  four  heads 
(vii.  6).  Persia  was  not  broken  into  four 
parts,  but  the  Macedonian  empire  was  (viii. 
21,  22;  xi.  2-4).  The  fourth  kingdom  is 
therefore  the  Roman  empire,  which  suc- 
ceeded to  universal  empire  at  a  time  subse- 
quent to  Antiochus,  and  in  its  later  develop- 
ment is  accurately  described  in  the  Book  of 
Daniel  (cp.  Antiq.  x.  11,  7). 

The  Book  of  Daniel  is  quoted  by  Christ  as 
the  work  of  that  jirophet  and  statesman 
(Mat.  xxiv.  15).  Josephus  believed  that  the 
prophecies  of  Daniel  were  in  existence  be- 
fore the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  330 
B.  c.  (Antiq.  xi.  8,  5),  yea,  before  the  days  of 
Artaxerxes  (contra  Apion.  i.  8).  The  deliv- 
erance of  Shadrach,  Meshach,  and  Abednego, 
from  the  burning  fiery  furnace  and  of  Daniel 
from  the  lions'  den  are  cited  in  1  Mac.  ii.  59, 
60 ;  cp.  also  i.  54  with  Dan.  ix.  27  ;  xi.  31. 

3.  A  priest  who,  doubtless  in  behalf  of  a 
father's  house,  signed  the  covenant  in  the 
days  of  Nehemiah  (Ezra  viii.  2  ;  Neh.  x.  6). 

Dan-Ja'an. 

A  place  between  Gilead  (or  even  between 
the  land  of  the  Hittites  toward  Kadesh)  and 
Zidon  (2  Sam.  xxiv.  6).  The  ruin  Danian, 
on  the  coast  midway  between  Acre  and  Tyre, 


Danuah 


158 


Darius 


can  scarcely  be  its  site,  for  the  takers  of  the 
census  who  left  Dan-jaan  did  not  reach  Tyre 
until  they'  had  passed  Zidou.  It  may  be 
identical  with  Dan,  the  conventional  ex- 
treme north  of  the  country  (cp.  the  connec- 
tion of  each  with  Zidon,  Judg.  xviii.  28).  The 
ancient  versions  indicate  that  Dan-jaan  is  a 
corruption  for  Dan-jaar,  and  that  Dan  is  de- 
scribed as  being  in  the  forest. 

Dan'nah  [a  low  place,  low  ground]. 

A  village  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  49).  The  situation  of  the  other 
towns  of  this  group  suggests  a  place  much 
farther  south  than  Idhna,  8  miles  west  by 
north  of  Hebron. 

Da'ra.     See  Darda. 

Dar'da  [perhaps,  pearl  of  wisdom]. 

A  son  of  Mahol,  family  of  Zerah,  tribe  of 
Judah,  who  was  celebrated  for  wisdom  (1 
Kin.  iv.  31).  In  1  Chron.  ii.  6  the  name  ap- 
pears as  Dara. 

Dar'ic. 

A  gold  coin  current  in  Persia,  worth  about 
five  dollars,  which  had  on  one  side  a  king 
with  a  bow  and  a  javelin,  while  on  the  other 
was  a  somewhat  square  figure  ;  see  Money. 
The  chronicler  reckons  the  value  of  the  gold 
contributed  by  the  princes  in  David's  reign  for 
the  temple  in  darics  (1  Chron.  xxix.  7),  not 
because  darics  circulated  in  Israel  as  early  as 
David's  reign,  but  because  at  the  time  of 
writing  the  daric  was  familiar  to  his  readers 
and  a  common  standard.  The  daric  was  cur- 
rent in  the  Persian  period  (Ezra  ii.  69;  viii. 
27 ;  Neh.  vii.  70,  71,  72  ;  in  A.  V.  dram). 
The  first  issue  was  wont  to  be  attributed  to 
Darius  Hystaspis  (cp.  Herod,  iv.  166) ;  but 
Prof.  Sayce  argues  that  daric  really  comes 
from  the  Babylonian  dariku,  a  weight  or 
measure  which,  like  the  English  pound, 
commencing  as  a  weight  became  afterwards 
a  coin.  Dariku  figures  in  a  contract  in  the 
12th  year  of  Nabonidus,  five  years  before 
Cyrus'  conquest  of  Babylon,  and  long  before 
Darius  was  elected  to  the  throne  (Sayce, 
Ezra,  etc.,  p.  33).  Silver  darics  were  also 
coined,  which  were  worth  about  a  shekel. 

Da-ri'us  [from  Zend  dara,  king]. 

1.  A  king  described  as  Darius  the  Mede, 
son  of  Ahasuerus  (Dan.  v.  31 ;  ix.  1).  When 
about  62  years  old  he  was  made  king  over 
the  realm  of  the  Chaldeans  after  the  capture 
of  Babylon  by  the  army  of  Cyrus,  and  he 
reigned  a  part  of  one  year  at  least  (v.  31 ; 
xi.  1)  before  Cyrus  (vi.  28).  He  set  120  satraps 
over  the  kingdom  (vi.  1).  The  satraps  were 
subject  to  three  presidents,  of  whom  Daniel 
was  one  (2).  Presidents  and  satraps  were  at 
the  court  of  Darius  (6),  and  he  had  authority 
to  write  unto  all  peoples,  nations,  and  lan- 
guages that  dwell  in  all  the  earth  or  land 
(25).  He  was  inveigled  into  issuing  the  fool- 
ish decree,  for  violating  which  Daniel  was 
cast  into  the  lion's  den  (vi.  1-27).  In  his 
first  year  Daniel  saw  the  vision  of  the  seventy 
weeks  (ix.  1-27).    He  has  not  been  identified 


with  certainty,  but  was  probably  sovereign 
of  the  Babylonian  empire  ad  interim  until 
Cyrus,  who  was  pressing  his  conquests,  was 
ready  to  assume  the  duties  of  king  of  Baby- 
lon. Josephus  says  that  he  was  son  of 
Astyages,  but  was  known  to  the  Greeks  by 
another  name  (Antiq.  x.  11, 4).  Perhaps,  then, 
he  was  Cj'axeres,  son  and  successor  of  Astya- 
ges and  father-in-law  and  uncle  of  Cyrus 
(Xenophon,  Cyropaed.  i.  5 ;  viii.  7) ;  or  pos- 
sibly Ugbaru,  governor  of  Gutium,  appar- 
ently a  province  in  western  Media  or  on  its 
borders,  who  led  the  detachment  of  Cyrus' 
army  which  captured  Babylon,  held  the  city 
for  at  least  four  months  nntil  Cyrus  arrived, 
and  is  spoken  of  in  this  connection  in  a  cunei- 
form inscription  as  Cyrus'  governor. 

2.  A  king  of  Persia  who  in  point  of  time 
followed  after  Cyrus  (Ezra  iv.  5).  When  he 
came  to  the  throne,  the  building  of  the 
temple  had  been  suspended  owing  to  com- 
plaints from  the  jealous  neighboring  tribes ; 
but  Darius,  on  being  applied  to,  caused  a 
search  to  be  made  at  Achmetha,  the  Median 
capital,  where  the  edict  of  Cyrus  permitting 
the  work  to  be  undertaken  was  found  (Ezra 
vi.  1-12).  The  erection  of  the  sacred  edifice 
accordingly  recommenced  in  his  second  year, 
sixth  month,  and  twenty -fourth  day  (Ezra 
iv.  24;  Hag.  i.  15;  ii.  18),  and  on  the  third 
day  of  the  twelfth  month  of  his  sixth  regnal 
year  was  completed  (Ezra  vi.  15).  The  proph- 
ets Haggai  and  Zechariah  prophesied  during 
the  reign  of  this  monarch  (Hag.  i.  1 ;  ii.  1, 
10,  18  ;  Zech.  i.  1,  7;  vii.  1),  who  was  with- 
out doubt  the  Darius  Hystaspis  of  the  classi- 
cal writers,  the  Dara  Gustasp  of  Zend  writ- 
ings. He  was  son  of  Hystaspes,  which  Latin 
writers  denoted  by  using  the  genitive  case 
Hystaspis.  Through  his  father  he  belonged 
to  the  family  of  the  Achfemenides,  which  was 
already  represented  on  the  throne  by  Cyrus 
and  Cambyses  :  but  he  was  not  in  the  line  of 
succession.  The  leading  events  of  his  life  are 
detailed  in  an  inscription  of  Darius'  own  on 
a  rock  at  Behistun,  about  60  miles  southwest 
of  Hamadan.  It  is  in  three  languages,  Per- 
sian, Babylonian,  and  Amardian  or  Elamite. 
According  to  it,  eight  of  his  ancestors  were 
kings.  Cambyses,  Cyrus'  son,  put  his  brother 
Bardes,  called  by  Herodotus  Smerdis,  to 
death,  and  some  time  afterwards  committed 
suicide.  Then  a  Magian  Gomates  or  Gaumata 
started  up,  pretending  to  be  Bardes,  who  he 
alleged  had  not  really  been  slain.  According 
to  Herodotus  (iii.  ()7-79j,  with  whose  narra- 
tive the  less  detailed  record  on  the  stone 
essentially  agrees,  evidence  of  the  fraud  was 
discovered  and  a  conspiracy  formed  against 
Gomates  by  seven  men  of  rank,  one  of  whom 
was  Darius  Hystaspis.  In  521  b.  c.  they 
slew  the  Magian  and  saluted  Darius  king. 
Elam  rose  against  the  new  monarch,  but 
was  temporarily  subdued.  Babylon  followed 
under  a  leader  called  Nidintabel  and  stood 
a  siege  of  two  years  (520-519  b.  c).  When 
it  became  known  that  Darius  was  detained 


Darken 


159 


David 


at  Babylon,  in  conducting  the  siege,  a  general 
revolt  of  the  provinces  constituting  the  em- 
pire took  place ;  in  fact,  the  empire  fell  to 
pieces.  Darius  says:  "While  I  was  in  Baby- 
lon these  provinces  rebelled  against  me : 
Persia,  Susiana.  Media.  Assyria.  Armenia, 
Parthia,  Margiana.  Sattagydia,  and  the  Saci- 
ans."  But  he  and  his  lieutenants  subdued 
them  all.  generally  ending  by  impaling  the 
rebel  leader.  Biibylon.  in  514  B.  c  revolted 
anew  under  Arahu  or  Aracus,  an  Armenian  ; 
but  the  rebellion  was  put  down,  its  leader  and 
his  chief  adherents  being  impaled.  The  walls 
of  the  city  were  this  time  thrown  down,  and 
a  great  step  taken  to  that  utter  destruction 
which  the  prophets  .foresaw.  Darius  now 
ruled  over  an  empire  extending  eastward 
into  India  and  westward  to  the  Grecian 
Archipelago.  He  administered  it,  on  the 
whole,  wisely  and  well.  After  an  unsuccess- 
ful campaign  against  the  Scythians  near  the 
river  Don.  in  what  is  now  Kussia,  and  a 
quarrel  with  the  Greeks,  in  which  his  gen- 
erals Datis  and  Artaphernes  were  defeated  in 
490  B.  c.  at  Marathon.  Darius  died  at  the  age 
of  73  (Ctesiasj  in  466  B.  c,  after  a  reign  of 
36  years. 

3.  The  last  king  of  Persia,  who  reigned 
from  336  to  330  B.  c.  His  true  name  was 
Codomannus.  He  was  defeated  by  Alexander 
the  Great  (1  Mac.  i.  1  ;  Antiq.  x'i.  8,  3i,  first 
at  Issus  in  333,  when  he  fled  into  Persia,  and 
again  at  Arbela  in  331.  He  died  about  four 
months  later  at  the  hands  of  his  servants, 
with  Alexander  in  hot  pursuit  of  him. 

Dax'kon  [scattering]. 

Founder  of  a  family,  part  of  the  children 
of  Solomon's  servants  (Ezra  ii.  56 ;  Neh. 
vii.  5S). 

Date. 

The  fruit  of  the  date  palm  or  Phwnix  dacfy- 
lifera  (2  Chron.  xxxi.  5,  A.  V.,  margin),  from 
which  honey  was  made  (War  iv.  8.  3).  The 
text  and  the  E.  V.,  like  the  Hebrew  original, 
use  the  general  name  honey,  without  specify- 
ing the  kind. 

Da'than. 

A  son  of  EHab.  a  Eeubenite.  who  with 
Abiram.  his  brother,  and  On,  a  man  of  the 
same  tribe,  were  prominent  leaders  in  the 
rebellion  of  Korah  the  Levite.  Their  griev- 
ance was  different  from  his.  They  thought 
that  the  leadership  of  Israel  should  have 
gone  to  the  tribe  to  which  they  belonged,  for 
Reuben  was  Jacob's  eldest  son.  Then,  again, 
they  complained  that  Moses  had  taken  them 
from  a  country  where  there  was  plenty, 
under  the  promise  of  leading  them  into  a 
land  flowing  with  milk  and  honey,  while  in 
fact  all  that  he  had  done  was  to  march  them 
up  and  down  amid  naked  rocks  and  barren 
sands  (Num.  xvi.  1-35.  cp.  13, 14  ;  xsvi.  7-11 ; 
Deut.  xi.  6  :  Ps.  cvi.  17). 

Dath'e-ma. 

A  fortress  into  which  the  faithful  Israelites 
lied  for  safety  in  the  time  of  Judas  Maccabseus. 


They  were  relieved  by  Judas  and  his  brother 
Jonathan.     It  cannot  be  certainly  identified. 

Daugh'ter. 

Besides  corresponding  to  the  several  senses 
in  which  son  is  used,  especially  for  child  or 
remoter  female  descendant  or  as  an  expres- 
sion of  tender  sympathy  for  a  woman  (Gen. 
XXX.  21  ;  Ex.  ii.  1  ;  Luke  xiii.l6;  ilat.ix.  221, 
daughter  denotes  a  female  inhabitant  of  a 
country  or  town  (Gen.  xxiv.  3 ;  Judg.  xxi. 
21).  a  female  .worshiper  of  a  god  (Mai.  ii.  11 ; 
Is.  xliii.  6),  the  suburb  of  a  city  (Num.  xxi. 
25,  margin),  the  collective  body  of  the  citi- 
zens of  a  town  or  country  (Ps.  ix.  14  ;  cxxxvii. 
8  ;  Lam.  iv.  21 ;  Zech.'  ii.  10).  See  Heie, 
Marriage,  Slave. 

Da'vid  [beloved]. 

Son  of  Jesse  and  second  king  of  Israel.  His 
life  falls  into  several  distinct  periods. 

I.  His  youth,  which  was  passed  at  Bethle- 
hem of  Judah.  He  was  the  youngest  of  eight 
brothers  (1  Sam.  x^i.  10,  11 ;  xvii.  12-14).  In 
the  registry  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  f  1  Chron.  ii.- 
13-15)  only  seven  of  these  sons  of  Jesse  are 
named,  probably  because  one  died  without 
issue.  David's  mother  was  tenderly  remem- 
bered for  her  godliness  (Ps.  Isxxvi.  16 ;  cxvi. 
16).  His  ancestral  history  was  picturesque, 
inspiring,  and  generally  praiseworthy,  but  yet 
at  times  tainted  bv  sin  (Gen.  xxxvii.  26,  27; 
xxxviii.  13-29;  xli'ii.  8,  9  :  xliv.  18-34  ;  Num. 
i.  7;  Josh.  ii.  1-21;  Ruth  iv.  17-22).  In 
person  he  was  ruddy  and  beautiful  to  look 
upon  (1  Sam.  xvi.  12).  As  youngest  son,  he 
was  charged  with  the  care  of  his  father's 
sheep,  and  he  displayed  his  fidelity  and 
courage  in  this  occupation  by  slaying  both  a 
lion  and  a  bear  which  attacked  the  flock 
(11 ;  xvii.  34-36).  He  possessed  musical  gifts 
of  high  order,  at  this  period  playing  skillfully 
on  the  harp  and  later  composing  psalms. 
When  king  Saul  had  been  rejected  by  God, 
the  prophet  Samuel  was  sent  to  Bethlehem 
and  directed  to  anoint  David  as  Saul's  suc- 
cessor. There  was  no  public  proclamation  of 
David,  lest  the  hostility  of  .Saul  should  be 
aroused.  At  most,  the  act  was  performed  in 
the  presence  of  the  elders  of  the  town,  and, 
so  far  as  appears,  no  word  concerning  the 
purpose  of  the  anointing  was  spoken  to  the 
audience  (xvi.  4.  5,  13),  though  Jesse  and 
David  were  doubtless  informed.  It  was  a 
crisis  in  David's  history.  The  Spirit  of  the 
Lord  came  mightily  upon  him.  Still  he  did 
not  despise  his  humble,  daily  work. 

II.  His  service  under  Saul.  Saul,  forsaken 
by  God,  distressed  by  an  evil  spirit,  and  sub- 
ject to  melancholy  and  insanity,  was  advised 
by  his  attendants  to  attach  a  harper  to  his 
person  to  soothe  him  by  music  when  dis- 
turbed ;  and  one  recommended  David  as  a 
cunning  musician,  a  man  of  valor  and  ready 
for  war  by  reason  of  age,  skill,  and  courage, 
even  though  perhaps  not  as  yet  experienced 
in  battle,  discreet,  comely,  pious  (xvi.  14-18). 
Saul  summoned  him,  was  benefited  by  his 


David 


160 


David 


music  and  pleased  with  his  character,  asked 
Jesse  that  he  juight  remain,  and  appointed 
him  one  of  his  armorbearers  (19-23;  cp.  2 
Sam.  xviii.  lo).  The  service  thus  begun  proved 
a  school  for  David.  He  learned  war  and  gov- 
ernment, liad  intercourse  with  able  men, 
and  saw  the  dark  and  bright  side  of  court 
life.  David  did  not,  however,  as  yet  remain 
continuously  with  Saul.  The  king's  condi- 
tion evidently  improved,  and  David  returned 
frequently  to  Bethlehem  to  have  an  oversight 
over  his  father's  sheep  (1  Sam.  xvii.  15).  While 
he  was  on  a  visit  home  the  Philistines  in- 
vaded Judah  and  encamped  about  15  miles 
west  of  Bethlehem.  Saul  led  forth  the  army  of 
Israel  to  meet  them.  The  three  eldest  broth- 
ers of  David  were  with  the  army,  and  after 
they  had  been  absent  from  home  about  six 
weeks,  their  father  sent  David  to  inquire 
about  their  welfare.  Goliath's  challenge 
stirred  his  spirit.  He  felt  certain  that  God 
through  him  would  remove  the  reproach  from 
Israel,  and  he  asked  who  the  Philistine  was 
that  defied  the  armies  of  the  living  God.  His 
words  were  reported  to  Saul,  who  perceiving 
the  spirit  by  which  the  young  man  was  ani- 
mated intrusted  the  single  combat  to  him. 
David  put  off  the  armor  with  which  Saul 
had  armed  him,  urging  that  he  had  not 
proved  it.  He  showed  true  genius.  Goliath 
was  rendered  slow  of  motion  by  weight  of 
armor ;  the  kind  of  weapon  he  carried  obliged 
him  to  fight  at  close  quarters ;  and  he  was 
vulnerable  only  in  the  face,  which  under  the 
■circumstances  was  out  of  reach.  David  ap- 
proached him,  unhampered  in  movement  by 
any  armor,  with  a  sling,  in  the  use  of  which 
he  was  proficient,  with  five  stones  that  could 
he  hurled  from  a  distance,  with  the  conscious- 
ness of  the  righteousness  of  his  cause  and 
with  implicit  confidence  in  God.  The  taunts 
I)etween  the  two  champions  are  characteristic 
of  ancient  battle.  Goliath  fell,  struck  by  a 
stone  from  David's  sling.  After  the  combat 
David,  on  his  way  to  Gibeah  of  Benjamin 
where  Saul  held  court  or  to  the  tabernacle  at 
Nob,  displayed  the  head  of  the  giant  at  Jeru- 
salem, apparently  in  defiance  to  the  Jebusites, 
who  held  the  stronghold,  and  put  the  armor  in 
the  tent  which  he  thenceforth  occupied  (xvii. 
54).  The  sword  was  deposited  in  the  taber- 
nacle (xxi.  9).  When  David  had  gone  forth 
to  meet  Goliath  Saul,  amazed  at  his  spirit, 
asked  Abner  whose  son  such  a  youth  could 
he ;  and  when  David  returned  triumphant 
the  king  put  the  same  question  to  him,  only 
to  receive  the  simple  answer,  "'  I  am  the  son 
of  thy  servant  Jesse  the  Bethlehemite."  This 
reply  formed  the  sum  and  substance  of  the 
interview  (xvii.  55-xviii.  1) ;  David's  ances- 
tors were  not  notable  for  heroic  achievement. 
The  question  of  the  king  had  also  reference 
to  the  rank  and  material  condition  of  the 
family,  for  Saul  had  promised  to  accept  the 
victor  as  son-in-law  and  to  free  his  father's 
family  from  taxation  (xvii.  25  ;  xviii.  18).  He 
found  that  he  had  no  occasion  to  be  ashamed 


of  the  birth  of  his  son-in-law.  The  victory 
over  Goliath  was  a  second  crisis  in  David's 
life.  The  valor,  modesty,  and  piety,  which 
he  displayed  won  for  him  the  disinterested 
and  enduring  love  of  Jonathan  (xviii.  1). 
He  was  no  longer  permitted  to  repair  period- 
ically to  his  father's  house,  but  he  remained 
continuously  at  court  (2).  The  ovation  which 
he  received  aroused  the  jealousy  of  Saul, 
who  thenceforth  was  David's  enemy  (6-9). 
Saul  saw  that  Samuel's  prediction  of  the 
transfer  of  the  kingdom  from  him  to  one 
better  than  he  (xv.  17-29)  approached  fulfill- 
ment in  David,  and  he  attempted  to  prevent 
it.  He  endeavored  to  slay  David  with  his 
spear  (xviii.  10,  11).  Failing  in  this,  he  re- 
duced David  in  military  rank  and  power 
(13).  He  gave  his  daughter,  whom  he  had 
promised  to  David  for  a  wife,  to  another 
(17-19).  He  endeavored  to  entrap  him  to 
death  through  his  love  for  Michal  (20-27). 
As  David  grew  in  favor  (29,  30)  Saul's  fear 
increased,  and  he  no  longer  concealed  his 
purpose  to  slay  David  (xix.  1).  This  purpose 
was  never  after  allowed  by  Saul's  adherents 
to  be  abandoned,  but  was  fostered  by  a  party 
at  court  (xxiv.  9 ;  Ps.  vii.  title).  Appeased 
for  a  time,  his  jealousy  soon  revived,  and  he 
again  attempted  to  smite  David  with  his  spear 
(i  Sam.  xix.  4-9).  Then  he  would  have  ar- 
rested David,  who,  however,  escaped  through 
Michal's  deceit  (10-17).  David  wrote  Ps.  lix. 
at  this  time.  He  fled  to  Samuel  at  Eamah, 
whither  Saul  sent  to  seize  him  (18-24) ;  fled 
next  to  Jonathan,  who  inquired  and  informed 
him  that  there  was  no  longer  safety  for  him 
at  court  (xx.). 

III.  The  fugitive  hero.  Without  confidence 
in  God  and  sunk  in  despair  David  fled  from 
Saul.  Stopping  at  Nob,  witliout  faith,  he 
told  a  lie  (xxi.  1-9) ;  then  hurried  to  Gath 
and  sought  protection  of  Saul's  enemy  Achish. 
The  lords  of  the  Philistines,  however,  refused 
to  harbor  him  who  had  formerly  humiliated 
them,  and  they  seized  David  (14 ;  Ps.  Ivi. 
title).  He  feigned  madness  and  made  him- 
self despicable,  and  Achish  drove  him  away 
(Ps.  xxxiv.  title).  He  regained  his  faith  in 
Jehovah  (Ps.  xxxiv.),  returned  to  Judah,  and 
abode  in  the  cave  of  Adullam  (1  Sam.  xxii.  1), 
but  placed  his  parents  in  Moab  (3,  4).  A 
motley  company,  mostly  of  unemi)loyed  and 
desperate  men,  numbering  400  at  first,  in- 
creasing eventually  to  (500,  began  to  join  him. 
Among  these  were  Abiathar,  the  surviving 
priest  of  Nob,  who  brought  an  ephod  with 
him,  and  the  projihet  Gad,  whom  David  bad 
probably  met  at  Ramah  (5,  20 ;  xxiii.  (j). 
David  thus  had  religious  aid  and  companion- 
ship. From  Adullam  he  went  to  the  relief 
of  Keilah  and  delivered  the  town  out  of  the 
hands  of  the  Philistines  (xxiii.  1-5).  On 
Saul's  xireparing  to  attack  him  there,  he  lied 
to  the  wilderness  of  Judah  (14;  Ps.  Ixiii.), 
whither  Saul,  at  the  instigation  of  the 
Ziphites,  pursued  him  until  compelled  to  de- 
sist by  an  incursion  of  the  Philistines  (1  Sam. 


David 


161 


David 


xxiii.  14-29).  That  trouble  being  settled,  Saul 
sought  David  in  the  wilderuess  near  En- 
gedi.  but  was  for  the  time  conquered  by  the 
kindness  of  Diivid,  who  had  the  king  in  his 
power  in  the  cave,  but  spared  his  life  (xxiv.  ; 
Ps.  Ivii.  :  cxlii.).  David  and  his  band  of 
armed  followers  protected  the  exposed  prop- 
erty of  the  Israelites  from  thieving  maraud- 
ers (1  Sam.  xxiii.  1:  xxv.  16,  21;  xxvii.  8), 
and  naturally  enough  expected  some  return 
in  gifts  of  food.  He  did  not  levy  tax  or 
demand  regular  contributions  of  provisions. 
Nabal's  scornful  rejection  of  his  request  in- 
censed him,  and  he  was  only  saved  from 
shedding  blood  in  his  fury  by  the  wisdom 
and  address  of  Nabal's  wife  ^xxv.),  whom 
David  married  after  the  death  of  her  hus- 
band. David  again  came  into  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Ziph,  and  the  Ziphites  again  in- 
formed Saul,  who  marched  against  David. 
David  showed  his  magnanimity  by  not  slay- 
ing the  sleeping  king,  but  merely  carrying 
away  from  his  side  his  spear  and  cruse  of 
water  ixxvi.).  Despairing  of  always  escaping 
Saul.  David  left  Judah  and  obtained  permis- 
sion from  Achish  to  occupy  Ziklag,  a  frontier 
town  toward  the  southern  desert.  Here  he 
remained  a  year  and  four  months,  protecting 
the  Philistines  by  warring  with  the  desert 
tribes,  yet  sometimes  wasting  a  remote  vil- 
lage even  of  Philistia  (xxvii.).  When  the 
Philistines  went  to  Gilboa  to  war  with  Saul, 
David  was  prevented  from  accompanying 
them  by  the  lords  of  the  Philistines  (xxviii. 
1,  2  :  xxix.).  Returning,  he  found  Ziklag  in 
ruins.  He  pursued  the  retreating  invaders 
and  recovered  the  spoil  (xxx.).  When  he 
heard  the  result  of  the  battle  of  Gilboa,  he 
mourned  the  fate  of  Saul  and  Jonathan  in  an 
elegy  (2  Sam.  i.). 

IV.  King  of  Judah.  On  the  death  of  Saul 
the  tribe  of  Judah,  to  which  David  belonged, 
elected  him  king,  and  he  began  to  reign  in 
Hebron  (ii.  1-10),  being  then  about  thirty 
years  old  (v.  4).  The  rest  of  the  tribes,  under 
the  leadership  of  Abner.  one  of  the  ablest 
men  of  the  time,  set  up  Ish-bosheth,  SauFs 
son,  at  Mahanaim,  and  for  the  next  two  years 
civil  war  raged  between  his  partisans  and 
those  of  David.  It  ended  by  the  assassina- 
tion, sorely  against  David's  will,  both  of 
Abner  and  of  Ish-bosheth  (ii.  12-iv.  12). 
David's  reign  at  Hebron  continued  for  seven 
years  and  six  months.  He  had  already  sev- 
eral wives,  and  among  the  sons  born  to  him 
at  Hebron  were  Amnon,  Absalom,  and  Adoni- 
jah    ii.  11 ;  iii.  1-5  ;  \.  5). 

V.  King  of  all  Israel.  On  the  death  of 
Ish-bosheth,  David  was  elected  king  over  all 
the  tribes,  and  he  at  once  set  to  work  to  es- 
tablish the  kingdom  (v.  1-5).  Various  towns 
in  the  territory  of  Israel  were  garrisoned  by 
the  Philistines,  and  others  were  held  by  the 
Canaanites.  David  began  a  siege  of  the 
Jebusite  stronghold  at  Jerusalem.  It  was 
deemed  impregnable  by  its  inhabitants,  but 
David  took  it  by  storm.     He  wiselv  made  it 

11 


his  capital,  and  erected  a  palace  there  by  the 
skill  of  Tyrian  artificers.  The  new  capital 
stood  on  the  border  of  Judah  and  Israel.  Its 
situation  tended  to  allay  the  jealousy  between 
north  and  south.  Its  deliverance  from  the 
hands  of  the  Canaanites  opened  the  highway 
between  Judah  and  the  north,  facilitated  in- 
tercourse, and  tended  to  further  cement  the 
kingdom.  The  Philistines  twice  invaded  the 
land,  and  twice  suffered  defeat  near  Jerusalem 
(v.  17-25;  1  Chron.  xiv.  8-17).  The  king 
followed  up  the  second  victory  by  invading 
the  country  of  the  Philistines,  took  Gath,  and 
by  this  conquest  and  by  brief  campaigns  later 
(2  Sam.  xxi.  15-22)  so  completely  subjugated 
the  Philistines  that  these  hereditary  enemies 
ceased  to  trouble  Israel  for  centuries.  The 
kingdom  being  established.  David  turned  his 
attention  to  religious  affaii^s.  He  brought 
the  ark,  with  ceremony,  sacrifices,  and  re- 
joicing, from  Kirjath-jearim  (Josh.  xv.  9;  2 
Chron.  i.  4),  and  placed  it  within  a  tabernacle 
which  he  had  pitched  for  it  in  the  city  of 
David  (2  Sam.  vi.  1-23;  1  Chron.  xiii.  1-14; 
XV,  1-3).  Next  he  organized  the  worship  on 
a  magnificent  scale  (1  Chron.  xv. ;  xvi.),  and 
planned  a  splendid  temple  [2  Sam.  vii.  1-29 ; 
1  Chron.  xvii.  1-27;  xxii.  7-10).  Through 
the  divine  favor  he  now  became  very  pros- 
perous. To  insure  the  safety  of  the  nation, 
to  keep  it  from  idolatrous  contamination,  and 
to  avenge  insult  offered  to  it,  he  waged  war 
with  surrounding  nations,  and  subdued  the 
Moabites,  the  Aramaeans  of  Zobah  and  Da- 
mascus, the  Ammonites,  the  Edomites,  and 
the  Amalekites  (2  Sam.  viii.  1-lS :  x.  1-19 ; 
xii.  26-31),  thus  extending  his  kingdom  to 
the  limits  long  before  promised  to  Abraham 
(Gen.  XV.  18).  It  was  during  the  Ammonite 
war  that  David  committed  his  great  sin  in 
the  matter  of  Uriah  the  Hittite,  for  which  God 
rebuked  him  through  Xathan  the  prophet, 
and  imposed  the  penalty  that  the  sword 
should  never  depart  from  his  house  (2  Sam. 
xi.  1-xii.  23).  David  sincerely  repented  (Ps. 
Ii.).  The  chastisement  was  partly  direct  and 
partly  the  natural  fruit  of  his  example  and 
transmitted  character.  The  child  died  [2  Sam. 
xii.  19).  Lawless  lust  and  lawless  vengeance 
were  manifested  in  his  own  family  (xiii.). 
Lawless  and  unfilial  ambition  triumphed  for 
a  time  in  his  family  and  led  to  civil  war 
(xiv.-xix.).  The  5|iirit  of  dissatisfaction  and 
tribal  jealousy  fomented  by  Absalom  showed 
itself  after  the  suppression  of  Absalom's  re- 
bellion once  more  in  the  revolt  of  Sheba 
(XX.).  David  solemnly  satisfied  justice,  ac- 
cording to  the  ideas  of  that  age,  in  avenging 
Saul's  bloody  violation  of  the  treaty  rights 
of  the  Gibeonites  (xxi.).  He  committed  a 
sin  of  pride  in  numbering  the  people,  and 
was  punished  by  a  pestilence  (xxiv. ;  1  Chron. 
xxi.).  David  was  much  occupied  during  his 
reign  with  the  organization  of  internal  affairs 
and  with  the  preparation  of  material  for  the 
erection  of  the  temple.  He  closed  his  reign 
by  securing  the  succession  to  Solomon  (1  Kin. 


David,  City  of 


162 


Day 


i.),  and  by  providing  that  the  guilt  of  some 
who  had  escaped  justice  in  his  day  should 
not  go  unpunished  (ii.  1-11).  He  died  in  his 
seventy-first  year,  after  having  reigned  forty 
(or,  more  precisely,  forty  and  a  half)  years, 
seven  and  a  half  at  Hebron  and  thirty-three 
at  Jerusalem  (2  Sam.  ii.  11 ;  v.  4,  5 ;  1  Chron. 
xxix.  27). 

David  early  received  the  distinguished  des- 
ignation of  the  sweet  singer  of  Israel  (2  Sam. 
xxiii.  1).  Ancient  Hebrew  tradition,  much 
of  which  was  unquestionably  current  about 
David's  own  time  and  shortly  after,  ascribed 
the  composition  of  psalms  to  him  both  di- 
rectly and  indirectly.  His  fondness  for  music 
is  recorded  in  the  historical  books ;  he  played 
skillfully  on  the  harp  (1  Sam.  xvi.  18-23 ;  2 
Sam.  vi.  5),  and  he  arranged  the  service  of 
praise  for  the  sanctuary  (1  Chron.  vi.  31 ;  xvi. 
7,41,42;  XXV.  1).  He  composed  a  lament 
over  Saul  and  Jonathan,  and  over  Abner,  and 
a  song  of  deliverance  and  last  words  (2  Sam. 
i.  17-27 ;  iii.  33,  34  ;  xxii.  1-51  ;  xxiii.  1-7). 
His  musical  activity  is  referred  to  by  Amos 
(vi.  5),  Ezra  (iii.  lO)",  Nehemiah  (xii.  "24,  36, 
45,  46),  and  the  son  of  Sirach  {Ecclus.  xlvii. 
8,  9).  Such  work  on  the  part  of  David  ac- 
corded with  the  times,  for  poetry  and  music 
had  long  been  cultivated  by  the  Hebrews  as 
well  as  by  the  Egyptians  and  Babylonians 
(Num.  xxi.  14;  Judg.  v.).  Seventy-three 
psalms  are  designated  David's  in  their  He- 
brew titles  ;  and  as  in  many  cases  the  inten- 
tion is  to  indicate  that  he  is  the  author  (cp.  iii., 
vii.,  xxxiv.,  Ii.,  etc.),  it  is  probably  always  the 
intention.  Lix.  and  perhaps  vii.  are  assigned 
to  the  time  of  his  sojourn  at  Saul's  coui-t; 
xxxiv.,  Iii.,  liv.,  Ivi.,  Ivii.,  Ixiii.,  and  cxlii.,  to 
the  period  of  distress  when  he  was  a  fugitive ; 
and  iii.,  xviii.,  xxx.,  Ii.,  and  Ix.,  to  the  years 
of  varied  experiences  when  he  was  king. 

Though  at  times  David  committed  deep- 
dyed  sins,  for  which  the  early  and  compara- 
tively dark  period  of  the  church's  history  in 
which  he  lived  and  his  own  deep  penitence 
are  his  only  defense,  yet  his  general  fidelity 
to  Jehovah  was  such  that  he  was  called  the 
man  after  Ciod's  own  heart  (1  Sam.  xiii.  14). 
Speaking  generally,  he  did  that  which  was 
right  in  the  eyes  of  the  Lord,  save  in  the 
matter  of  Uriah  the  Hittite  (1  Kin.  xv.  5). 
He  served  his  generation  by  the  Mill  of  God, 
and  then  fell  on  sleep  (Acts  xiii.  36).  His 
influence  on  mankind  can  scarcely  be  over- 
estimated. He,  rather  than  his  predecessor 
Saul,  was  the  founder  of  the  Jewish  mon- 
archy. His  psalms,  sung  throughout  Chris- 
tendom century  after  century,  revive  his 
spiritual  influence.  He  was  an  important 
link  in  the  chain  of  ancestry  of  Him  who 
was  at  once  David's  son  and  David's  Lord 
(Mat.  xxii.  41-45). 
Da'vid,  Cit'y  of. 

1.  The  Jebusite  stronghold  of  Zion  cap- 
tured by  David's  men,  and  called  by  him 
the  city  of  David,  because  he  made  it  his 
royal  residence  (2  Sam.  v.  6-9;  1  Chron.  xi. 


5,  7).  Not  the  whole  hill  of  Zion,  but  the 
stronghold  or  castle  upon  some  part  of  it, 
probably  its  summit,  was  called  the  city  of 
David.  The  ark  was  brought  thither  by 
David,  and  continued  there  till  Solomon's 
temple  was  built  (2  Sam.  vi.  10,  12,  16  ;  1  Kin. 
viii.  1 ;  1  Chron.  xv.  1-29 ;  cp.  xiii.  13  and  2 
Chron.  v.  2).  David  was  buried  there  (1  Kin. 
ii.  10).  Solomon  brought  thither  for  a  time 
his  first  queen,  Pharaoh's  daughter  (1  Kin. 
iii.  1),  though  he  afterwards  erected  a  palace 
for  himself  and  her  (vii.  1 ;  ix.  24  ;  2  Chron. 
viii.  11).  He  was  buried  in  the  city  of 
David  (1  Kin.  xi.  43;  2  Chron.  ix.  31),  as 
were  Rehoboam  (1  Kin.  xiv.  31;  2  Chron. 
xii.  16)  and  many  other  kings  (1  Kin.  xv.  8, 
24  ;  xxii.  50  ;  2  Kin.  viii.  24  ;  ix.  28  ;  xii.  21 ; 
xiv.  20;  XV.  7,  38 ;  xvi.  20;  2  Chron.  xiv.  1 ; 
xvi.  14;  xxi.  1,  20;  xxiv.  16,  25;  xxvii.  9). 
Jehoiada,  the  high  priest,  was  also  interred 
there  (2  Chron.  xxiv.  16).  Hezekiah  brought 
the  upper  watercourse  of  Gihon  to  the  west 
side  of  the  city  of  David  (2  Clliron.  xxxii.  30  ; 
cp.  xxxiii.  14).  Millo  was  apparently  within 
its  limits  (2  Chron.  xxxii.  5).  In  Nehemiah's 
time  there  was  a  descent  from  the  city  of 
David  by  means  of  stairs  (Neh.  iii.  15,  16  ; 
xii.  37).  It  was  fortified  and  garrisoned  by 
the  Syrians  and  Greeks  during  the  Maccabee 
wars  "(1  Mac.  i.  33  ;  ii.  31 ;  vii.  32  ;  xiv.  36,  37). 
See  Jkrusalem. 

2.  Bethlehem,  the  birthplace  or  at  least  the 
home  of  David  (Luke  ii.  4). 

Day. 

1.  An  interval  of  time  comprising  the 
period  between  two  successive  risings  of  the 
sun  (Gen.  vii.  24  ;  Job  iii.  6).  The  Hebrews 
reckoned  it  from  evening  to  evening  (Lev. 
xxiii.  32;  Ex.  xii.  18;  War  iv.  9,  12).  This 
custom  was  probably  due  to  the  use  of  lunar 
months,  which  began  with  the  appearance  of 
the  new  moon.  The  exact  designation  of  the 
civil  day  accordingly  was  evening-morning  or 
night-day  (Dan.  viii.  14,  margin  ;  2  Cor.  xi.  25). 
But  although  the  evening  properly  introduced 
a  new  day,  it  was  often  reckoned  in  connec- 
tion with  the  natural  day  which,  strictly 
speaking,  it  followed — e.  g.  the  evening  which 
began  the  fifteenth  of  Nisan  is  designated  by 
the  expression  "  the  fourteenth  day  at  even  " 
(Ex.  xii.  18 ;  cp.  2  Chron.  xxxv.  1 ;  see  also 
Lev.  xxiii.  32).  The  days  of  the  week  were 
numbered,  not  named.  The  only  exception 
was  the  seventh  day,  which  was  also  called 
Sabbath. 

2.  The  interval  between  dawn  and  dark- 
ness (Gen.  i.  5 ;  viii.  22).  It  was  divided  into 
morning,  noon,  and  evening  (Ps.  Iv.  17 ;  cp. 
Dan.  vi.  10)  ;  or  its  time  was  indicated  by 
reference  to  sunrise,  heat  of  the  day,  cool  of 
the  day,  sunset,  and  the  like.  After  the  ex- 
ile the  use  of  hours  became  common,  and  the 
day  from  sunrise  to  sunset  was  divided  into 
twelve  hours  (Mat.  xx.  1-12 ;  John  xi.  9) ; 
the  sixth  hour  being  noon  (John  iv.  6  ;  Acts 
X.  9). 

3.  Any  period  of  action  or  stat«  of  being 


Daysman 


163 


Dead  Sea 


(Zech.  xii.  3  scq.)  ;  as  day  of  trouble  (Ps.  xx. 
1),  day  of  his  wrath  (Job  xx.  28),  day  of  the 
Lord  (Is.  ii.  1'2 :  xiii.  (i,  S) ;  in  the  N.  T.  spe- 
cially of  the  second  advent  of  Christ,  1  Cor. 
V.  5  •  1  Thes.  V.  2  :  2  Pet.  iii.  10).  So  also  in 
the  phrase  "iu  the  day  that.''  which  is 
equivalent  to  •"when"  (Gen.  ii.  4,  17;  Lev. 
xiv.  2-20),  and  is  often  rendered  so  in  the 
English  versions  (Lev.  xiv.  57  ;  Num.  vi.  13  ; 
1  Sam.  XX.  lit;  Ps.  xx.  9). 

Days 'man. 

One  who  has  appointed  a  day  for  hearing 
a  cause ;  a  mediator  or  an  arbitrator  (Job  ix. 
33). 

Dea'con  [Greek  diakonos :  in  classical 
writers  a  servant,  a  waiting  man,  a  messen- 
ger. It  is  used  in  this  sense  in  Mat.  xx. 
26.  wliere  it  is  transhited  minister,  and  is 
distinguished  from  doulos,  bond-servant  or 
slave,  occurring  in  the  next  verse ;  cp.  also 
Mat.  xsiii.  11  ;  Mark  ix.  35 ;  x.  43  ;  John  ii. 
5,  9]. 

A  Christian  officer,  whose  spiritual  and 
moral  qualifications  are  laid  down  in  1  Tim. 
iii.  8.  It  is  justly  assumed  that  the  seven 
men  chosen  to  relieve  the  apostles  of  the 
secular  care  of  the  widows  and  other  poor 
people  in  the  early  church  were  deacons 
(Acts  vi.  1-6 ;  cp.  the  words  ministration, 
diakoiiia,  and  serve,  diakoneo,  in  vs.  1  and  2). 
Their  charge  of  the  needy  did  not  debar 
them  from  the  privilege  of  speaking  publicly 
for  Christ,  for  Stephen  and  Philip  labored  also 
as  preachers  and  evangelists.  They  did  so, 
however,  in  the  exercise  of  a  personal  gift 
rather  than  of  an  official  duty.  A  plurality 
of  deacons  existed  in  the  church  at  Philippi, 
and  shared  with  the  bishops  the  duties  of  the 
church  (Phil.  i.  1). 

Dea'con-ess. 

A  female  deacon ;  like  Phoebe,  servant  or 
diakonos  of  the  church  at  Cenchreae  (Eom. 
xvi.  1 ;  see  margin  of  R.  V.).  Deaconesses  are 
probably  referred  to  in  1  Tim.  iii.  11.  The.v 
existed  in  the  churches  of  Bithynia  as  early 
as  A.  D.  1(X),  for  Pliny,  in  his  celebrated  letter 
to  the  emperor  Trajan  regarding  the  Chris- 
tians, reports  having  examined  "  two  old 
women"  of  the  Christian  community  "who 
were  called  ministers"  (ministrse). 

Dead  Sea. 

The  name  now  given  to  the  sheet  of  water 
called  in  the  Bible  the  salt  sea  (Gen.  xiv.  3; 
Num.  xxxiv.  12;  Dent.  iii.  17;  Josh.  iii.  16), 
the  sea  of  the  Arabah  or  Plain  (Deut.  iii.  17; 
Josh.  iii.  16),  and  the  east  or  eastern  sea 
(Ezek.  xlvii.  18:  Joel  ii.  20;  and  R.  V.  of 
Zech.  xiv.  8).  Josephus  calls  it  Asphaltitis 
(Antiq.  i.  9,  1).  It  was  named  the  Dead  Sea 
by  the  Greeks  as  early  as  the  latter  half 
of  the  second  century  of  the  Christian  era 
(Pausanias).  It  is  situated  in  the  deep  vol- 
canic rent  or  fissure  which  runs  through 
Palestine  from  north  to  south ;  and  is  fed 
chiefly  by  the  river  Jordan,  which  empties 
into  it  on   an  average  six  million  tons  of 


water  every  twenty-four  hours.  Its  surface 
was  ascertained  by  the  officers  of  the  ord- 
nance survey  to  be  1292  feet  lower  than  the 
ocean  level.  The  sea  is  like  a  long  rectangle 
with  the  angles  beveled  off:  but  its  regular- 
ity of  form  is  interrupted  by  a  projection 
into  its  southeastern  side  of  a  great  promon- 
tory or  peninsula  called  Lisan.  or  the  Tongue. 
The  length  of  the  sea  from  north  to  south  is 
on  an  average  about  47  English  miles,  but  it 
varies,  a  large  portion  of  the  southern  shore 
being  sometimes  dry  and  sometimes  covered 
with  water.  The  breadth  a  little  north  of 
En-gedi  is  9i  miles,  and  it  is  nearly  as  much 
everywhere  north  of  the  Lisan.  Ancient 
watermarks  indicate  that  the  area,  especially 
the  length,  was  formerly  much  larger  (War 
iv.  8,  4).  The  Lisan  is  about  9  miles  long 
from  north  to  south.  Its  banks  are  from 
40  to  60  feet  high  ;  while,  according  to  Tris- 
tram, its  highest  point  is  about  300  feet  above 
the  water.  Lieut.  Lynch,  who  in  1848  led 
an  expedition  for  the  exploration  of  the  Jor- 
dan and  the  Dead  Sea,  found  the  maximum 
depth  of  the  latter,  as  ascertained  by  sound- 
ing, to  be  1278  feet ;  this  was  at  a  point 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Arnon.  Soundings 
farther  north  yield  13(K)  feet.  South  of 
the  Lisan,  on  the  contrary,  the  sea  is  quite 
shallow.  Except  on  the  north  side,  where 
the  Jordan  enters,  the  Dead  Sea  is  nearly 
surrounded  by  a  rampart  of  clifTs,  which  in 
some  places  leave  a  narrow  beach  between 
them  and  the  water,  while  in  others  they 
themselves  constitute  the  coast  line.  These 
rise  in  successive  terraces,  which  also  exist 
along  the  lower  part  of  the  Jordan  valley. 
On  the  western  side,  at  En-gedi,  the  height 
from  the  seashore  to  the  top  of  the  cliffs  is 
1950  feet;  a  little  farther  north,  at  Eas  esh 
Shufk,  the  top  is  2519  feet  above  the  Dead 
Sea,  i.  e.  1227  above  the  Mediterranean.  Far- 
ther northward  the  elevation  gradually  de- 
creases till  it  reaches  1400  feet  above  the  Dead 
Sea.  These  western  cliffs  contain  deposits  of 
bitumen  in  both  liquid  and  solid  state.  On 
the  eastern  side  the  precipitous  mountains  of 
Moab  rise  from  2500  to  3(X)0  feet  above  the 
shore. 

The  Dead  Sea  is  one  of  the  most  remark- 
able sheets  of  water  on  the  face  of  the  earth. 
No  other  one  is  known  to  occupy  so  deep  a 
hollow  on  the  surface  of  the  globe.  Its 
waters  are  much  Salter  than  those  of  the 
ocean,  for  while  in  the  latter  100  lbs.  of 
water  contain  6  lbs.  of  salt,  in  the  former 
100  lbs.  of  water  contain  from  20  to  27.8 
lbs.  of  salt.  In  consequence  of  this,  one 
bathing  in  them  finds  himself  almost  ludi- 
crously buoyant.  But  when  he  comes  ashore 
there  is  a  greasy  deposit  of  salt  upon  his 
skin,  which  tortures  him  if  there  happens  to 
be  a  scratch  or  a  brui.se  on  its  surface.  In 
seeking  an  explanation  of  this  saltness,  un- 
geological  travelers  point  to  a  ridge  of  hills, 
Jebel  Usdum  (Hill  of  Sodom),  containing 
rock  salt,  from  which  saline  rills  flow  into 


Dearth 


164 


Decapolis 


the  southwestern  portion  of  the  sea.  Geolo- 
gists, however,  point  out  that  the  range  of 
hills  is  part  of  the  old  bed  of  the  Dead  Sea, 
when  the  waters  stood  much  higher  than 
now.  The  sea  created  the  rock  salt,  instead 
of  the  rock  salt  rendering  an  otherwise  fresh- 
water lake  saline.  The  process  was  this : 
the  water  of  the  Jordan  contains  a  minute 
portion  of  salt ;  and  there  being  no  outlet  from 
the  Dead  Sea,  the  salt  given  it  by  the  river 
remains  and  accumulates  year  by  year,  while 
the  water  with  which  it  comes  goes  off  to  a 
large  extent  in  vapor,  evaporation  being  im- 
mense, since  the  air  from  the  desert  comes  dry 
and  thirsty  to  an  extraordinary  degree.  The 
Scripture  name,  "Salt  Sea,"  has  been  super- 
seded by  the  name  Dead  Sea.  Organic  life 
scarcely  exists  in  its  waters ;  neither  shell- 
fish nor  corals  are  found.  The  old  belief, 
however,  that  there  is  a  total  absence  of  life 
in  and  around  the  sea  is  erroneous.  Birds 
frequent  its  shores  or  fly  over  its  surface,  as 
they  do  that  of  other  lakes  and  inland 
seas ;  vegetation  flourishes  on  its  shores  at  the 
mouth  of  wadies  and  by  springs  of  fresh 
water  ;  and  tishes,  though  woefully  deficient, 
are  found,  according  to  Lartet,  in  small  num- 
bers south  of  the  Lisan.  Ezekiel  prophesied 
the  ultimate  healing  of  the  waters  of  the 
Dead  Sea,  and  the  multiplication  of  fish  till 
the  species  for  number  should  rival  those 
of  the  open  Mediterranean  (Ezek.  xlvii. 
6-12). 

Dearth.     See  Famine. 

De'bir. 

1.  A  king  of  Eglon,  ally  of  Adoni-zedek  ; 
defeated,  captured,  and  executed  by  Joshua 
(Josh.  X.  3,  27). 

2.  A  city  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah,  yet 
in  the  Negeb  or  south  land.  It  was  also 
called  Kirjath-sepher,  which  may  mean  city 
of  books  and  indicate  a  literary  people ;  and 
Kirjath-sanuah,  city  of  a  palm  tree  or  per- 
haps peak  (Josh.  xv.  15,  19,  48,  49).  In  the 
time  of  Joshua  it  was  inhabited  by  Anakim, 
had  a  king,  and  was  head  of  other  towns. 
Joshua  captured  it  and  slew  its  inhabitants 
(Josh.  X.  38,  39 ;  xi.  21 ;  xii.  13) ;  but  it  was 
reoccupied  by  returned  fugitives,  and  had  to 
be  recaptured  by  Othniel  (Josh.  xv.  15-17 ; 
Judg.  i.  11,  12).  It  was  assigned  to  the 
priests  (Josh.  xxi.  13,  15;  1  Chron.  vi.  57, 
58).  The  most  probable  site  proposed  (better 
perhaps  than  Dilbeh,  4^  miles  southwest  of 
Hebron)  is  Dhaberiyeh,  nearly  12  miles 
southwest  of  Hebron,  on  a  flat  ridge,  with 
open,  rocky  ground  all  around.  It  is  west 
of  the  sites  of  Socoh,  Anab,  and  Eshtemoh 
(Josh.  XV.  48-50).  It  is  supplied  from  cis- 
terns. The  springs  mentioned  in  Judg.  i.  15 
are  not  distinctly  connected  with  Debir  and 
may  be  nearer  Hebron. 

3.  A  town  on  the  boundary  of  the  tribe  of 
Judah,  near  the  valley  of  Achor  (Josh.  xv. 
7).  The  name  is  perhaps  preserved  in  ed- 
Debr,  a  grotto  near  ed-Dumm,  i.  e.  Adum- 


mim,  on  the  road  between  Jerusalem  and 
Jericho. 

4.  A  place  east  of  the  Jordan,  near  Maha- 
naim  (Josh.  xiii.  2(i).  The  margin  of  R.  V. 
has  Lidebir.     Perhaps  Lodebar  (q.  v.). 

Deb'o-rah  [a  bee]. 

1.  Eebekah's  nurse,  who  accompanied  her 
from  Mesopotamia  and  lived  until  Jacob's  re- 
turn from  Paddau-aram.  She  had  perhaps 
returned  to  her  kindred  in  Haran  after  the 
death  of  Eebekah  and  accompanied  Jacob 
back  to  Canaan,  or  she  had  gone  to  him  when 
he  was  sojourning  at  Shechem.  At  any  rate 
she  was  with  him  at  Bethel.  There  she  died 
at  the  age  of  about  155  years,  for  she  could 
not  have  been  much  younger  than  Isaac.  She 
was  buried  at  the  foot  of  the  hill  on  which 
the  town  stood  and  under  an  oak,  called  in 
consequence  Allon-bacuth,  oak  of  weeping 
(Gen.  xxiv.  59  ;  xxxv.  8). 

2.  A  prophetess,  the  wife  of  Lappidoth. 
She  dwelt  under  a  palm  tree,  called  after  her 
name,  between  Ramah  and  Bethel,  in  mount 
Ephraim,  and  there  judged  the  Israelites. 
She  summoned  Barak  to  undertake  the  con- 
test with  Sisera,  and  accompanied  him  to  the 
rendezvous  of  his  army  (Judg.  iv.  4-14). 
Afterwards  she  composed  a  song  of  triumph 
for  the  victory  (v.  1-31 ;  cp.  7). 

Debt'or. 

One  who  owes  another  money.  To  foster 
the  spirit  of  brotherhood  and  mutual  help- 
fulness, the  Mosaic  law  ordained  that  the 
creditor  release  his  brother  Israelite  from  all 
obligations  at  the  year  of  release,  which  re- 
curred every  seven  years  (Deut.  xv.  1-4).  In 
the  intervening  years  custom  permitted  the 
seizure  and  enslavement  of  a  debtor,  his 
wife,  and  his  children  (2  Kin.  iv.  1 ;  Neh.  v. 
5,  8 ;  Is.  1.  1 ;  Mat.  xviii.  25).  In  the  time 
of  Jesus,  in  accordance  with  Roman  law,  im- 
prisonment was  sometimes  inflicted  on  a 
debtor  (Mat.  v.  25;  xviii.  30  ;  Luke  xii.  58). 

De-cap'o-lis  [an  association  of  ten  cities]. 

A  district,  beginning  where  the  plain  of 
Esdraelon  opens  into  the  Jordan  valley  and 
expanding  eastward,  which  was  dominated 
by  ten  associated  Greek  cities.  The  Greek 
population  had  come  in  the  wake  of  Alex- 
ander's conque-st.  The  ten  cities  originally 
included  in  the  association  were  Scythopolis, 
i.  e.  Bethshean,  Hippos,  Damascus  ;  Gadara, 
Raphana,  Kanatha  ;  Pella,  Dion,  Gerasa,  and 
Philadelphia,  i.  e.  Rabbath  Amnion  (Pliny, 
His.  nat.  v.  16).  Other  towns  were  afterwards 
added.  Ptolemy  enumerates  eighteen.  Three 
roads  connect  Esdraelon  with  the  commercial 
highway  which  runs  between  Damascus  and 
Arabia  along  the  margin  of  the  desert.  The 
ten  towns  stood  on  these  three  roads  and 
on  the  highway.  The  district  is  called  De- 
capolita  regio  by  Pliny  (v.  15).  Multitudes 
from  Decapolis  followed  .Tesus  at  an  early 
period  of  his  ministry  (Mat.  iv.  25).  The 
Gadarene  demoniac,  when  the  evil  spirit  was 
expelled,  published  his  deliverance  in  Decap- 


I 


Dedan 


165 


Delaiah 


Maf)  of  Ihe  Region 

o/lke 

Decapo/is 

/Uusfmling/iebr^w//is/ory 


olis  (Mark  v.  20).  Jesus  traveled  through 
its  midst  on  his  way  from  Tyre  and  Sidon  to 
the  sea  of  Galilee,  approaching  the  lake  from 
the  eastern  side  (vii.  31). 

De'dan. 

A  Cushite  people  (Gen.  x.  7),  but  also  re- 
lated to  Abraham  through  Keturah  (xxv.  3). 
They  were  an  important  commercial  people 
(Ezek.  xxvii.  15,  20;  xxxviii.  13)  of  Arabia 
(Is.  xxi.  13),  in  the  neighborhood  of  Edom 
(Jer.  xxv.  23  ;  xlix.  S  ;  Ezek.  xxv.  13),  where 
caravan  routes  from  southern,  eastern,  and 
central  Arabia  converged.  The  name  prob- 
ably lingers  in  Daidan,  to  the  west  of  Taima 
and  southeast  of  Aila.  Formerly  two  distinct 
tribes  of  Dedauites  were  assumed  :  one  Sem- 
itic, living  near  Edom ;  the  other  Cushitic, 
dwelling  near  Raamah  (Gen.  x.  7),  which  was 
thought  to  have  been  situated  on  the  coast  of 
the  Persian  Gulf.  Raamah,  however,  is  better 
located  in  southwestern  Arabia ;  and  then 
Dedan  was  one  jieople,  centered  near  Taima, 
and  neighbor  alike  to  the  Edomites  and  the 
inhabitants  of  Raamah. 

Ded-i-ca'tion,  Feast  of. 

An  annual  festival  instituted  by  Judas 
Maccabfeus  in  165  b.  c.  to  celebrate  the  re- 
consecration  of  the  temple  to  Jehovah  after 
it  had  been  desecrated  for  three  years  by  the 
Greek  idolatries  carried  on  within  its  pre- 
cincts by  order  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  (1 


Mac.  iv.  52-59).  The  feast  lasted  eight  days, 
beginning  on  the  25th  of  C'liisU'V  (approxim- 
ately November),  and  falling  coiisecjuentlyin 
winter.  Jesus  was  at  least  once  present  at 
Jerusalem  during  the  festival,  and  delivered 
one  of  his  discourses  to  those  assembled  at 
the  temple  for  the  celebration  (John  x.  22). 
The  Jews  still  observe  the  festival. 

Deer. 

The  English  name  of  the  genus  Cervua,  or 
of  the  family  Cermdie.  The  word  occurs  only 
in  A.  V.  in  the  name  fallow  deer,  but  the 
hart  is  frequently  mentioned.  Tristram 
enumerates  two  species  of  the  genus  Cervua 
as  still  occurring  in  Palestine,  the  roebuck 
{Cerxms  capreohis)  and  the  fallow  deer  (Cer- 
vus  damn) ;  whilst  the  teeth  and  bones  of 
three  others,  the  red  deer  {Cerviis  elaphus), 
the  reindeer  (Cervus  tarandus),  and  the  elk 
(Cervus  alces),  are  found  in  bone  breccia  in 
caves  in  the  Lebanon  mountains. 

De-grees'. 

A  word  occurring  in  the  titles  of  fifteen 
Psalms,  cxx.-cxxxiv.  inclusive,  which  are 
called  Songs  of  Degrees.  It  is  the  rendering 
of  the  Hebrew  3Ia'''loth,  ascents  or  goings  up 
(Ezra  vii.  9),  steps  (Ex.  xx.  26;  1  Kin.  x. 
19).  A  Jewish  tradition  tells  that  the  fifteen 
Songs  of  Degrees  were  sung  as  an  ascent  was 
made  by  fifteen  steps  from  the  court  of  the 
women  to  that  of  the  men,  a  view  not  now 
generally  entertained.  Gesenius  and  De- 
litzsch  held  that  they  were  so  called  because 
there  is  in  their  composition  a  certain  pro- 
gression, the  concluding  words  of  one  sen- 
tence being  often  the  commencement  of  the 
next,  as — • 

I  will  lift  up  mine  eyes  unto  the  hills 
From  whence  cometh  my  help ; 

My  help  cometh  from  the  Lord, 
Who  made  heaven  and  earth. 

But  the  repetition  is  the  exception  rather  than 
the  rule  in  these  psalms.  The  common  opin- 
ion is  that  they  were  sung  by  the  pilgrims 
during  the  ascent  to  Jerusalem.  Such  a  cus- 
tom is,  however,  nowhere  mentioned. 

De-ha'ites,  in  A.  V.  De-ha'vites. 

One  of  the  tribes  brought  over  to  Samaria 
from  the  Assyrian  empire  to  replace  the  ten 
tribes  carried  captive  (Ezra  iv.  9).  Eawlin- 
son  believes  that  they  were  Dai  or  Dahi,  a 
nomad  tribe  of  Aryan  descent  mentioned  by 
Herodotus  (i.  125). 

De'ker,  in  A.  V.  Dekar  [perforation]. 

The  father  of  Solomon's  purveyor,  Ben- 
deker  (1  Kin.  iv.  9,  R.  V.). 

De-la'iah,  in  A.  V.  once  Dalaiah  (1  Chron. 
iii.  24)  [Jehovah  hath  drawn  out,  i.  e.  deliv- 
ered]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Aaron.  His  family, 
grown  to  a  father's  house  by  the  time  of 
David,  was  made  the  twenty-third  course  of 
the  priests  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  18). 

2.  A  prince,  son  of  Shemaiah,  and  one  of 


Delilah 


166 


Demoniac 


those  who  urged  kiug  Jehoiakim  not  to  burn 
the  roll  containing  the  prophecies  of  Jere- 
miah (Jer.  xxxvi.  12,  25).  Perhaps  it  is  he 
or  his  grandson  who  is  incidentally  men- 
tioned later  (Neh.  vi.  10). 

3.  One  of  the  Nethinim,  and  founder  of  a 
family  (Ezra  ii.  60  ;  Neh.  vii.  62). 

4.  A  son  of  Elioenai  (1  Chron.  iii.  24). 

De-li'lah  [delicate,  wasted  with  longing  or 
desire]. 

The  Philistine  woman  from  the  valley  of 
Sorek  who  lured  Samson  to  his  ruin  (Judg. 
xvi.  4-18). 

De'los,  in  A.  V.  Delus. 

A  small  island  in  the  iEgean,  celebrated  as 
the  birthplace  of  Apollo  and  Diana.  The 
Eoman  consul  Lucius  wrote  to  Delos  con- 
cerning a  pact  of  friendship  established  be- 
tween the  Romans  and  the  Jews  (1  Mac.  xv. 
23).  It  was  at  that  time  the  center  of  an 
extensive  commerce. 

Del'uge.     See  Flood. 
De'mas. 

A  fellow  laborer  of  Paul,  who  sent  saluta- 
tions from  Rome  to  the  Colossians  and  to 
Philemon  (Col.  iv.  14 ;  Philemon  24).  After- 
wards he  deserted  the  apostle  from  unwilling- 
ness to  suffer,  and  went  to  Thessalonica  (2 
Tim.  iv.  10). 

De-me'tri-us  [belonging  to  Demeter,  or 
Ceres,  the  goddess  of  agriculture  and  rural 
life]. 

1.  Demetrius  I.,  surnamed  Soter,  king  of 
Syria  162-150  b.  c,  nephew  of  Antiochus 
Epiphaues.  He  had  been  kept  as  a  hostage 
at  Rome  ;  but  on  hearing  of  his  uncle's  death 
he  made  his  escape,  and  arriving  safely  in 
Antioch  made  himself  master  of  the  king- 
dom, and  put  to  death  Lysias  and  the  young 
Eupator  (1  Mac.  vii.  1-4).  In  war  with  him 
Judas  Maccabaeus  lost  his  life  (ix.  1-19).  In 
152  B.  c.  Alexander  Balas,  witla  the  consent 
of  the  Roman  senate,  claimed  the  throne. 
The  rivals  met  in  a  decisive  battle  in  150 
B.  c,  and  Demetrius  was  defeated  and  slain 
(x.  48-50;  Antiq.  xiii.  2,  4). 

2.  Demetrius  II.,  surnamed  Nicator,  son 
of  Demetrius  I.  In  148-7  B.  c.  he  raised  the 
standard  of  revolt  against  Alexander  Balas, 
and  with  the  aid  of  Ptolemy  VI.  defeated 
him.  Alexander  fled  into  Arabia,  where  he 
was  murdered,  and  Demetrius  became  king 
of  Syria  (1  Mac.  xi.  15-19).  But  Alexander's  ' 
general  Tryphon  almost  immediately  pro- 
claimed Alexander's  voung  son  Antiochus 
king  (39,  40).  The  struggle  lasted  until  138 
B.  c,  when  Demetrius,  during  a  plundering 
expedition  in  Persia,  was  taken  prisoner  by 
king  Arsaces  and  kept  in  bonds  for  ten  j^ears. 
Before  his  departure  on  this  expedition  he 
gave  the  Jews  their  independence.  Although 
they  fell  under  the  power  of  the  Syrians 
again,  this  event  was  of  national  importance, 
and  they  dated  their  independence  from  it 
(1  Mac.  xiii.  36-42 ;  Antiq.  xiii.  4,  9).    Deme- 


trius regained  liberty  and  the  throne  in  128 
B.  c.  An  Egyptian  pretender,  supported  by 
Ptolemy  VII.,  took  the  field  against  him. 
Demetrius  was  defeated  near  Damascus,  fled 
to  Ptolemais,  and  took  ship  to  Tyre,  where 
he  was  murdered  when  about  to  land  (Antiq. 
xiii.  9,  3). 

3.  A  silversmith  at  Ephesus,  who  made  for 
sale  silver  models  of  the  celebrated  temple 
of  Diana.  Believing  his  craft  to  be  in  danger 
from  Christianity,  he  excited  his  fellow  work- 
men against  Paul,  and  stirred  up  the  riot  in 
which  the  mob  cried  for  two  hours,  "  Great 
is  Diana  of  the  Ephesians"  (Acts  xix.  24-41). 

4.  An  approved  Christian,  commended  by 
John  also  (3  John  12). 

De'mon  [among  the  Greeks,  (1)  a  god  or 
deity  in  general ;  (2)  one's  genius ;  (3)  one's 
fortune ;  (4)  the  soul  of  some  man  belonging 
to  the  golden  age,  now  acting  as  a  tutelary 
divinity;  a  god  of  inferior  rank]. 

An  evil  spirit  (Luke  viii.  29;  x.  17-20). 
The  designation  is  applied  especially  to  the 
gods  of  the  heathen  (Deut.  xxxii.  17;  Ps. 
cvi.  37 ;  and  margin  of  1  Cor.  x.  20,  and  cp. 
Rev.  ix.  20;  all  R.  V.),  and  to  inferior  evil 
spirits,  subject  to  the  devil  (Mat.  xii.  24-27 ; 
Luke  iv.  33 ;  Jas.  ii.  19 ;  Rev.  xvi.  14 ;  all 
margin  of  R.  V.) ;  see  Demoniac. 

De-mo'ni-ac  [possessed  by  a  demon]. 

A  person  possessed  and  ruled  by  a  demon 
(Mat.  iv.  24,  R.  V.  margin).  The  inhabitation 
of  such  a  being  in  some  cases  affected  the 
person  physically,  and  produced  certain  ordi- 
nary diseases.  Thus  one  possessed  boy  is  de- 
scribed as  having  a  deaf  and  dumb  spirit  and 
as  being  affected  at  intervals  with  morbid 
symptoms  resembling  those  of  epilepsy  (Mark 
ix.  14-29;  cp.  Mat.  xvii.  15,  18;  Luke  ix. 
37-42).  Hence  the  opinion  of  many  is  that 
possession  was  simply  a  Jewish  hypothesis  to 
account  for  bodily  and  mental  diseases  and 
for  the  visible  effects  on  body  and  will  of  en- 
slavement to  sin.  But  this  view  takes  no 
note  of  the  fact  that  the  demons  speak  (Mark 
i.  23,  24;  iii.  11,  12;  v.  7);  that  they  pos- 
sessed at  times  knowledge  beyond  that  of 
men  ;  as,  for  example,  of  the  divinity  of 
Christ  (Mark  i.  24) ;  that  they  recognized 
their  own  distinct  individuality  independent 
of  Jesus  and  independent  of  the  person  pos- 
sessed (Mat.  viii.  31) ;  that  the  distant  herd 
of  swine  became  frenzied  when  the  demons 
were  cast  out  of  the  demoniac  of  Gadara  and 
allowed  to  enter  into  them  (Mat.  viii.  30) ; 
that  Jesus  apparently  recognized  them  as 
actually  existing  beings,  and  instructed  his 
disciples,  saying  :  "  This  kind  can  come  out 
by  nothing,  save  by  prayer"  (Mark  ix.  29, 
R.  V.)  ;  and  that  later,  when  the  disciples  re- 
ported that  even  the  demons  were  subject  unto 
them  in  his  name,  Jesus  replied  :  "  I  beheld 
Satan  as  lightning  fall  from  heaven.  .  .  . 
Notwithstanding  in  this  rejoice  not,  that  the 
spirits  are  subject  unto  j^ou  ;  but  rather  re- 
joice, that  your  names  are  written  in  heaven  " 


Deputy 


167 


Deuteronomy 


(Luke  X.  17-20).  Man  was  himself  respon- 
sible for  his  hideous  visitor.  Probably  not 
until  a  person  was  degraded  and  weakened  by 
sin,  personal  or  inherited,  might  he  be  taken 
captive  by  a  demon  (1  Sam.  xvi.  14;  with 
xiii.  8-14;"  xv.  10-31). 

Dep'u-ty. 

One  empowered  to  act  for  another,  gener- 
ally of  higher  rank  than  himself;  as  a  re- 
gent ruling  in  place  of  a  king  (1  Kin.  xxii. 
47) :  an  official  invested  with  the  powers  and 
rank  of  a  Roman  consul  (Acts  xiii.  7  ;  xviii. 
12  :  xix.  38,  A.  V.) ;  see  Pkoconsul. 

Der'be. 

A  city  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Lycaonia, 
in  Asia  Minor.  Paul  was  stoned  and  left  for 
dead  at  Lystra,  on  his  first  missionary  jour- 
ney. On  reviving,  he  went  to  Derbe  (Acts 
xiv.  6.  20).  On  his  second  journey  he  again 
passed  through  it,  and  either  there  or  at 
Lystra  made  the  acquaintance  of  Timothy 
(xvi.  1).  Gaius  was  a  native  of  Derbe  (xx.  4). 
The  ruins  of  a  town  on  lake  Ak  Gul  near 
Divle  have  been  supposed  to  mark  the  site 
•of  Derbe ;  but  Prof.  Ramsey  believes  with 
Prof.  Sterrett  that  the  site  is  Zosta  on  the 
road  which  ran  from  Cilicia  Tracheia  through 
Laranda  to  Iconium. 

Des'ert. 

1.  A  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Midhar  and 
the  Greek  Eremos,  an  unenclosed,  unculti- 
vated plain,  where  wild  beasts  roam  at  will 
(Job  xxiv.  5) ;  often  terrible  in  its  solitude 
and  desolateness  (Dent,  xxxii.  10 ;  and  A.  V. 
of  Ls.  xxi.  1),  yet  also  capable  of  aflbrding 
pasturage  (Ex.  iii.  1,  A.  V.).  The  words  are 
usually  rendered  wilderness  (Gen.  xvi.  7; 
xxi.  20;  1  Sam.  xvii.  28;  xxv.  21 ;  Mat.  iii. 
1 ;  Mark  i.  13;  Luke  xv.  4). 

2.  A  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  '"rabah,  arid 
region  (Is.  xxxv.  1,  6;  li.  3).  With  the  defi- 
nite article  the  word  specially  denotes  the 
plain  of  the  Jordan  and  Dead  Sea  (Ezek. 
xlvii.  8;  2  Sam.  ii.  29),  and  is  rendered  in 
the  R.  V.  as  a  proper  name,  Arabah. 

3.  A  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Y'shimon,  a 
waste,  a  desolation  (Ps.  Ixxviii.  40;  cvi.  14; 
Is.  xliii.  19,  20).  When  the  definite  article 
is  prefixed  it  is  rendered  as  a  proper  name, 
Jeshimon  (Num.  xxi.  20,  A.  V.  and  margin 
of  E.  v.). 

4.  A  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  H'raboth, 
waste,  desolate  jilaces  (Is.  xlviii.  21).  In  Ps. 
cii.  6 ;  Ezek.  xiii.  4  the  R.  V.  translates 
it  waste  places. 

De-u'el  [invocation  of  God]. 

A  Gadite,  the  father  of  Eliasaph  (Num.  i. 
14  :  vii.  42  ;  x.  20).  Called  in  ii.  14  Reuel, 
which  means  "friend  of  God."  It  is  uncer- 
tain which  of  these  two  forms  is  correct. 
The  Samaritan  text  has  Deuel  everywhere, 
whereas  the  Septuagint  and  the  Syriac  trans- 
lators read  Reuel ;  see  Daleth. 

Deu-ter-on'o-my  [repetition  of  the  law]. 

The  name,  derived  from  the  Septuagint,  of 
the  fifth  book  of  the  Pentateuch.   The  Greek 


word,  of  which  Deuteronomy  is  the  English 
form,  is  used  in  the  Septuagint  to  translate 
the  expression  "copy  of  this  law"  in  chapter 
xvii.  18.  But  this  book  is  not  merely  the 
repetition  or  copy  of  laws  already  given.  It 
is  a  rehearsal  under  i)eculiar  circumstances 
aud  for  a  special  puri)ose.  In  Exodus,  Le- 
viticus, and  Numbers,  the  legislation  is  repre- 
sented as  in  process  of  enactment,  the  occasion 
or  the  time  when  the  successive  installments 
were  received  is  commonly  stated,  and  each 
body  of  statutes  is  severally  declared  to  pro- 
ceed from  God.  In  Deuteronomy,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  law  is  represented,  not  as 
being  enacted,  but  as  being  rehearsed  and 
expounded.  Thirty  and  eight  years  have 
ehijised  since  the  greater  ])art  of  the  old  leg- 
islation was  given.  The  new  generation,  on 
the  eve  of  taking  possession  of  Canaan,  is 
summoned  to  hear  the  law  of  the  nation,  to 
be  instructed  in  the  application  of  its  prin- 
ciples to  the  new  circumstances  which 
await  them,  to  have  their  apprehension  of 
its  spirituality  quickened,  and  then  to  intel- 
ligently renew  the  covenant  made  with  their 
fathers.  Instead  of  the  Lord  speaking  unto 
Moses,  it  is  now  Moses  at  the  command  of 
God  speaking  to  the  people  (i.  1-4 ;  v.  1 ; 
xxix.  1).  The  book  consists  first  and  mainly 
of  an  address  delivered  in  three  installments, 
committed  to  writing,  aud  solemnly  ratified 
as  a  covenant  (i.-xxx.).  Firxt  Address,  i.  fi- 
iv.  40  ;  with  supplementary  statement,  41-49  : 
Rehearsal  of  the  history  of  the  people  since 
the  covenant  was  made  with  the  preceding 
generation  at  Sinai  as  a  motive  for  obedience 
to  Jehovah's  laws.  The  speaker  is  declared 
to  be  Moses  (i.  1,  3,  5,  9,  15,  IG,  19,  etc.) :  the 
date  is  the  40th  year,  11th  month,  1st  day  ; 
after  the  smiting  of  Sihon  and  Og,  and  after 
the  sin  in  the  matter  of  Peor  (i.  3,  4 ;  iv.  3) : 
the  place  is  beyond  Jordan  in  the  land  of 
Moab  (i.  5,  cp.  Num.  xxxiii.  48;  xxxv.  1),  in 
the  wilderness,  in  the  Arabah  (i.  1,  cp.  Num. 
xxiii.  28;  xxiv.  1).  The  phrase  "beyond 
Jordan"  or  "other  side  of  Jordan"  was 
ambiguous  and  required  precise  definition. 
To  Abraham  and  the  Canaanites  it  meant  the 
country  east  of  the  river ;  and  as  an  estab- 
lished geographical  term  it  meant  the  same 
to  Abraham's  descendants.  They  had  arrived 
there ;  but  they  still  called  the  place  where 
they  were  by  the  old  inherited  designation 
"the  other  side  of  Jordan,"  just  as  they 
called  the  neighboring  blufls  Abarim  or 
"mountains  of  the  other  side."  And  the 
people  felt,  too,  that  they  were  on  the  other 
side  of  Jordan,  outside  of  the  promised  land. 
But  with  the  river  in  front  of  them  the 
phrase  was  ambiguous,  hence  its  repeated 
elucidation  by  some  expression  like  "  in  the 
land  of  Moab."  Second  Address,  v.-xxvi. : 
Rehearsal  of  statutes  which  concerned  the 
people,  with  emphasis  on  the  sjiirituality  of 
the  laws  and  urgent  insistence  ujion  their 
observance.  The  speaker  is  Moses  (v.  1,  5,  22)  ■, 
the  date  is  at  the  end  of  the  forty  years,  on 


Deuteronomy 


168 


Deuteronomy 


the  eve  of  crossing  the  Jordan,  after  Balaam's 
prophecy  (viii.  2;  ix.  1;  xi.  31;  xxiii.  4). 
Third  Address,  xxvii.,  xxviii. :  Conclusion  of 
the  preceding,  (1)  Provision  for  writing  the 
law  on  plastered  stones  on  mount  Ebal,  (2) 
Blessings  and  curses  annexed  to  obedience 
and  disobedience  respectively.  This  great 
address  is  closely  followed  by  a  brief  address 
(xxix.,  XXX.)  at  the  ratification  of  the  coven- 
ant as  thus  proclaimed  (xxix.  1 ;  xxx.  1). 
This  covenant,  like  the  words  of  the  former 
one  made  at  Horeb,  was  recorded  in  a  book 
(xxix.  20,  21,  27  ;  xxx.  10;  cp.  Ex,  xxiv.  4-8). 
The  place  and  date  are  alluded  to  in  Deut. 
xxix.  1,  5,  7,  8. 

After  delivering  the  address  which  forms 
the  body  of  the  book  of  Deuteronomy,  Moses 
publicly  appointed  Joshua  to  be  his  successor 
and  gave  a  formal  charge  to  him  (xxxi.  1-8). 
Moses  delivered  the  written  law  to  the  priests 
with  a  charge  regarding  its  public  reading 
(9-13).  He  repaired  with  Joshua  to  the  tab- 
ernacle that  Joshua  might  be  charged  by  Je- 
hovah, and  was  there  instructed  to  prepare  a 
song  for  the  people  (14-23).  He  prepared 
and  wrote  the  song  (22),  charged  the  Levites 
who  bore  the  ark  to  put  the  completed  book, 
which  contained  law  and  song,  beside  the 
ark  for  a  witness  (24-29),  ordered  an  assembly 
called  to  hear  and  learn  the  song  (28),  and 
repeated  it  publicly  (30-xxxii.  47).  Moses' 
farewell  (48-xxxiii.  29)  and  death  (xxxiv.). 

The  distinctive  feature  of  Deuteronomy  is 
the  evident  preparation  for  the  settlement  in 
Canaan.  1.  It  affects  the  language.  For  ex- 
ample, the  people  are  about  to  live  a  settled 
life ;  hence  the  camp  which  figures  so  largely, 
though  of  course  not  exclusively,  in  the 
former  legislation  disappears  from  Deuter- 
onomy, except  where  reference  is  made  to 
future  war  or  to  the  encampment  at  Shittim 
where  they  then  are.  The  speaker  mentions 
houses,  towns,  city  gates.  2.  It  leads  to 
minor  modifications  of  existing  laws  to  adapt 
them  to  the  new  mode  of  life.  For  example, 
the  law  which  required  animals  that  were 
slain  for  food  to  be  brought  to  the  door  of  the 
tabernacle  is  changed  to  permit  the  people  to 
slay  for  food  in  the  town  where  they  reside 
(xii.  15,  21 ;  Lev.  xvii.  3,  4).  3.  It  leads  to 
insistence  upon  one  altar  for  the  nation  in 
the  place  where  Jehovah  shall  record  his 
name.  The  unity  of  the  altar  was  intended 
to  counteract  the  tendency  to  lapse  into  idol- 
atry, by  preventing  the  people  from  worship- 
ing at  the  numerous  local  sanctuaries  of  the 
Canaanites ;  to  render  the  worship  of  Jehovah 
a  grander  spectacle  and  of  greater  pomp  than 
the  rites  of  the  idols  of  the  Canaanites  by 
uniting  the  numbers  and  the  wealth  of  the 
Hebrews ;  and  to  give  strength  to  the  com- 
munal feeling  and  aid  in  binding  the  nation 
together.  The  spirit  of  jealousy  between 
individuals  and  between  tribes,  the  popular 
proneness  to  idolatry,  and  the  willingness  of 
large  sections  of  the  people  to  separate  from 
their  brethren  and  settle  in  attractive  pas- 


toral regions  had  already  become  manifest. 
The  old  law  of  the  one  altar  is  emphatically 
insisted  upon  at  this  crisis.  It  was  essential 
to  the  unity  of  the  nation  and  continuance 
of  the  theocracy.     See  Altae. 

It  has  been  urged  that  no  distinction  is 
made  in  Deuteronomy  between  priests  and 
Levites  such  as  appea,rs  in  the  legislation  of 
Leviticus  and  Numbers.  The  priests  are  fre- 
quently called  "the  priests  the  Levites,"  and 
the  passage  xviii.  1-8,  if  it  be  isolated,  may 
be  interpreted  to  mean  that  any  Levite  might 
become  a  priest.  But — 1.  The  tribe  of  Levi 
is  indeed  assigned  priestly  functions  (x.  6 ; 
xviii.  1-8;  xxxiii.  8,  9).  But  it  is  correct  to 
do  so,  for  the  tribe  as  a  whole  was  called  to 
holy  service,  especially  to  priestly  service. 
Even  when  the  distinction  between  the 
priests  and  the  lower  order  of  the  Levites 
was  established,  the  tribe  as  a  whole  is  spoken 
of  as  priestly  (1  Kin.  xii.  31  ;  Mai.  ii.  1-4 ; 
iii.  3;  cp.  Heb.  vii.  13).  2.  The  title  "the 
priests  the  Levites  "  occurs  in  writings  which 
were  composed  after  the  legislation  of  Le- 
viticus was,  as  everybody  admits,  in  full 
force.  It  is  used  by  Ezekiel  (xliii.  19 ;  xliv. 
15)  and  by  the  Chronicler  (2  Chron.  xxiii.  18; 
xxx.  27).  It  should  also  be  remembered  that 
Jeremiah  uses  the  expression  (xxxiii.  18,  21). 
3.  Deuteronomy  is  based  on  previous  priestly 
legislation,  for  it  presupposes  the  technical 
laws  of  the  ritual.  The  speaker  explicitly 
refers  to  former  laws  on  the  subject  of  which 
he  is  speaking,  and  these  laws  are  known 
only  from  the  books  of  Leviticus  and  Num- 
bers (Deut.  xviii.  1,  2  with  Num.  xviii.  20 ; 
Deut.  xxiv.  8,  9  with  Lev.  xiii.,  xiv. ;  Num. 
xii.),  or  he  makes  allusions  which  imply 
these  laws  (Deut.  xii.  15  with  Lev.  xvii.  3 
seq.).  4.  The  passage  Deut.  xviii.  1-8  may 
be  readily  interpreted  on  the  assumption  that 
the  laws  of  Leviticus  were  in  force.  Levi 
was  to  have  no  inheritance  with  Israel,  but 
was  to  enjoy  certain  perquisites  (Lev.  vi.  17, 
18  ;  Num.  xviii.  20,  21,  24,  26).  The  speaker 
presses  this  law  with  earnestness.  The  priests 
the  Levites,  the  whole  tribe  of  Levi  have  no  in- 
heritance ;  they  shall  eat  the  ofi"erings  (ver.  1). 
The  dues  of  the  priests,  without  the  epithet 
"  the  Levites,"  are  next  spoken  of.  It  is  an 
urgent  matter.  The  people  must  not  defraud 
the  priests  of  their  income  (3,  4  with  Ex. 
xxix.  27,  28 ;  Lev.  vii.  34;  Num.  xviii.  11,  12, 
where  slight  changes  are  introduced).  Fi- 
nally, the  rights  of  the  Levites  at  the  sanctu- 
ary are  dwelt  upon.  If  a  Levite — not  neces- 
sarily a  Levite  of  lower  rank — come  from 
any  part  of  the  country  to  the  sanctuary, 
he  shall  minister  in  the  name  of  the  Lord 
as  all  his  brethren  the  Levites  do,  which 
stand  before  the  Lord,  and  he  shall  fare  as 
they  do  (6-8).  The  kind  of  service  which 
he  shall  perform  is  not  the  matter  at  issue. 
The  language  covers  both  priestly  service 
and  the  labors  rendered  by  the  lower  order 
of  the  Levites  (5,  xvii.  12 ;  and  1  Sam.  ii.  11, 
18;  iii.  1;  2  Chron.  xxiii.  6:  xxix.  4,  5,  11). 


Devil 


169 


Diamond 


The  point  insisted  upon  is  that  all  Levites 
shall  receive  full  recognition  at  the  sanctuary 
and  be  accorded  their  jjrerogatives.  It  goes 
without  siiyiug  that  if  the  Levite  be  a  priest, 
he  shall  serve  and  fare  like  his  brethren  the 
priests;  if  he  be  not  a  priest,  he  shall  enjoy 
the  privileges  that  belong  to  his  brethren 
who  are  Levites  but  not  priests.  Those  in 
power  shall  not  deprive  him  of  his  preroga- 
tives because  he  is  obscure  and  from  a  distant 
part  of  the  country. 

Dev'il  [Greek  diabolos,  a  slanderer]. 

1.  An  evil  spirit  (Mark  i.  34  ;  Luke  iv.  33 ; 
viii.  29).  A.  V.  and,  in  its  text,  E.  V.  do  not 
observe  the  distinction  made  in  the  Greek 
original  between  a  demon  and  the  devil. 
Demons  take  possession  of  wicked  men  and 
are  subject  to  the  devil  (Mat.  iv.  24  ;  xii.  24) ; 
see  Demoniac. 

2.  The  evil  one,  Satan,  the  greatest  of  all  the 
fallen  spirits  (Eev.  xii.  9  ;  Mat.  iv.  8-11 ;  xiii. 
38.  39 ;  XXV.  41  ;  cp.  Jude  6).  The  general 
opinion  is  that  the  sin  into  which  he  fell  was 
pride  (1  Tim.  iii.  6).  He  is  the  great  enemy 
of  God  and  man  (1  Pet.  v.  8  ;  1  John  iii.  8), 
who  tempted  Christ  and  incites  men  to  sin 
(Mat.  iv.  1 :  John  xiii.  2;  Eph.  iv.  27).  He 
is  "that  old  serpent"  who  tempted  Eve 
(Wisdom  ii.  23,  24  ;  2  Cor.  xi.  3 ;  Eev.  xii.  9  ; 
XX.  2).  Perhaps  with  reference  to  this  trans- 
action he  is  called  a  murderer  from  the  be- 
ginning, and  a  liar,  and  the  father  of  lies 
(John  viii.  44  ;  cp.  1  John  iii.  8).  When  the 
good  seed  of  truth  is  sown  the  devil  either 
steals  it  away  (Luke  viii.  12)  or  sows  tares 
(Mat.  xiii.  38).  He  is  continually  going  about 
like  a  roaring  lion  seeking  whom  he  may  de- 
vour (1  Pet.  V.  8).  He  lays  .snares  or  prac- 
tices wiles  to  injure  the  children  of  God 
(Eph.  vi.  11  ;  2  Tim.  ii.  26),  and  seduces  them 
by  his  subtilty  (2  Cor.  si.  3)  ;  but  the  tempted 
one  is  not  to  yield  to  him,  but  to  resist  him, 
and  he  will  flee  (Eph.  iv.  27;  James  iv.  7). 
He  had  power  to  produce  demoniacal  posses- 
sion (Acts  X.  38),  and  he  instigated  the  im- 
prisonment of  martyrs  (Eev.  ii.  10).  He  is  fi- 
nally to  be  cast  into  a  lake  of  everlasting 
fire  prepared  for  the  devil  and  his  angels 
(Mat.  XXV.  41 ;  cp.  Jude  6).  Preeminently 
sinful,  unrighteous  men,  also  those  imbued 
with  the  spirit  of  lying  and  murder,  are  fig- 
uratively called  children  of  the  devil  (John 
viii.  44  ;  1  John  iii.  8,  10).  Judas  was  even 
called  by  Je-sus  a  devil  (John  vi.  70).  His 
works  Christ  came  to  destroy  (1  John  iii.  8). 
Jude  alludes  to  a  dispute  of  the  devil  with 
Michael  for  the  body  of  Moses  (9  ;  cp.  Eev. 
xii.  7).  W'hence  the  apostle  drew  this  illus- 
tration is  unknown.  He  has  been  thought  to 
quote  an  authoritative  teaching  of  the  Jewish 
church,  or  a  familiar  interpretation  of  Zech. 
iii.,  according  to  which  the  high  priest  repre- 
sents Mosaism,  or  else  to  cite  a  moral  tale  cur- 
rent among  the  Jews. 

Dew. 

Moisture  condensed  from  the  atmosphere 


ujjon  cold  bodies.  Used  in  Scripture  figura- 
tively for  whatever  comes  noiselessly  and 
even  invisibly,  but  proves  a  refreshment  and 
a  blessing,  as  dew  does  to  vegetation  (Deut. 
xxxii.  2 ;  Ps.  ex.  3 ;  Prov.  xix.  12  ;  Mic.  v. 
7). 

Di'a-dem  [a  band  or  fillet,  as  being  bound 
round]. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  words 
f<aniph,Sanoph,a.ud  fjldnuph,  something  bound 
round.  It  was  a  head  dress  for  man  and  woman 
(Job  xxix.  14,  margin  of  E.  V.  turban  ;  Is. 
iii.  23,  in  A.  V.  hoods,  E.  V.  turbans).  A  royal 
diadem  of  this  type  was  worn  by  kings  (Is. 
Ixii.  3),  and  is  once  mentioned  as  worn  by 
the  high  priest  (Zech.  iii.  5),  where  it  is  trans- 
lated miter,  but  on  the  margin  of  E.  Y.  tur- 
ban or  diadem. 

2.  A  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  Mis- 
nepheth,  a  name  applied  specially  to  the  miter 
of  the  Jewish  high  ijriest  (Ezek.  xxi.  26  in 
A.  v.),  and  regularly  translated  so. 

3.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word 
S^phirah,  circlet,  crown  (Is.  xxviii.  5). 

Di'al. 

Aninstrumentconsistingof  a  surface  which 
is  graduated  into  hour  lines,  and  furnished 
with  a  projecting  gnomon  to  cast  a  shadow 
as  the  sun  advances  in  his  daily  course,  and 
thus  point  out  the  hours.  The  dial  of  Ahaz 
(2  Kin.  XX.  11 ;  Is.  xxxviii.  8)  may  have  been 
such  an  instrument,  with  either  flat  or  con- 
cave dial  and  with  graduated  lines  called 
steps  or  degrees,  which  Ahaz  had  introduced 


Ancient  Dial. 

from  Babylonia,  where  the  sun  dial  was  in 
use  before  the  time  of  Herodotus  (Herod,  ii. 
109),  and  at  least  as  early  as  the  eighth  cen- 
tury B.  c.  Less  likely  it  was  a  flight  of  steps 
at  the  palace  of  Ahaz,  so  designed  and  ar- 
ranged that  the  shadow  of  an  obelisk  near 
by  passed  over  the  steps  and  thus  indicated 
the  time  of  day.  The  recession  of  the  shadow 
on  the  dial  of  Ahaz  has  been  variously  ex- 
plained as  caused  by  a  miraculous  reversion 
of  the  earth's  motion,  or  by  a  backward 
movement  of  the  sun,  or  by  refraction  of  the 
sun's  rays,  or  by  a  .solar  eclipse.  Unquestion- 
ably the  recorded  eflfect  could  have  been  pro- 
duced by  either  of  the  two  latter  as  well  as 
by  the  former  causes. 

Di'a-mond. 

A  mineral  of  unequaled  hardness  and  lus- 


Diana 


170 


Dinah 


ter,  transparent  or  translucent,  and  capable 
of  taking  a  splendid  polish.  It  is  simplj' 
carbon,  crystallized  by  the  chemistry  of  na- 
ture, which  that  of  art  has  not  yet  been  able 
to  imitate.  Diamonds  have  long  been  known 
to  exist  in  India  and  the  island  of  Borneo. 
Diamond  is  the  rendering  of — 

1.  The  Hebrew  YahHom,  a  precious  stone 
(Ezek.  xxviii.  13),  one  of  those  in  the  breast- 
plate of  the  high  priest  (Ex.  xxviii.  18,  in 
E.  V.  margin  sardonyx;  xxxix.  11). 

2.  The  Hebrew  Shamir,  a  hard  stone  used 
to  point  graving  instruments  (Jer.  xvii.  1)  ; 
elsewhere  rendered  adamant  (Ezek.  iii.  9; 
Zech.  vii.  12). 

Di-a'na. 

The  Koman  goddess  of  the  moon,  and  of 
field  and  woods,  and  of  all  forms  of  life  and 
activity  which  were  supposed  to  he  influ- 
enced by  the  moon.  She  corresponded  to  the 
Greek  Artemis,  who  was  twin  sister  of 
Apollo,  favorite  child  of  Zeus,  and  huntress 
of  the  sky.  She  was  the  ideal  of  cha.stity 
and  virginity,  and  is  generally  represented 
as  a  tall  and  beautiful  maiden,  with  a  quiver 
on  her  shoulder  and  a  bow  or  a  javelin  in  her 
right  hand,  and  as  engaged  in  hunting  deer. 
The  Asiatic  Artemis,  Diana  of  Ephesus,  was 
a  union  of  the  Greek  Artemis  with  the  lusty 
Semitic  moon-goddess,  Ashtoreth.  Her  image 


Coin  showing  Temple  of  Diana. 

was  supposed  to  have  fallen  from  heaven 
(Acts  xix.  35),  and  it  may  have  been  origi- 
nally a  meteoric  stone.  Ancient  authorities, 
however,  state  that  it  was  of  wood,  though 
they  differ  as  to  the  kind.  Its  form  is  known 
from  ancient  coins  as  the  rude  figure  of  a 
woman  with  crowned  head,  many  breasts,  and 
extended  arms  supported  by  props.  The 
shrine  became  a  temple,  which  largely  de- 
veloped, if  it  did  not  even  at  first  create,  the 
city  of  Ephesus.  The  first  temple  being  burnt 
(350  B.  c),  a  second  and  more  splendid  one 
arose,  which,  according  to  Plinj',  was  425 
feet  long,  220  broad,  and  had  around  it  sup- 
porting its  roof  1.37  columns  60  feet  high. 
Demetrius  the  silversmith  and  his  fellow- 
craftsmen  manufactured  silver  models  of  the 
temple  of  Diana  (Acts  xix.  24).  Diana  of  the 
J]phesians  has  not  now  a  worshiper  anywhere 
in  the  whole  world. 

Dlb'lah,  in  A.  V.  Diblath  [a  rounded  mass, 
cake]. 

A  place  in  Palestine  in  the  vicinity  of  a 


wilderness  (Ezek.  vi.  14  ;  cp.  Num.  xxxiii. 
46 ;  Jer.  xlviii.  22).  Grave  objections  lie 
against  the  proposed  emendation  of  the  text 
to  Riblali. 

Dib'la-im  [twin  balls  or  cakes]. 

The  mother-in-law  of  Hosea,  if  the  trans- 
action was  real  and  not  typical  (Hos.  i.  3). 

Dito'lath.     See  Diblah. 

Di'bon  [a  wasting  away,  a  consumption]. 

1.  A  town  north  of  the  Aruou,  wrested 
from  Moab  by  the  Amorites,  taken  by  the 
Israelites  (Num.  xxi.  30;  xxxii.  3),  rebuilt 
by  the  Gadites  (xxxii.  34),  and  hence  called 
Dibon-gad  (xxxiii.  45,  46),  afterwards  given 
over  to  the  tribe  of  Reuben  (Josh.  xiii.  9,  17). 
It  reverted  to  the  Moabites  (Moabite  Stone 
21,  28  ;  Is.  XV.  2  ;  Jer.  xlviii.  18,  22).  It  still 
exists,  as  a  heap  of  ruins,  retaining  its  old 
name  Dhiban,  3  miles  north  of  the  Arnon, 
slightly  eastward  from  the  Roman  road. 
Tristram  describes  it  as  a  twin  city  covering 
the  tops  and  slopes  of  two  adjacent  knolls, 
and  surrounded  by  a  wall.  There  are  cav- 
erns, cisterns,  vaulted  underground  store- 
houses, rude  semi-circular  arches,  and  Cy- 
clopean buildings  of  basalt  like  those  of 
Bashan.  It  was  among  the  ruins  of  Dibou 
that  Mr.  Klein,  in  1868,  found  the  Moabite 
Stone  (q.  v.). 

2.  A  village  in  the  territory  of  Judah 
(Neh.  xi.  25).  Probably  the  same  as  Di- 
monah  (q.  v.). 

Di'bon-gad.     See  Dibon. 

Dib'ri. 

A  Danite,  ancestor  of  him  who  was  stoned 
to  death  in  the  days  of  Moses  for  blasphem- 
ing the  Name  (Lev.  xxiv.  11-14). 

Did'y-mus  [a  twin]  ;  see  Thomas. 

Dik'lah  [a  palm  tree]. 

A  people  descended  from  Joktan  (Gen.  x. 
27  :  1  Chron.  i.  21),  and  who  doubtless  dwelt 
in  Arabia  and,  as  the"  name  suggests,  in  a 
region  abounding  in  palm  trees. 

Dil'an,  in  A.  Y.  Dilean  [field  of  cucumbers]. 

A  town  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv. 
38).     Exact  site  unknown. 

Dill.     See  Anise. 

Dim'nab.     See  Rimmon. 

Di'mon  [probably  a  variant  of  Dibon]. 

A  place  in  Moab  (Is.  xv.  9) ;  apparently 
Dibon,  by  a  common  permutation  of  the 
labials.  Jerome  states  tliat  in  his  day  both 
names  were  common  for  the  town.  The  form 
witli  m  is  chosen  by  the  prophet  for  its  as- 
sonance with  dam,  blood,  used  in  the  same 
verse.  The  waters  of  Dibon  are  best  re- 
garded as  the  Arnon,  as  the  waters  of  Me- 
giddoare  the  Kishon  (Judg.  v.  19).  * 

Di-mo'nah. 

A  town  in  the  southern  part  of  Judah, 
near  Edom  (Josh.  xv.  22),  probably  the  same 
as  Dibon  (Neh.  xi.  25). 

Di'nab  [judgment  or,  perhaps,  judged]. 

A  daughter  of  Jacob   by  his  wife  Leah 


Dinaites 


171 


Dispersion 


(Gen.  XXX.  '21).  Going  out  apparently  un- 
protected to  see  the  Canaanite  daughters  of 
the  laud,  she  was  either  led  astray  or  out- 
raged by  Shechem,  the  son  of  Hamor  the 
Hivite.  The  young  prince  afterwards  wished 
to  take  her  in  honorable  marriage,  and  her 
brothers  apparently  consented,  on  condition 
that  the  Hi%ites  should  be  circumcised.  These 
acquiesced  in  the  .stipulation,  and  carried  it 
out :  but  an  attack  on  their  town  was  sud- 
denly made  by  Simeon  and  Levi,  two  of 
Dinah's  full  bruthers,  who  slew  all  the  males 
in  the  place,  Hamor  and  .Shechem  among  the 
rest  (xxxiv.  1-29).  Jacob  took  no  part  in  the 
treacherous  and  cruel  deed,  regarded  it  as 
inexpedient  (.30).  and  denounced  it  with  hor- 
ror on  his  deathbed  (xlix.  .5-7).  By  this  act 
of  his  sons,  however,  the  conquered  district 
fell  to  him  as  head  of  the  tribe,  and  he  be- 
queathed it,  not  to  those  who  were  answer- 
able for  the  abhorred  deed,  but  to  Joseph 
(xlviii.  22). 

Di'na-ites. 

One  of  the  foreign  tribes  brought  over  to 
Samaria  to  replace  the  ten  tribes  carried  into 
captivity  (Ezra  iv.  9).  Probably  the  Arme- 
nian people  who  were  known  to  the  Assyr- 
ians as  Dayani. 

Din'ha-bali. 

The  city  of  Bela,  king  of  Edom  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  32  ;  1  Chron.  i.  43).  Several  towns  of 
this  name  are  known,  but  none  in  Edom. 
Jerome  identified  it  with  Dannaia,  a  town  ex- 
isting in  his  day  in  Moab,  a  little  south  of 
the  Arnon. 

Dinner.    See  Meals. 

Di-o-ny'si-us  [belonging  to  Dionusos  or 
Bacchus,  the  god  of  wine]. 

A  member  of  the  Athenian  supreme  court 
of  Areopagus,  who  was  converted  through 
the  preaching  of  Paul  on  Mars  Hill,  where 
the  court  held  its  sittings  (Acts  xvii.  34). 

Di-ot're-phes  [nurtured  by  Zeus]. 

A  member  of  the  church  of  which  Gaius, 
to  whom  John  sent  his  third  epistle,  was  a 
member.  He  loved  to  have  the  preeminence 
in  the  church  to  which  he  belonged,  refused 
to  receive  the  apostle  John  or  the  brethren 
who  went  forth  for  the  sake  of  the  Name, 
and,  on  his  own  responsibility,  excommuni- 
cated those  who  entertained  them  (3  John  9, 
10). 

Dis-ci'ple. 

A  pupil  or  scholar  (Mat.  x.  24)  ;  especially 
the  follower  of  a  public  teacher,  like  John 
the  Riptist  (ix.  14).  A  person  taught  of  God 
(Is.  viii.  16).  It  is  used  of  all  of  whatever 
age  who  in  faith  received  the  divine  Master's 
instructions  (Mat.  x.  42;  Luke  xiv.  26.  27. 
3.3  :  John  iv.  1 ;  vi.  66),  and  especially  of  the 
twelve  apostles  (Mat.  v.  1;  viii.  25;  x.  1; 
xii.  1.  etc.). 

Dis-eas'es. 

Disease  arises  from  the  violation  of  physi- 
cal or  mental  laws.     The  observance  of  these 


laws  is  often  a  moral  act,  and  their  trans- 
gression is  sin  (Prov.  ii.  17-22;  xxiii.  29- 
32) ;  so  that  disease  is  in  certain  cases  the 
punishment  imposed  by  the  Creator  for  sin. 
God,  moreover,  sometimes  smites  a  sinner 
with  disease  where  no  natural  cause  can  be 
traced  (Ex.  ix.  8  seq. ;  Num.  xi.  .33  :  xii.  9-11  ; 
Dent,  xxviii.  21,  22,  35,  60  ;  2  Sam.  xxi.  1  ; 
xxiv.  15  :  2  Kin.  v.  27).  From  the  connection 
between  sin  and  various  diseases,  the  latter 
are  sometimes  attributed  to  Satan,  who  se- 
duced the  race  to  its  fall  into  sin  and  who  is 
still  the  great  tempter  to  sin  (Luke  xiii.  16)  : 
but  the  inference  is  not  legitimate  that  everj- 
sick  person  is  a  sinner  or  that  Satan  is  the 
immediate  cause  of  our  maladies  (Job  iii.- 
xlii.  ;  John  ix.  1-3).  The  chief  forms  of 
human  disease  are  mentioned,  such  as  fever 
(Deut.  xxviii.  22  ;  Mat.  viii.  14  ;  John  iv. 
52 :  Antiq.  xiii.  15,  5),  cutaneous  disease 
(Lev.  xiii.  6-8,  30.  39).  dysentery  (2  Chron. 
xxi.  15.  IS  ;  Acts  xxviii.  8.  E.  V.),  ophthalmia 
(Rev.  iii.  IS ;  Tobit  ii.  10  ;  vi.  S  ;  xi.  13), 
boils  (Ex.  ix.  9 ;  1  Sam.  v.  6),  paralysis  (1 
Mac.  ix.  55;  Mat.  viii.  6  ;  ix.  2  ;  Acts  ix.  33). 

Di'shan  [probably  pygarg] . 

A  Horite  tribe  (Gen.  xxxvi.  21.  28)  under 
a  chief  ^30). 

Di'shon  [pygarg,  antelope]. 

A  Horite  tribe  (Gen.  xxxvi.  21.  26 ;  1 
Chron.  i.  38),  organized  under  a  chief  (^Gen. 
xxxvi.  30),  and  descended  through  Anah 
from  Zibeon  (24,  25).  Many  interpreters, 
however,  discover  two  persons  of  this  name  : 
one  in  vs.  20.  26,  30,  the  other  in  25. 

Dis-per'sion. 

The  body  of  Israelites  scattered  abroad 
in  other  lands  than  their  own.  the  diaspora 
(Jer.  XXV.  34,  A.  V.  and  margin  of  K.  V.  ; 
John  vii.  35;  Jas.  i.  1).  Dispersion  was 
threatened  as  a  penalty  if  the  people  de- 
parted from  the  Mosaic  law  (Lev.  xxvi.  3.3- 
37:  Deut.  iv.  27,  28;  xxviii.  64-68).  The 
captivity  of  the  ten  tribes  and  that  of  the 
two  largely  helped  to  fulfill  these  prophecies ; 
for  the  mass  of  the  ten  tribes  were  never  re- 
stored to  their  own  land,  and  of  the  two  a 
verj-  large  number  chose  to  remain  in  the 
region  to  which  they  had  been  taken  rather 
than  return  to  their  own  country.  A  very 
considerable  immigration  of  Jews  took  place 
into  the  cities  and  towns  of  Alexander  the 
Great's  empire,  and  into  the  kingdoms  of 
Egypt,  Syria,  etc..  into  which  it  was  after- 
wards divided  :  and  later  when  the  Eoman 
empire  established  its  sway  over  these  and 
other  regions,  colonies  of  Jews  sought  a 
settlement  in  all  the  important  places. 
Agrippa.  in  a  letter  to  Caligula  preserved  by 
Philo,  says:  "Jerusalem  is  the  capital  not 
alone  of  Judfea  but.  by  means  of  colonies, 
of  most  other  lands  also.  These  colonies 
have  been  sent  out  at  fitting  opportunities 
into  the  neighboring  countries  of  Egypt. 
Phoenicia.  Syria,  Coele-syria,  and  the  farther 
removed  Pamphylia,  Cilicia,  the  greater  part 


Divination 


172 


Dodavahu 


of  Asia  as  far  as  Bithynia  and  the  most  re- 
mote coruers  of  Poutus.  In  the  same  man- 
ner also  into  Europe :  Thessaly,  Bceotia, 
Macedou,  ^Etolia,  Attica,  Argos,  Corinth,  and 
the  most  and  finest  parts  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesus. And  not  only  is  the  mainland  full  of 
Israelitish  communities,  but  also  the  most 
important  islands :  Eubcea,  Cyprus,  Crete. 
And  I  say  nothing  of  the  countries  beyond 
the  Euphrates,  for  all  of  them,  with  unim- 
portant exceptions,  Babylon  and  the  satrap- 
ies that  include  the  fertile  districts  lying 
around  it  have  Jewish  inhabitants."  Thus 
the  Dispersion,  with  synagogue  and  doctrine, 
was  found  in  all  parts  of  the  known  world 
(Acts  ii.  5-11  ;  1  Pet.  i.  1). 

Div-i-na'tion. 

The  attempt  to  read  the  future  and  utter 
soothsaying  either  by  a  kind  of  inspiration 
or  divine  afflatus  (Acts  xvi.  16),  or  else  by 
means  of  signs.  In  the  latter  sense,  it  in- 
cludes augury  or  foretelling  the  future  by 
means  of  natural  signs,  such  as  the  iiight  of 
birds,  the  disposition  of  the  entrails  (Ezek. 
xxi.  21)  ;  hydromancy  or  foretelling  from  the 


Roman  Divination. 

appearance  of  water  poured  into  a  vessel  or 
of  objects  dropped  into  the  water  (Gen.  xliv. 
5) ;  sorcery,  in  its  original  sense  of  foretelling 
by  casting  lots  (Ezek.  xxi.  21)  ;  and  also  as- 
trology or  the  determination  of  the  supposed 
influence  of  the  stars  on  the  destiny  of  a 
person  (cp.  Is.  xlvii.  13).  The  Hebrews  also 
included  in  divination  necromancy  or  fore- 
telling the  future  by  calling  up  the  spirits  of 
the  dead  and  conversing  with  them  (1  Sam. 
xxviii.  8).  The  diviner  sometimes  pro- 
nounced blessing  or  cursing  (Num.  xxii.  6)  ; 
not,  however,  as  the  magical  spells  of  a  sor- 
cerer, but  as  prophecy  revealed  by  the  divine 
afflatus  or  familiar  spirit  or  the  sign  (12,  13). 

Di-vin'er. 

A  soothsayer ;  a  practicer  of  divination. 
They  were  numerous  among  heathen  nations 
(Deut.  xviii.  9-12 ;  1  Sam.  vi.  2 ;  Is.  xix.  3  ; 
Ezek.  xxi.  21  ;  Dan.  ii.  2  ;  Acts  xvi.  16),  and 
also  at  various  times  among  the  Israelites, 
who  were  informed  of  the  diviner's  impos- 


ture, warned  against  placing  reliance  in  him, 
and  threatened  with  punishment  for  the  sin 
of  consulting  him  (Lev.  xix.  31  ;  xx.  6,  27 ; 
Deut,  xviii.  10;  1  Sam.  xxviii.  8;  Is.  ii.  6; 
iii.  2,  E.  V.  ;  Jer.  xxvii.  9  ;  xxix.  8  ;  Ezek. 
xiii.  23 ;  xxii.  28  ;  Mic.  iii.  6,  7,  11  ;  Zech.  x.  2). 
He  practiced  his  art  for  hire  (Num.  xxii.  7, 
17,  18  ;  Acts  xvi.  16). 

Di-vorce',  Di-vorce'ment. 

Annulment  of  the  bonds  of  matrimony. 
Under  the  law  of  Moses  a  man  could  divorce 
his  wife  if  he  found  some  unseemly  thing 
in  her.  She  might  then  be  married  to  an- 
other man.  If  her  second  husband  also  di- 
vorced her,  the  first  one  was  not  allowed  to 
take  her  again.  The  process  of  divorce,  when 
once  resolved  upon,  was  easy.  All  the  hus- 
band had  to  do  was  to  give  his  partner  a  bill 
of  divorcement,  and  send  her  away  (Deut. 
xxiv.  1-4  ;  cp.  Is.  1.  1  ;  Jer.  iii.  8).  Our  Lord 
explained  that  this  enactment  was  framed 
only  on  account  of  the  Israelites'  hardness 
of  heart.  He  added  that  the  original  and 
just  law,  that  of  nature,  is  that  a  man  cleave 
to  his  wife  and  they  twain  become  one  flesh, 
marriage  being  a  permanent  compact ;  and 
that  a  wife  should  not  be  divorced  except 
for  fornication,  including  what  is  now  tech- 
nically called  adultery.  If  a  man  puts  away 
his  wife  on  other  grounds  and  marries  an- 
other, he  commits  adultery.  If  anyone  mar- 
ries a  divorced  woman,  he  also  has  com- 
mitted the  same  sin  (Mat.  v.  31,  32  ;  xix. 
3-9  ;  Mark  x.  2-12 ;  Luke  xvi.  18  ;  cp.  1  Cor. 
vii.  10-17).  Protestants  almost  universally 
teach  that  willful,  final  desertion  annuls  the 
marriage  bond  (cp.  1  Cor.  vii.  15)  and  a  second 
marriage  may  be  contracted  by  the  deserted 
one. 

Di'-za-hab,  in  A.  V.  Diz'a-hab  [abounding 
in  gold]. 

A  place  cited  to  indicate  the  locality  and 
circumstances  connected  with  the  delivery 
of  the  farewell  addresses  of  Moses  (Deut.  i. 
1).  Dhahab  on  the  western  shore  of  the  gulf 
of  Akaba,  75  miles  south  of  Ezion-geber,  has 
similarity  of  name  in  its  favor,  but  that  is 
all.  It  lies  remote  from  the  route  of  the 
Israelites.  Perhaps  Di-zahab  was  a  district 
in  Edom  identical  with  Me-zahab  (Gen.  xxxvi. 
.39 ;  cp.  Septuagint  of  Num.  xxi.  14,  which 
has  Zahab  instead  of  Yaheb  of  E.  V.). 

Do'dai.     See  Dodo  2. 

Dod'a-nim  [a  plural  word,  Dodanites]. 

A  tribe  related  to  Javan  (Gen.  x.  4). 
Against  identifying  them  with  the  Dardan- 
ians  or  Trojans  is  the  difference  in  the  name ; 
while  the  situation  of  Dodona,  a  place  in 
Epirus,  in  Greece,  the  seat  of  a  celebrated 
oracle,  is  against  locating  them  there.  The 
Septuagint  and  the  Samaritan  version  in 
Gen.  X.  4,  and  the  common  Hebrew  text  it- 
self in  1  Chron.  i.  7,  have  Eodanim  (q.  v.). 

Dod-a-va'hu,  in  A.  V.  Dod'a-vah  [perhaps 
love  of  Jehovah]. 


Dodo 


173 


Dor 


A  man  from  Marcshah,  father  of  that 
Eliezer  who  ])rophesied  the  destruction  of 
Jehoshaphat's  ships  (2  Chron.  xx.  37). 

Do'do  [loving]. 

1.  A  man  of  Issachar,  ancestor  of  the 
judge  Tohi  (Judg.  x.  1). 

2.  An  Ahohite,  and  the  father  of  Eleazar, 
one  of  David's  three  mighty  men  of  the  first 
rank  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  9,  in  E.  V.,  following  the 
present  Hebrew  text,  Dodai ;  1  Chron.  xi. 
12).  David  appointed  Dodai  [or  probably 
his  son]  as  military  commander  over  the  course 
of  the  second  month  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  4). 

3.  A  man  of  Bethlehem,  father  of  Elhauan, 
one  of  David's  mighty  men  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  24 ; 
1  Chron.  xi.  26). 

Doe. 

A  female  deer  or  antelope.  In  Prov.  v.  19, 
E.  v..  it  is  the  female  ibex  or  wild  goat  of 
Sinai  {Cctpra  beden),  in  Hebrew  Ya'Hah;  see 
Wild  Goat. 

Do'eg  [timid]. 

An  Edomite,  the  chief  of  Saul's  herdmen. 
He  was  at  Nob  at  the  tabernacle,  detained 
before  the  Lord  on  account  of  a  vow  or  un- 
eleauness  or  signs  of  leprosy  (Lev.  xiv.  4, 
11,  21),  or  was  perhaps  in  sanctuary  for  some 
crime  (cp.  1  Kin.  i.  50),  when  David,  a  fugi- 
tive from  Saul's  court,  arrived  at  Nob  and 
obtained  food  and  a  sword  from  Ahimelech, 
who  did  not  know  that  he  was  fleeing  from 
the  king  (1  Sam.  xxi.  7  ;  Ps.  lii.  title).  Doeg 
subsequently  told  Saul  what  had  occurred, 
which  so  excited  the  king  that  he  summoned 
Ahimelech  and  fellow  priests  and  demanded 
an  explanation.  Not  considering  it  satisfac- 
tory, he  ordered  the  guard  to  kill  the  priests. 
They  would  not.  The  king  then  bade  Doeg 
do  the  deed.  He  did  so,  slaying  eighty-five 
men.  He  subsequently  fell  upon  the  village, 
massacred  the  women  and  children,  and  de- 
stroyed even  the  cattle  (1  Sam.  xxii.  7-23). 

Dog. 

The  dog  of  Palestine  is  the  same  variety 
as  the  pariah  or  ownerless  dog  of  India. 
During  the  earlier  period  of  Bible  history  it 
is  described  as  prowling  about  the  streets  and 
suburbs  of  cities  (Ps.  lix.  6,  14),  feeding  on 
what  was  thrown  out  to  it  (Ex.  xxii.  31), 
licking  up  blood  when  it  was  shed  (1  Kin. 
xxii.  38;  Ps.  Ixviii.  23),  or  devouring  dead 
bodies  (1  Kin.  xiv.  11 ;  xvi.  4;  2  Kin.  ix.  35, 
36) ;  nay,  even  sometimes  congregating  in 
packs,  to  surround  and  attack  human  beings 
(Ps.  xxii.  16,  20).  It  was  early  trained  suffi- 
ciently to  aid  the  shepherd  in  protecting  the 
flock  agaiust  beasts  of  prey  and  thieves  (Job 
XXX.  1).  It  was  at  length  sometimes  domes- 
ticated, accompanied  its  master  from  place  to 
place  (Tobit  v.  16 ;  xi.  4),  and  was  in  the 
house  with  him  and  picked  up  the  crumbs 
from  under  his  table  (Mark  vii.  28).  More- 
over, they  licked  the  sores  of  beggars  at  the 
rich  man's  gate  (Luke  xvi.  21).  The  dog 
was  also  widely  used  by  the  ancients  for 
hunting.     But  the  great  mass  of  dogs  ran 


wild.  On  account  of  their  food  and  habits, 
they  were  deemed  unclean  ;  and  to  call  one 
a  dog  was  a  gross  insult  (1  Sam.  xvii.  43;  2 
Kin.  viii.  13).  The  term  dog  is  api)licd  in  a 
figurative  sense  to  those  who  are  incapable 
of  appreciating  what  is  high  or  holy  (Mat. 
vii.  6),  who  introduce  false  doctrines  with 
cynical  etfrontery  (Phil.  iii.  2),  who,  like  a 
dog  returning  to  its  vomit,  go  back  to  sins 
which  nominally  they  had  renounced  forever 
(2  Pet.  ii.  22  ;  cp.  Prov.  xxvi.  11),  or  who  are 
so  vile  as  to  submit  to  lust  like  dogs  (Deut. 
xxiii.  18).  The  later  Jews  were  accustomed 
to  call  the  heathen  dogs  because  ceremonially 
uncleau  ;  and  even  Jesus  once  employed  the 
term  in  order  to  express  his  doctrine  of 
grace  the  more  vividly  (Mat.  xv.  26 ;  Mark 
vii.  27). 

Dok,  in  A.  V.  Do'cus  [watchtower]. 

A  little  stronghold  near  Jericho,  built  by 
Ptolemy  (1  Mac.  xvi.  15),  son-in-law  of  Simon 
Maccabseus  (11,  12).  Into  this  castle  he  re- 
ceived Simon  and  two  of  his  sons,  and  then 
treacherously  slew  them  (16).  The  murder 
was  avenged  by  John  Hyrcauus,  a  third  son 
of  Simon.  He  besieged  Dok,  and  after  a 
time  Ptolemy  fled  beyond  Jordan  (Antiq. 
xiii.  7,  4  ;  8,  1).  The  name  seems  to  remain 
in  'Ain  Duk,  a  copious  spring  about  four 
miles  northwest  of  Jericho.  A  road  leads  by 
it  from  the  Jordan  valley  into  the  hill  coun- 
try. Above  the  spring  are  traces  of  ancient 
fortifications. 

Doph'kah. 

A  station  of  the  Israelites  on  the  routo  to 
Sinai  between  the  Eed  Sea  and  Eephidim 
(Num.  xxxiii.  12, 13).  Seetzen  locates  it  at  a 
place  called  Tobbacha,  but  the  identification 
has  not  been  generally  accepted. 

Dor  [habitation]. 

A  town  in  the  west  of  Palestine  (Josh.  xi. 
2).  on  the  seacoast  (1  Mac.  xv.  11),  9  Eoman 
miles  north  of  ("jesarea  (Onomast).  It  was 
in  Asher  ;  but  it  belonged  to  the  tribe  of  Man- 
asseh  (Josh.  xvii.  11;  cp.  xix.  26:  1  Chron. 
vii.  29),  which,  however,  failed  to  expel  the 
Canaanite  inhabitants  (Judg.  i.  27).  It  was 
the  chief  town  of  one  of  Salomon's  tax  dis- 
tricts (1  Kin.  iv.  11).  In  Maccabee  times  it 
was  called  Dora.  In  217  b.  c.  it  was  unsuccess- 
fully besieged  by  Antiochus  III.  (the  Great), 
and  about  138  by  Antiochus  VII.  (1  Mac.  xv. 
11-14).  Subsequently  it  was  taken  by  a  cer- 
tain Zoilus,  on  whose  death  it  fell  into  the 
hands  of  Alexander  Jannseus.  In  64  b.  c. 
Pompey  granted  it  autouomy.  In  56  B.  c.  it 
was  rebuilt  by  Gabinius  (Antiq.  xvi.  5,  3). 
Early  in  the  Christian  era  it  fell  into  decay. 
Remains  of  it  exist  near  Khurbet  Tantiira, 
on  the  coast,  between  7  and  8  miles  north 
of  Csesarea.  The  old  town  stood  on  a  low 
ridge.  The  ruins  consist  of  a  mound  with  a 
tower,  the  foundations  of  which  antedate  cru- 
sading times,  a  liarbor  with  the  entrance  cut 
through  the  rock,  various  buildings,  rock- 
hewn  tombs,  a  tank,  and  a  causeway. 


Dorcas 


174 


Dragon 


Dor'cas  [gazelle,  the  Greek  rendering  of 
the  Aramaic  t'bithn,  gazelle]. 

A  wojiiau  whose  Aramaic  name  wasTabitha, 
resident  at  Joppa.  She  made  garments,  which 
she  gave  to  the  poor.  When  she  died  Peter 
was  sent  for.  After  prayer,  he  bade  her 
arise,  and  her  life  returned.  The  fame 
thereof  spread,  and  many  believed  on  the 
Lord  (Acts  ix.  36-43).  Dorcas  societies  are 
named  from  her. 

Do'than  [possibly  wells]. 

A  town  not  far  from  Shechem  and  Samaria, 
hard  by  a  caravan  route  (Gen.  xxxvii.  14, 17, 
25 ;  2  Kin.  vi.  13),  near  the  plain  of  Esdraelon 
and  a  pass  into  the  hill  country  of  Judah 
(Judith  iii.  10 ;  iv.  6,  7).  Joseph  was  cast 
into  a  pit  in  the  vicinity,  whence  he  was 
taken  out  and  sold  to  the  Midianites  (Gen. 
xxxvii.  17-28).  It  afterwai-ds  belonged  to  the 
kingdom  of  the  ten  tribes.  Elisha  was  once 
besieged  in  it  by  the  Syrians  ;  but  the  soldiers 
of  the  beleaguering  army  were  miraculously 
struck  with  blindness,  led  to  Samaria,  had 
their  vision  restored,  and  were  finally  sent 
home  without  molestation  (2  Kin.  vi.  8-23). 
Its  site  is  the  ruin  Tell  Dothan,  near  a  well 
9i  miles  north,  slightly  east,  of  Samaria. 

Dove. 

A  bird  (Ps.  Iv.  6)  having  fine  eyes  (Song  i. 
15;  V.  12),  a  plaintive  voice  (Is.  xxxviii.  14), 
a  gentle,  afiectionate  disposition  (Song  ii.  14  ; 
V.  2 ;  vi.  9),  but  not  much  sagacity  (Hos.  vii. 
11).  It  is  timid,  and  when  frightened  trem- 
bles (Hos.  vii.  11).  When  wild  it  sometimes 
frequents  valleys  (Ezek.  vii.  16),  making  its 
nest  in  the  side  of  holes  or  fissures  (Jer. 
xlviii.28).  When  domesticated  it  flies  when 
alarmed  to  windows  or  cotes  (Is.  Ix.  8 ;  cp. 
Gen.  viii.  8-12).  Jesus  refers  to  it  as  pro- 
verbially harmless  (Mat.  x.  16).  It  was  bought 
and  sold  within  the  temple  courts  (Mat.  xxi. 
12 ;  Mark  xi.  15 ;  John  ii.  14),  for  it  was  used 
in  sacrifice  (Luke  ii.  24).  The  dove  is  a 
symbol  of  the  Holy  Spirit  (Luke  iii.  22). 

Dove  is  but  another  name  for  pigeon,  though 
in  popular  usage  it  is  usually  restricted  to 
the  smaller  species.  It  is  frequently  trans- 
lated pigeon  in  the  English  versions  (Gen. 
XV.  9;  Lev.  i.  14;  v.  7,  11 ;  xii.  6,  8;  xiv.  22, 
30;  XV.  14,  29;  Num.  vi.  10). 

The  doves  constitute  a  family  of  birds 
(Coliimbidie),  of  which  Tristram  enumerates 
four  species  as  occurring  in  Palestine :  the 
ringdove  or  wood  pigeon  {Cobimba  jmhimbus), 
the  stockdove  {Columba  wnns),  the  rock  dove 
{Columba  livia),  and  the  ash-rumped  rock  dove 
(Columba  schimperi).  The  ringdove  visits 
Palestine  in  immense  flocks  in  spring  and 
autumn  during  its  annual  migrations;  indi- 
viduals also  remain  all  the  winter.  The 
stockdove  is  found  chiefly  east  of  the  Jordan, 
or  in  the  valley  of  that  river.  The  rock  dove 
is  abundant  on  the  coast  and  in  the  highlands 
west  of  the  Jordan.  The  ash-rumped  rock 
dove  is  exceedingly  abundant  in  the  interior 
of  the  country  and  in  the  Jordan  valley, 


taking  refuge  in  caves  and  fissures.  It  is  the 
species  described  in  Jer.  xlviii.  28. 

Dove's  Dung. 

A  substance  which  rose  to  famine  prices 
during  the  siege  of  Samaria  by  Benhadad 
(2  Kin.  vi.  25).  Dung  was  also  eaten  during 
the  siege  of  Jerusalem  (War  v.  13,  7).  Pos- 
sibly, however,  dove's  dung  was  the  name  of 
some  herb,  as  the  Arabs  call  a  species  of  soap 
plant  sparrow's  dung. 

Dow'ry. 

Among  the  Israelites  and  neighboring  na- 
tions a  bridegroom  or  his  father  paid  a  dowry 
to  the  bride's  father  to  induce  him  to  give 
her  in  marriage  (Gen.  xxix.  15-20;  xxxiv. 
12 ;  Ex.  xxii.  17 ;  1  Sam.  xviii.  25).  The 
lowest  legal  amount  seems  to  have  been  fifty 
shekels  (Deut.  xxii.  29;  Ex.  xxii.  15,  16). 
Occasionally  the  father  of  the  bride  bestowed 
a  material  blessing  on  her  (Josh.  xv.  19 ; 
1  Kin.  ix.  16). 

Drag'on  [from  Greek  drakon,  a  serpent,  a 
dragon]. 

In  the  Old  Testament  the  word  dragon  is 
often  used  to  translate  Tannin,  ?i  long  animal. 
The  word  tannin  denotes  a  land  serpent  (Ex. 
vii.  9  ;  cp.  iv.  3,  4  ;  Ps.  xci.  13  ;  and  doubtless 
Deut.  xxxii.  33),  great  sea  animals  (plural, 
Gen.  i.  21,  in  A.  V.  whales,  in  E.  V.  sea  mon- 
sters; Ps.  Ixxiv.  13;  cxlviii.  7),  and  the 
crocodile  of  the  rivers  of  Egypt  (Ezek.  xxix. 
3).  The  last  is  described  as  having  jaws, 
and  scales  to  which  fish  could  stick  (4),  and 
feet  with  which  it  disturbed  the  waters 
(xxxii.  2),  as  lying  in  the  sea  and  in  the 
branches  of  the  Nile  (xxix.  3;  xxxii.  2),  as 
swimming  (6),  and  as  taken  with  great  hooks 
(xxix.  4 ;  Herod,  ii.  70)  and  with  nets 
(xxxii.  3).  It  is  used  as  a  symbol  for  Egypt 
(Is.  Ii.  9;  and  probably  xxvii.  1). 

The  E.  V.  recognizes  that  the  word  Tan, 
rendered  dragon  in  A.  V.  of  Job  xxx.  29 ;  Ps. 
xliv.  19 ;  Is.  xiii.  22 ;  xxxiv.  13 ;  xxxv.  7  ;  xliii. 
20;  Jer.  ix.  11 ;  x.  22  ;  xiv.  6  ;  xlix.  33  ;  Ii.  37  ; 
Mic.  i.  3,  8,  and  sea  monster  in  Lam.  iv.  3, 
should  be  translated  jackal ;  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  that  the  Hebrew  text  of  Ezek. 
xxix.  3  ;  xxxii.  2  should  be  emended  to  read 
dragon,  where  A.  V.  has  once  properly  dragon 
and  once  whale. 

The  dragon  of  New  Testament  imagery  is 
the  old  serpent,  the  devil  (Eev.  xii.  9;  xx.2), 
who  is  symbolically  portrayed  as  in  color  red 
and  having  seven  heads,  ten  horns,  an  enor- 
mous tail,  and  a  huge  mouth,  from  which  he 
was  able  to  cast  forth  water  like  a  river  after 
those  whom  he  would  destroy  (xii.  3,  4,  15; 
xvi.  13).  He  was  hurled  from  the  heavens 
to  the  earth,  where  he  persecuted  the  church, 
but  was  finally  chained  and  imprisoned  in 
the  abyss  (xii.  7-17 ;  xx.  2,  3).  In  certain 
features  the  dragon  bears  resemblance  to  the 
beast  of  chap.  xiii.  This  beast  is  a  combina- 
tion of  Daniel's  four  beasts,  and  represents 
the  combined  powers  of  earth  in  opposition 
to  the  kingdom  of  God  (Dan.  vii.).     The  pic- 


Dragon's  Well 


175 


Dulcimer 


ture  of  the  dragon  was  conformed  to  that  of 
the  beast,  heeaiise  tlie  dragon,  tliat  old  ser- 
pent, is  the  animating  and  moulding  spirit 
in  the  kingdom  of  this  world,  and  when  he 
was  portrayed  in  ehap.  xii.,  features  of  the 
world-power  familiarized  by  Daniel  were 
combined  with  the  distinguishing  feature 
furnished  by  the  serpent  of  (Tcnesis  iii. 

Drag'on's  Well,  in  A.  V.  Dragon  Well. 

A  well  at  Jerusalem,  apparently  between 
the  Valley  Gate  and  Dung  Gate  (Neh.  ii.  13 ; 
.-p.  iii.  13,  14). 

Dream. 

Ideas  jiresent  to  the  mind  during  sleep. 
They  may  be  classified  as — 1.  Vain  dreams 
(Job  XX.  8;  Ps.  Ixxiii.  20;  Is.  xxix.  8).  2. 
Dreams  employed  by  God  for  the  purposes 
of  his  kingdom.  In  producing  them  God 
works  according  to  the  laws  of  mind,  and 
perhaps  always  employs  secondary  causes. 
They  are  (a)  Intended  to  ati'ect  tlie  spiritual 
life  of  individuals.  That  to  the  jNIidiauite  dis- 
couraged the  enemy,  and  encouraged  Gideon, 
who  providentially  heard  it  (Judg.  vii.  13). 
Perhaj)S  such  was  the  dream  of  Pilate's  wife 
(Mat.  xxvii.  19).  Many  such  providential 
dreams  have  been  sent  in  modern  times. 
John  Newton,  concerned  about  his  soul's  sal- 
vation, had  a  dream  which  made  the  way  of 
salvation  clear  to  him.  {b)  Directive  and 
projihetic  dreams,  used  when  i-evelation  was 
incomplete.  They  seem  to  have  carried  with 
them  credentials  of  their  divine  origin.  Di- 
vine communications  were  made  in  dreams 
to  Abimelech  (Gen.  xx.  3),  to  Jacob  (xxviii. 
12;  xxxi.  10),  to  Laban  (xxxi.  24),  to  Joseph 
(xxxvii.  5,  9,  10.  20),  to  Pharaoh's  butler  and 
baker  (xl.  5),  to  Pharaoh  (xli.  7,  15,  25,  26), 
to  Solomon  (1  Kin.  iii.  5),  to  Nebuchadnezzar 
(Dan.  ii.  1,  4,  36;  iv.  1  seq.),  to  Daniel 
(vii.  1  seq.),  to  Joseph  the  betrothed  husband 
of  Mary  (Mat.  i.  20),  to  the  Magi  (ii.  12). 
The  power  of  accurately  interpreting  pro- 
phetic dreams  was  granted  to  certain  favored 
people,  as  to  Joseph  (Gen.  xli.  16)  and  to 
Daniel  (Dan.  ii.  25-28,  47).  Dreams  offered 
as  revelations  to  the  church  were  subjected 
to  tests  to  determine  their  character.  If  they 
inculcated  immoral  conduct,  they  were  by 
that  very  fact  proclaimed  false  ;  and  any  man 
who  sought  by  their  means  to  lead  Israel  from 
the  worship  of  Jehovah  was  to  be  put  to  death 
(Deut.  xiii.  1-5 ;  cp.  Jer.  xxiii.  25-32 ;  xxix. 
8;  Zech.  x.  2).     See  Visions. 

Dress.     See  Clothing. 

Drink. 

The  usual  beverage  of  the  Hebrews  was 
water  (Gen.  xxi.  14;  Ex.  xxiii.  25;  1  Sam. 
XXV.  11;  1  Kin.  xiii.  8;  2  Kin.  vi.  22), 
though  they  also  frequently  used  milk  (Judg. 
V.  25),  sour  wine  (Num.  vi.  3;  Euth  ii.  14), 
ordinary  wine  (Gen.  xiv.  18 ;  xxvii.  25 ; 
Josh.  ix.  4  ;  Judg.  xix.  19 ;  Neh.  v.  15),  and 
more  rarely  strong  drink  (Lev.  x.  9). 

Drink  Of  fer-ing.     See  Offerings. 


Drom'e-da-ry  [fiom  Latin  dromedariua, 
running  camel]. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Rekesh, 
quickly  running  thing,  in  the  A.  V.  of  1  Kin. 
iv.  28 ;  but  in  Mic.  i.  13,  swift  beast,  and  in 
Esth.  viii.  10,  a  mule.  The  R.  V.  every- 
where translates  it  swift  steed. 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Rammak 
(Esth.  viii.  10)  in  the  text  of  the  A.  V.,  and 
on  the  margin  of  the  R.  V.  The  text  of  the 
R.  V.  translates  it  steed.  Gesenius  under- 
stands it  to  mean  a  mare. 

3.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Beker,  a 
sort  of  camel,  swift  and  capable  of  carrying 
merchandise  (Is.  Ix.  6  ;  Jer.  ii.  23).  In  Ara- 
bic the  word  denotes  a  young  camel  of  an 
age  suitable  for  riding  and  bearing  burdens. 
The  R.  V.  accordingly  renders  it  in  the  mar- 
gin young  camels. 

The  dromedary  is  a  variety  of  the  Arabian 
or  one-humped  camel  {Cameius  dromedarius), 
bred  for  speed  and  endurance.  It  can  travel 
about  125  miles  a  day.  The  two-humped 
Bactrian  camel  (C.  bactriamis)  can  also  be  im- 
proved into  a  dromedary. 

Drop'sy. 

A  disease  marked  by  an  unnatural  accumu- 
lation of  watery  liquid  in  any  cavity  of  the 
body  or  in  the  tissues  (Luke  xiv.  2). 

Dru-sil'la. 

The  youngest  daughter  of  Herod  Agrippa 
I.,  by  his  wife  Cypros.  Before  the  death  of 
her  father  in  A.  d.  44,  and  when  not  yet  six 
years  old,  she  was  promised  in  marriage  to  a 
certain  Epiphanes,  son  of  Antiochus  (not,  of 
course,  the  persecuting  king  of  that  name). 
The  bridegroom  promised  to  accept  Judaism ; 
but,  on  further  reflection,  he  refused  to  adopt 
a  religion  in  which  he  did  not  believe,  and 
the  proposed  alliance  fell  through.  Azizus, 
king  of  Emesa,  was  next  applied  to,  the  con- 
dition offered  being  the  same  as  in  the 
former  case.  He  had  no  scruple  about  sacri- 
ficing his  faith  to  his  self-interest,  and  Dru- 
silla  became  his  wife.  She  was  possessed  of 
great  beauty,  and  was  in  consequence  some- 
what persecuted  by  her  eldest  sister  Bernice, 
who  was  plain  in  appearance.  Felix,  pro- 
curator of  Judsea,  conceived  a  sinful  passion 
for  Drusilla,  to  which  she  responded  all  the 
more  readily  that  Bernice's  petty  tyranny 
over  her  made  her  unhappy.  In  defiance  of 
Jewish  law,  she  left  her  legitimate  husband, 
and  married  Felix,  a  foreigner  and  an  idola- 
ter. They  had  a  son  called  Agrippa,  who 
grew  up  to  manhood  and  married,  but  who 
perished,  however,  in  an  eruption  of  mount 
Vesuvius  (Antiq.  xviii.  5,  4  ;  xx.  7,  1  and  2). 
One  can  well  understand  that  when  Paul, 
then  a  prisoner,  reasoned  before  Felix  and 
Drusilla  of  righteousness,  temperance,  and 
judgment  to  come,  Felix  trembled  (Acts 
xxiv.  24.  25). 

Dul'ci-mer. 

The  rendering  of  Aramaic  Snmphoneyah, 
Sumphoneya' ,  or  to  follow  the  best  attested 


Dumah 


176 


Earring 


traditional  pronunciation,  Bumpon'yah  or  Sum- 
pou'ya'  (Dan.  iii.  5,  10,  15),  probably  meaning 
bagpipe,  as  the  margin  of  the  R.  V.  makes  it. 
The  real  dulcimer  is  quite  a  different  instru- 
ment. In  its  earliest  and  simplest  form  it  con- 
sisted of  a  flat  piece  of  wood,  on  which  were 
fostened  two  converging  strips  of  the  same 
material,  which  were  crossed  by  strings  played 
by  small  hammers.  Afterwards  pegs  for  reg- 
ulating the  tension  of  the  strings  were  super- 
added, and  the  flat  piece  of  wood  gave  place 
to  a  resonance  box. 
Du'mah  [silence]. 

1.  A  tribe  descended  from  Ishmael  (Gen. 
XXV.  14;  1  Chron.  i.  30).  Its  territory  was 
probably  the  region  called  Doumaitha  by 
Ptolemy,  and  Domata  by  Pliny,  on  the  con- 
fines of  the  Syrian  and  Arabian  deserts.  The 
town  is  now  called  Dooraat  el-jendel,  meaning 
Dumah  of  the  stones,  and  is  situated  in  the 
district  el-Jauf,  in  the  northwestern  part  of 
the  Arabian  peninsula. 

2.  A  symbolic  designation  of  Edom,  chosen 
on  account  of  its  assonance  with  Edom  and  in 
allusion  to  the  desolation  in  store  (Is.  xxi.  11). 

3.  A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  52).  Its  site  is  the  ruin  Domeh,  10 
miles  southwest  of  Hebron. 

Dung. 

Dung  was  used  for  manuring  plants  (Luke 
xiii.  8  ;  Ps.  Ixxxiii.  10).  A  dunghill,  with 
straw  trodden  in  it  by  the  cattle,  is  referred 
to  (Is.  XXV.  10).  In  the  East  dried  cowduug 
is  constantly  used  for  fuel  (Ezek.  iv.  12,  15). 
Beggars  often  lay  on  dunghills  and  ash  heaps 
(1  Sam.  ii.  8  ;  Lam.  iv.  5).  As  a  punishment, 
the  house  of  a  man  was  sometimes  made  a 
dunghill  (Dan.  ii.  5),  that  is,  probably,  was 
converted  into  a  privy  (2  Kin.  x.  27).  Dung, 
as  refuse,  was  swept  away  (1  Kin.  xiv.  10  ; 
Phil.  iii.  8). 

Dung  Gate.  See  Jerusalem  II.  3. 

Du'ra. 

A  i)lain  in  the  province  of  Babylon  where 
Nebuchadnezzar's  golden  image  was  set  up 
(Dan.  iii.  1).  Several  localities  in  Babylon 
were  called  Duru,  which  means  a  wall  or 
fortification. 

Dys'en-ter-y. 

A  disease  characterized  by  inflammation 
and  ulceration  of  the  lower  part  of  the  in- 
testines, with  hemorrhage  from  the  bowels. 
It  is  so  constantly  attended  by  fever  that  it 
is  often  called  fever  and  dysentery.  Publius, 
chief  man  of  the  island  of  Melita  while  Paul 
was  there,  sufiered  from  this  complaint,  but 
was  miraculously  cured  by  the  apostle  (Acts 
xxviii.  7,  8,  E.  V.;  in  A.  V.  bloody  flux). 


E. 


Ea'gle. 

A  bird  of  prey  (Job  ix.  26  ;  xxxix.  30 ;  Hab. 
i.  8),  large  (Ezek.  xvii.  3,  7),  swift  of  flight 
(2  Sam.  i.  23),  seeing  at  a  great  distance,  and 
which  builds  its  nest  on  lofty  rocks   (Job 


xxxix.  27-29;  Jer.  xlix.  16).  It  was  cur- 
rently believed  to  bestow  great  care  upon  its 
young  while  training  them  to  act  for  them- 
selves, stirring  up  the  nest  and  forcing  them 
out,  hovering  over  them  and  under  them 
when  they  made  their  first  weak  attempts  to 
fly  (Deut.  xxxii.  11  ;  Ex.  xix.  4,  5).  Sir 
Humphrey  Davy  relates  witnessing  a  pair 
of  golden  eagles  similarly  engaged  above  the 
crags  of  Ben  Nevis.  There  is  also  probably 
an  allusion  to  an  ancient  popular  belief  that 
the  eagle,  at  the  end  of  a  certain  period, 
moults  aiul  renews  its  youth  (Ps.  ciii.  5).  The 
story  was  that  the  eagle,  on  i-eaching  old  age, 
flew  upward  toward  the  sun  until  its  feathers 
were  singed  and  it  fell  into  the  sea.  Thence 
it  emerged  in  the  strength  of  youth.  The 
allusion  may,  however,  be  to  the  great  age  to 
which  the  eagle  lives  and  retains  the  vigor 
of  youth.  As  a  carnivorous  bird,  feeding  on 
reptiles  and  occasionally  on  carrion,  it  was 
unclean  (Lev.  xi.  13).  The  Hebrews,  like 
the  Arabs,  applied  the  name  which  they  used 
for  eagle  to  birds  that  eat  carrion,  probably, 
like  the  Greek  and  Eoman  naturalists  Aris- 
totle and  Pliny,  including  certain  larger  va- 
rieties of  the  vulture  among  the  eagles  (Mat. 
xxiv.  28  ;  cp.  Prov.  xxx.  17).  In  alluding  to 
the  baldness  of  the  eagle  (Mic.  i.  16),  the 
prophet,  if  he  does  not  refer  to  moulting, 
which  is  an  inconspicuous  process  in  the 
eagle,  has  some  vulture  in  mind,  whose  head 
is  bald  and  neck  but  scantily  feathered. 

Tristram  enumerates  eight  species  of  the 
eagle  subfamily  as  occurring  in  Palestine. 
Seven  are  of  the  typical  genus  Aquila,  viz.  : 
Aquila  chrysaetus,  the  golden  eagle  ;  A.heliaca, 
the  imperial  eagle ;  A.  clanga,  the  greater 
spotted  eagle ;  A.  rapax,  the  tawny  eagle ; 
A.  pennata,  the  booted  eagle ;  A.  nipalensis, 
the  steppe  eagle ;  A.  BonelH,  Bonelli's  eagle, 
and  Chxaetus  gaUicus,  the  short-toed  eagle. 
With  the  exception  of  the  booted  eagle,  the 
others  are  not  uncommon.  By  far  the  most 
abundant  of  all  is  the  short-toed  eagle.  It 
feeds  on  reptiles.  It  is  numerous  in  summer 
and  autumn.  In  winter  it  occurs  more  spar- 
ingly, many  apparently  migrating  southward. 

Ear'nest. 

Part  xiayment  in  advance  of  a  wage,  a  sum 
of  money,  or  anything  else  promised,  this 
being  intended  as  a  pledge  or  guarantee  to 
the  recipient  that  the  bargain,  contract,  or 
promise  will  in  due  time  be  carried  out. 
Blackstone  says  that  the  prepayment  of  a 
penny  in  England  will  legally  bind  a  con- 
tract, and  the  handing  over  the  smallest 
quantity  of  goods  ordered  will  bind  the  en- 
gagement for  the  remainder.  The  earnest, 
as  a  rule,  is  the  same  in  kind  as  the  ultimate 
payment,  of  which  it  is  the  pledge.  The  Spirit 
in  the  hearts  of  Christians  is  the  earnest  of 
their  inheritance  (2  Cor.  i.  22:  v.  5;  Eph.,i. 
13,  14). 

Ear'ring. 

Earrings  were  worn  by  the  Israelites,  men, 


Earth 


Ebal 


■women,  and  children  (Ex.  xxxii.  2),  cspe- 
i-ially  by  the  women  (Ezek.  xvi.  12 ;  Judith 
X.  4).  They  were  also  worn  by  the  Midian- 
ites  (Num.  xxxi.  50),  Assyrians,  Egyptians, 
and  other  peoples.  The  custom  was  innocent 
in  itself.  But  the  earring  sometimes  served 
as  an  amulet  (cp.  Is.  iii.  20  ;  in  R.  V.  amulet). 
As  used  in  idolatrous  worship,  they  were 
worn  by  the  men  and  women  of  Jacob's 
household,  until  he  ordered  the  strange  gods 
to  be  put  away  (Gen.  xxxv.  4).  They  were 
made  of  gold  (Ex.  xxxii.  2;  cp.  Prov.  xxv. 
12)  or  other  precious  metal.  It  is  often  not 
clear  from  the  narrative  whether  earrings 
or  nose-rings  are  intended  (Gen.  xxiv.  22,  30; 
Ex.  xxxv.  22). 

Earth. 

1.  The  world  in  which  we  dwell  as  distin- 
guished from  the  heavens  overhead  (Gen.  i.  1). 

2.  The  dry  land,  as  distinguished  from  the 
sea  (Gen.  i.  10) ;  the  habitable  world  (Gen.  i. 
28;  X.  25;  xviii.  IS).  It  is  frequently  de- 
scribed in  poetry.  Haunah  spoke  of  the 
earth  standing  on  pillars,  on  which  it  had 
been  placed  by  God  (1  Sam.  ii.  8  ;  Job.  ix.  6 ; 
Ps.  Ixxv.  3).  The  psalmist  speaks  of  the  in- 
habited earth  as  founded  upon  the  seas  and 
established  ou  the  floods  (xxiv.  2 ;  cxxxvi.  6 ; 
cp.  Ex.  XX.  4).  Others  speak  literally  or  fig- 
uratively of  the  foundations  of  the  earth  (Ps. 
cii.  25;  civ.  5-9;  Prov.  iii.  19;  viii.  29;  Is. 
xlviii.  13). 

3.  Vegetable  soil  (Gen.  xxvii.  28 ;  Ex.  xx. 
24  :  Ps.  civ.  14). 

4.  The  inhabitants  of  the  world  or  of  any 
region  in  it  (Gen.  xi.  1 ;  Ps.  xcviii.  9). 

Earth'quake. 

The  quaking  of  the  earth  ;  a  vibratory  or 
undulatory  movement  extendiugsuperficially 
over  a  wide  area,  and  downward,  it  is  be- 
lieved, from  a  mile  or  two  to  more  than  thirty 
miles.  The  vibrations  are,  perhaps,  produced 
bycoutractionsof  portions  of  the  earth's  crust. 
Earthquakes  and  volcanoes  are  connected,  and 
are  confined  to  particular  regions  constituting 
continuous  lines.  One  of  these  lines  passes 
from  the  Taurus  mountains  to  the  gulf  of 
Akaba.  along  the  valleys  of  the  Orontes  and 
the  Jordan.  In  severe  earthquakes,  at  the 
point  where  the  force  is  greatest,  the  hills 
move  to  and  fro  (Jer.  iv.  24)  and  the  founda- 
tions of  the  mountains,  as  it  were,  tremble 
(Ps.  xviii.  7)  ;  clefts  appear  in  the  earth's 
crust  (Zech.  xiv.  4,  5)  and  chasms,  into  which 
men  may  fall,  open  and  close  (Num.  xvi.  31- 
33) ;  buildings  are  shaken  down  and  their 
inhabitants  often  buried  in  the  ruins;  and 
if  the  sea  is  near,  it  may  leave  its  bed  for  a 
few  minutes  nearly  dry,  and  then  bring  in  a 
wave  upon  the  land  which  will  sweep  over  it 
with  destructive  etfect.  Judfea  was  visited 
by  a  severe  earthquake  in  the  days  of  Uzziah 
and  Jeroboam  II.  (Amos  i.  1  ;  Zech.  xiv.  5; 
Antiq.  ix.  10,  4).  Another  notable  earth- 
quake occurred  in  the  seventh  year  of  Herod 
tUe  Great,  which  destroved  much  cattle  and 
12 


upwards  of  10,000  lives  (Antiq.  xv.  5,  2).  An 
earthquake,  accompanied  with  darkness,  sig- 
nalized the  death  of  Christ  (Mat.  xxvii.  45, 
51-54),  and  another  heralded  his  resurrection 
(xxviii.  2).  One  occurred  in  Macedonia  when 
Paul  and  Silas  were  in  the  jail  at  Philippi 
(Acts  xvi.  26). 

East. 

The  direction  toward  the  sunrise  (as  is  de- 
noted by  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  words  em- 
jiloyed  in  Josh.  xi.  3;  xii.  3,  etc.  ;  ^Mat.  ii.  1). 
The  Hebrews  facoil  the  point  of  the  ri.sing 
sun  when  they  determined  direction  ;  hence 
the  east  was  the  front  (as  is  denoted  by  the 
Hebrew  word  in  Gen.  ii.  8). 

East,  Children  of  the,  or  Men  of,  or  Peo- 
ple of. 

A  general  designation  of  the  tribes  occupy- 
ing the  east  country,  who  inhabited  the  re- 
gion bordering  on  Amnion  and  Moab  (Ezek. 
xxv.  4,  10),  dwelt  as  far  north  as  a  di.strict 
where  people  of  Haran  pastured  their  flocks 
(Gen.  xxix.  1,  4).  and  extended  far  southward 
into  Arabia. 

East  Country. 

The  region  lying  east  of  Palestine  (Zech. 
viii.  7),  especially  the  Arabian  and  Syrian 
deserts  (Gen.  xxv.  1-7* . 

East  Sea  or  Eastern  Sea.     See  Dead  Sea. 

East  Wind. 

A  wind  Ijlowing,  broadly  speaking,  from 
the  east.  In  Egypt  it  blasts  the  ears  of  corn 
(Gen.  xli.  23,  27),  and  in  Palestine  the  vines 
and  vegetation  generally  (Ezek.  xvii.  7-10; 
xix.  10-12).  The  east  wind  in  these  lands  is 
hot  and  sultry,  and  deleterious  to  vegetation, 
because  it  has  been  blowing  over  the  Arabian 
or  Syro- Arabian  desert  (Hos.  xiii.  15).  Doubt- 
less this  same  wind  is  meant  in  Jon.  iv.  8, 
although  the  Ninevites  themselves  would  not 
have  called  it  an  east  wind. 

East'er. 

Originally  the  spring  festival  in  honor  of 
Eastra  or  Ostara,  the  Teutonic  goddess  of 
light  and  spring.  As  early  as  the  eighth  cen- 
tury the  name  was  transferred  by  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  to  the  Christian  festival  designed  to 
celebrate  the  resurrection  of  Christ.  In  the 
A.  V.  it  occurs  once,  viz.,  in  Acts  xii.  4,  but 
is  a  mistranslation.  The  original  is  pascha, 
the  ordinary-  Greek  word  for  pas,sover.  The 
E.  Y.  properly  employs  the  word  passover. 

E'bal. 

1.  A  son  of  Shobal,  and  a  descendant  of 
Seir  the  Horite  (Gen.  xxxvi.  23;  1  Chron. 
i.  40). 

2.  The  same  as  Obal  (1  Chron.  i.  22  with 
Gen.  X.  28). 

3.  A  mountain  separated  only  by  a  narrow 
valley  from  mount  Gerizim  (Dent,  xxvii.  12- 
14),  west  of  the  western  highway  and  near  the 
oaks  of  Moreh  (xi.  30,  R.  V.),  which  were  near 
Shechem  (Gen.  xii.  6,  R.  V. ;  xxxv.  4).  When 
the  Israelites  passed  the  Jordan  they  were  to 
set  up  great  stones  plastered,  on  which  the 


Ebed 


178 


Ecclesiastes 


words  of  the  law  were  to  be  written.  An  altar 
also  was  to  be  built  (Deut.  xxvii.  1-8).  Rep- 
resentatives of  six  tribes,  those  of  Reuben, 
Gad,  Asher,  Zebuliin,  Dan,  and  Naphtali, 
were  to  stand  on  mount  Ebal,  and  pronounce 
curses  on  those  who  were  guilty  of  certain 
heinous  sins.  The  representatives  of  the  re- 
maining six  tribes  standing  on  mount  Geri- 
zim  were  to  pronounce  blessings  (Deut.  xi. 
29;  xxvii.  9-26).  These  directions  were  car- 
ried out  by  Joshua  (Josh.  viii.  30-35).  Mount 
Ebal  lies  on  the  northern  side  of  Nablus, 
the  ancient  Shechem,  whilst  mount  Gerizim 
lies  on  its  southern  side  (Antiq.  iv.  8,  44). 
Both  are  west  of  the  road  from  the  south  to 
the  north,  and  the  branch  road  to  Samaria 
and  En-gannim  passes  between  them.  Ebal 
rises  3077  feet  above  the  sea,  and  is  steep, 
rocky,  and  barren.  In  some  places  a  few 
stunted  olive  trees  may  be  discovered  on  its 
lower  part,  and  prickly  pear  above  ;  in  others 
it  is  destitute  of  vegetation.  It  is  now  called 
Jebel  Eslamiyeh. 
E'bed  [servant]. 

1.  Father  of  Gaal  (Judg.  ix.  28,  30). 

2.  A  chief  of  the  father's  house  of  Adin, 
who  returned  fi-om  Babylon  with  fifty  males 
under  the  leadership  of  Ezra  (Ezra  viii.  6). 

E'bed-me'lech  [slave  of  the  king]. 

An  Ethiopian,  a  eunuch  of  the  palace,  who 
heard  that  Jeremiah  had  been  cast  into  a 
dungeon  where  he  would  probably  have  soon 
died  of  hunger,  and,  having  obtained  the 
king's  permission,  drew  him  out  by  cords  let 
down,  and  rags  to  protect  the  prophet's  arm- 
pits against  their  sharpness  (Jer.  xxxviii.  7- 
13).  Jeremiah  was  subsequently  commissioned 
to  inform  him  that,  on  account  of  the  service 
he  had  rendei'ed,  he  should  be  preserved 
when  Jerusalem  was  taken  (xxxix.  15-18). 

Eb-en-e'zer  [stone  of  help]. 

A  connnemorative  stone  set  up  by  Samuel, 
evidently  in  Benjamin,  between  Mizpah  and 
Shen,  where  the  Lord  disionitited  the  Philis- 
tines (1  Sam.  vii.  10,  12).  Twenty  years  pre- 
viously the  Israelites  themselves  had  been 
defeated  at  this  place  by  the  Philistines  and 
had  lost  the  ark  (iv.  1 ;  where  the  place  is 
mentioned  by  its  later  name). 

E'ber,  in  A.  V.  thrice  Heber  (1  Chron.  v. 
13;  viii.  22;  Luke  iii.  35)  [other  side,  region 
beyond]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Shem  through  Arpach- 
shad  (Gen.  x.  22,  24).  He  became  the  pro- 
genitor of  a  group  of  peoples  (x.  21),  em- 
bracing the  Hebrews  (xi.  16-26),  the  Jok- 
tanide  Arabs  (x.  25-30),  and  certain  Aramaean 
tribes  descended  from  Nahor  (xi.  29;  xxii. 
20-24).  He  is  put  for  these  peoples  collec- 
tively (Num.  xxiv.  24).  He  belonged  to  the 
region  beyond  or  east  of  the  Euphrates,  per- 
haps also  of  the  Tigris,  with  respect  to  the 
lat«r  Hebrews  (cp.  Josh.  xxiv.  2.  3,  14,  15), 
and  to  the  Joktanide  Arabs,  and  not  unlikely 
with  respect  to  his  descendants,  the  ancestors 
of  Abraham  and  Nahor,  in  Ur  (Gen.  xi.  28). 


2.  A  priest,  head  of  the  father's  house  of 
Amok  in  the  days  of  the  high  priest  Joiakim 
(Neh.  xii.  20). 

3.  A  Gadite.  head  of  a  father's  house  in 
Gilead  in  Bashan  (1  Chron.  v.  13). 

4.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Elpaal  (1  Chron. 
viii.  12). 

5.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Shashak  (1  Chron. 
viii.  22,  25). 

E-bi'a-saph.     See  Abiasaph. 

Eb'on-y. 

Wood  of  various  species  of  the  genus  Dios- 
pyro.s,  which  constitutes  the  type  of  the 
Ehenaceie  (Ebenads).  The  inner  wood  is 
black,  very  hard,  and  heavy.  Ebony  is  used 
for  inlaying  and  ornamental  turnery.  The 
men  of  Dedan  traded  with  it  in  the  markets 
of  Tyre,  having  obtained  it  apparently  from 
India  or  Ceylon  (Ezek.  xxvii.  15).  The  Greeks, 
recognized  two  kinds  of  ebony,  one  varie- 
gated, from  India,  and  the  other  black,  from 
Ethiopia. 

E'bron,  in  A.  V.  Hebron. 

A  town  on  the  boundary  line  of  Asher 
(Josh.  xix.  28).  Perhaps  identical  with  Ab- 
don. 

E-bro'nab.     See  Abronah. 

Ec-bat'a-na.     See  Achmetha. 

Ec-cle-si-as'tes  [Greek  el'Mesmstes,  one 
who  sits  and  .speaks  in  an  assembly  or  church, 
a  preacher]. 

The  name  borrowed  from  the  Septuagint 
and  applied  to  the  O.  T.  book  called  in  He- 
brew Koheleih.  The  meaning  of  Kohelefh  is 
disputed.  It  is  etymologically  related  to  the 
word  which  means  congregation.  The  Eng- 
lish versions  follow  the  Greek  and  Latin  ver- 
sions in  rendering  it  "the  preacher"  (i.  1). 
The  preacher  is  distinctly  represented  as  Sol- 
omon, "son  of  David,  king  at  Jerusalem" 
(i.  1),  excelling  all  his  predecessors  in  Jeru- 
salem in  wisdom  and  wealth  (i.  16 ;  ii.  7.  9). 
The  book  may  be  regarded  either  as  a  writing 
of  Solomcm  himself  in  his  old  age  or  as  words 
which,  though  not  actually  uttered  by  Sol- 
omon, accurately  sum  up  his  completed  expe- 
rience, are  spoken  from  the  standpoint  of  his 
finished  course,  teach  the  great  lesson  of  his 
life  as  he  himself  learned  it,  and  express  the 
sentiments  which  he  might  rightly  be  sup- 
posed to  entertain  as  he  looked  at  life  in  the 
retrospect.  The  meaning  of  i.  12,  13  is, 
according  to  Hebrew  grammar,  either:  "As 
for  me,  during  my  reign  [which  still  contin- 
ues] I  have  applied  my  heart  to  seek  wisdom 
and  have  discovered  that  all  is  vanity."  or 
"  When  I  was  king  [as  I  am  not  now]  I  ap- 
plied my  heart  to  seek  wisdom  and  discovered 
that  all  is  vanity."  The  latter  ex]ilanation 
is  doubtless  the  correct  one ;  for  the  language 
smacks  everywhere  of  the  vocabulary  and 
grammar  of  the  later  postexilic  Hebrew 
scriptures  and  of  the  Aramaic  portions  of 
Daniel  and  Ezra.  The  book  recounts  the 
feelings,  experiences,  and  observations  which. 


Ed 


179 


Eden 


would  be  unavoidable  to  the  wise  man  situated 
as  was  Solomon.  Its  theme  is  the  vanity  of 
all  earthly  things  (i.  '2).  The  iireaeher  j)roves 
this  by  reason  and  the  experienee  of  iiimself 
and  others.  He  shows  the  vanity  of  toil,  for 
no  tinal  sjitisfaction  is  attainable,  history  is 
but  the  unceasing,  monotonous  coming  and 
going  of  the  s;ime  events  (3-11);  the  vanity 
of  earthly  wisdom  (12-lb)  and  pleasure  (ii. 
1-11).  Still  wisdom  and  pleasure  have  a  cer- 
tain value :  hence  the  preacher  compares 
wisdom  and  folly  (ii.  12-23).  and  concludes 
that  contentment  is  true  wisdom  and  pleas- 
ure, and  is  found  in  enjoying  the  things  one 
has.  which  God  gives  to  those  who  plea.se 
him  (ii.  24-26).  The  preacher  continues  to 
advance  proof  of  his  main  contention  by 
showing  the  vanity  of  human  efforts,  because 
the  laws  of  God  are  fixed  (iii.  1-15) :  the  van- 
ity of  human  justice  (16-iv.  3),  of  labor  and 
efforts  to  obtain  the  perishable  (4-12),  the 
vanity  of  even  royal  power  (13-16).  The 
search  is  further  pui-sued  in  the  realm  of 
religion,  and  the  preacher  shows  the  vanity 
of  formalism  (v.  1-7)  and  of  wealth  (S-vi.  9). 
Then  taking  up  practical  wisdom  as  a  subor- 
dinate theme  (vii.-xi.  6),  he  teaches  the  value 
of  a  good  name  and  the  means  of  obtaining 
it  (vii.  1-10 1,  and  the  value  of  wi.sdom  as  a 
safeguard  (11-22)  and  in  dealing  with  kings 
(viii.  1-9) ;  and  he  insists  on  the  ultimate 
welfare  of  those  that  fear  God  (1(V1,5).  Still 
he  is  careful  to  again  remind  his  readers  of 
the  vanity  of  wisdom  (l(>-x.  1)  ;  but  wisdom 
is  better  than  folly  (x.  2-20),  and  there  is 
wisdom  in  beneficence  (xi.  1-6).  He  returns 
to  his  main  theme  (xi.  7-10),  makes  his  great 
appeal  to  youth  to  remember  God.  and  states 
his  conclusion  that  the  whole  duty  of  man  is 
to  fear  God  and  keep  his  commandments 
(xii.).  Ecclesiastes  ostensibly  depicts  the  ab- 
errations of  a  great  mind,  which  could  find 
no  rest  till  it  returned  to  God.  These  aber- 
rations are  not  proposed  for  imitation  ;  they 
are  designed  as  beacons  to  warn  men  against 
traversing  the  same  dangerous  paths.  Amid 
all  these  wanderings  the  belated  pilgrim  was 
under  divine  guidance,  which  ever  and  anon 
brought  him  back  to  the  right  way.  and  en- 
abled him  to  give  forth  spiritual  truth  in 
beautiful  and  powerful  language.  Finally, 
his  aberrations  over,  he  thus  satisfactorily 
ended  his  book  :  ''  Let  us  hear  the  conclusion 
of  the  whole  matter:  Fear  God.  and  keep 
his  commandments :  for  this  is  the  whole 
duty  of  man.  For  God  shall  bring  every 
work  into  judgment,  with  every  secret  thing, 
whether  it  be  good,  or  whether  it  be  evil." 

Tlie  startling  character  of  some  statements 
in  Ecclesia.stes  led  certain  Jews  to  question 
its  right  to  its  place  among  inspired  books. 
At  last,  however,  its  right  to  remain  in  the 
canon  was  universally  accorded.  There  Is  no 
direct  quotation  from  it  or  unequivocal  allu- 
sion to  it  in  the  N.  T. 

Ed  [a  witness]. 

A  word  inserted  in  the  A.  V.  and  the  E.  V. 


of  Josh.  xxii.  34.  It  or  a  similar  word  was 
doubtless  originally  in  the  Hebrew.  It  is 
found  in  some  manuscripts  and  versions, 
though  it  may  be  an  insertion  in  them  as  it 
is  in  the  English  version.  It  is  needful  to  the 
full  meaning  of  the  pas.sage,  which  tells  how 
the  two  and  a  half  tribes  east  of  the  Jordan 
reared  an  altar  as  a  witness  that  they  were 
of  common  de.scent  and  religion  with  those 
west  of  the  river.  These  latter,  taking  the 
altar  to  be  the  commencement  of  apostasy 
from  Jehovah,  were  preparing  to  make  war 
upon  those  who  had  erected  it,  when  expla- 
nations were  given  and  accepted  as  satisfac- 
tory (Josh.  xxii.  1-34). 

E'dax.     See  Eder. 

E'den  [pleasantness  or.  perhaps.  ])lain]. 

1.  A  country  in  which  God  caused  trees  to 
grow  from  the  ground  and  in  this  manner 
planted  for  Adam  a  garden,  called  from  its 
situation  the  garden  of  Eden.  A  river  went 
out  of  the  country  of  P]den  to  water  the  gar- 
den, and  being  thence  parted,  became  four 
heads,  called  Pishou,  Gihon,  Hiddekel.  and 
Euphrates.  Of  these  four  rivers,  the  Eu- 
phrates is  well  known.  Hiddekel  is  unques- 
tionably the  Tigris:  the  other  two  are  doubt- 
ful. The  Pishon  surrounded  or  meandered 
through  the  laud  of  Havilah.  where  there  is 
gold  ;  and  the  Gihon  surrounded  the  land  of 
Cush. 

The  main  theories  as  to  the  site  of  the 
garden  may  be  classed  in  two  groups :  I. 
Those  which,  while  proposing  to  identify  the 
four  streams  with  still  existing  rivers,  fail  to 
find  a  geographical  counterjiart  of  the  one 
stream  divided  into  four.  The  site  is  by 
many  sought  in  Armenia.  The  sources  of 
the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  are  in  this  region. 
The  Pishon  is  supposed  to  be  either  the  Pha- 
sis.  in  modern  Persian  Fas.  or  the  Kur,  the 
large  tributary  of  the  Araxes.  The  Gihon  is 
identified  with  the  Araxes.  in  Arabic  known 
as  Gnihuii  er-Rns.  Objections  to  this  theory 
are,  (a)  the  difficulty  in  explaining  the  one 
river;  (h)  the  absence  of  proof  that  the  land 
of  Cush  ever  extended  to  this  region  ;  (c) 
Havilah,  as  located  by  the  biblical  writers, 
did  not  lie  in  Armenia.  By  othei-s  the  gar- 
den is  thought  of  as  situated  between  the 
Nile  and  India  or  between  India  and  the 
Oxus.  Havilah  is  identified  with  a  portion 
of  India,  where  gold  was  obtained  ;  and  Cush 
with  either  Ethiopia,  which  is  called  Cush  in 
the  Scriptures,  or  the  plateau  of  central  Asia 
which  was  inhabited  by  Cossseans.  The  Gi- 
hon, the  river  of  Cush.  is  hence  either  the 
Nile,  called  by  the  Ethiopians  Geirou  or  Geyon, 
or  the  Oxus.  The  same  objections,  mulaiis 
mulandis.  lie  against  the  second  theory  as 
against  the  first.  It  may  be  added  that  the 
identification  of  the  Gihon  with  the  Nile  is 
traceable  as  far  back  a«  Josephus.  In  his 
case  it  probably  rests  on  a  misconception. 
The  only  land  of  Cush  in  the  gef graphical 
knowledge  of  the  later  Israelites  was  Ethio- 


Eden 


180 


Edom 


pia ;  and  accordingly  Josephus  understood 
the  Nile  by  the  Gihou,  because  it  is  the 
great  river  of  the  laud  of  Cush.  II.  The- 
ories which  seek  an  exact  geographical  coun- 
terpart to  the  biblical  description  and  identify 
not  only  the  four  rivers,  but  also  the  one. 
Calvin  observed  that  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates 
are  actually  united  for  a  short  distance  as  one 
stream,  wiiich  then  divides  and  enters  into 
the  Persian  gulf  by  two  mouths ;  and  he  con- 
cluded that  the  district  watered  by  the  united 
streams  was  the  site  of  the  garden.  There  is 
reason  to  believe  that  this  particular  spot  M'as 
formerly  the  bed  of  the  Persian  Gulf.  But 
the  general  locality  indicated  has  much  iu 
favor  of  its  being  the  site  of  the  garden. 
Friedrich  Delitzsch  thinks  that  the  river  of 
Eden  is  the  Euphrates.  Its  channel  being 
higher  than  the  Tigris,  its  superabundant 
waters  on  entering  the  alluvial  plain  north 
of  Babylon  flowed  from  its  banks  and  found 
their  way  across  the  plain  to  the  Tigris.  The 
district  thus  watered  was  extremely  fertile. 
It  was  even  known  to  the  ancient  Babylouiaus 
as  the  garden  of  the  god  Duniash.  Here  the 
garden  of  Eden  is  to  be  sought.  The  word 
edinu  in  Assyrian  means  plain  ;  and  the  two 
river  bottoms  of  southern  Mesopotamia  and 
the  alluvial  lowland  form  a  plain,  and  were 
spoken  of  as  an  edinu.  A  descendant  of  Cush 
reigned  in  the  Babylonian  plain  (Gen.  x.  8- 
10) ;  and  Kashites,  that  is  Cushites,  who  were 
related  to  the  Elamites,  early  descended  upon 
Babylonia  and  for  a  time  held  the  political 
power.  Hence  the  land  of  Cush  may  be  sat- 
isfactorily regarded  as  having  designated  at 
one  period  Babylonia  or  its  southern  portion. 
Havilah  was  situated  northwest  of  the  Per- 
sian Gulf,  according  to  Scripture  notices,  and 
may  be  assumed  to  liave  extended  to  the  Eu- 
phrates and  bordered  on  Babylonia.  Under 
these  circumstances,  the  Pishon  may  reason- 
ably be  identified  with  the  Pallakopas  caual, 
which  was  probably  a  natural  channel  orig- 
inally ;  and  the  Gihon  with  a  great  Babylo- 
nian canal  which  branched  from  the  Eu- 
phrates eastward  at  Babylon,  and  ou  which 
two  of  Nimrod  the  Cushite's  cities,  Babylon 
and  Erech.  stood.  It  may  be  the  caual  near 
Babylon  whose  name  was  Kahana  or  Guhana, 
corresponding  to  Gihon.  This  scholarly  the- 
ory still  lacks  proof.  Its  weakness  at  present 
lies  in  its  numerous  assumptions,  in  the  dif- 
ficulty of  showing  that  the  bounds  of  Havi- 
lah ever  extended  to  the  banks  of  the  Eu- 
plirates,  and  were  not  separated  from  tlie 
river  by  the  land  of  Mesha,  and  of  establish- 
ing the  conjecture  that  the  country  near 
Babylon  to  the  east  was  designated  the  laud 
of  Cush.  Glaser  oflers  a  natural  explanation 
of  the  language  employed  in  the  description. 
He  regards  the  four  heads,  which  are  imme- 
diately afterwards  called  rivers,  as  the  heads 
or  tributaries  of  the  river  of  Eden.  These 
four  affluents  united  somewhere  below  the 
garden  or,  to  modify  his  theory,  at  the  gar- 
den itself.     The  name  Pishon  he  finds  still 


lingering  in  the  Middle  Ages  iu  the  wady 
Faishan  in  northern  central  Arabia,  which 
drains  the  rainfall  toward  the  Persian  Gulf. 
This  region  produced  gold  and  corresponds 
to  the  location  of  Havilah  as  indicated  by 
the  biblical  writers.  He  also  ))elieved  that 
he  found  the  name  Gihon  apjdied  to  the 
wady  er-Eumma,  which  drains  the  country 
about  Jebel  Shamar  toward  the  Euphrates, 
and  he  concluded  that  the  Cushites  occupied 
this  region  during  their  migration  from  the 
east  to  Africa,  and  caused  it  to  be  known  for 
a  long  time  as  the  laud  of  Cush.  He  erred, 
however,  iu  his  belief  that  he  had  found  the 
wady  er-Eumma  called  Gihon.  The  Arabian 
poet  whom  he  quotes  is  speaking  of  a  river 
of  Cilicia. 

The  site  of  the  garden  of  Eden  is  most  prob- 
ably to  be  sought  about  the  head  of  the  Per- 
sian Gulf.  The  locality  is  east  of  Palestine,  as 
Gen.  ii.  8  may  mean.  The  Tigris  and  Euphrates 
rivers  are  there.  Havilah  was  a  district  of 
northern  central  Arabia.  A  land  of  Cush 
corresponded  approximately  to  Elam,  where 
the  names  Kashshu  and  Cossseau  long  lin- 
gered. The  plain  of  Babylonia  could  be  and, 
evidently  was  called  an  edinu,  as  Delitzsch 
has  shown.  Possibly  the  fact  that  the  Per- 
sian Gulf  was  called  a  river  may  also  have 
some  bearing  ou  the  solution  of  the  problem. 
The  garden  of  Eden  is  referred  to  iu  Isa.  li. 
3;  Ezek.  xxviii.  13;  xxxi.  9,  16-18;  xxxvi. 
35 ;  Joel  ii.  3 ;  cp.  Gen.  xiii.  10. 

2.  A  region  iu  Mesopotamia  ;  mentioned  iu 
connection  with  Gozan,  Haran,  Ecseph,  Te- 
lassar  (2  Kin.  xix.  12 ;  Is.  xxxvii.  12),  and 
with  Haran  and  Canueh  (Ezek.  xxvii.  23, 
24).  Apparently  the  locality  in  Amos  i.  5, 
on  the  margin  called  Beth-eden.  The  region 
is  mentioned  in  Assyrian  documents  by  the 
name  Bit-Adini,  situated  on  both  sides  of  the 
Euphrates  north  of  the  Belik  river. 

3.  A  Gershonite  Levite,  a  son  of  Joah  (2 
Chron.  xxix.  12;  xxxi.  15). 

E'der,  iu  A.  V.  once  Edar  (Gen.  xxxv.  21) 
and  ouce  Ader  (1  Chron.  viii.  15)  [a  flock]. 

1.  A  tower,  beyond  which  Jacob  on  one 
occasion  spread  his  tent  (Gen.  xxxv.  21). 
Exact  situation  unknown. 

2.  A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  21).     Exact  situation  unknown. 

3.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Elpaal  (1  Chron. 
viii.  15). 

4.  A  Levite,  son  of  Mushi,  of  the  family  of 
Merari  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  23;  xxiv.  30). 

E'dom  ;  in  A.  V.  of  O.  T.  four  times  Idumea 
[red]. 

1.  A  name  of  Esau,  given  in  memory  of  his 
having  sold  his  birthright  for  red  pottage 
(Gen.  XXV.  30;  xxxvi.  1,  8,  19). 

2.  The  Edomites  collectively  (Num.  xx.  18, 
20,  21  ;  Amos  i.  6,  11 ;  ix.  12 ;"  Mai.  i.  4). 

3.  The  region  occupied  by  the  descendants 
of  Edom,  i.  e.  Esau.  It  was  originally  called 
mount  Seir,  from  Seir,  the  Horite  {Gen.  xxxii. 
3 ;  xxxiii.  14  ;  xxxvi.  20-30 ;  Num.  xxiv.  18, 


Edomites 


181 


Edrei 


etc.),  but  took  the  uanie  of  Edom  after  the 
Edomites  had  displaced  the  aboriginal  Hor- 
ites  (Deut.  ii.  1"2).  The  regiou  is  the  moun- 
taiuoiis  aud  extremely  rugged  country,  about 
100  miles  loug,  extending  southward  from 
Moab  on  both  sides  of  the  Arabah,  or  great 
depression  connecting  the  southern  jmrt  of 
the  Dead  8ea  with  the  gulf  of  Akaba  (Gen. 
xiv.  6;  Deut.  ii.  1.  12 ;  Josh.  xv.  1 ;  Judg.  xl. 
17,  lt<;  1  Kin.  ix.  2(i).  The  summit  of  mount 
Seir  is  believed  to  rise  about  3500  feet  above 
the  adjacent  Aral«ih.  The  lower  part  of  the 
chain  is  of  red  Nubian  sandstone,  with  dykes 
of  red  granite  and  porphyry ;  the  summit  is 
of  a  chalky  limestone,  probably  of  cretaceous 
age.  Edom  is  not  nearly  so  fertile  as  Pales- 
tine (cp.  Mai.  i.  2-4)  ;  but  in  the  time  of 
Moses  it  had  fields,  vineyards,  wells,  and  a 
highway  (Num.  xx.  17,  19).  The  Edomite 
capital  in  the  times  of  the  Hebrew  monarchy 
was  Sela,  believed  to  be  the  place  afterwards 
called  Petra.  Other  important  towns  were 
Bozrah  aud  Teman.  In  the  Greek  period 
the  name  was  modified  to  Idumjea  (q.  v.). 

The  wilderness  of  Edom  was  the  Arabah 
at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Dead  Sea 
(2  Kin.  iii.  y,  20). 

E'dom-ites. 

The  descendants  of  Edom,  i.  e.  Esau  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  1-19),  and  others  incorporated  with 
them.  As  early  as  the  return  of  Jacob  from 
Mesopotamia  Esau  had  occupied  the  land  of 
Edom  (Gen.  xxxii.  3  ;  xxxvi.  6-8  ;  Deut.  ii. 
4,  5;  Josh.  xxiv.  4),  having  driven  out  the 
aboriginal  Horites  (cp.  Gen.  xiv.  6 ;  xxxvi. 
20-30;  Deut.  ii.  12.  22).  The  Edomites  ap- 
pear to  have  been  first  ruled  by  tribal  chiefs 
called  dukes,  who  were  probably  like  Arab 
sheiks  (Gen.  xxxvi.  15-19,  40-43;  1  Chron. 
i.  51-54) ;  but  before  the  rise  of  the  Hebrew 
monarchv  they  were  governed  by  kings  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  31-39  ;"l  Chron.  i.  43-51)'.  When  the 
Israelites  were  approaching  Canaan,  they 
sought  permission  from  the  king  of  Edom  to 
pass  through  his  territory,  giving  assurance 
that  the  privilege  would  not  be  abused.  He  re- 
fused the  request,  and  was  ]n-epared  to  fight 
if  the  Israelites  had  persisted  in  moving  for- 
ward. But  because  the  Edomites  were  de- 
scended from  Abraham,  the  Israelites  were 
forbidden  to  make  war  upon  them  and  com- 
manded to  pass  around  their  land  (Num.  xx. 
14-21).  Notwithstanding  this  hostility,  an 
Edomite  was  regarded  in  the  Mosaic  law  as 
a  brother  of  the  Israelites,  and  the  posterity 
of  the  former  were  allowed  in  the  third  gen- 
eration to  become  incorporated  with  the  He- 
brew people  (Deut.  xxiii.  7,  8).  while  it  was  not 
till  the  tenth  generation  that  the  descend- 
ants of  a  Moabite  or  an  Ammonite  could  ob- 
tain the  same  privilege  (3-6).  .Saul  fought 
against  the  Edomites  (1  Sam.  xiv.  47)  ;  and 
David  put  garrisons  in  Edom  after  conquer- 
ing the  country  (1  Chron.  xviii.  13;  Ps.  Ix., 
title;  and  2  Sam.  viii.  13,  14,  where  the  word 
SjTians  is  doubtless  the  error  of  a  copyist 
who  misread  daleth  as  resh).     This  conquest 


had  been  predicted  by  Balaam  (Num.  xxiv, 
18).  Joab,  David's  commander-in-chief,  re- 
mained in  Edom  for  six  months,  cutting  off 
every  male  (1  Kin.  xi.  15,  16)  ;  but  Hadad, 
one  of  the  royal  family,  escaped  with  some 
others  of  his  countrymen  to  Egypt,  and  be- 
came an  active  enemy  of  S(jlomon  (14-22). 
After  the  death  of  Ahab  of  Israel,  and  during 
the  reign  of  Jehoshaphat  of  Judah,  Edom- 
ites joined  with  the  Ammonites  and  Moabites 
in  invading  Judah  ;  but  a  misunderstanding 
arising,  they  were  attacked  and  destroyed  by 
their  allies  (2  Chron.  xx.  22-30).  Jehoshajjhat 
reduced  the  country  to  its  former  subjection, 
and  put  it  under  a  deputy  (1  Kin.  xxii.  47)  ; 
and  the  Edomites  aided  Israel  and  Judah  in 
the  contest  with  Mesha,  king  of  Moab  (2  Kin. 
iii.  4-27).  In  the  reign  of  Joram,  king  of 
Judah,  Jehoshaphat's  son  and  successor,  the 
Edomites  revolted.  Joram  vanquished  them 
in  the  field,  but  could  not  reduce  them  to 
subjection  (2  Kin.  viii.  20-22;  2  Chron.  xxi. 
8-10).  Amaziah  was  more  successful.  He 
slew  10,000  Edomites  in  the  valley  of  Salt, 
took  Sela,  the  capital,  and  put  10,000  Edom- 
ites to  death  by  flinging  them  from  the  top 
of  the  rock  (2  Kin.  xiv.  7;  2  Chron.  xxv.  11, 
12).  In  the  reign  of  Ahaz,  when  Judah  was 
attacked  by  Pekah  and  Eezin,  the  Edomites 
invaded  Judah,  and  carried  off'  captives  (2 
Chron.  xxviii.  17),  and  when  Jeru.salem  was 
taken  by  Nebuchadnezzar  the  Edomites  cut 
off  Jewish  fugitives,  and  rejoiced  over  the 
catastrophe  which  had  befallen  the  kindred 
people  (Obad.  10-14).  Strong  feeling  in  con- 
sequence arose  against  them,  and  vengeance 
was  breathed  (Ps.  cxxxvii.  ,7;  Jer.  xlix.  7- 
22  ;  Lam.  iv.  21,  22  ;  Ezek.  xxv.  12-14  ;  xxxv. 
15  ;  Joel  iii.  19 ;  Amos  ix.  12 ;  Obad.  1-21). 
When  the  captivity  of  the  two  tribes  ren- 
dered the  territory  of  Judah  somewhat  desti- 
tute of  inhabitants,  the  P'domites  seized  on 
it  as  far  as  Hebron,  aud  were  themselves  sup- 
planted in  mount  Seir  by  the  Nabathsean 
Arabs.  See  Nabaioth.  Judas  Maccabfeus 
retook  Hebron  and  the  other  towns  which 
the  Edomites  had  occupied  (1  Mac.  v.  65 ; 
Antiq.  xii.  8,  6).  Jolm  Hyrcanus  compelled 
the  Edomites  to  submit  to  the  rite  of  circum- 
cision, and  incorporated  them  with  the  Jew- 
ish people  (Antiq.  xiii.  9,  1).  The  Herods 
were  Idumaeans,  i.  e.  Edomites.  Many  of 
the  Zealots  who  took  part  in  the  defense  of 
Jerusalem  against  the  Romans,  and  were 
almost  as  dangerous  to  their  fellow  citizens 
as  to  the  enemy,  were  also  Idumaeans.  After 
this  the  tribe  is  little  heard  of  again  in  his- 
tory. 

Ed're-i  [strong]. 

1.  The  capital  city  of  Bashan  (Deut.  iii.  10 ; 
.Tosh.  xii.  4  ;  xiii.  12*31).  There  the  Israelites 
fought  the  great  battle  with  Og,  which  de- 
prived him  of  his  dominions  and  his  life 
(Num.  xxi.  33-35;  Deut,  i.  4;  iii.  1,  10). 
Edrei  has  been  identified  with  the  modem 
village  of  Der'at,  about  27  miles  east  of  Gad- 
ara. 


Eglah 


182 


Egypt 


2.  A  fenced  city  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  xix. 
37).     Not  ideutified. 

Eg'lali  [a  calf]. 

One  of  David's  wives,  and  mother  of 
Ithream  (2  Sam.  iii.  5;  1  Chron.  iii.  3). 

Eg'la-im  [two  ponds]. 

A  Moabito  town  (Is.  xv.  8).  Eusebius  men- 
tions a  village  Aigaleira,  8  Roman  miles  to 
the  south  of  Areopolis  ;  cp.  also  the  town 
Agalla  (Antiq.  xiv.  1,  4).  It  is  not  the  same 
as  En-eglaim. 

Eg'lon  [perhaps  vituline]. 

1.  A  king  of  Moab,  who,  at  the  head  of  an 
army  of  Moabites,  Ammonites,  and  Amale- 
kites,  captured  Jericho,  and  retained  it  for 
eighteen  years,  oppressing  the  Israelites.  He 
was  assassinated  by  Ehud,  who  had  gained 
access  to  his  presence  on  the  pretext  of  bring- 
ing him  a  present,  which  is  a  common  term 
for  tribute  ( Judg.  iii.  12-30). 

2.  A  town  in  the  lowland  and  assigned  to 
Judah  (Josh.  sv.  39).  Its  king  was  one  of 
the  five  allies  who  made  war  on  Gibeon,  but 
were  defeated,  captured,  and  executed,  by 
Joshua  (Josh.  x.  3-23,  34-37;  xii.  12).  Its 
site  is  'Ajlan,  16  miles  northeast  of  Gaza. 

E'gypt. 

For  the  sake  of  convenience,  the  facts  re- 
garding Egypt  are  grouped  under  three  heads: 
the  country,  the  people,  and  the  sojourn  of 
the  Israelites. 

I.  The  Country. — 1.  Its  names.  The  coun- 
try was  designated  Aiguptos  by  the  Greeks 
as  early  as  the  time  of  Homer.  The  ancient 
Egyptians  themselves,  however,  commonly 
called  their  native  land  Kam-t,  black,  naming 
it  from  the  color  of  the  soil.  To  the  Canaan- 
ites  it  was  known  as  Misru,  which  probably 
means  the  fortified  land,  or  closed  land,  so 
called  on  account  of  the  fortifications  along 
its  Asiatic  frontier  at  the  isthmus  of  Suez,  or 
it  may  denote  simply  the  territory.  This 
latter  name  the  Hebrews  employed  almost 
exclusively,  though  they  used  it  in  the  dual 
form  Misraim,  the  two  Egypts,  viz.,  upper  or 
southern  and  lower  or  northern ;  like  the 
Egyptians  themselves,  considering  the  coun- 
try double. 

I.  2.  The  territory  and  its  divisions.  In  an- 
cient times  Egypt  was  the  country  watered 
by  the  Nile  from  the  Mediterranean  Sea  as 
far  as  the  first  cataract.  In  addition  it  in- 
cluded a  series  of  oases  in  the  western  desert, 
and  also  the  country  between  the  eastern 
mouth  of  the  Nile  and  the  wady  el-'Arish, 
the  river  of  Egypt.  The  country  is  divided 
by  nature  into  two  tracts — a  narrow  valley, 
running  from  south  to  north,  sunken  in  the 
midst  of  a  desert ;  and  the  prolongation  of 
the  valley  into  a  delta.  These  geographical 
divisions  formed  ]>olitical  boundaries  also; 
Upper  Egypt  was  coincident  with  the  valley, 
and  Lower  Egypt  with  the  delta.  The  length 
of  the  Nile  country  from  the  sea  to  the  first 
cataract  is  5.50  miles,  and  its  breadth  from 
the  head  of  the  delta  to  the  cataract  varies 


from  14  to  32  miles.  The  area  of  this  tract 
is  about  11,342  square  miles,  of  which  at  the 
time  of  the  French  occupation  6921  square 
miles  were  cultivable.  Ancient  Egypt  was  a 
small  country,  scarcely  one-half  again  as 
large  as  New  Jersey ;  but,  at  the  same  time, 
in  proportion  to  its  width,  it  is  the  longest 
country  in  the  world.  It  may  be  compared 
to  New  Jersey  with  its  area  increased  by  one 
half,  elongated  so  as  to  extend  from  New 
York  to  Cincinnati,  or  from  New  York  to 
Wilmington,  N.  C.  It  is  nearly  twice  as  far 
from  Memphis  to  the  cataract  (about  460  miles) 
as  from  Memphis  to  Jerusalem  (about  260),  and 
the  distance  is  greater  from  Memphis  to  the 
cataract  than  from  Memjjhis  to  Damascus 
(about  410  miles).  This  long,  narrow  valley 
of  the  Nile,  as  far  as  the  first  cataract,  was 
originally  an  estuary  of  the  sea.  Herodotus 
came  to  this  conclusion  (ii.  10),  and  his  theory 
has  been  confirmed  by  geology.  "The  Nile 
mud,"  says  Fraas,  "  re.sts  on  a  bed  of  sea  sand. 
The  whole  country  between  the  first  cataract 
and  the  Mediterranean  was  formerly  a  nar- 
row estuary."  In  the  strictest  sense,  Egypt, 
as  the  ancient  Greeks  said,  is  "  the  gift  of  the 
Nile."     See  Nile. 

I.  3.  The  adjacent  region.  Ancient  Egypt 
was  bounded  on  either  side  by  desert  land. 
The  waste  country  gradually  rises  from  the 
Sahara  in  the  west  toward  the  east,  and 
terminates  in  a  chain  of  mountains  which 
skirt  the  Eed  Sea.  The  desert  region  on  the 
east  of  the  river,  extending  to  the  Red  Sea, 
and  containing  nearly  50,000  square  miles, 
about  equal  in  extent  to  Pennsylvania,  was 
considered  as  forming  geographically  part  of 
Arabia  (Herod,  ii.  8, 19),  perhaps  because  like 
the  Arabian  peninsula  in  character,  although 
it  was  separated  from  Arabia  by  the  Red  Sea 
and  was  politically  no  man's  land,  virtually 
uninhabited,  whose  scanty  resources  were 
worked  by  the  Egyptians.  The  mountains 
rise  to  a  height  of  6600  feet.  They  form  a 
broad  and  massive  range  of  crystalline  rock, 
running  parallel  with  the  coast  of  the  Red 
Sea  and  sending  forth  numerous  ramifications 
into  the  interior  of  the  country.  It  was  in 
these  mountains,  at  Hammamat  on  the  cara- 
van route  between  Koser  and  Thebes,  that 
the  ancient  Egyptians  quarried  the  hard, 
dark-colored  stone  which  they  used  for  sar- 
cophagi and  sphinxes;  and  at  Jcbel  Dukha, 
nearly  opposite  the  extremity  of  the  Sinaitic 
peninsula,  they  mined  copper  and  emerald. 
E.xtensive  masses  of  limestone  stretch  from 
the  mountains  to  the  Nile,  yielding  the  ala- 
baster with  which  the  ancient  Ivuyptians  em- 
bellished their  buildings.  The  desert  on  the 
west  of  the  Nile  was  assigned  to  Libya.  It 
presents  an  entirely  different  aspect  from 
the  region  east  of  the  river.  It  consists  of 
an  immense,  monotonous  and  stonv  table- 
land, 650  to  1000  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
Nile,  without  mountains  or  valleys  or  even 
isolated  hills  of  any  considerable  height,  and 
without  trace  of  crystalline  or  volcanic  for- 


Egypt 


183 


Egypt 


mat  ions.  The  whole  of  this  stouy  and  abso- 
lutely unwatered  i)lain  consists  of  limestone 
with  a  few  sand  hills  scattered  here  and 
there  over  it,  and  a  barrier  of  sandstone  pene- 
trating into  it  not  far  from  the  Ethiopian 
border.     The  utter  desolation  of  this  region 


Ancient  Egypt  was  thus  an  isolated  coun- 
try— sea  on  the  north,  desert  and  sea  on  the 
east,  desert  cleft  only  for  nearly  a  1000  miles 
by  the  narrowest  and  least  productive  part  of 
the  Nile  valley  on  the  south,  and  the  silent, 
illimitable  desert  on  the  west. 


is  relieved  at  five  points  only  within  the 
Egyptian  territory  by  oases,  mere  specks  in 
the  desert,  distant  by  a  journey  of  from  three 
to  five  days  from  each  other,  and  by  a  jour- 
ney of  from  three  to  sixteen  days  from  the 
Nile.  They  owe  their  fertility  to  subter- 
ranean supplies  of  water,  which  are  believed 
to  be  connected  with  the  Nubian  Nile  or  pos- 
sibly with  the  Soudan.  The  combined  popu- 
lation is  about  35,000. 


II.  The  People. — 1.  Their  origin.  Accord- 
ing to  the  Bible,  Misraim  was  the  son  of  Ham 
and  the  brother  of  Canaan,  Put,  and  the  Eth- 
iopian Cush  (Gen.  x.  6).     This  description  in- 


Egypt 


184 


Egypt 


dicates  an  Asiatic  origin  for  the  Egyptians, 
but  whether  they  were  descended  from  Ham 
or  incorporated  with  him  is  not  determined. 
Their  own  traditions  point  to  their  immigra- 
tion from  southern  Arabia.  The  type  of  the 
ancient  Egyptian  is  Caucasian  ;  but  at  the 
same  time  anatomj',  character,  and  language 
differentiate  him  from  the  Indo-European 
and  Semitic  peoples.  On  the  other  hand, 
many  of  the  domestic  utensils  employed  by 
the  ancient  Egyptians,  as  well  as  many  of 
their  customs,  are  said  to  be  similar  to  those 
of  the  dwellers  on  the  banks  of  the  Zambesi 
and  Niger,  but  totally  different  from  those 
seen  on  the  banks  of  the  Indus  and  Eu- 
phrates. Not  improbably  Hamitic  immigrants 
from  Asia  conquered  an  aboriginal  race  al- 
ready settled  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile. 

II.  2.  Their  appearance.  The  Egyptian  was 
short  of  stature  and  slender  of  build.  The 
head  was  large  in  proportion,  and  covered  with 
black  or  brown  hair — smooth,  not  woolly. 
The  forehead  was  square,  but  receding,  the 
eyes  large,  the  cheeks  full,  the  mouth  wide, 
the  lips  tolerably  thick.  In  color  the  Egyp- 
tian was  dark,  but  not  black.  The  women, 
not  being  exposed  to  the  sun,  had  a  lighter 
complexion. 

II.  3.  Their  language.  The  Egyptian  lan- 
guage is  difficult  to  classify.  Its  vocabulary 
connects  it  with  the  Turanian  tongues,  and 
its  grammar  with  the  Semitic  languages.  Its 
modern  descendant  is  the  Coptic,  which  con- 
tinued to  be  spoken  in  Lower  Egypt  until  the 
seventeenth  century.  Though  now  dead,  it 
is  known  by  translations  into  it  of  the  O.  T. 
and  N.  T.  Originally  a  kind  of  picture 
writing,  which  has  been  named  hieroglyphic 
or  sacred  writing,  was  used.  It  consisted 
chiefly  of  representations  of  objects  which 
occur  in  nature  and  art,  such  as  birds,  beasts, 
plants,  and  implements,  together  with  math- 
ematical symbols.  These  delineations  are 
partly  ideographs — that  is,  the  picture  is  the 
word  or  idea,  and  they  partly  represent 
sounds  which  when  combined  yield  a  word. 
Hieroglyphic  writing  was  used  down  to  the 
latest  times ;  but  after  a  time  the  scribes 
began  to  dispense  with  the  details  of  the  pic- 
tures in  order  to  write  more  rapidly,  and  thus 
arose  the  hieratic  or  priestly  writing.  It  was 
employed  wherever  ornamentation  was  not 
an  object.  About  the  eighth  century  b.  c. 
the  demotic  or  popular  writing  came  into 
vogue.  It  was  used  in  social  and  commercial 
intercourse  for  writing  the  dialect  which  had 
developed  among  the  people,  and  was  a  cur- 
sive form  of  the  old  hieroglyphs.  When  the 
attention  of  the  modern  world  was  directed 
to  the  ancient  Egyptian  writings,  they  could 
not  be  read,  and  for  a  long  time  no  key  could 
be  found.  But  when  Alexandria  surrendered 
to  the  British  in  1801  there  fell  into  their 
hands  a  slab  of  black  basalt,  called  the 
Rosetta  stone,  from  its  having  been  found 
by  the  French  near  the  Rosetta  branch  of 
the  Nile.     It  is  now  in  the  British  Museum. 


On  this  stone  is  cut  a  decree  by  Ptolemy  V., 
about  193  B.  c.  It  is  repeated  in  three  lan- 
guages and  in  three  forms  of  writing — de- 
motic, hieroglyphic,  and  Greek.  A  bilingual 
inscription,  Greek  and  hieroglyphic,was  found 
on  an  obelisk  on  the  island  of  Philse  near  the 
first  cataract.  The  Greek  of  these  texts  was, 
of  course,  easily  read,  being  a  known  lan- 
guage, and  the  hieroglyphs  were  deciphered 
by  comparison  with  it. 

II.  4.  Their  numbers.  The  population  of 
Egypt  was  greater  in  ancient  than  in  modern 
times.  Diodorus  Siculus,  contemporary  of 
Julius  Cffisar  and  Augustus,  states,  on  the 
authority  of  the  ancient  Egyptian  records, 
that  the  land  contained  in  the  time  of  the 
Pharaohs  more  than  18,000  cities  and  villages  ; 
and  he  gives  the  ancient  population  of  the 
country  as  7,000,000.  In  the  days  of  Nero,  on 
the  basis  of  the  revenue  derived  from  the  poll 
tax,  it  was  estimated  at  7,500.000,  exclusive 
of  the  inhabitants  of  Alexandria  (War  ii.  16, 
4).  This  number  is  quite  reasonable  in  itself, 
for  the  country  could  support  from  8,000,000 
to  9,000,000  people.  According  to  the  census 
of  1882,  the  present  population  of  Egypt  proper 
is  6,811,448,  or  about  600  per  square  mile,  and 
is  therefore  denser  than  that  of  most  Euro- 
pean states. 

II.  5.  Their  history.  When  Egypt  passed 
from  the  i)rehistoric  to  the  historic  age  it 
seems  to  have  existed  as  a  number  of  small 
kingdoms.  These  were  afterwards  combined 
into  an  empire  by  Menes,  the  first  historical 
king.  Students  of  Egyptian  chronology  as- 
sign different  dates  to  the  commencement  of 
Menes'  reign.  These  vary  from  about  5700 
B.  c.  to  2700  B.  c.  Manetho,  a  priest  of  Seben- 
nytos  in  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus, 
reckons  thirty  dynasties  from  the  accession 
of  Menes  to  the  Persian  conquest  of  Egypt  in 
345  B.  c.  These  are  now  generally  grouped 
into  three  periods :  those  of  the  Old,  the  Mid- 
dle, and  the  New  Empires.  To  the  Old  Em- 
pire are  assigned  the  first  seven  or  ten  dy- 
nasties. Its  great  feature  was  pyramid  build- 
ing, which  reached  its  height  under  the 
fourth  dynasty.  That  of  the  Middle  Empire 
was  the  conquest  of  at  least  Lower  Egypt  by 
the  Hyksos,  or  Shepherd  Kings,  from  the 
northeast.  They  are  generally  supposed  to 
have  belonged  to  the  Semitic  race,  but  may 
have  been  Hittites.  It  is  believed  that  it  was 
during  their  domination  that  Abraham  vis- 
ited Egypt  and  that  Joseph  was  prime  min- 
ister. The  New  Empire  began  with  the  eigh- 
teenth dynasty.  The  first  notable  event  in 
it  was  the  expulsion  of  the  Hyksos,  when 
they  had  ruled  by  one  account  511,  by  another 
625  years.  Afterwards,  under  native  rulers, 
Egypt  attained  to  high  prosperity,  and  be- 
gan a  career  of  conquest  and  domination  in 
western  Asia,  Thothmes  III.  being  its  greatest 
warrior,  and  Ramses  II.  not  much  inferior. 
The  latter  was  probably  the  Pharaoh  who 
oppressed  the  Israelites,  and  his  son  Menep- 
tah  the  Pharaoh  of  the  exodus.     Other  Pha- 


Egypt 


185 


Egypt 


r.iohs  are  mentioned  in  the  O.  T. — Shishak, 
80,  Tirhakah,  Necho,  Hophra  ;  see  Pharaoh. 
Tirhakah  assisted  in  checking  the  advance 
of  Senuacherih,  king  of  Assyria,  toward 
Egyi)t :  but  he  was  overthrown  by  Senna- 
cherib's successor  Esarhaddon.  The  Assyr- 
ians divided  Egypt  into  twenty  districts,  and 
ajipointed  a  governor  over  each.  Tirhakah 
♦stirred  up  revolt,  and  Egypt  was  reconqnered 
bv  Ashurhanii>al,  who  plundered  and  de- 
stroyed Thebes  in  664  B.  C.  (Nah.  iii.  8-10). 
Psammeticus,  one  of  the  petty  rulers,  rose  in 
revolt,  and,  aided  by  the  Asiatic  Greeks,  re- 
stored Egypt  to  independence,  founding  the 
twenty-sixth  dynasty.  In  525  B.  c.  Egypt 
was  conquered  by  Cambyses  and  became  a 
Persian  satrapy.  About  a  century  and  a  quar- 
ter later  Nephrites  succeeded  in  completely 
throwing  oti"  the  Persian  yoke,  and  became 
the  founder  of  the  twenty-ninth  dynasty  ; 
but  in  345  b.  c.  Egypt  surrendered  to  Arta- 
xerxes,  and  again  became  a  Persian  satrapy. 
In  332  B.  c.  it  welcomed  the  Macedonians  and 
Greeks,  led  by  Alexander  the  Great ;  for  it 
saw  in  him  a  deliverer  from  the  Persian  yoke. 
After  his  death  it  was  ruled  by  the  Ptolemies. 
In  30  B.  c.  it  became  a  province  of  the  Eoman 
empire,  and  was  governed  by  prefects  until 
A.  D.  362.  Joseph,  Jlary,  and  the  infant 
Jesus,  took  refuge  there  during  the  time  that 
Archelaus  ruled  Judsea.  In  a.  d.  619  Egypt 
was  conquered  by  Chosroes  II.  of  Persia,  who 
lost  it  again  permanently  in  628.  Between 
638  and  640  it  passed  to  the  Saracens,  and 
between  1163  and-1196  to  the  Turks. 


Bast,  personification  of  sexual  passion  (in 
Pi-beseth),  and  Amon,  a  god  who  animates 
nature.  Each  nome  or  district  had  its  spe- 
cial local  deity  or  deities,  to  whom  it  {>aid 
peculiar  honors.  Some  among  the  people 
were  henotheists  or  worshipers  of  one  god 
as  far  exalted  above  the  others  and  worthy 
of  all  adoration,  and  perhaps  some  were  even 
monotheists.  A  remarkably  clear  knowledge 
of  ethical  and  religious  truths  was  possessed 
from  very  early  times — truth  in  regard  to 
human  conduct,  sin,  justification,  immortal- 
ity, and  with  all  their  nature  worship  evea 
in  regard  to  God. 

III.  The  l^ojourn  of  the  Israelites  in  Egypt. 
1.  The  descent  into  Egi/pt.  A  grievous  famine 
prevailed  throughout  the  whole  known  world, 
or  at  least  throughout  that  large  part  of  it 
about  the  eastern  and  southeastern  shores  of 
the  Mediterranean  Sea,  where  dwelt  a  com- 
plex of  nations  cut  off  socially  and,  so  far  as 
obtaining  sufficient  supplies  for  the  neces- 
sities of  life,  economically  from  the  moun- 
tains of  Asia  Minor  and  the  rich  valleys  of 
the  Euphrates  and  Tigris  (Gen.  xli.  54  ;  xlvii. 
13).  On  occasion  of  this  distress  Joseph,  who 
had  risen  to  authority  at  the  court  of  Pharaoh 
second  only  to  that  of  the  king,  urged  his 
father  and  brethren  to  leave  Canaan  and 
settle  temporarily  in  Egypt  (xlv.  9-11 ;  xlvii. 
4, 29,  30 ;  xlviii.  21  :  1.  24).  Accordingly  Jacob 
migrated  with  his  tribe.  It  consisted  of  the 
patriarch  himself,  his  six  sons  and  one  daugh- 
ter by  Leah  with  twenty-five  sons;  his  two  sons 
by  Leah's  maid  with  thirteen  sons  and  one 


Migration  of  Asiatics  into  Egj-pt  during  the  Twelfth  Dynasty. 


II.  6.  Their  reliyion.  The  religion  of  the 
Egj'ptians  was  a  spiritualized  nature  wor- 
ship, centering  about  veneration  of  the  sun 
and  of  the  river  Nile,  two  sources  of  life.  A 
vast  number  of  deities  M'ere  adored.  They 
represented  the  forces  and  phenomena  of 
nature.  Ptah,  whose  name  occurs  in  Me- 
neptah.  was  chief.  He  represented  the  or- 
ganizing and  motive  power  developed  from 
moisture.  The  names  of  several  others  are 
found  in  the  O.  T. — Ra,  the  sun  god,  illumi- 
nator of  the  world  and  awakener  of  life  (in 
Ramses) ;  Thum,  the  evening  sun,  the  posses- 
sor of  creative  power  and  the  dispen.ser  of 
the  welcome  evening  breezes  (in  Pithom) ; 


daughter ;  his  two  sons  by  Rachel  with  twelve 
sons,  of  which  number  three  were  already  in 
Egypt ;  and  his  two  sons  by  Rachel's  maid 
with  five  sons  (xlvi.  8-25).  All  the  souls 
which  came  with  Jacob  into  Egypt,  Avhich 
came  out  of  his  loins  (even  though  perhaps 
some  were  yet  unborn,  cp.  Heb.  vii.  9,  10), 
were  sixty-six  souls  (Gen.  xlvi.  26).  All  the 
souls  of  the  house  of  Jacob  which  came  into 
Egypt  first  and  last,  including  the  head  of 
the  house  and  Joseph  with  his  two  sons  who 
were  born  in  Egypt,  were  seventy  souls  (ver. 
27).  This  is  also  the  enumeration  of  Ex.  i.  5 
(as  in  Gen.  xlvi.  15,  apparently  exclusive  of 
Jacob,  but  in  reality  inclusive  of  him)  and 


Egypt 


186 


Egypt 


Deut.  X.  22.  The  Septuagint,  however,  and 
Stephen  who  follows  the  Greek  version  (Acts 
vii.  14)  reckon  seventy-five.  This  result  is 
•due  to  the  addition  in  Gen.  slvi.  20  of  three 
grandsons  and  two  great-grandsons  of  Joseph, 
whose  names  are  obtained  from  Num.  xxvi. 
29  and  35  seq.  The  numerical  correspond- 
ences of  the  register,  a  total  of  seventy,  and 
the  descendants  of  each  maid  precisely  half 
those  of  her  mistress  (Leah  32,  Zilpah  16, 
Eachel  14,  Bilhah  7),  suggest  design,  and  can 
scarcely  be  altogether  accidental.  A  com- 
parison with  Num.  xxvi.  leads  to  the  belief 
that  regard  was  had  to  the  subsequent  na- 
tional oi'ganization  in  constructing  this  table, 
and  that  its  design  was  to  include  those  de- 
scendants of  Jacob  from  whom  permanent 
tribal  divisions  sprang,  even  if  in  a  few  in- 
stances they  were  still  in  the  loins  of  the 
patriarch  when  he  led  his  tribe  into  Egypt. 
The  tribe  of  Israel  settled  in  Goshen,  and  re- 
mained in  and  about  this  fertile  region  until 
the  exodus  (Gen.  xlvii.  6,  11;  Ex.  viii.  22; 
ix.  26  ;  xii.  37). 

III.  2.  The  sojourn  as  embedded  in  the  na- 
tional consciousness.  The  descent  of  Jacob 
and  his  family  into  Egypt,  their  subsequent 
increase  and  enslavement,  their  sufferings 
and  their  exodus  in  a  body,  were  recorded  in 
their  earliest  historical  document  (Gen.  xlvi. 
4,  28-34  ;  xlvii.  27 ;  Ex.  i.  9,  11,  15-22  ;  ii.  11 ; 
xii.  31-37;  xiii.  21).  The  feast  of  the  pass- 
over,  and  to  a  less  degree  that  of  the  taber- 
nacles, bore  testimony  to  the  events,  and 
kept  the  knowledge  of  them  alive  among 
the  people.  Psalmists  pitched  their  songs 
of  redemption  and  their  hymns  in  celebration 
of  Jehovah's  might  to  its  key,  and  fi'om  it 
prophets  drew  lessons.  The  standing  types 
of  the  grievous  oppression  of  the  church  and 
of  God's  redemptive  power  and  love  are 
Israel's  bondage  of  old  in  Egypt  and  deliv- 
erance from  that  furnace  of  affliction.  The 
tradition  is  not  peculiar  to  one  tribe,  as  though 
but  a  portion  of  the  Hebrew  folk  had  en- 
dured Egyptian  slavery ;  it  is  not  exclusively 
Judsean,  but  it  is  Ephraimite  as  well.  The 
prophets  of  both  kingdoms  voice  it— Isaiah, 
Micah,  and  Jeremiah,  among  the  hills  of 
Judah  (Is.  xi.  16;  Mic.  vi.  4  ;  vii.  15;  Jer.  ii. 
6  ;  vii.  22),  and  Hosea  and  Amos  in  the  king- 
dom of  Samaria  (Hos.  ii.  15:  viii.  13;  ix.  3; 
xi.  1 ;  xii.  9, 13  ;  Amos  ii.  10  ;  iii.  1 ;  ix.  7).  The 
tradition  is  the  common  property  of  all 
Israel.  The  people  as  a  whole  had  suffered 
Egyptian  bondage. 

III.  3.  The  duration  of  the  sojourn.  The 
biblical  data  are  stated  in  the  following 
terms:  "He  said  unto  Abraham,  'Thy  seed 
shall  be  a  stranger  in  a  land  that  is  not  theirs, 
and  shall  serve  them  ;  and  they  shall  afflict 
them  400  years  .  .  .  but  in  the  fourth  genera- 
tion they  shall  come  hither  again  '  "  (Gen.  xv. 
13-16).  "The  sojourning  of  the  children  of 
Israel,  which  they  sojourned  in  Egypt,  was  430 
years  "  (Ex.  xii.  40,  E.  V.)  ;  according  to  the 
Septuagint  and  Samaritan  Pentateuch  in  this 


passage,  the  sojourning  "  in  Egypt  and  in  the 
land  of  Canaan  was  430  years."  God  spake 
to  Abraham  "that  his  seed  should  sojourn  in 
a  strange  land ;  and  that  they  should  bring 
them  into  bondage,  and  entreat  them  evil 
400  years"  (Acts  vii.  6).  "The  law  came  430 
years  after  "  the  covenant  (Gal.  iii.  17). 
These  statements  are  interpreted  to  mean  : 

(1)  The  children  of  Israel  dwelt  in  Egypt  ■ 
215  years.  For  the  Seventy,  either  to  re- 
move an  ambiguity  or  because  their  Hebrew 
manuscripts  differed  from  the  present  Hebrew 
text,  add  the  words  "  and  in  the  land  of  Ca- 
naan "  to  the  statement  in  Ex.  xii.  40.  Now 
from  the  date  of  the  covenant  with  Abram, 
shortly  after  his  arrival  in  Canaan,  to  the 
migration  of  his  descendants  into  Egypt  was 
about  215  years  (Gen.  xii.  4  ;  with  xxi.  5 ; 
XXV.  26;  xlvii.  9),  leaving  215  years  for  the 
sojourn  of  the  children  of  Israel  in  Egypt. 
This  statement  is  also  made  by  Josephus,  who 
says,  "The  Hebrews  left  Egypt  430  years 
after  our  forefather  Abraham  came  into  Ca- 
naan, but  215  years  only  after  Jacob  removed 
into  Egypt"  (Antiq.  ii.  15,  2).  In  this  state- 
ment he  is  following  the  Septuagint,  but  he 
nullifies  his  statement  by  saying  elsewhere, 
"400  years  did  they  spend  under  these 
labors"  (Antiq.  ii.  9,  1 ;  War  v.  9,  4;  mani- 
festly incorrect,  for  the  Israelites  were  not 
oppressed  for  400  years).  But  however  Jo- 
sephus may  vacillate,  Paul  dates  the  law  at 
Sinai  430  years  after  the  covenant  with 
Abram,  and  the  genealogies  give  four  gen- 
erations between  Jacob  and  the  exodus,  which 
may  cover  215  years,  but  scarcely  400  years 
(Ex.  vi.  16-20). 

The  biblical  data  are  explained  to  mean 

(2)  The  children  of  Israel  dwelt  430  years  in 
Egypt.  (1)  The  natural  interpretation  of 
Gen.  XV.  13-16  requires  this,  (a)  The  state- 
ment is  not  that  the  Israelites  should  be 
afflicted  400  years,  but  that  the  entire  so- 
journ as  strangers  in  a  land  not  theirs,  where 
they  shall  be  eventually  brought  into  bond- 
age, is  400  years,  [b)  The  event  is  not  to  take 
place  until  after  Abraham's  death  (ver.  15). 
(c)  The  four  generations  are  equivalent  to 
the  aforementioned  400  years.  In  this  pas- 
sage, generation  does  not  mean  each  succes- 
sion of  persons  from  a  common  ancestor,  as 
it  does  in  Ex.  xx.  5  ;  Job  xlii.  16,  but  the  age 
or  period  of  a  body  of  contemporaries,  and 
this  not  in  our  modern  sense  of  the  average 
lifetime  of  all  who  pass  the  age  of  infancy, 
but  the  average  period  of  the  activity  of  any 
generation,  and  this  is  determined  by  the 
normal  span  of  life.  The  generation  lasts 
while  any  of  its  members  survive  (Ex.  i.  6 ; 
Num.  xxxii.  13  ;  Judg.  ii.  10  ;  Ecc.  i.  4).  The 
period  of  a  generation's  activity  may  be 
judged  from  the  length  of  the  life  of  Isaac, 
180  years ;  of  Jacob,  147  years ;  of  Levi,  137 ; 
of  Kohath.  133 :  of  Amram,  137  ;  of  Aaron, 
123;  of  Moses,  120  (Gen.  xxxv.  28;  xlvii.  28  ; 
Ex.  vi.  16,  18.  20 ;  Num.  xxxiii.  39 ;  Deut. 
xxxiv.  7).     Or  the  period  of  a  generation's 


Egypt 


187 


Egypt 


activity  may  be  estimated  from  the  record 
of  three  generations  between  the  birth  of 
Abraham  and  the  descent  into  Ejiypt.  when 
Jacob  was  still  active,  a  period  of  290  years. 
A  generation  was  about  100  years.  But  are 
not  just  four  generations  registered — namely. 
Levi  and  Kohath,  who  came  into  Egypt  with 
Jacob,  Amraui,  Moses,  and  Moses'  sons?  A 
consecutive  genealogy  in  Levi,  Kohath,  and 
Amram  is  admitted  ;  but  was  Moses  the  son 
of  Amram  and  Jochebed  (Ex.  vi.  20 ;  1  Chron. 
vi.  1-3)  ?  A  difficulty  arises  if  the  passage 
be  so  interpreted.  (<()  Amram  and  his  broth- 
ers gave  rise  to  the  Amramites,  Izharites, 
Hebronites.  and  Uzzielites :  and  these  one 
year  after  the  exodus  amounted  to  8ti00 
males  ;  that  is,  the  grandfather  of  Moses  had 
8<i00  male  descendants  in  the  days  of  Moses, 
of  whom  2700  were  between  the  ages  of  30 
and  50  (Num.  iii.  27;  iv.  36).  (b)  In  the 
parallel  genealogy  of  the  contemporaries  of 
Moses  Bezalel  is  seventh  from  Jacob  and 
Joshua  apparently  eleventh  (1  Chron.  ii.  IS- 
20;  vii.  23-27).  the  language  of  Ex.  vi.  20 
does  not  necessarily,  nor  even  evidently,  mean 
that  Amram  and  Jochebed  were  the  imme- 
diate parents  of  Moses  and  Aaron.  In  Gen. 
xlvi.  IS.  great-grandsons  of  Zilpah  are  men- 
tioned with  others  as  sons  which  she  bore  to 
Jacob.  lu  Mat.  i.  8  Joram  is  said  to  beget  his 
great-great-grandson  Uzziah.  According  to 
Gen.  X.  15-18  Canaan  begat  nations.  \Yhere 
the  birth  of  Moses  is  narrated  in  detail,  he  is 
not  said  to  be  the  child  of  Amram  and  Joch- 
ebed (Ex.  ii.).  The  reason  for  registering 
only  four  names  in  the  genealogy  of  Moses  and 
others  (Ex.  vi.  16-22)  is  that  the  first  three 
names  are  official  and  give  the  tribe,  family, 
and  fathers  house  to  which  Moses  and  Aaron 
belonged.  The  three  names  properly  and  at 
once  classify  Moses  and  Aaron.  (2)  430  years 
for  the  sojourn  is  also  the  record  of  Ex.  xii. 
40.  The  statement  does  not  include  the  so- 
journ of  the  patriarchs  in  Canaan,  for  (a) 
Abraham  and  Isaac  were  not  sons  of  Israel, 
and  (6)  the  verse  in  the  Hebrew.  Chaldee, 
etc.,  except  Septuagint  and  Samaritan,  makes 
no  reference  to  Canaan.  (3)  A  sojourn  of  430 
years  best  accounts  for  the  number  of  the 
children  of  Israel  at  the  exodus.  (4)  On  the 
interpretation  of  the  data  as  meaning  that 
the  sojourn  lasted  430  years  Paul's  statement 
in  Galatians  can  be  accounted  for.  It  is  not 
his  object  to  measure  the  exact  time  between 
the  covenant  and  the  law.  His  argument 
only  requires  him  to  prove  that  the  law  was 
given  long  after  the  covenant,  and  hence 
cannot  disannul  it.  He  proves  it  by  citing 
the  well-known  period  of  the  sojourn  which 
intervened  between  the  two  events ;  the 
largest  and  most  familiar  single  sum  of  years 
in  the  interval.  He  does  not  state  that  the 
law  came  exactly  430  years  after  the  cove- 
nant ;  but  he  rather  says  that  the  law  came, 
as  we  all  know,  430  years  after  the  covenant. 
It  is  inditierent  whether  he  has  the  Hebrew 
or  the  Greek  text  in  mind,  and  whether  his 


CJalatian  readers  refer  to  the  Hebrew  or  to 
the  Greek  edition. 

III.  4.  The  multiplication  of  the  Israelites 
dttrinfi  the  sojouru.  il)  It  has  been  pointed 
out  ^Keil)  that  if  from  the  seventy  souls  who 
went  down  into  Egypt  there  be  deducted  the 
patriarch  Jacob,  his  twelve  sons.  Dinah,  and 
Serah  daughter  of  Asher.  and  also  the  three 
sons  of  Levi,  the  four  grandsons  of  Judah  and 
Asher.  and  those  grandsons  of  Jacob  who  prob- 
ably died  without  male  oflspring.  inasmuch  as 
their  descendants  are  not  named  among  the 
families  of  Israel  (see  Num.  xxvi.),  there  will 
remain  forty-one  grandsons  of  Jacob  (besides 
the  Levites)  who  founded  families:  and  if, 
furthermore,  there  be  allowed  but  ten  gen- 
erations for  the  430  years ;  nevertheless  the 
forty-one  men  would  increase  to  478,224  males 
if  each  family  averaged  three  sons  and  three 
daughters  during  the  first  six  generations, 
and  two  sons  and  two  daughters  during  the 
last  four  generations.  These  with  the  sur- 
vivors of  the  ninth  generation  would  amount 
to  more  than  600,000  men  above  twenty  years 
of  age.  (2)  It  is  a  mistake  to  overlook  the 
fact  that  the  household  of  the  patriarch  in- 
cluded numerous  servants  (Gen.  xxx.  43 ; 
xxxii.  5 :  xlv.  10),  who  were  circumcised 
(Gen.  xvii.  12,  13)  and  enjoyed  full  religious 
privileges  (Ex.  xii.  44,  48,  49,  etc.),  and  with 
whom  intermarriage  was  no  degradation 
(Gen.  xvi.  1,  2;  xxx.  4,  9;  Xum.  xii.  1:  1 
Chron.  ii.  34,  35). 

III.  5.  The  change  of  occupation  during  the 
sojourn.  When  the  Israelites  settled  in  Go- 
shen they  were  a  comparatively  small  tribe, 
independent,  and  herdsmen.  But  after  Joseph 
and  the  men  of  that  generation  died,  a  new 
king  arose  who  knew  not  Joseph  (Ex.  i.  6-8). 
He  saw  the  increasing  numbers  of  the  Israel- 
ites, and.  fearing  that  they  might  ally  them- 
selves with  the  enemies  of  Egypt,  took  meas- 
ures to  render  them  a  subject  people  and  to 
check  their  increase.  Taskmasters  were 
placed  over  them,  and  rigorous  service  was 
exacted  from  them  in  the  form  of  agriculture, 
brickmaking.  and  building  (Ex.  i.  11,  14;  v. 
6-8).  while  they  still  provided  some  at  least 
of  their  own  support  by  herding  (ix.  4.  6  :  x. 
9,  24  :  xii.  38). 

III.  6.  The  miracles  wrought  by  2Toses  at  the 
end  of  the  sojourn.  The  oppression  of  the 
Lsraelites  lasted  eighty  years  or  more  (Ex. 
vii.  7:  cp.  ii.  2  seq.).  At  length  their  cry 
came  up  unto  God.  and  he  sent  Moses  to 
deliver  them  Iii.  23  seq.).  The  humble  am- 
bassador of  heaven  was  provided  with  mir- 
acles as  his  credentials.  They  were  miracles : 
that  is.  in  .Scripture  parlance,  signs,  wonders, 
and  powers  (Ps.  Ixxviii.  12,  43).  They  were 
wonderful,  unusual,  and  intended  to  enforce 
attention.  They  were  signs  accrediting  Moses 
as  the  messenger  of  God  to  the  Israelites  (Ex. 
iv.  8.9,  30.  31 ;  vi.  7)  and  to  Pharaoh  (iii.  20 :  iv. 
21 :  vii.  3-5 :  viii.  22. 23).  They  were  powers,  not 
natural  phenomena  :  for  (1)  design  is  appar- 
ent in  them,  and  not  the  blindness  of  nature. 


Egypt 


188 


They  form  an  orderly  series;  the  one  is  in 
logical  but  not  causal  relation  to  its  successor ; 
they  increase  in  severity,  affording  Pharaoh 
sufficient  evidence  at  the  outset  of  the  di- 
vine authority  of  Moses,  without  inflicting 
unnecessary  suffering  upon  the  Egyptians ; 
and  when  he  refuses  to  let  the  Hebrews  go, 
they  become  more  intense,  and  bring  ever- 
increasing  pressure  upon  his  obdurate  heart 
until  he  finally  yields.  (2)  A  distinction  was 
made,  which  nature  does  not  make,  between 


Brickmaking  in  Ancient  Egypt. 

the  people  of  God  and  the  Egyptians  (viii. 
22,  23 ;  ix.  4,  25,  26  ;  x.  22,  23;  xi.  5-7).  (3) 
A  pestilence  might  have  slain  a  great  num- 
ber of  the  Egyptians  in  one  night,  but  the 
tenth  plague  is  a  pestilence  with  a  method. 
It  is  not  a  promiscuous  death,  the  firstborn 
in  every  family  of  the  Egyptians  dies. 

These  signs,  wonders,  and  powers  belong 
to  the  first  group  of  miracles  recorded  in 
Scripture.    See  Miracles. 

III.  7.  The  organization  of  the  Israelites  at 
the  end  of  the  sojourn.  The  forefathers  of  the 
children  of  Israel  had  descended  into  Egypt 
as  a  family  of  twelve  households,  and  had 
settled  together  in  Goshen.    As  is  quite  natu- 


Egypt 

ral  in  itself  and  as  appears  from  the  narrative, 
they  retained  their  organization  despite  their 
enslavement.  They  did  act  amalgamate  with 
the  master  race,  but  remained  a  distinct  peo- 
ple and  preserved  the  twelve  great  family 
divisions.  By  the  end  of  the  430  years  the 
families  of  the  twelve  sons  had  become  twelve 
tribes,  and  the  sons'  sons,  and  in  a  few  in- 
stances the  sons'  remoter  descendants,  had 
grown  into  large  family  connections.  Accord- 
ingly, at  the  time  of  the  exodus  there  was  a 
people,  Israel,  divided  into  twelve 
tribes;  and  each  tribe  was  subdi- 
vided into  families  or  connections, 
which  derived  their  names  for  the 
most  part  from  the  grandsons  of 
Jacob  (Ex.  vi.  14  with  Gen.  xlvi. 
9,  and  Num!  xxvi.  with  Gen.  xlvi.), 
and  at  the  time  of  the  second  census 
numbered  57,  without  Levi ;  and 
each  family  connection  into  fathers' 
houses  (Num.  i.  2,  18,  20).  Au- 
thority of  various  kinds  was  vested 
in  (1)  Princes  by  birth  (Ex.  xvi.  22), 
heads  of  the  tribes  or  family  con- 
nections (Num.  i.  4, 16).  (2)  Elders, 
who  were  probably  heads  of  tribes 
and  families,  and  aged  (Ex.  iv.  29 ; 
xii.  21;  xvii.  5-6).  (3)  Apparently 
also  in  priests  (Ex.  xix.  22,  24;  per- 
haps cp.  Ex.  xxiv.  5).  They  were 
probably  men  out  of  the  various 
tribes  who  were  performing  priest- 
ly functions  for  the  Israelites ;  as 
Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob,  as  head 
of  the  family,  had  ofiered  sacrifice. 
(4)  The  Egyptians  had  imposed 
further  organization  on  the  Israel- 
ites by  setting  oflficers  (Ex.  v.  6,  10, 
19)  over  them  ;  Hebrews  (Ex.  v.  15, 
16),  who  had  undoubtedly  been  ap- 
pointed on  the  ground  of  their 
ability  to  direct.  Through  these 
various  representatives  Pharaoh 
and  Moses  communicated  their  will 
to  all  the  people  with  dispatch.  The 
children  of  Israel,  grouped  in  tribes, 
families,  and  fathers'  houses,  offi- 
cered and  accustomed  to  obedience, 
were  not  an  unwieldy  horde,  but  a 
multitude  with  the  organization  of 
an  army.  They  are  fittingly  called 
the  hosts  or  armies  of  the  Lord,  and  it  is  sig- 
nificantly said  that  they  went  out  of  Egypt 
by  their  hosts  (Ex.  xii.  41). 

III.  8.  The  Pharaohs  of  the  oppression  and 
exodus.  Eamses  II.  is  commonly  regarded 
as  the  Pharaoh  of  the  oppression,  and  Menep- 
tah  as  the  Pharaoh  of  the  exodus.*  This  opin- 

*  In  view  of  various  references  in  the  tablets 
of  Tell  el-Amarna  to  the  Habiri  making  war  with 
the  inhabitants  of  western  Palestine  in  the  days 
of  Amenophis  IV.,  and  the  similarity  of  this 
name  to  the  word  Hebrew,  and  the  essential 
agreement  of  this  date  with  the  date  of  the  ex- 
odus which  Usher  obtained  from  a  study  of  the 
biblical  data,  certain  recent  writers  are  inclined 


Egypt 


189 


Ekron 


ion  is  based  on  the  following  considerations : 
(1)  The  Israelites  bad  not  obtained  possession 
of  Palestine  in  the  days  of  Ainenophis  III. 
and  IV. ;  for  the  country,  whose  condition  at 
that  time  has  been  revealed  by  the  tablets 
found  at  Tell  el-Aniarna,  was  broken  up  into 
petty  governments,  and  under  Egyptian  su- 
zerainty. Eamses  II.,  moreover,  and  Eamses 
III.,  both  of  whom  warred  in  Pale.stine,  make 
no  mention  of  the  Israelites  as  being  in  the 
land ;  and  the  Hebrew  records  are  silent  as 
to  an  invasion  of  the  country  by  these  Egyp- 
tian monarchs.  (2)  In  Ex.  i.  11  it  is  noted 
that  the  children  of  Israel  built  for  Pharaoh 
store  cities,  Pithom  and  Kamses.   The  site  of 


Storehouse  for  Grain  in  Ancient  Egypt. 

Pithom  has  been  identified  and  the  ancient 
granaries  uncovered.  Xo  remains  have  been 
found  there  of  earlier  date  than  the  reign  of 
Rimses  II..  and  his  name  is  inscribed  on  some 
of  the  stones.  Apparently  Pithom  was  built 
in  the  reign  of  Eamses  II.  It  was  Eamses 
II.  also  who  erected  a  new  town,  with  tem- 
ples and  shrines,  adjacent  to  the  ancient 
fortress  at  Zoan.  and  on  this  account  the 
place  was  called  Pa-Eamses,  the  city  of  Eam- 
ses. These  correspondences  with  the  Hebrew 
records  indicate  that  Eamses  II.  was  the  Pha- 
raoh of  the  oppression.  (.3)  Meneptah,  a  son 
and  successor  of  Eamses  II.,  in  an  inscription 
in  which  he  records  his  repulse  of  the  Libyan 
inva.sion  of  his  fifth  year,  closes  with  describ- 
ing certain  consequences  of  this  victory.  He 
mentions  the  ravaging  of  Pa-Kanana  in  south- 
em  Palestine,  the  capture  of  Ashkelon  and 
Gezer  in  Philistia,  the  reduction  of  a  town 
near  Tyre,  the  spoiling  of  the  people  of  Is- 
rael, and  the  widowhood  of  Khar,  i.  e.  south- 
to  believe  that  Amen-hetep  II.,  or  Thothmes  IV., 
was  the  Pharaoh  of  the  exodus.  The  weighty 
objections  to  this  theory  are— 1.  Habiri  is  not 
the  natural  transliteration  of  'Jbri,  Hebrew,  a 
word  which  begins  with  unpointed  ain  and 
short  i.  Habiri  is  rather  connected  et5Tnolog- 
ically  with  such  Hebrew  words  as  Heber  and 
Eaber.  and  hence  is  regarded  by  philologists  as 
most  probably  meaning  the  allies.  2.  Ramses  is  a 
geographical  designation  (Ex.  i.  11:  xii.  37),  and 
the  theory  in  question  is  unable  to  explain  how 
it  could  have  been  so  in  the  days  of  Amen-hetep 
II.  or  Thothmes  IV.,  years  before  the  first  Ramses 
ascended  the  throne  of  Egj-pt. 


ern  Palestine.  The  reference  to  the  people 
of  Israel  has  been  ])lausibly  explained  as 
noting  an  attack  on  the  children  of  Israel 
during  their  sojourn  in  the  wilderness  on  the 
borders  of  southern  Palestiue.  See  Ph.\r.\oh. 
As  already  stated,  Eamses  III.,  who  succeeded 
Meneptah  after  an  interval,  warred  in  Pales- 
tine, but  does  not  mention  the  Israelites  as 
being  in  the  country.  It  is  reasonable  to 
believe  that  the  Israelites  left  Egj-pt  at  the 
beginning  of  Meneptah's  reign,  but  had  not 
spent  their  forty  years  in  the  wilderness  and 
arrived  in  Canaan  by  the  reign  of  Eamses 
III.     For  the  date  of  the  exodus,  see  Chko- 

NOLOGV. 

E'M.     See  Ahieam. 
E'hud  [union]. 

1.  A  Benjamite,  descended  through  Jediael 
(1  Chron.  vii.  10). 

2.  A  left  -  handed  Benjamite,  descended 
through  Gera.  He  assassinated  Eglon.  king 
of  Moab,  then  the  oppressor  of  Israel,  at 
Jericho.  Fleeing  to  the  hill  country  of 
Ephraim.  he  summoned  the  Israelites  by 
sound  of  trumpet,  put  himself  at  their  head, 
descended  to  the  valley  of  the  Jordan,  seized 
the  ford  of  the  river,  and  slew  10.000  Moa bites 
as  they  attempted  to  cross.  He  judged  Israel 
for  the  remainder  of  his  life,  and  kept  the 
people  true  to  Jehovah  (Judg.  iii.  15-iv.  1). 

E'ker  [one  transplanted,  a  man  of  foreign 
descent  settled  in  a  place]. 

A  man  of  Judah,  a  son  of  Eam,  of  the 
house  of  Jerahmeel  (1  Chron.  ii.  27). 

Ek'ron  [eradication]. 

The  most  northerly  of  the  five  chief  Philis- 
tine cities  (Josh.  xiii.  3 ;  1  Sam.  vi.  16.  17). 
It  was  assigned  to  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  45,  46), 
and  afterwards  to  Dan  (xix.  43);  but  the 
boundary  line  of  Judah  ran  past  it  (xv.  11), 
and  it  was  taken  and  possessed  by  the  men 
of  that  tribe  (Judg.  i.  IS).  After  a  time  it  was 
recovered  by  the  Philistines.  When  the  people 
first  of  Ashdod  and  then  of  Gath  became 
afraid  to  retain  the  ark  of  God,  they  sent  it 
to  Ekron,  whence  it  was  returned  to  Israel 
(1  Sam.  V.  10).  Ekron  was  apparently  taken 
by  the  Israelites  under  Samuel,  but  was  soon 
again  a  Philistine  city  (vii.  14  ;  xvii.  52).  Its 
tutelary  god  was  Baal-zebub,  whom  Ahaziah, 
king  of  Israel,  sent  to  consult  (2  Kin.  i.  2- 
16).  Judgment  was  denounced  against  it 
and  the  other  Philistine  cities  by  the  prophets 
(Jer.  XXV.  20 ;  Amos  i.  8  ;  Zeph.  ii.  4  ;  Zech. 
ix.  5,  7).  Alexander  Balas.  king  of  Syria, 
gave  Ekron  to  Jonathan  Maccabseus  (1  Mac. 
X.  89).  It  still  existed  at  the  time  of  the 
Crusades.  It  is  believed  to  be  now  repre- 
sented by  the  village  of  'Akir,  situated  among 
fine  gardens,  6  miles  west  of  Gezer,  and  12 
northeast  from  Azotus.  Xo  visible  relics  of 
antiquity  have  been  found  at  the  place  ;  but 
Eobinson  was  assured  by  the  Mohammedan 
sheik  of  the  place  that  in  digging  old  cis- 
terns the  stones  of  handmills,  etc.,  are  occa- 
sionally brought  to  light. 


Ela 


190 


Elath 


E'la,  in  A.  V.  Elah  [terebinth  or  like  tree]. 

Tlie  father  of  one  of  Solomon's  purveyors 
(1  Kin.  iv.  IS). 

El'a-dali,  in  E.  V.  Eleadah  [God  hath 
adorned]. 

A  descendant  of  Ephraini  (1  Chron.  vii.20). 

Elah  [a  large  evergreen  tree,  like  the  ilex 
or  terebinth]. 

1.  AvalleynearSocohinwhich  Saul  and  the 
Israelites  pitched,  confronting  the  Philistines, 
just  before  the  combat  between  David  and 
Goliath  (1  Sam.  xvii.  2,  19;  xxi.  9).  Prob- 
ably the  wady  es-Sunt,  which  is  formed  by 
the  junction  of  three  other  valleys,  and  is 
about  14  or  15  miles  west  by  south  from  Beth- 
lehem. It  is  fertile  and  traversed  by  a  stream. 
Wady  es-Sunt  means  the  valley  of  the  acacia 
(Acacia  vera),  of  which  various  trees  exist  in 
the  valley. 

2.  A  duke  of  Edom,  named  from  his  habi- 
tation (Gen.  xxxvi.  41 ;  1  Chron.  i.  52).  See 
Elath. 

3.  A  son  of  Caleb,  the  son  of  Jephunneh  (1 
Chron.  iv.  15). 

4.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Uzzi  (1  Chron.  ix.  8). 

5.  The  father  of  one  of  Solomon's  purvey- 
ors.    See  Ela. 

6.  The  son  and  successor  of  Baasha  in  the 
kingdom  of  Israel.  He  reigned  part  of  two 
years.  As  he  was  drinking  himself  drunk  in 
the  house  of  his  steward,  in  Tirzah,  his  cap- 
ital, he  was  assassinated,  with  all  his  house, 
by  Zimri,  who  commanded  half  his  chariots. 
This  fulfilled  the  prophecy  made  by  Jehu,  the 
son  of  Hanani,  to  Baasha.  That  it  did  so  in 
no  way  justified  the  murderous  deed  (1  Kin. 
xvi.  6,"  8-10). 

7.  The  father  of  Hoshea,  king  of  Israel  (2 
Kin.  XV.  30;  xvii.  1;  xviii.  1). 

E'lam  [high]. 

1.  A  son  of  Shem  or  the  inhabitants  of 
Elam,  as  being  Semites  or  becoming  incor- 
porated with  the  Semites  by  conquest  (Gen. 
X.  22;  1  Chron.  i.  17).  Elam  was  a  region 
beyond  the  Tigris,  east  of  Babylonia.  It  was 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Assyria  and  Media, 
on  the  south  by  the  Persian  Gulf,  on  the  east 
and  southeast  by  Persia.  The  name  is  pre- 
served in  the  Greek  Elumais,  the  Latin  Ely- 
mais.  Its  capital  was  Shushan  or  Susa,  which 
gave  rise  to  the  name  Susiana,  though  some- 
times Elymais  and  Susiana  are  made  the 
names  of  adjacent  instead  of  identical  re- 
gions. Elam  was  the  seat  of  an  ancient  em- 
pire. In  the  time  of  Abraham,  Chedoi-laomer, 
king  of  Elam,  was  recognized  as  sovereign  by 
Babylonian  states,  and  laid  even  the  country 
on  the  Jordan  under  tribute  (Gen.  xiv.  1-11). 
In  the  eighth  and  seventh  centuries  B.  c,  when 
Assyria  was  the  dominant  power  in  western 
Asia,  Elam  was  its  doughty  opponent ;  but 
was  subjugated  after  repeated  campaigns  of 
the  Assyrians  under  Sargon,  Sennacherib, 
and  Ashurbanipal.  Shushan  was  at  length 
taken  about  Mr>  b.  c.  Elamites  rendered  mil- 
itary service  to  the  Assyrians  in  the  invasion 


of  Judah  (cp.  Is.  xxii.  6).  But  before  the 
close  of  the  century,  Elam  was  relieved  of 
the  Assyrian  yoke  through  the  capture  of 
Nineveh  by  the  Babylonians  and  the  fall  of 
the  Assyrian  empire.  When  Ezekiel  prophe- 
sied the  invasion  of  Egypt  by  Nebuchadnez- 
zar, he  mentioned  a  prior  slaughter  of  the 
Elamites,  perhaps  by  Nebuchadnezzar  (Ezek. 
xxxii.  24).  But  Elam,  joining  with  Media, 
was  ultimately  to  capture  Babylon  (Isa.  xxi. 
2;  cp.  9).  To  this  conquest  and  restoration 
the  following  prophecies  regarding  Elam  seem 
to  refer  (Jer.  xlix.  34-39  ;Ezek.  xxxii.  24,  25). 
Elam  was  a  province  and  Shushan  a  capital 
of  the  Persian  empire  (Dan.  viii.  2;  Herodo- 
tus iii.  91  ;  iv.  83;  v.  49).  On  the  return  of 
the  Jews  from  Babylon,  Elamites,  who  had 
long  before  been  forcibly  settled  in  Samaria, 
joined  with  others  in  attemiiting  to  prevent 
the  rebuilding  of  the  temple  and  city  of  Jeru- 
salem (Ezra  iv.  9).  Elamites  were  present  on 
that  day  of  Pentecost  which  was  notable  for 
the  descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit  (Acts  ii.  9). 
Elam  or  Susiana,  now  Khuzistan,  is  a  prov- 
ince of  modern  Persia. 

2.  The  fifth  son  of  Meshelemiah,  a  Korah- 
ite  Levite,  in  the  reign  of  David  (1  Chron. 
xxvi.  3). 

3.  A  Benjamite,  a  son  of  Shashak  (1  Chron. 
viii.  24). 

4.  The  head  of  a  family  of  which  1254  in- 
dividuals returned  from  Babylon  with  Zerub- 
babel  (Ezra  ii.  7 ;  Neh.  vii.  12),  and  71  more 
with  Ezra  (Ezra  viii.  7).  Its  representative 
signed  the  covenant  in  Nehemiah's  time 
(Neh.  X.  14). 

5.  The  other  Elam,  of  whom  just  as  many 
descendants  returned  as  of  No.  4  (Ezra  ii.  31 ; 
Neh.  vii.  34). 

6.  A  priest  who  took  part  in  the  dedication 
of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  xii.  42). 

El'a-sa,  in  A.  V.  Eleasa. 

A  place  at  which  Judas  Maccabaeus  once 
camped  (1  Mac.  ix.  5) ;  probably  the  ruins 
H'asa,  which  lie  midway  between  the  two 
Beth-horous. 

El'a-sah  [God  hath  made].  The  Hebrew 
name  is  sometimes  anglicized  as  Eleasah. 

1.  A  son  of  Shaphan.  He  and  Gemariah 
carried  a  letter  from  Jeremiah  in  Jerusalem 
to  the  exiles  in  Babylon  (Jer.  xxix.  3). 

2.  A  son  of  Pashur,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  22). 

E'lath  and  Eloth,  the  singular  or  plural 
being  used  indirtcrently  ;  also  Elah  and  El, 
other  forms  of  the  singular  [terebinth  or 
other  large  tree]. 

A  toAvn  on  the  gulf  of  Akaba  (Deut.  ii.  8 ; 
1  Kin.  ix.  26),  on  the  eastern  border  of  the 
wilderness  of  Paran  (Gen.  xiv.  6).  The  car- 
avan routes  between  southern  Arabia  and 
Egypt  and  Phcenicia  passed  its  gates,  mak- 
ing its  possession  valuable  to  an  exactor  of 
tribute.  It  was  taken  by  Chedorlaomer  from 
the  Horites  (Gen.  xiv.  6)*.  In  it  dwelt  a  duke 
of  Edom  (xxxvi.  41),  and  it  constituted  the 


El-berith 


191 


Elder 


southern  limit  of  the  Edomites  (Deut.  ii.  8). 
It  doubtless  fell  into  the  hands  of  David  i2 
Sam.  viii.  14  ;  cii.  1  Kin.  ix.  •2(j ;  2  Chron.  ^iii. 
17).  After  a  time  it  reverted  to  the  Edomites. 
Uzziah  rebuilt  it  and  restored  it  to  Judah  i2 
Kin.  xiv.  22 :  2  Chron.  xxvi.  2).  It  was  after- 
wards captured  by  the  Syrians  and  louj;  re- 
mained in  their  power  (2  Kin.  xvi.  6).  Elath, 
called  in  the  Greek  and  Eoman  period  Aila 
and  ..Elana,  gave  the  name  ^Elanitic  to  the 
gulf  of  Akaba,  at  the  northeastern  corner  of 
which  it  was  situated.  It  was  long  the  sta- 
tion of  a  Roman  legion.  It  was  once  the  seat 
of  a  Christian  bishopric.  It  was  taken  and 
retaken  during  the  Crusades.  It  is  now 
called  Ailah  and  'Akaba,  and  consists  merely 
of  extensive  mounds  of  rubbish. 

El-be'rith.     See  Baal-bekith. 

El-beth'-el  [God  of  Bethel]. 

The  name  given  by  Jacob  to  an  altar  which 
he  reared  at  Bethel,  after  his  return  from 
Mesopotamia.  It  comniemorated  the  appear- 
ance of  God  to  him  there  in  a  dream  when 
he  was  fleeing  to  escape  the  consequences  of 
his  brother's  wrath  (Gen.  xxxv.  7  ;  cp.  xxviii. 
10  seq.).  The  sanctuary  was  named  after  the 
God  to  whom  it  was  dedicated.     Cp.  El-el- 

OHE-ISRAEL. 

El'da-ah  [God  hath  called]. 

A  son  or  tribe  descended  from  Midian  and 
related  to  Abraham  (Gen.  xxv.  4 ;  1  Chron. 
i.  33). 

El'dad  [God  hath  loved]. 

An  elder  and  ofiicer  of  the  Israelites  who 
was  summoned  with  sixty-nine  others  to 
assist  Moses  in  bearing  the  burden  of  govern- 
ment. Eldad  and  Medad  for  some  reason 
failed  to  present  themselves  with  the  others 
at  the  tabernacle ;  nevertheless  they,  too, 
although  absent  in  the  camp,  were  filled  like 
the  others  with  the  divine  Spirit,  who  work- 
eth  when  and  where  he  will.  Joshua  was 
jealous  for  Moses'  honor,  which  he  feared 
would  suffer  because  they  had  received  the 
gift  without  the  intervention  of  Moses ;  but 
Moses  rejoiced,  and  only  wished  that  the 
Lord  would  put  his  Spirit  upon  all  his  people 
(Xum.  xi.  26-29). 

El'der. 

An  official  who.  so  far  as  can  be  judged, 
had  by  virtue  of  his  right  as  firstborn  suc- 
ceeded to  the  headship  of  a  father's  house, 
of  a  tribal  family,  or  of  the  tribe  itself  (1 
Kin.  viii.  1-3;  Judg.  viii.  14.  16).  When  he 
was  the  head  and  representative  of  a  tribe  or 
of  the  larger  tribal  families  the  elder  was  an 
important  i)rince.  In  the  ordinary  course  of 
nature,  only  men  of  mature  age  came  into 
these  positions,  hence  the  designation  elder. 
Other  peoples  which  were  organized  on  the 
tribal  system  had  elders,  as  the  Midianites 
and  Moabites  (Num.  xxii.  4,  7).  The  title 
designates  high  officials  generally  in  Gen. 
1.  7.  They  exercised  authority  over  the 
people  (Deut.  xxvii.  1 ;  Ezra  x.  6),  and  rep- 


resented the  nation  in  affairs  of  state  (Ex. 
iii.  18  :  Judg.  xi.  5-11 ;  1  Sam.  viii.  4),  in  ex- 
tending hoTior  to  a  distinguished  guest  (Ex. 
xviii.  12).  in  concluding  covenants  (2  Sam.  v. 
3).  and  in  religious  acts  (Lev.  iv.  13-15  ;  Josh, 
vii.  6).  A  body  of  seventy  elders  assisted 
Moses  in  the  government  of  the  Israelites 
(Num.  xi.  16,  24).  Each  town  had  its  elders, 
who  administered  its  civil  and  religious  affairs 
(Deut.  six.  12  ;  xxi.  2  ;  Euth  iv.2-11 ;  1  Sam. 
XI.  3;  Ezra  x.  14).  These  functions  were  still 
performed  by  the  elders  at  the  time  of  the 
Eoman  government  of  Juda'a  (Mat.  xv.  2  ; 
xxi.  23;  xxvi.  3,  47).  See  Synagogue  and 
Sanhedkin. 

In  the  churches  founded  by  the  apostles 
elder  or  presbyter  and  bishop  were  inter- 
changeable designations  (Acts  xx.  17  with  28, 
E.  V. ;  Titus  i.  5,  7),  though  not  strictly  .synon- 
ymous. The  former  had  primary  reference 
to  the  dignity  of  the  office,  the  latter  to  its 
duties.  The  distinction  between  elder  or 
presbyter  and  bishop,  as  two  separate  orders 
of  ministers,  dates  from  the  second  century. 
The  origin  of  the  office  of  elder  is  not  re- 
corded, but  elders  existed  practically  from 
the  beginning.  In  a.  d.  44  they  already  ex- 
isted in  the  church  at  Jerusalem  (Acts  xi. 
30)  ;  Paul  on  his  first  missionary  journey  ap- 
pointed elders  in  every  church  (xiv.  23),  and 
they  held  office  in  churches  not  founded  by- 
Paul  (Jas.  V.  14:  1  Pet.  v.  1).  The  office  of 
elder  in  the  Christian  church  was  evidently 
suggested  by  the  office  of  elder  among  the 
Jews,  and  was  invested  with  similar  author- 
ity. Elders  were  associated  with  the  apos- 
tles in  the  government  of  the  church  (Acts 
XV.  2,  4.  6.  22,  23 ;  xvi.  4  ;  cp.  xxi.  18).  They 
were  the  bishops  or  overseers  of  the  local 
churches  (xx.  17,  28;  Tit.  i.  5),  having  the 
spiritual  care  of  the  congregation,  exercising 
rule  and  giving  instruction  (1  Tim.  iii.  5;  v. 
17:  Tit.  i.  9;  Jas.  v.  14:  1  Pet.  v.  1-4;  cp. 
Heb.  xiii.  17).  and  ordaining  to  office  (1  Tim. 
iv.  14).  There  were  several  bishops  (Phil, 
i.  1)  or  elders  (Acts  xi.  30)  in  a  local  church. 
There  is  no  intimation  of  any  division  of 
labor  among  them.  As  in  the  synagogue,  so 
in  the  Christian  church  of  apostolic  times, 
preaching  was  not  the  peculiar  function  of 
the  elders,  nor  was  it  restricted  to  them. 
They  were,  indeed,  the  regular  pastors  and 
teachers.  Aptness  to  teach  was  an  essential 
qualification  for  the  office  (1  Tim.  iii.  2  ;  Tit. 
i.  9).  But  any  man  who  possessed  the  gift 
of  prophecv  or  teaching  exhorted  (1  Cor.  xii. 
28-30:  xiv.' 24,  31). 

In  the  government  of  Eeformed  churches 
the  teaching  elder  is  the  minister,  and  the 
ruling  elder  is  a  layman  who  is  an  elder. 
The  arrangement  is  convenient,  but  its  ex- 
istence in  apostolic  times  is  not  universally 
admitted.  Calvin  interpreted  1  Tim.  v.  17 
as  teaching  two  kinds  of  elders :  first,  those 
who  both  teach  and  rule,  and  second,  those 
who  rule  only.  But  there  is  wide  dissent 
from   this  interpretation.     It  is  urged  that 


Elead 


192 


Elhanan 


the  apostle  is  speaking  of  two  functions  of 
the  same  office,  the  primitive  elder  liaving 
been,  it  is  contended,  both  teacher  and  ruler. 
In  the  Apocalypse  the  elders  are  twenty- 
four  in  number,  possibly  with  reference 
back  to  the  twelve  founders  of  tril)es  under 
the  Jewish  economy,  and  the  twelve  apostles 
under  the  Christian  church  (Rev.  iv.  4,  10; 
V.  5,  6,  8,  14  ;  vii.  11-13;  xi.  16  ;  xix.  4). 

E'le-ad  [God  continueth]. 

A  descendant,  perhaps  son,  of  Ephraim. 
He  and  his  brother  were  killed  by  the  people 
of  Gath  when  attempting  to  carry  away  the 
cattle  belonging  to  that  Philistine  town. 
Ephraim,  who  was  alive  at  the  time,  greatly 
mourned  his  loss  (1  Chrou.  vii.  20-22). 

E-le-a'dah.     See  Eladah. 

E-le-a'leh. 

A  town  rebuilt  by  the  Eeubenites  (Num. 
xxxii.  3,  37).  Later  it  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Moabites  (Is.  xv.  4 ;  xvi.  9  ;  Jer.  xlvii.  34). 
The  ruins,  now  called  el-'Al,  are  on  top  of 
a  hill  on  the  Eoman  road,  scarcely  2  miles 
north  of  Heshbon.  Tristram  describes  them 
as  consisting  of  stone  heaps  with  a  single 
standing  column. 

E-le'a-sa.     See  Elasa. 
E-le-a'sah  [God  hath  made].     In  Hebrew 
it  is  the  same  word  as  Elasah. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Judah  through  Jerah- 
meel,  but  with  Egyptian  blood  in  his  veins 
(1  Chron.  ii.  39). 

2.  A  descendant  of  Saul  and  Jonathan  (1 
Chron.  viii.  37  ;  ix.  43). 

E-le-a'zar  [God  hath  helped].  Grecized 
as  Lazaros,  in  Latin  Lazarus. 

1.  The  third  son  of  Aaron  (Ex.  vi.  23  ;  Num. 
iii.  2)  and  father  of  Phinehas  (Ex.  vi.  25). 
With  his  brothers  and  his  father  he  was  con- 
secrated a  priest,  and  afterwards  acted  as 
such  (Ex.  xxviii.  1 ;  Num.  iii.  4 ;  xvi.  37-40; 
xix.  3).  He  was  not  allowed  to  mourn  when 
his  elder  brothers,  Nadab  and  Abihu,  were 
killed  for  offering  strange  fire  (Lev.  x.  6-20). 
He  then  became  chief  of  the  Levites,  and 
second  only  to  Aaron  in  priestly  authority 
(Num.  iii.  32).  Before  Aaron  died  on  mount 
Hor,  Eleazar,  who  had  been  directed  to  as- 
cend the  mountain  with  him,  was  invested 
with  his  sacred  garments,  and  succeeded  him 
in  the  high-priesthood  (xx.  2.'}-28  ;  Deut.  x.  6). 
He  held  this  office  during  the  remainder  of 
Moses'  life  and  the  leadership  of  Joshua.  He 
took  a  prominent  part  in  distributing  Canaan 
by  lot  among  the  several  tribes  (Josh.  xiv.  1). 
He  was  buried  in  a  hill  belonging  to  his  son 
Phinehas  in  mount  Ephraim  (xxiv.  33),  and 
was  succeeded  by  Phinehas  (Judg.  xx.  28  ;  1 
Chron.  vi.  4,  50). 

2.  A  Levite,  family  of  Merari,  hou.se  of 
Mahli.  Dying  without  sons,  his  daughters 
were  taken  to  wife  by  their  cousins  (1  Chron. 
xxiii.  21,  22;  xxiv.  28 ;  cp.  Num.  xxxvi.  6-9). 

3.  A  son  of  Abinadab.  He  was  consecrated 
by  the  men  of  Kirjath-jearim  to  keei)  the 


ark  when  they  nobly  received  it  from  Beth- 
shemesh  after  its  restoration  by  the  Philis- 
tines (1  Sam.  vii.  1). 

4.  One  of  David's  mighty  men,  a  son  of 
Dodo,  the  Ahohite  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  9 ;  1  Chron. 
xi.  12;  cp.  xxvii.  4  perhaps). 

5.  A  priest,  son  of  Phinehas.  He  assisted 
the  high  priest  in  the  time  of  Ezra  (Ezra  viii. 
33). 

6.  A  son  of  Parosh,  who  was  induced  by 
Ezra  to  put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x. 
25). 

7.  A  priest,  one  of  those  who  acted  as  mu- 
sicians at  the  dedication  of  the  wall  of  Jeru- 
salem in  the  time  of  Nehemiah  (Neh.  xii. 
42). 

8.  Surnamed  Avaran,  of  priestly  descent,  a 
son  of  Mattathias  and  brother  of  Judas  the 
Maccabee  (1  Mac.  ii.  5).  In  the  battle  be- 
tween Judas  and  the  Syrians  at  Beth-zacha- 
rias,  he  boldly  ran  into  the  ranks  of  the 
enemy,  crept  under  an  elephant  whose  trap- 
pings indicated  that  it  carried  a  royal  rider, 
and  thrust  it  in  the  belly.  The  beast  in  its 
fall  crushed  Eleazar  to  death  (vi.  43-46). 

9.  An  ancestor,  perhaps  great-grandfather, 
of  Joseph,  the  husband  of  Mary  (Mat.  i.  15). 

El-e-lo'he-Is'ra-el  [God,  the  God  of  Israel]. 
The  name  given  by  Jacob  to  an  altar  which 
he  erected  near  Shechem  (Gen.  xxxiii.  20). 

E'leph  [an  ox]. 

A  village  of  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii.  28). 
Site  unknown. 

El'e-pliant. 

The  English  name  for  a  genus  of  animals 
containing  two  recent  species — Elephasindicns, 
the  Indian,  and  Elephas  africanus,  the  Afri- 
can elephant,  with  several  others  now  ex- 
tinct. Their  tusks  furnish  ivory  (1  Kin.  x. 
22,  A.  V.  margin).  The  elephant  was  used 
in  war  (1  Mac.  i.  17  ;  iii.  34),  each  beast  being 
in  charge  of  an  Indian  driver,  and  bearing 
on  its  back  a  tower  from  which  two,  three,  or 
four  soldiers  fought  (1  ]\Iac.  vi.  37,  where 
thirty-two  is  an  obvious  error ;  Livy  xxxvii. 
40) .  The  entire  body  of  elephants  was  under 
a  master  (2  Mac.  xiv.  12).  Before  entering 
battle,  it  was  customary  to  inflame  them  by 
the  sight  and  even  taste  of  wine  (1  Mac.  vi.  34 ; 
3  Mac.  V.  2). 

E-leu'the-rus  [free]. 

A  river  (1  Mac.  xi.  7 ;  Antiq.  xiii.  4,  5) 
which  flows  from  Lebanon  and  empties  into 
the  Mediterranean  sea  north  of  Tripoli  (Pliny, 
Hist.  uat.  V.  17),  and  which  formed  the  bound- 
ary between  Palestine  and  Syria  (1  Mac.  xii. 
30  ;  Antiq.  xv.  4,  1 ;  Strabo  xvi.  2,  12).  It  is 
now  called  Nahr  el-Kebir. 

El-ha'nan  [God  hatli  been  gracious]. 

1.  A  son  of  Jair  and  perhaps  a  Bethlehem- 
ite,  who  slew  [the  brother  of]  Goliath  of  Gath 
(cp.  2  Sam.  xxi.  19  with  1  Chron.  xx.  5).  The 
text  of  at  least  one  passage,  perhaps  of  both, 
has  become  corrupt.  The  letters  of  ' '  Beth- 
lehemite  Goliath,"  with  the  particle  ^eth  be- 


EU 


193 


Eliakim 


tween  them,  which  stand  together  in  the  He- 
brew text  of  Samuel,  closely  resemble  those 
of  "  Lahnii  the  brother  of  (Toliath." 

2.  A  Hethleheniite,  a  son  of  Dodo,  and  one 
of  David's  thirty  heroes  of  the  second  rank 
(2  Sam.  xxiii.  24;  1  Chron.  xi.  2()). 

E'U,  I.  [my  God]. 

A  word  occurrir.K  in  the  utterance  of  Jesus 
on  the  cross,  sjioken  in  Aramaic,  'Eli,  'Eli. 
lammah  sh'bdkiani.  "My  (Tod,  my  God,  why 
hast  thou  forsjiken  me?"  (Mat.  xxvii.  46  ;  cp. 
Ps.  xxii.  1).  In  Mark  xv.  34,  Elol,  an  Aramaic 
synonym  of  Eli  containing  a  diflerent  word 
for  God,  is  used. 

E'li,  II.   [i)robably  elevation,  height] . 

A  high  ])riest  of  the  family  of  Ithamar  (1 
Sam.  i.  ii ;  1  Kin.  ii.  27  with  1  Chron.  xxiv. 
3.  6).  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  of 
Ithamar's  line  to  receive  the  office  (Autiq.  v. 
11,  5 ;  viii.  1,  3),  but  it  is  uncertain  which 
priest  of  the  other  line  he  succeeded.  Deeply 
pious,  he  had  the  essential  qualification  for 
his  exalted  office  ;  but  there  was  one  serious 
defect  in  his  conduct.  He  was  not  sufficiently 
firm  with  his  two  sous,  Hophni  and  Phinehas, 
giving  them  only  mild  reproof  when  their 
behavior  in  the  priestly  office  was  absolutely 
scandalous  (1  Sam.  ii.  23-25,  29  ;  iii.  1.3).  Di- 
Tine  judgment  against  him  and  his  hou.se 
was  therefore  denounced  by  a  projihet  (ii. 
27-36).  He  should  see  evil  befall  the  sanc- 
tuary, his  descendants  should  die  in  the 
flower  of  their  age,  his  two  sons  should  die 
in  one  day,  and  a  faithful  priest  should  super- 
sede Eli's  descendants,  from  whom  they  should 
seek  for  subordinate  priestly  appointments 
that  they  might  be  fed  (1  Sam.  i.  9-iii.  21). 
The  message  was  confirmed  by  a  similar  rev- 
elation to  young  Samuel,  and  Eli  was  com- 
forted by  the  evidence  which  Samuel's  call 
and  the  youth's  filial  and  truthful  conduct 
toward  him  in  the  trying  circumstances  af- 
forded, that  God  had  not  left  himself  without 
witness  in  Israel,  but  had  raised  up  a  true 
and  fearless  prophet  (iii.  11-18).  The  fir.st 
part  of  the  prediction  was  soon  afterwards 
fulfilled,  Hophni  and  Phinehas  being  killed 
in  a  battle  with  the  Philistines,  to  which  they 
had  gone  as  custodians  of  the  ark.  Eli,  now 
98  years  old  and  blind,  was  sitting  out- 
side on  a  seat  when  a  man  arrived  from 
the  scene  of  strife,  to  say  that  the  Israel- 
ites were  totally  defeated,  his  two  sons, 
Hophni  and  Phinehas,  slain,  and  the  ark  of 
God  taken.  All  but  the  last  item  of  intelli- 
gence he  was  prepared  to  hear;  but  on  learn- 
ing that  the  ark  of  God  was  captured  by  the 
enemy  he  fell  back  api)arently  unconscious, 
and  being  stout  broke  his  neck  and  expired 
(iv.  1-18).  He  had  judged  Israel  forty  years. 
Ahitub  succeeded  to  the  rank  of  high  priest 
(xiv.  3)  ;  but  with  the  death  of  Eli  the  office 
lost  for  a  long  time  its  importance,  for  the 
ark  was  in  captivity  and  seclusion,  and  the 
tabernacle  was  no  longer  the  place  of  Jeho- 
vah's gracious  presence.  Samuel  the  prophet 
13 


was  the  religious  leader  of  the  people.  The 
judgment  against  Eli's  posterity  was  executed 
when  Solomon  deposed  Eli's  descendant  Abia- 
thar  from  the  high-priesthood,  substituting 
Zadok  in  his  room  (1  Kin.  ii.  35). 

E-li'ab  [God  is  a  father]. 

1.  The  son  of  Helon.  and  the  head  of  the 
tribe  of  Zebulun  in  the  wilderness  (Num.  i. 
9;  ii.  7;  vii.  24,  29;  x.  16). 

2.  A  Eeubenite,  son  of  Pallu  and  father 
of  Dathan  and  Abiram  (Num.  xvi.  1,  12; 
xxvi.  8.  9). 

3.  A  Levite,  an  ancestor  of  Samuel  (1  Chron. 
vi.  27,  28).     See  Elihu. 

4.  David's  eldest  brother.  He  was  so  tall 
and  had  so  kingly  a  countenance  that  on 
seeing  him  Samuel  exclaimed,  "  Surely  the 
Lord's  anointed  is  before  him."  But  judged 
by  the  heart  he  was  not  worthy  of  the  king- 
dom (1  Sam.  xvi.  6,  7  ;  xvii.  13).  One  defect 
which  he  had  was  his  inability  to  appreciate 
the  larger  soul  of  David,  his  youngest  brother 
(28.  29).  His  daughter  Abihail  married  a  son 
of  David  (2  Chron.  xi.  18,  E.  V.). 

5.  A  Gadite,  of  the  heroic  type  who  joined 
David  at  Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  9). 

6.  A  Levite,  musician  at  the  sanctuary  in 
David's  reign  (1  Chron.  xv.  20). 

E-li'a-da,  in  A.  V.  once  Eliadah  (1  Kin. 
xi.  23)  [God  has  known — /.  e.  kindly  re- 
garded]. 

1.  A  son  of  David,  born  at  Jerusalem  (2 
Sam.  V.  16;  1  Chron.  iii.  8).  Called  also 
Beeliada  (q.  v.). 

2.  Father  of  Kezon  of  Zobah  (1  Kin.  xi. 
23). 

3.  A  Benjamite,  one  of  Jehoshaphat's  chief 
captains  (2  Chron.  xvii.  17). 

E-li'ah.     See  Elijah  2  and  4. 

E-li'ah-ba  [God  hath  hidden]. 
A  Shaalbouite,  one  of  David's  mighty  men 
(2  Sam.  xxiii.  32 :  1  Chron.  xi.  33). 

E-li'a-kim  [God  hath  established]. 

1.  An  ancestor  of  Christ.  He  lived  before 
the  captivitT,  and  was  descended  from  David 
through  Nathan  (Luke  iii.  30,  31). 

2.  Son  of  Hilkiah.  He  was  over  king 
Hezekiah's  household  ;  and  when  Jerusalem 
had  closed  its  gates  against  the  Assyrians,  he 
was  one  of  three  representatives  of  the  king 
who  were  sent  to  confer  with  the  rabshakeh 
of  Sennacherib  (2  Kin.  xviii.  18.  26,  37;  Is. 
xxxvi.  3.  11.  22).  Next  they  were  dispatched 
to  lay  the  answer  of  the  rabshakeh  bef(ire 
Isaiah,  and  desire  him  to  obtain  divine  di- 
rection in  the  great  crisis  which  had  arisen 
(2  Kin.  xix.  2;  Is.  xxxvii.  2).  The  prophet 
so  highly  commended  Eliakim,  and  made 
him  such  promises  from  God,  as  to  suggest 
that  he  must  be  regarded  as  a  type  of  the 
Messiah  (Is.  xxii.  20-25). 

3.  One  of  Josiah's  sons,  made  king  by 
Pharaoh-necho,  who  changed  his  name  to 
Jehoiakim  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  34 ;  2  Chron.  xxxvi. 
4). 


Eliam 


194 


Elijah 


4.  One  of  the  priests  who  officiated  at  the 
dedication  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh. 
xij.  41). 

5.  A  descendant  of  Zerubhabel  and  an  an- 
cestor vyf  Christ  (Mat.  i.  13). 

E-li'am  [God  is  one  of  the  family]. 

Father  of  Bath-sheba  (2  Sam.  xi.  .3)  ;  by 
transposition  of  the  constituent  parts  of  the 
name  called  Ammiel  (1  C'hron.  iii.  5).  Per- 
haps he  was  David's  mighty  man  of  this 
name,  the  son  of  Ahithophel  (2  Sam.  xxiii. 
34). 

E-li'as.    See  Elmah. 

E-li'a-saph  [God  hath  added]. 

1.  The  head  of  the  tribe  of  Gad  in  the  wil- 
derness (Num.  i.  14  ;  ii.  14  ;  vii.  42). 

2.  A  Levite,  the  son  of  Lael,  and  prince  of 
the  Gershonites  during  the  wilderness  wan- 
dering (Num.  iii.  24). 

E-li'a-shib  [God  hath  restored]. 

1.  The  ancestor  from  whom  the  eleventh 
priestly  course  took  its  name  (1  Chron.  xxiv. 
12). 

2.  A  Levite  and  singer  ■whom  Ezra  induced 
to  put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  24). 

3  and  4.  Two  men,  a  son  of  Zattu  and  a 
son  of  Baui,  similarly  persuaded  by  Ezra 
(Ezra  X.  27,  36). 

5.  The  high  priest,  the  second  in  succe.s.sion 
from  Jeshua  (Neh.  xii.  10).  He  lived  in  the 
time  of  Nehemiah,  and  with  the  priests  re- 
built the  sheepgate  of  Jerusalem  (iii.  1,  20, 
21).  As  high  priest  he  could  assign  chamJiers 
in  the  temple  to  whomsoever  he  pleased  (Ezra 
X.  6).  He  was  allied  by  marriage  with  Tobiah 
the  Ammonite,  and  his  grandson  was  son-in- 
law  of  Sauballat  (Neh.  xiii.  4,  28).  Not  being 
strict  ill  regard  to  the  separation  of  Jew  and 
gentile,  he  even  assigned  a  chamber  of  the 
temple  to  Tobiah  (.5). 

6.  A  son  of  Elioenai,  a  descendant  of  Zerub- 
habel (1  Chron.  iii.  24). 

E-li'a-thah  [God  hath  come]. 

A  son  of  Hemau,  and  a  musician  in  the 
reign  of  David  (1  Chron.  xxv.  4). 

E-li'dad  [God  hath  loved]. 

A  prince  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin  at  the 
time  when  the  Israelites  were  encamped  at 
Shittim  on  the  eve  of  entering  the  promised 
land.  He  was  appointed  a  member  of  the 
commission  to  divide  the  land  among  the 
tribes  (Num.  xxxiv.  21). 

E-li'e-ho-e'nal,  in  A.  V.  Elihoenai  [to  Je- 
hovah are  my  eye.s]. 

1.  A  Korhite  porter,  the  son  of  Meshelemiah 
(1  Chron.  xxvi.  3).  A.  V.  has  substituted  the 
variant  form  Elioenai. 

2.  A  son  of  Zerahiah.  He  with  200  fol- 
lowers accompanied  Ezra  from  Babylon  (Ezra 
viii.  4). 

E-li'el  [God  is  God]. 

1.  A  Levite.  family  of  Kohath,  and  an  an- 
cestor of  Samuel  the  prophet  (1  Chron.  vi. 
34J.     See  Elihu. 


2.  A  Mahavite,  one  of  David's  mighty  men 
(1  Chron.  xi.  46). 

3.  Another  of  David's  heroes  (ver.  47). 

4.  One  of  the  Gadites  who  came  to  David 
at  Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  11). 

5.  A  Levite,  a  son  of  Hebron.  He  lived  in 
David's  time  (1  Chron.  xv.  9,  11). 

6.  A  Beujamite,  a  son  of  Shimhi  (1  Chron. 
viii.  20). 

7.  Another  Benjamite,  a  sou  of  Shashak 
(1  Chron.  viii.  22). 

8.  A  chief  man  of  the  half-tribe  of  Manas- 
seh  east  of  the  Jordan  (1  Chron.  v.  24). 

9.  An  overseer  of  the  tithes  and  offerings 
in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah  (2  Chrou.  xxxi.  13). 

E-li-e'nai  [probably,  to  Jehovah  are  my 
eyes].     Probal)ly  a  contraction  of  Elihoenai. 

A  Beujamite,  a  sou  of  Shimhi  (1  Chrou. 
viii.  20). 

E-li-e'zer  [God  is  a  helper]. 

1.  A  man  of  Damascus,  the  steward  of 
Abraham  (Gen.  xv.  2;  cp.  xxiv.  2). 

2.  The  younger  son  of  Moses  (Ex.  xviii.  4  ; 
1  Chron.  xxiii.  1.5,  17). 

3.  A  Benjamite,  family  of  Becher  (1  Chron. 
vii.  8). 

4.  A  son  of  Zichri.  He  was  a  captain  over 
the  Reubenites  in  David's  reign  (1  Chron. 
xxvii.  16). 

5.  A  priest  who  blew  the  trumpet  before 
the  ark  iu  David's  reign  (1  Chron.  xv.  24). 

6.  A  prophet,  son  of  Dodavah  of  Mareshah. 
He  predicted  the  .shipwreck  of  Jehoshaphat's 
vessels  because  he  had  joined  with  Ahaziah, 
of  Ahab's  family  (2  Chron.  xx.  37). 

7.  One  of  those  whom  Ezra  sent  for  Le- 
vites,  when  it  was  found  that  there  were  few 
of  them  among  the  returning  exiles  (Ezra 
viii.  16). 

8.  9,  and  10.  Three  men,  one  a  priest,  one 
a  Levite,  and  one  a  sou  of  Harim,  whom  Ezra 
induced  to  put  away  their  foreign  wives  (Ezra 
X.  18,  23,  31). 

11.  Au  ancestor  of  Christ  who  lived  be- 
tween the  time  of  David  and  the  captivity 
(Luke  iii.  29). 

E-li-ho-e'nai.     See  Eliehoenai. 

E-11-lio'repli  [God  is  a  reward]. 

One  of  Solomon's  scribes  (1  Kin.  iv.  3). 

E-li'hu  [he  is  God]. 

1.  An  Ephraimite,  son  of  Tohu  and  au  an- 
cestor of  Samuel  the  prophet  (1  Sam.  i.  1),  ap- 
parentlv  called  also  Eliab  and  Eliel  (1  Chron. 
vi.  27,  34). 

2.  David's  eldest  brother,  called  also  Eliab 
(cp.  1  Sam.  xvi.  6  with  1  Chron.  xxvii.  18). 
See  Jesse. 

3.  A  Manassite  captain  who  with  others 
joined  David  on  his  way  to  Ziklag  (1  Chron. 
xii.  20). 

4.  A  doorkeeper  during  David's  reign,  of 
the  family  of  Obed-edom  (1  Chron.  xxvi.  7). 

5.  One  of  Job's  friends,  a  Buzite,  the  son 
of  Barachel  (Job  xxxii.-xxxvii.). 

E-li'jah;  in  A.  V.  twice  Ellali  (1  Chron. 
viii.  27 ;  Ezra  x.  26) ;  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Elias, 


Elijah 


195 


Elijah 


whii'h  is  the  Hebrew  word  transliteratoil  into 
Cireek  aud  provided  with  a  (ircek  teniiiua- 
tion  [my  (iod  is  Jehovali]. 

1.  One  of  the  greatest  of  tlie  iirojihets.  He 
was  a  Tishbite,  liaviiig  been  Ixirn  perhaps  at 
Tishbeh  in  (JaliU'c  ;  l)ut  lie  dwelt  in  (Ulead  (1 
Kin.  xvii.  1)  ;seeTisiiHiTK.  He  wore  a  garment 
of  skin  or  of  coarse  camel-hair,  which  was  girt 
about  his  loins  with  a  leather  girdle  (2  Kin. 
i.  8 ;  1  Kin.  xix.  115).  When  Ahab,  under  the 
inliuence  of  his  wife  Jezebel,  had  given  him- 
self to  the  worship  of  the  false  god  Baal, 
Elijah  suddenly  appeared  uj)on  the  scene. 
He  presented  himself  before  the  erring  king, 
and  predicted  a  drought  of  indefinite  dui-a- 
tion  as  a  penalty  for  the  rejection  of  Jeho- 
vah. On  account  of  the  famine  he  retired 
first  to  the  brook  Cherith,  wliere  he  was 
miraculously  fed  by  ravens;  see  Raven.  When 
the  brook  became  dry  he  went  to  Zarcphath  (m 
the  coast  of  the  ISIediterrauean  between  Tyre 
and  Sidon.  A  poor  widow  there  shared  her 
little  with  him,  aud  in  return  her  barrel  of 
meal  and  cruse  of  oil  did  not  fail  until  the 
famine  was  ended;  and  when  her  son  died 
he  was  restored  to  life  at  the  prayer  of  the 
prophet  (1  Kin.  xvii.  1-24  ;  Luke  iv.  24-26). 
After  many  days,  in  the  third  year  (1  Kin. 
xviii.  1 ;  Luke  iv.  25 ;  Jas.  v.  17),  Elijah  was 
directed  to  show  himself  to  Ahab.  Then  fol- 
lowed the  scene  at  mount  C'armel.  The 
priests  of  Baal  endeavored  to  secure  evidence 
of  Baal's  divinity,  but  failed.  Then  Elijah 
gathered  the  people  about  an  ancient  altar 
of  the  Lord,  which  had  probably  been  erected 
by  pious  Israelites  of  the  north  whom  the  de- 
fection of  the  ten  tribes  prevented  from  wor- 
shiping at  Jerusalem.  It  had  been  thrown 
down.  Elijah  repaired  it,  taking  twelve 
stones  for  the  purpose,  thus  silently  testify- 
ing that  the  division  of  the  twelve  tribes 
into  two  kingdoms  was  at  variance  with  the 
divine  will.  To  obviate  every  possibility  of 
fraud,  he  made  the  people  drench  the  sacri- 
fice and  the  altar  with  water.  Then  he  cried 
to  the  Lord.  Jehovah,  by  consuming  Eli- 
jah's sacrifice,  vindicated  his  Godhead  :  and 
Baal's  prophets,  having  been  proven  to  be 
religious  impostors,  were  taken  down  to  the 
brook  Kishon.  which  washed  the  northern 
base  of  the  mountain,  and  slain  (1  Kin. 
xviii.  1-46;  cp.  Deut.  xvii.  2-5;  xiii.  13-16). 
Jezebel,  furious  at  the  destruction  of  her 
prophets,  vowed  the  death  of  Elijah,  who 
fled  away  to  mount  Horeb,  where,  like  Moses, 
he  was  miraculously  sustained  for  forty  days 
and  nights  (Ex.  xxiv.  18;  xxxiv.  28 ;  Deut. 
ix.  9,  18 ;  1  Kin.  xix.  8).  a  foreshadowing  of 
the  similar  incident  in  the  life  of  Jesus  (Mat. 
iv.  2  ;  Luke  iv.  2).  There  Elijah  was  rebuked 
and  sent  back  to  his  duty.  He  was  directed 
to  anoint  Hazael  king  over  Syria,  Jehu  king 
over  Israel,  aud  Elisha  prophet  in  his  room 
(1  Kin.  xix.  1-21).  When  Jezebel  and  Ahab 
peqietrated  the  judicial  murder  of  Naboth 
to  obtain  his  vineyard,  Elijah  met  the  king 
in  the  coveted  plot  of  ground,  and  denounced 


Jehovah's  vengeance  against  him  and  his  fe- 
male participant  in  guilt  for  their  great  crime 
(xxi.  1-29).  Elijah  did  not  appear  at  court 
when  the  expedition  against  Kamoth-gilead 
was  planned,  but  its  issue  commenced  the 
verification  of  the  predictions  which  he  had 
uttered  again.st  the  royal  house  (xxii.  1-40). 
When  .\hab"s  successor  Ahaziah,  seriously 
injured  by  falling  through  a  lattice,  sent 
messengers  to  Baalzebub,  the  god  of  Ekron, 
to  ask  wht'ther  he  should  recover  fif  his  fall, 
Elijah  turned  them  l>ack  ;  and  when  twice 
a  captain  of  fifty  with  his  men  was  sent  ap- 
parently to  arrest  him,  he  called  fire  from 
heaven  and  consumed  the  whole  party.  A 
third  captain  was  sent,  but  he  did  not  at- 
tempt to  arrest  the  man  of  God  and  begged 
for  life.  Elijah  went  with  him  (2  Kin. 
i.  1-16).  Finally  the  prophet  obtained  the 
great  honor,  bestowed  before  only  on  Enoch 
((tcu.  v.  24),  of  being  translated  to  heaven 
without  dying.  A  chariot  and  horses  of 
fire  appeared  to  him  when  he  had  gone 
with  his  servant  Elisha  to  the  east  of  the 
Jordan,  and,  parting  them  asunder,  took 
Elijah  up  in  a  whirlwind  to  heaven  (2  Kin. 
ii.  1-12).  Elijah  appears  to  have  been  trans- 
lated just  before  Jehoram  of  Israel  ascended 
the  throne  (2  Kin.  ii.  with  i.  18  and  iii.  1) 
and  during  the  reign  of  Jehoshaphat  of 
Judah  (iii.  11);  yet  he  wrote  a  document  in 
which  he  addressed  Jehoram  of  Judah,  who 
indeed  was  a  co-regent  with  .Jehoshaphat, 
and  threatened  him  Avith  divine  judgment, 
not  only  for  sins  committed  during  the  life- 
time of  Jeho.shaphat.  but  for  murder  which 
he  committed  after  Jehoshaphat's  death  (2 
Chron.  xxi.  12;  cp.  13  with  4).  If  Elijah 
was  translated  at  the  time  indicated,  he 
prophesied  during  his  lifetime  concerning 
future  deeds  of  Jehoram,  just  as  he  foretold 
future  acts  of  Hazael  and  Jehu  (1  Kin.  xix. 
15-17).  Less  in  accordance  with  the  lan- 
guage of  iii.  11  is  the  explanation  that  the 
account  of  Elijah's  tran.slation  is  inserted 
where  it  is  in  2  Kings  simply  to  complete  the 
narrative  of  his  public  activity,  and  that 
Elijah  was  still  alive  when  Elisha  waswith  the 
army  of  Jehoshaphat  in  southern  Judah,  and 
was  living  when  Jehoram  became  sole  king. 
The  last  two  verses  of  the  O.  T.  predict  that 
God  will  send  Elijah  before  the  coming  of 
the  great  and  dreadful  day  of  the  Lord  (Mai. 
iv.  5,  6).  The  N.  T.  explains  that  the  refer- 
ence is  to  John  the  Baptist,  who  was  like  the 
Tishbite  in  humble  dress  and  appearance 
(Mat.  iii.  4;  Mark  i.  6),  and  resembled  him 
also  in  his  fidelitv  and  the  work  which  he 
did  (Mat.  xi.  Il-i4  ;  xvii.  10-12;  Mark  ix. 
11-13;  Luke  i.  17).  There  are  those,  how- 
ever, who  contend  that  while  John  appeared 
in  the  spirit  and  power  of  Elijah,  the  O.  T. 
prophet  is  yet  to  appear,  in  person,  before  the 
second  advent  of  our  Lord.  Elijah  appeared 
on  the  mount  of  Transfiguration  as  the  repre- 
sentative of  the  O.  T.  ]irophecy  to  do  honor  to 
Jesus,  its  theme  (Mat.  xvii.  4;  Mark  ix.  4; 


Elika 


196 


Elisha 


Luke  ix.  30) ;  and  Lis  ascension,  to  which 
there  was  nothing  analogous  in  the  history 
of  John  the  Bajjtist,  doubtless  foreshadowed 
tliat  of  our  risen  Lord. 

The  miracles  which  were  wrought  during 
the  ministry  of  Elijah  belong  to  the  second 
of  the  four  miracle  periods  of  redemptive 
history,  the  period  of  the  life  and  death 
struggle  between  the  religion  of  Jehovah  and 
Baal  worship,  when  the  adherence  of  the  peo- 
])le  of  northern  Israel  to  the  faith  of  their 
fathers  was  at  issue,  and  all  other  questions 
regarding  religious  observances  sank  to  minor 
importance.    See  Miracle. 

2.  A  Benjamite,  a  son  of  Jeroham,  resident 
at  Jerusalem  (1  C'hron.  viii.  27,  R.  V.). 

3.  A  priest,  a  son  of  Harim.  He  married 
a  gentile  wife  (Ezra  x.  21). 

4.  An  Israelite  induced  by  Ezra  to  put  away 
his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  26,  R.  V.). 

E-li'ka. 

A  Harodite,  one  of  David's  mighty  men 
(2  Sam.  xxiii.  25). 

E'lim  [strong  evergreen  trees ;  such  as  oaks, 
terebinths,  palms]. 

The  second  encampment  of  the  Israelites 
after  the  passage  of  the  Red  Sea.  It  was  be- 
tween Marah  aud  the  desert  of  Sin,  and  had 
twelve  springs  of  water  aud  seventy  palm 
trees  (Ex.  xv.  27 ;  xvi.  1 ;  Num.  xxxiii.  9, 10). 
Two  valleys,  wady  Ghurundel  and  wady 
Useit,  or  Waseit,  are  rivals  for  the  honor  of 
representing  the  ancient  Elim.  The  former 
has  more  water,  and  is  commonly  regarded 
as  the  site.  Both  are  fringed  with  trees  and 
shrubs,  though  the  adjacent  parts  of  the 
desert  are  bare.  The  vegetation  consists  of 
palm  trees,  tamarisks,  and  acacias. 

E-lim'e-lech  [God  is  king]. 

A  man  of  Bethlehem  of  Judah,  the  hus- 
band of  Naomi  (Ruth  i.  1,  5). 

E-li-o-e'nai  [my  eyes  (are  turned)  toward 
Jehovah] .  The  Hebrew  form  is  a  legitimate 
variant  of  Eliehoeuai. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Simeon  (1  Chron.  iv. 
3(5). 

2.  A  Beujamite,  family  of  Becher  (1  Chron. 
vii.  8). 

3.  A  Levite  (1  Chron.  xxvi.  3,  A.  V.).  See 
Eliehoenai. 

4  and  5.  Two  Hebrews,  each  of  whom  was 
induced  by  Ezra  to  put  away  his  foreign  wife 
(Ezra  X.  22,  27). 

6.  A  man  of  Judah,  descended  from  Sheca- 
niah  (1  Chron.  iii.  23,  24). 

E-li'phal  [God  has  judged]. 

One  of  David's  mighty  men,  a  son  of  Ur 
(1  Chron.  xi.  35).  Apparently  called  Eliph- 
elet,  the  son  of  Ahasbai  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  34). 
See  Ur. 

E-liph'a-let.     See  Eliphelet. 

E-li'phaz  [God  is  strong]. 

1.  A  son  of  Esau,  by  Adah,  one  of  his  wives 
(Gen.  xxxvi.  4). 

2.  A  Temanite,  one  of  Job's  friends  (Job 


ii.  11 ;  iv.  1 ;  xv.  1 ;  xxii.  1 ;  xlii.  7,  9).  Prob- 
ably a  descendant  of  No.  1,  who  had  a  son 
Teman  (Gen.  xxxvi.  11). 

E-liph'e-leh,  in  R.  V.  E-liph'e-le-hu  [God 
is  distinguished  (as  excellent)]. 

A  Levite,  a  singer  and  a  harper,  who  acted 
also  as  a  porter  when  David  brought  up  the 
ark  from  the  house  of  Obed-edom  (1  Chron. 
XV.  18,  21). 

E-liph'e-let,  in  A.  V.  twice  Eliphalet  [God 
is  deliverance]. 

1.  A  son  born  to  David  in  Jerusalem  (1 
Chron.  iii.  6).  A  correct  Hebrew  alternate 
form  is  Elpalet  (1  Chron.  xiv.  5). 

2.  Auother  son  of  David's,  born  also  at  Je- 
rusalem, probably  after  the  death  of  the 
former  (2  Sam.  v.  16;  1  Chron.  iii.  8;  xiv.  7). 

3.  A  son  of  Ahasbai,  and  one  of  David's 
mighty  men  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  34).  Apparently 
called  Eliphal  in  1  Chron.  xi.  35. 

4.  A  descendant  of  Jonathan  and  of  Saul 
(1  Chron.  viii.  39). 

5.  A  son  of  Adonikam.  He  returned  with 
Ezra  from  Babylon  (Ezra  viii.  13). 

6.  A  son  of  Hashum.  Ezra  induced  him 
to  put  away  his  foreign  wdfe  (Ezra  x.  33). 

E-lis'a-beth  [God  is  an  oath,  i.  e.,  a  cov- 
enant maker]. 

A  godly  woman,  a  daughter  of  the  house 
of  Aaron,  aud  bearing  the  name  of  Aaron's 
wife  (Ex.  vi.  23,  Elisheba).  She  became  the 
wife  of  the  priest  Zacharias  and  the  mother 
of  John  the  Baptist.  She  bore  him  when  she 
was  of  advanced  years,  his  birth  and  mi,ssiou 
having  been  communicated  beforehand  by  an 
angel  to  her  husband.  Though  of  different 
tribes,  she  aud  Mary  of  Nazareth  were  kins- 
women, and  Mary  visited  Elisabeth  at  a  vil- 
lage (probably  Juttah)  in  the  hill  country  of 
Judsea.  Elisabeth,  inspired  by  the  Holy 
Ghost,  welcomed  Mary  as  the  mother  of  the 
Lord  (Luke  i.  5-45). 

E-li'sha,  in  A.  Y.  of  N.  T.  Eliseus,  which 
is  an  imitation  of  the  Greek  modification  of 
the  name  [God  is  salvation]. 

One  of  the  two  great  prophets  of  the  older 
period  of  Israelite  history  who  labored  in  the 
northern  kingdom.  He  was  the  son  of  Sha- 
phat,  dwelt  at  Abel-meholah  in  the  Jordan 
valley,  and  was  well  to  do  ;  twelve  yoke  of 
oxen  plowed  his  fields.  He  was  appointed 
by  God  to  be  the  successor  of  Elijah  (1  Kin. 
xix.  16,  19).  Elijah  found  him  plowing  and 
cast  his  mantle  over  him.  Elisha  understood 
the  significance  of  the  act;  and,  having  ob- 
tained the  prophet's  permission,  went  home, 
gave  a  farewell  feast  to  his  friends,  aud  re- 
turned to  be  the  follower  and  assistant  of 
Elijah  (19-21).  When  Elijah  went  beyond 
the  Jordan  to  be  translated  to  heaven,  Elisha 
kept  close  to  his  side  ;  and  when  asked  to 
name  what  he  would  like  to  obtain  as  a  part- 
ing gift  had  the  wisdom  to  petition  for  a 
double  portion  of  Elijah's  spirit.  He  saw  the 
fiery  chariot  bear  his  master  away,  and  tak- 
ing the  mantle  which  had  fallen  from  Elijah, 


Elishah 


197 


Elizaphan 


struck  the  Jordan  with  it,  which  divided  and 
permitted  liini  to  cross  to  its  western  side 
(2  Kin.  ii.  1-lM.  His  subsequent  lite  was 
marked  hy  a  series  of  miracles,  some  of  knowl- 
edge, ot  hers  of  power,  expressly  wrought  in  the 
name  of  the  Lord.  They  belong  to  the  sec- 
ond group  of  miracles  in  redemptive  historj-. 
They  occurred  at  a  time  when  the  religion 
of  Jehovah  was  engaged  in  a  des])erate  strug- 
gle for  existence  against  Baal  worship,  and, 
like  the  miracles  by  (iod  for  Elijah,  were  in- 
tended to  accredit  the  projihet  and  to  attest 
Jehovah  to  be  the  living  <iod.  In  the  name 
of  the  Lord  he  healed  the  deleterious  waters 
of  a  .spring  near  to  Jericho  (19-2"2).  He  pro- 
nounced Jehovah's  curse  on  lads  who  con- 
temptuously insulted  the  prophet  of  the  Lord 
in  him,  and  two  bears  presently  tore  forty- 
two  of  them  (•23-25).  He  predicted  the  de- 
liverance and  temporary  success  of  the  three 
kings  who  were  invading  Moab  (iii.  11-27). 
He  multiplied  a  widow's  ])ot  of  oil  (iv.  1-7). 
He  predicted  to  a  Shunammite  woman  the 
birth  of  a  son,  and  at  his  prayer  that  son  was 
restored  to  life  when  he  had  died  (8-37).  He 
named  an  antidote  to  a  poisonous  plant  in 
the  pot  in  which  food  was  being  cooked  for 
the  iirophets  (3S-41).  As  prophet  of  the  Lord 
be  fed  a  hundred  men  with  twenty  barley 
loaves  and  a  few  ears  of  corn  (42-44),  told 
Naamau  to  wash  in  Jordan  and  he  would  be 
healed  of  his  leprosy  (v.  1-19),  and  foretold 
its  transference  to  Gehazi  as  a  punishment 
of  lying  and  covetousness  (20-27).  He  made 
an  iron  axhead  swim  (vi.  1-7).  He  com- 
municated to  the  king  of  Israel,  without 
being  informed  of  them,  the  movements  and 
intentions  of  his  Syrian  rival  (8-12).  At  his 
prayer,  the  Lord  revealed  to  the  prophet's 
servant  horses  and  chariots  of  fire  stirrouud- 
ing  them  for  their  protection  (13-17),  and 
caused  blindness  to  fall  on  the  Syrian  emis- 
saries sent  to  arrest  them  (17-23).  He  inti- 
mated, without  being  told  it.  that  a  messen- 
ger from  the  king  of  Israel  was  at  the  door 
to  take  his  life  (vi.  32,  33).  He  predicted 
great  plenty  and  consequent  cheapness  of 
food  in  Samaria,  while  it  was  at  famine  prices 
during  a  siege,  adding,  however,  that  an  un- 
believing lord  who  discredited  the  prediction 
should  not  participate  in  the  boon,  which  he 
did  not,  for  he  was  trampled  to  death  in  a 
crowd  (vii.  1-20).  He  informed  Benhadad, 
king  of  Syria,  of  his  approaching  death  (viii. 
7-15).  He  declared  the  destruction  of  Ahab 
and  his  whole  house,  and  sent  a  young 
prophet  to  anoint  Jehu  to  execute  the  threat- 
ened judgment  (ix.  1-x.  28).  He  predicted 
three  victories  over  the  Syrians  (xiii.  14-19). 
Finally,  after  his  death,  a  man  hastily  cast 
into  the  same  sepulcher  was  at  once  restored 
to  life  on  touching  the  prophet's  bones  (20, 21). 

E-li'shah. 

The  descendants  of  Ja van  collectively,  who 
inhabited  the  country  of  Elishah  (Gen.  x.  4). 
This  country  was  maritime,   and   exported 


blue  and  purjde  dye  stuflfs  (Ezek.  xxvii.  7). 
It  has  been  variously  exi)lained  as  Hellas, 
Elis,  Aeolis.  Italy,  and  Carthage.  Philologi- 
cal olijections  weigh  against  the  first  four; 
and  there  is  no  proof  that  Carthage  was  ever 
called  Eli.ssa,  and  this  town  was  besides  in 
Africa.  Alishiya,  whose  king  exchanged 
correspondence  with  the  Pharaohs  of  the 
eighteenth  Egyptian  dynasty,  has  recently 
been  suggested  (K.  D.  Wilson)  ;  but  it  is  as 
yet  ofl'ered  as  a  mere  conjecture. 
E-lish'a-ma  [God  hath  heard]. 

1.  Son  of  Animihud,  and  prince  of  the 
Ephraimites  at  the  beginning  of  the  sojourn 
in  the  wilderness  (Num.  i.  10 ;  ii.  18),  and 
ancestor  of  Joshua  (1  C'hron.  vii.  26). 

2.  A  man  of  Judah.  descended  through 
Jerahmeel  and  Sheshan  (1  C'hron.  ii.  34,  41). 

3.  A  son  of  David,  born  at  Jerusalem  (1 
C'hron.  iii.  6).     See  Elishua. 

4.  Another  son  of  David  (2  Sam.  v.  16;  1 
Chron.  iii.  8). 

5.  A  priest,  one  of  those  sent  by  Jehosha- 
phat  to  teach  in  the  cities  of  Judah  (2  Chron. 
xvii.  8). 

6.  A  prince  and  scribe  in  the  reign  of  king 
Jehoiakim  (Jer.  xxxvi.  12,  20,  21).  and  prob- 
ably identical  with  the  grandfather  of  Ishniael 
of  the  seed  royal  who  murdered  Gedaliah.  the 
governor  of  Judtea  under  the  Babylonians  i2 
ivin.  XXV.  25 :  Jer.  xli.  1). 

E-lish'a-phat  [God  hath  judged]. 

One  of  the  captains  of  hundreds  who  sup- 
ported Jehoiada  in  the  revolt  against  Athaliah 
(2  Chron.  xxiii.  1). 

E-lish'e-ba  [God  is  an  oath]. 

Daughter  of  Amminadab,  and  sister  of 
Nabshon.  She  became  the  wife  of  Aaron, 
and  the  mother  of  Nadab,  Abihu,  Eleazar, 
and  Ithamar  (Ex.  vi.  23). 

E-lish'u-a  [God  is  salvation]. 

A  sou  of  David,  born  at  Jerusalem  (2  Sam. 
V.  15 :  1  Chron.  xiv.  5t.  In  the  correspond- 
ing position  in  the  third  list  of  David's  sons 
(1  Chron.  iii.  6)  the  name  Elishama  appears. 
In  view  of  the  reading  of  the  other  cata- 
logues, and  since  the  name  Elishama  was 
borne  by  another  of  David's  sons,  mentioned 
farther  on  in  all  three  lists,  it  is  reasonable 
to  believe  that  Elishama  in  1  Chron.  iii.  6  is  a 
misreading  of  Elishua,  as  it  is  a  quite  intelli- 
gible one. 

E-li'ud  [perhaps  from  Hebrew  "liy'hud, 
God  of  Judah  or  of  the  .Tews,  a  name  which 
does  not  occur  in  the  O.  T.] 

Son  of  Achim.  and  father  of  Eleazar,  in 
the  ancestry  of  Christ  (Mat.  i.  14,  15). 

E-liz'a-phan  or  Elzaphan,  the  forms  being 
interchangeable  in  Hebrew  [God  hath  con- 
cealed]. 

1.  Son  of  Uzziel.  and  chief  of  the  Koha- 
thites  in  the  wilderness  (Ex.  vi.  18,22  ;  Num. 
iii.  30).  He  assisted  in  removing  the  bodies 
of  Nadab  and  Abihu  from  the  camp  (Lev. 
X.  4). 


Elizur 


198 


Elymais 


2.  Son  of  Parnach,  and  prince  of  the  tribe 
of  Zebulun  in  the  wilderness  (Num.  xxxiv. 

25). 

E-li'zur  [God  is  a  rock]. 

Tlie  prince  of  the  Eeubenites  in  the  wil- 
derness (Num.  i.  5;  ii.  10). 

El'ka-nah  [God  hath  created]. 

1.  A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath,  house  of 
Izhar,  division  (jf  Korah.  He  was  brother 
of  Assir  and  Abiasaph  (Ex.  vi.  24 ;  1  Chron. 
vi.  23  and  perhaps  25). 

2,  3,  and  4.  Three  Levites,  links  in  one 
genealogy,  one  the  son  of  Joel,  the  second 
the  son  of  Mahath,  and  the  third  the  son  of 
Jeroham.  Like  the  preceding,  they  were  of 
the  family  of  Kohath,  house  of  Izhar,  Kor- 
hite  division ;  but  they  were  descended  from 
Abiasaph  (1  Chron.  vi.  36,  son  of  Joel ;  26,  35, 
of  Mahath  ;  27,  34,  and  1  Sam.  i.  1,  of  Jero- 
ham). The  last  of  the  three  belonged  to  the 
hill  country  of  Ephraim,  lived  at  Eamathaim 
of  the  Zo]>iiites,  was  the  husband  of  Hannah 
and  Peninnah,  and  the  father  of  Samuel  (1 
Sam.  i.  1;  ii.  11,  20). 

5.  Another  Korhite  who  had  dwelt  in  Ben- 
jamin, perhaps  because  the  Korhites  were 
doorkeepers  of  the  tabernacle  which  was 
pitched  in  Benjamin  (1  Chron.  ix.  19),  and 
who  joined  David  at  Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  6). 

6.  A  doorkeeper  for  the  ark  during  the 
reign  of  David  (1  Chron.  xv.  23). 

7.  A  high  dignitary  at  the  conrt  of  Ahaz, 
second  only  to  the  king  (2  Chron.  xxviii.  7). 

8.  A  Levite  who  dwelt  in  a  village  of  the 
Netophathites  (1  Chron.  ix.  16). 

Erkosh-ite. 

A  citizen  of  Elkosh  (Nah.  i.  1).  The  tradi- 
tion that  Alkush,  two  days' journey  north  of 
Nineveh,  was  the  birth  and  burial  place  of 
Naluim  is  late,  being  unknown  to  early  Ara- 
bian and  Syrian  writers;  and  the  contents 
of  the  book  of  Nahuni  are  against  it.  A  cred- 
ible, but  unproven,  identification  is  with  the 
town  Elccsi  or  Helcesa-i  in  Galilee,  which  was 
pointed  out  to  Jerome  as  the  birthplace  of 
the  proi)het. 

El'la-sar. 

A  place  in  or  near  Babylonia  (Gen.  xiv.  1, 
9).  Not  improbably  Larsa,  the  remains  of 
which  now  constitute  the  mounds  of  Seu- 
kereh,  to  the  southeast  of  Erech. 

Elm. 

An  erroneous  rendering  of  the  Hebrew 
word  'Elah  in  Hos.  iv.  13,  A.  V.  The  word 
is  properly  translated  "  oak  "  in  Gen.  xxxv.  4 
and  Judg.  vi.  11,  19,  with  terebinth  on  the 
margin  of  R.  V. 

El-ma'dam,  in  A.  V.  Elmodam. 

An  ancestor  of  Christ,  who  lived  before  the 
exil(!  (Luke  iii.  28). 

El'na-am  [(Tod  is  pleasantness]. 

The  father  of  certain  valiant  men  in  David's 
army  (1  ('bron.  xi.  46). 

El'na-than  [God  hath  given]. 

1.  The  father  of  Nehushta,  mother  of  king 


Jehoiachin  (2  Kin.  xxiv.  8).  He  dwelt  at 
Jerusalem,  and  was  probably  the  prince  El- 
nathau,  son  of  Achbor  (Jer.  xxvi.  22  ;  xxxvi. 
12,  25). 

2,  3,  and  4.  Three  Levites,  the  first  two 
chief  men,  and  the  third  a  man  of  under- 
standing, sent  for  by  Ezra  to  the  brook  Ahava 
(Ezra  viii.  16). 

E-lo'i  [Aramaic,  my  God].     See  Eli,  I. 

E'lon  [an  oak  or  terebinth]. 

1.  A  Hittite,  whose  daughter  Esau  married 
(Gen.  xxvi.  34;  xxxvi.  2). 

2.  A  son  of  Zebulun,  and  founder  of  a 
tribal  family  (Gen.  xlvi.  14  ;  Num.  xxvi.  26). 

3.  A  Zebulonite  who  judged  Israel  for  ten 
years,  and  was  buried  at  Aijalon,  in  Zebulun 
(Judg.  xii.  11,  12). 

4.  A  village  of  Dan  (Josh.  xix.  43).  Not 
identified  ;  for  Beit  EUo,  8  miles  northwest 
by  west  from  Bethel,  is  not  in  the  limits  of 
the  ancient  territory  of  Dan. 

E'lon-beth-ha'nan  [Elon  of  Beth-hanan]. 

A  town  in  Dan,  to  judge  from  its  associates 
(1  Kin.  iv.  9),  perhaps  identical  with  Elon. 
Its  site  is  not  Beit  'Anan,  8i  miles  northwest 
of  Jerusalem.  This  place  is  in  Benjamin,  a 
diflerent  tax  district  (18),  and  the  name  is 
differently  spelled. 

E'loth.     See  Elath. 

El'pa-al  [God  is  a  reward]. 

A  man  of  Benjamin,  son  of  Shaharaim,  and 
head  of  a  father's  house  (1  Chron.  viii.  11, 
12,  18). 

El'pa-let,  in  R.  V.  Elpelet.     See  Eliphe- 

LET. 

El-pa'ran.     Sec  Elath. 

El'te-keh  [perhaps,  God  is  a  dread]. 

A  town  of  Dan  assigned  to  the  Levites 
(Josh.  xix.  44 ;  xxi.  23).  and  mentioned  in 
the  records  of  Sennacherib  likewise  in  con- 
nection with  Timnah  and  Ekron.  In  701 
B.  c.  Scnuacherib  destroyed  the  town,  and  in 
its  vicinity  the  decisive  battle  between  the 
Assyrians  and  Egyptians  was  fought.  Not 
identified  ;  certainly  not  Beit  Likia.  2  miles 
south  of  the  Nether  Beth-horon. 

El'te-kon  [God  is  firmness]. 

A  village  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  59).     Exact  site  unknown. 

El'to-lad  [birth,  race]. 

A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  30).  assigned  to  the  Simeonites 
(xix.  4).  Called  in  1  Chron.  iv.  29  simply 
Tolad,  with  omission  of  what  is  either  tlie 
word  for  God  or  the  Arabic  article.  Exact 
site  unknown. 

E'lul. 

Tlie  sixth  month  of  the  year  (Neh.  vi.  15; 
1  Mac.  xiv.  27),  approximately  September. 
See  Year. 

E-lu'zai  [perhaps,  God  is  my  strength]. 

One  of  the  valiant  men  who  came  to  David 
to  Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  5). 

El-y-ma'is.    See  Elam. 


Elymas 


199 


Emerald 


El'y-nias  [appareutlj-  from  Arabic  'dUm, 
learned]. 

A  Jewish  impostor,  Bar-jesus  by  name, 
which  means  son  of  Jesus  or  Joshua,  who 
pretended  to  learn  the  future  throujj;h  sor- 
cery. Paul  encountered  him  in  Pai)hos,  a 
town  of  Cyprus,  duriuj;  his  first  missionary 
journey.  He  soujjht  to  turn  from  the  faith 
Sergius  Pauhis.  tlie  Koman  deputy  or  pro- 
consul of  tlie  island,  who  .seemed  disposed  to 
accept  the  doctrine  of  Paul  and  seek  for  bap- 
tism. The  apostle,  therefore,  severely  re- 
buked the  sorcerer  and  struck  him  with  tem- 
porary blindness,  the  miracle  removing  the 
last  doubt  which  the  proconsul  had  as  to  the 
claims  of  Christian  truth  on  his  acceptance 
(Acts  xiii.  (J-12). 

El'za-bad  [God  hath  bestowed]. 

1.  One  of  the  valiant  Gadites  who  came  to 
David  (1  Chron.  xii.  12). 

2.  A  Levite  of  the  family  of  Obed-edom, 
and  a  doorkeeper  at  the  house  of  the  Lord 
(1  Chron.  xxvi.  7). 

El'za-phan.     See  Elizaphan. 

Em-balm'. 

To  attempt  to  preserve  a  dead  body  from 
decay  by  the  use  of  sweet  spices.  The  He- 
brews seldom  embalmed  their  dead  (Gen.  1. 
2,  26 ;  cp.  2  Chron.  xvi.  14 ;  John  xix.  39),  but 
the  art  of  embalming  was  practiced  by  the 
Egyptians  from  very  early  times.  The  em- 
balmers  were  a  numerous  guild,  who  dwelt 
at  the  cemeteries.  They  were  divided  into 
three  classes — the  first  made  the  incision  in 
the  body,  the  second  handled  the  spices,  and 
the  third  conducted  the  religious  ceremonies 
■when  the  body  was  placed  in  the  tomb.  By 
the  time  of  the  eighteenth  dynasty,  shortly 
before  the  time  of  Moses,  they  had  brought 
their  art  to  great  perfection.  The  brain  was 
drawn  through  the  nose  with  an  iron  hook 
and  reidaced  with  si)ices.  The  entrails  were 
removed,  and  the  abdominal  cavity  was 
Avashed  out  by  the  injection  of  palm  wine, 


Egyptian  Embalming. 

and  then  filled  with  bruised  myrrh,  cassia, 
cinnamon,  and  other  spices.  Next  the  whole 
body  was  ])lunged  in  natron,  or  more  exactly 
subcarbonate  of  soda,  and  left  in  it  for 
seventy  days.  Then  it  was  rolled  in  linen 
bandages  only  three  or  four  inches  wide,  but 
of  the  extraordinary  length  of  700  or  even 


1000  yards.  Gum  Arabic  was  used  to  keep 
the  bandages  in  their  place,  and  finally  the 
corpse,  now  mummified,  was  ])laced  in  a 
case  of  wood  or  cartonnage,  made  in  the  shape 
of  a  man,  and  carved  :ind  ]>ainted  to  repre- 
sent the  deceased  person.  It  was  often  en- 
closed in  a  second  or  outer  case  of  wood 
or  in  a  stone  sarcophagus.  A  less  expensive 
method  required  no  incision  ;  the  intestines 
were  dissolved  by  an  injection  of  oil  of  cedar. 
In  the  case  of  the  })oor,  the  abdomen  was 
merely  purged  and  steeped  in  natron  (Herod, 
ii.  85-88,  fully  confirmed  by  Egyptian  records 
and  mummies).  According  to  the  Sicilian 
hi.storian  Diodorus,  the  interment  of  a  rich 
man  cost  the  relatives  the  eqtiivalent  of  about 
.$1200.  A  second-rate  emlialmment  cost  aVjout 
$400,  and  there  was  a  nnich  cheajier  kind 
for  the  common  peoi)le.  Embalming  ceased 
about  A.  D.  700.  Many  mummies  are  in  the 
British  and  other  museums.  Occasionally 
one  is  unrolled,  but  it  tends  to  fall  to  pieces 
when  exposed  to  the  air. 

Em-broid'ery. 

Ornamentation  by  raised  figures  of  needle- 
work, executed  with  colored  silks,  gold  or 
silver  thread,  or  any  similar  material  difl'er- 
ing  from  that  of  the  original  cloth.  Bezaleel 
and  Aholiab  were  able  to  practice,  among 
other  arts,  that  of  embroidering  in  blue, 
purple,  scarlet,  and  fine  linen  (Ex.  xxxv.  35  ; 
xxxviii.  23).  The  screens  for  the  door  of  the 
tabernacle  and  the  gate  of  the  court  (Ex. 
xxvi.  36  ;  xxvii.  16)  and  the  girdle  of  the 
high  priest  (xxviii.  39,  E.  Y. ;  xxxix.  29)  M^ere 
embroidered.  The  wealthy  often  wore  em- 
broidered garments  (Judg.  v.  30  ;  Ps.  xlv.  14). 

E'mek-ke'ziz,  in  A.  V.  valley  of  Keziz  [a 
vale  cut  ofi'  or  vale  of  fissure]. 

A  town  of  Benjamin,  evidently  in  a  valley 
and  apparently  near  Jericho  and  Beth-hoglah 
(Josh,  xviii.  21).  Scarcely  to  be  connected 
with  wady  el-Kaziz,  a  branch  of  the  Kidron, 
which  seems  to  lie  too  far  west  and  south. 

Em'er-ald  [Greek  smaracidos]. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  ]S!ophek. 
It  was  the  first  stone  in  the  second  row  of 
those  on  the  Jewish  high  priest's  breastplate 
(Ex.  xxviii.  18;  xxxix.  11).  The  Syrians 
imported  jjrecious  stones  of  this  kind  into 
Tyre  (Ezek.  xxvii.  16),  and  the  Tyrians  used 
them  for  ornaments  (xxviii.  13).  The  exact 
stone  intended  is  doubtful.  It  may  be  the 
carbuncle  (R.  V.  margin  ;  cp.  Septuagint). 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Greek  S)imi-afidos, 
meaning  a  precious  stone  of  a  light  green 
color.  The  name  was  perhaps  applied  to  any 
green  crystallized  mineral.  It  was  used  f(jr 
signets  (Ecclus.  xxxii.6)  ;  a  rainbow  is  likened 
to  it  (Rev.  iv.  3) ;  it  was  to  be  the  fourth 
foundation  in  the  New  Jerusalem  (xxi.  19  ; 
cp.  Tobit  xiii.  16).  The  emerald  is  a  variety 
of  beryl,  distinguished  by  its  color,  which  is 
bright  green,  from  typical  beryl,  which  is 
pale  green,  passing  into  light  blue,  yellow, 
or  white.    While  the  beryl  is  colored  by  iron, 


Emerods 


200 


En-gedi 


the  emerald  is  colored  by  chromium.  An- 
ciently it  was  found  in  Cyprus,  in  Egypt,  and 
in  the  mountains  of  Ethiopia. 

Em'e-rods  [a  corrupted  form  of  hemor- 
rhoids]. 

Piles ;  external  or  internal  tumors  in  the 
anal  region,  formed  of  dilated  blood  vessels 
(Deut.  xxviii.  27).  They  were  inflicted  on 
the  Philistines  of  Ashdod  and  Ekron,  to  com- 
pel them  to  send  back  the  ark  which  they 
had  captured  (1  Sam.  v.  6;  vi.  11). 

E'mim,  in  A.  V.  Emims,  a  double  plural. 

The  ancient  inhabitants  of  territory  after- 
wards occupied  by  the  Moabites.  They  were 
tall  as  the  Anakim,  and  were  once  a  nu- 
merous and  powerful  people  (Deut.  ii.  9-11). 
Chedorlaomer  smote  them  in  the  plain  of 
Kiriathaim  (Gen.  xiv.  5). 

Em-man'u-el.     See  Immanuel. 

Em'ma-us. 

1.  A  village  60  furlongs  from  Jerusalem,  a 
distance  which  could  be  traversed  on  foot  be- 
tween the  hour  for  supper  and  the  time  of  an 
evening  meeting  (Luke  xxiv.  13,  29,  33;  cp. 
Mark  xvi.  14:  John  xx.  19).  Vespasian  lo- 
cated 800  veterans  at  "  Emmaus  distant  sixty 
[according  to  another  reading,  thirty]  fur- 
longs from  Jerusalem"  (War  vii.  6,  6).  The 
Talmud  states  that  Moza  is  Colouia.  Kubei- 
beh,  meaning  the  little  dome,  7  miles  north- 
west of  Jerusalem  on  the  Roman  road,  was 
pointed  out  to  the  Crusaders  as  the  site  of 
Emmaus.  In  the  vicinity  was  the  town  of 
Mozah  (Josh,  xviii.  26).  Three  miles  to  the 
south  of  Kubeibeh  is  Kulonieh,  that  is  col- 
ony, whose  distance  from  Jerusalem  is  4 
miles  or  more  according  to  the  road  followed. 
Probably,  therefore,  the  site  of  Emmaus  is 
to  be  found  either  at  Kubiebeh  or  Kulonieh, 
or  in  the  intervening  country.  The  distance 
and  tradition  since  the  time  of  the  Crusaders 
point  to  Kubeibeh ;  the  Roman  colony  to 
which  Emmaus  was  assigned  may  have  left 
its  name  attached  to  a  village  in  the  southern 
part  of  its  possessions.  Conder's  suggestion 
of  the  ruin  Khamaseh,  8  miles  southwest  of 
Jerusalem,  is  not  happy.  The  distance  suits, 
but  the  name  does  not  readily ;  for  only  rarely 
does  the  smooth  breathing,  which  appears  in 
the  Greek  form  of  Emmaus,  represent  the 
strong  guttural  h,  in  Arabic  h,  i.  e.  kh  (cp. 
Huldah  and  Hermon). 

2.  A  walled  town  of  some  note  18  miles,  or 
160  stades,  westward  from  Jerusalem  by  a 
circuitous  Roman  road  (1  Mac.  iii.  40;  ix.  50; 
War  ii.  20,  4).     Now  'Aniwas. 

Em'mor.     See  Hamor. 
E'na-im  [two  springs] . 
A  town  on  the  road  from  Adullam  to  Tim- 
nath  [Gen.  xxxviii.  14,  21,  in  A.  Y.  open). 

E'nam  [place  of  fountains]. 
A  village  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  34)  ;  probably  identical  with  Enaim. 
E'nan  [having  eyes,  seeing]. 


The  father  of  the  prince  of  the  tribe  of 
Naphtali  in  the  days  of  Moses  (Num.  i.  15). 

En-camp'ment.     See  Caiip. 

En-chant'er. 

One  who  practices  any  form  of  enchant- 
ment. In  R.  V.  of  Daniel  (ii.  2)  it  is  the 
rendering  of  the  Aramaic  'Ashsh(q>hiin,  and 
denotes  conjurers  and  exorcists  who  used 
incantations  and  pronounced  spells  for  the 
purpose  of  securing  the  aid  of  evil  spirits  or 
of  freeing  the  supposed  victims  of  evil  spirits 
from  their  torments. 

En-chant'ment. 

The  practice  of  magical  arts  or  the  utter- 
ance of  certain  words  whereby  the  aid  of 
evil  spirits  is  invoked,  in  order  to  produce 
supernatural  eflects  over  human  beings,  dan- 
gerous animals,  or  nature  generally.  En- 
chantment is  not  always  distinguished  from 
divination  in  the  English  versions  (Num. 
xsiii.  23  ;  xxiv.  1 ;  and  2  Kin.  xvii.  17,  where 
enchantment  is  rather  omen  ;  and  A.  V.  of 
Jer.  xxvii.  9).  Under  enchantment  are  prop- 
erly included  magic  (Ex.  vii.  11),  conjuration, 
exorcism  (Dan.  ii.  2,  in  A.  V.  astrologer),  sor- 
cery (Acts  viii.  9,  11  ;  xiii.  8,  10).  The  prac- 
ticing of  enchantments  was  forbidden  by  the 
Mosaic  law  (Deut.  xviii.  10).  Enchantments 
practiced  to  prevent  a  venomous  snake  from 
biting  (Eccles.  x.  11 ;  cp.  Ps.  Iviii.  5 ;  Jer.  viii. 
17)  belong,  of  course,  to  a  ditferent  category. 
They  require  neither  trickery  nor  the  invo- 
cation of  the  powers  of  evil. 

En'-dor.  [fountain  of  habitation]. 

A  town  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Manasseh 
(Josh.  xvii.  11;  reference  to  En-dor  wanting 
in  Septuagint).  Sisera  and  his  king,  Jabin, 
perished  in  its  vicinity  (Ps.  Ixxxiii.  10).  It 
was  the  residence  of  the  woman  with  a  fa- 
miliar spirit,  whom  king  Saul  consulted  (1 
Sam.  xxviii.  7).  It  has  been  identified  as 
the  village  of  Endor  or  Endur,  on  the  north- 
ern shoulder  of  Little  Hermon,  6  miles  S.  E. 
of  Nazareth. 

En-eg'la-im  [fountain  of  two  calves]. 

A  place  on  the  Dead  Sea  (Ezek.  xlvii.  10). 

En-gan'nim  [fountain  of  gardens]. 

1.  A  village  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  34).     Site  unknown. 

2.  A  town  on  the  boundary  line  of  Issachar 
(Josh.  xix.  21),  assigned  to  the  Gershonite 
Levites  (xxi.  29).  It  seems  to  be  the  Giusea 
of  Josephus  (Antiq.  xx.  6.  1;  War  iii.  3,  4). 
It  is  the  modern  Jcuin,  a  village  of  about 
3000  inhabitants,  on  the  southern  margin  of 
the  plain  of  Jezi'eel,  5  miles  northeast  of 
Dothan  and  about  7  southwest  from  mount 
Gilboa. 

En-ge'di  [fountain  of  a  kid]. 

A  fountain  and  town  originally  called 
Hazazon-tamar,  meaning  pruning  of  a  palm 
(2  Chron.  xx.  2),  in  the  wilderness  on  the 
western  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea,  in  the  tribe 
of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  62).  A  difficult  caravan 
route,  crowded  between  mountain  and  sea. 


En-haddah 


201 


£n-rimmon 


passed  the  »\H>t.  In  the  time  of  Ahraham  it 
was  occupied  by  Aiiiorites,  \vho  were  smitten 
at  the  spot  l)y  Chedorlaomer  (Gt-n.  xiv.  7). 
David  took  refuge  in  the  strongholds  of  the 
vicinity  (1  Sam.  xxiii.  29).  In  one  of  the 
caves  where  he  was  hiding  he  cut  oil"  the 
skirt  of  Saul's  robe  (xxiv.  1-22).     The  foun- 


[initiated,  dedicated].   The  same  name,  borne 
by  others,  is  rendered  Henoch  anil  Ilaiiocli. 

1  and  2.  A  st)n  of  Cain,  and  the  city  wliich 
Cain  built  and  named  after  him  (Gen.  iv.  17, 

ly). 

3.  A  descendant  of  Jared,  and  progenitor 
of  Methuselah.      He    lived   365   years,   and 


Wilderness  uf  En-gcdi,  l>cnrl  Sea,  anil  Mountains  of  Moab 


tain,  which  still  bears  the  name  of  'Ain  Jidy, 
is  a  cojiious  hot  spring  of  fresh  water,  burst- 
ing forth  about  300  or  400  feet  above  the  base 
of  a  vast  cliff,  midway  between  the  month 
of  the  Jordan  and  the  southern  point  of  the 
sea  (cp.  Ezck.  xlvii.  10).  The  hot  water 
created  an  oasis,  ricliAvith  semi-tropical  vege- 
tation and  celebrated  for  palms,  vineyards, 
and  balsam  (Song  i.  14  ;  Antiq.  ix.  1,  2). 

En-had'dah  [fountain  of  vehemence]. 

A  frontier  village  of  Issachar  (Josh.  xix. 
21).  Not  identified,  though  conjecturally 
near  En-gannim. 

En-hak'ko-re  [fountain  of  him  that  called]. 

A  spring  in  Lebi  which  burst  forth  when 
Samson  cried  to  the  Lord  (Judg.  xv.  18,  19). 
It  was  long  pointed  out. 

En-tia'zor  [fountain  of  the  village]. 

A  fenced  city  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  xix.  37), 
mentioned  in  the  list  between  Kadesh  and 
Iron.  Its  site  has  not  been  positively  iden- 
tified. 

En-mish'pat  [fountain  of  judgment]. 
The  same  as  Kadesh-barnea  (Gen.  xiv.  7). 
E'noch,  in  A.  V.  once  Henoch  (1  Chron.  i.  3) 


walked  with  God.  He  is  the  only  one  of  the 
line  of  whom  it  is  not  said  that  he  died.  He 
was  not;  for  God  took  him  (Gen.  v.  18-24). 
He  was  translated,  and  did  not  see  death 
(Ecclus.  xliv.  16;  xlix.  14;  Heb.  xi.  5).  In 
Jude  14,  15  there  is  a  prophecy  of  Enoch's  in 
which  he  declares  God's  just  judgment  of 
the  unrighteous.  The  words  of  this  prophecy 
are  found  in  the  p.seudepigraphical  Book  of 
Enoch,  which  is  an  extravagant  production, 
amplifying  the  antediluvian  history,  and 
even  rendering  it  incredible.  Jude  has  either 
made  a  citation  from  this  book  or  else  both 
he  and  the  author  of  the  book  ciuoted  an  old 
tradition.  The  N.  T.  writers  have  several 
times  quoted  uninspired,  and  even  heathen, 
authors. 

E'nosh,  in  A.  V.  Enos,  except  in  1  Chron. 
i.  1  [man]. 

The  son  of  Seth  (Gen.  iv.  26;  v.  6-11  ;  1 
Chron.  i.  1 ;  Luke  iii.  38). 

En-rim'mon  [fountain  of  Rimmon  or  of 
the  pomegranate]. 

A  town  of  Judah,  inhabited  after  the  cap- 
tivity (Neh.  xi.  29),  and  ajiparently  consi-st- 


En-rogel 


202 


Ephesians 


ing  of  the  neighboring  villages  of  Ain  and 
Eiinmon  (see  each). 

En-ro'gel  [fountain  of  the  fuller]. 

A  fountain  just  outside  Jerusalem  (2  Sam. 
xvii.  17),  near  the  valley  of  Hinnom  and  on 
the  boundary  line  between  Judah  and  Ben- 
jamin (Jo.sh.  XV.  7  ;  xviii.  16).  According  to 
Josephus,  it  was  in  the  king's  garden  (Antiq. 
vii.  14,  4).  During  Absalom's  rel)elli(iu  Jona- 
than and  Ahimaaz  took  up  tliciralxide  there, 
to  be  able  to  collect  and  send  news  to  David 
(2  Sam.  xvii.  17).  Near  l)y  was  the  stone 
Zoheleth,  where  Adonijah  instituted  festiv- 
ities when  he  conspired  to  seize  tlic  kingdom 
(1  Kin.  i.  9).  The  traditional  situation  of 
the  fountain,  almost  universally  accepted,  is 
Bir  Eyub,  the  well  of  Job,  just  below  the 
junction  of  the  valleys  of  Hinnom  and  the 
Kidron,  south  of  Jerusalem.  This  is  a  well, 
125  feet  deep,  walled  half  way  down  and 
sunk  the  rest  of  the  distance  into  the  solid 
rock.  That  it  is  a  well  and  not  a  fountain  is 
scarcely  a  serious  objection  to  the  traditional 
identification  (cp.  Gen.  xvi.  7  with  14).  The 
well  was  doubtless  suggested  by  the  copious 
streams  which  at  certain  seasons  are  liable  to 
gush  from  the  ground  at  this  spot.  The 
identification  of  En-rogel  with  the  Fountain 
of  the  Virgin  in  the  side  of  Ophel  has  a  few 
advocates,  especially  Grove  and  Conder. 

En-she'mesb  [fountain  of  the  sun]. 

A  fountain  and  town  on  the  boundary  line 
between  Judah  and  Benjamin  (Josh.  xv.  7; 
xviii.  17).  It  is  commonly  identified  with 
'Ain  Hand,  a  little  east  of  Bethany,  on  the 
road  between  Jeinisalem  and  Jericho,  and 
the  last  spring  until  the  Jordan  valley  is 
reached. 

En-tap 'pu-ah.     See  Tappuah  2. 

E-psen'e-tus  [praiseworthy]. 

A  convert  belonging  to  Achaia,  and  the 
firstfruits  of  that  region  to  Christ.  Paul 
called  him  beloved  (Eom.  xvi.  5). 

Ep'a-phras. 

A  Christian  who,  coming  to  Paul  whilst 
he  was  a  prisoner  at  Rome,  gave  a  highly 
favorable  account  of  the  Colossian  church, 
with  which  he  was  connected,  perhaps  as  its 
minister.  He  joined  the  apostle  in  sending 
it  salutations  (Col.  i.  7,  8;  iv.  12).  He  re- 
mained in  Eome,  and  was  in  some  sense 
Paul's  fellow-prisoner  in  Christ  (Philem.  23). 
See  Epaphroditiis. 

E-paph-ro-di'tus  [lovely,  charming]. 

A  Christian  whom  the  church  at  Philippi 
sent  with  a  present  to  the  apostle  Paul,  then 
a  prisoner  at  Eome.  On  arriving  at  that 
capital,  he  handed  over  the  present,  the 
receipt  of  which  Paul  gratefully  acknowl- 
edged. Soon  afterwards  he  became  so  sick 
that  his  life  was  in  danger.  It  grieved  him 
greatly  that  the  news  of  this  had  reached 
Philippi,  and  created  anxiety  among  his 
friends  there.  On  this  account  Paul  thought 
it  well  to  send  him  back  to  Philippi  as  soon 


as  his  health  permitted  (Phil.  ii.  25-30 ;  iv. 
18).  Perhaps  Epaphroditus  and  Epaphras 
may  have  been  one  and  the  same  person,  but 
there  is  a  difficulty  in  accepting  this  view, 
for  the  former  seems  clearly  connected  with 
the  church  at  Philippi,  and  the  latter  with 
that  at  Colossse. 
E'phah,  I.  [darkness]. 

1.  A  branch  of  the  Midianites  (Gen.  xxv. 
4  ;  1  Chron.  i.  33),  rich  in  camels  and  drom- 
edaries (Is.  Ix.  6).  They  lived  in  northeastern 
Arabia. 

2.  A  concubine  of  Caleb  (1  Chron.  ii.  46). 

3.  A  man  of  Judah,  a  son  of  Jabdai  (1 
Chron.  ii.  47). 

E'phah,  II.  [perhaps  from  Egyptian  oiphi, 
an  old  measure]. 

A  measure  of  capacity  containing  ten  omers 
(Ex.  xvi.  36).  and  used  for  such  articles  as 
flour  (Judg.  vi.  19)  or  barley  (Euth  ii.  17). 
It  was  equivalent  to  a  bath  or  one-tenth  of  a 
cor(Ezek.xlv.  11,14),  and  contained  one  Attic 
metretes  or  seventy -two  sextaries  (Antiq.  viii. 
2, 9 ;  ix.  4,  5 ;  and  xv.  9, 2,  where  read  metretes 
for  medimnoi),  and,  if  reckoned  at  1952.17 
cubic  inches,  contained  a  trifle  more  than  3 
pecks,  5  quarts,  American  measure.  Dis- 
honest traders  sometimes  had  an  ephah  of 
insufficient  capacity  and  used  it  for  fraud 
(Amos  viii.  5). 

E'phai  [fatigued]. 

A  Netophathite  whose  sons  came  with  others 
to  the  Babylonian  governor  of  .Judsea  after  the 
fall  of  Jerusalem,  and  was  promised  protec- 
tion ( Jer.  xl.  8).  All  were  subsequently  massa- 
cred by  Ishmael  (xli.  3). 

E'pher  [a  calf  or  mule]. 

1.  A  branch  of  the  Midianites  (Gen.  xxv. 
4;  1  Chron.  i.  33).  Their  exact  location  has 
not  been  determined. 

2.  A  man  of  Judah  descended  from  Ezrah 
(1  Chron.  iv.  17). 

3.  A  chief  man  in  the  half-tribe  of  Manas- 
seh,  east  of  the  Jordan  (1  Chron.  v.  24). 

E-phes-dam'mim  [end  or  coast  of  Dam- 
mim]. 

A  place  within  the  territory  of  Judah,  be- 
tween Socoh  and  Azekah  (1  Sam.  xvii.  1). 
Called  Pas-dammim  in  1  Chron.  xi.  13,  a  form 
perhaps  due  to  corruption  of  the  text.  Com- 
monly identified  with  the  ruins  Damun,  about 
4  miles  to  the  northeast  of  Socoh. 

E-phe'si-ans,  E-pis'tle  to  the. 

This  epistle  was  written  by  the  apostle 
Paul  when  he  was  a  prisoner  (iii.  1 :  iv.  1 ;  vi. 
20),  probably  at  Eome  A.  D.  62,  though  some 
assign  it  to  the  Csesarean  imprisonment  (Acts 
xxiv.  27).  It  is  addressed  to  the  saints  which 
are  at  Ephesus  and  the  faithful  in  Christ 
Jesus.  E.  V.  notes,  however,  that  some  very 
ancient  authorities  omit  the  words  "at  Ephe- 
sus." The  two  chief  N.  T.  manuscripts 
(Sinaitic  and  Vatican)  omit  them,  and  from 
very  early  times  a  difference  of  opinion  ap- 
pears as  to  its  intended  readers,  though  the 


Ephesians 


203 


Ephesus 


tradition  of  the  church  called  it  "  to  the 
Eiiliesians."  The  nmst  i)r()l)able  explanation 
is  that  it  was  a  circular  letter  intended  fur 
all  the  churches  of  the  province  of  Asia,  and 
that,  since  Epliesus  was  the  chief  of  these, 
the  epistle  naturally  came  to  be  considered 
as  addressed  to  it.  I'erhajjs  the  address  was 
blank,  and  cojiies  left  in  each  city  VA'ith  the 
blank  filled.  Its  circular  character  seerns  to 
be  confirmed  by  the  absence  from  it  of  local 
allu.sions  and  discussions.  It  is  a  doctrinal 
and  ethical  treatise  in  the  form  of  an  epistle. 
Like  that  to  the  Colossians,  it  was  sent  by 
Tychicus  (vi.  '21),  and  the  similarity  of  lan- 
guage and  thought  shows  that  the  two  were 
written  at  the  same  time.  Compare  for  ex- 
ample 

Eph.  i.  1,2  with  Col.  i.  1,  2 

"  i.  3,  21) ;  ii.  6 ;  iii.  10 ;  vi.  12  with  Col.  i.  5  ;  iii. 

1-3 

"  i.  6  with  Col.  i.  14 

"  1.  7     "        "    i.  14 

"  i.  8     "        "   ii.  23 

"  i.  9  ;  iii.  9  ;  vi.  19  with  Col.  1.  26  ;  ii.  2  ;  iv.  3 

"  i.  10  with  Col.  i.  20,  25 

"  1.  11     "        "    1.  12 

"  i.  17     "        "    1.  10 

"  i.  19,20"        "   ii.  12 

"  i.  20     "        "  iii.  1 

"  1.  22      "         "     i.  IS 

"  i.  23     "        "  ii.  9 

These  are  but  examples,  to  which  even  the 
reader  of  the  English  Bible  can  add  many 
more.  The  two  epistles  were  evidently  the 
product  of  the  apostle's  mind  acting  under 
the  same  circumstances.  And  Ephesians  seems 
to  have  been  written  just  after  Colossians.  In 
it  the  thought  is  carried  further.  The  theme 
of  Colossians  is  the  preeminence  of  Christ's 
person  and  work.  That  of  Ephesians  is  the 
establishment  of  the  church,  considered  as 
the  entire  number  of  the  redeemed.  The 
Ephesians,  in  fact,  may  be  said  to  sum  up  all 
Paul's  previous  teaching  for  the  jiurpose  of 
stating  the  purpose  of  God  in  the  mission  of 
his  Son,  which  was  the  redemption  of  his 
chosen  people  to  manifest  to  all  the  universe 
the  riches  of  his  grace.  Hence,  assuming 
salvation  through  faith,  the  divinity  and 
finished  work  of  Jesus  and  the  calling  of  the 
gentiles,  it  advances  to  a  complete  theodicy. 
In  chap.  i.  we  have  what  may  be  called  tlie 
divine  side  of  the  church's  history,  which 
originated  in  God's  sovereign  aiid  eternal 
purpose  (3-(i).  was  eflected  by  (Inist's  work 
(7-12),  and  is  certified  by  the  sealing  of  the 
Spirit  (13,  14).  He  prays  that  they  may  un- 
derstand the  hope  of  Chri.st's  calling,  of  which 
the  risen  and  exalted  Saviour  is  the  first  fruit 
and  pledge  (15-23).  In  chap.  ii.  we  have  the 
human  side  of  the  history,  being  taught  that 
the  elect  are  delivered  out  of  sin  and  con- 
demnation by  unmerited  grace  (1-10),  and 
are  united,  Jew  and  gentile,  through  Christ 
into  one  spiritual  temple  (11-22).  In  chap. 
iii.  the  apostle  states  his  own  jiosition  as  the 
minister  to  the  church  of  this  divine  mys- 
tery (1-13),  and  prays  that  they  .may  realize 


and  enjoy  what  God  has  prepared  for  them 
(14-21).  Chaiiters  iv.-vi.  are  an  extended 
exhortation  to  walk  worthily  of  their  high 
calling  in  all  the  relations  of  the  i)resent  life. 
The  Epistle  to  the  liomans,  addressed  from 
the  East  to  the  West,  was  Paul's  coni])lete 
statement  of  the  way  of  salvation.  The  E])is- 
tle  to  the  Ephesians,  addressed  from  the  West 
to  the  East,  was  his  complete  statement  of 
the  whole  purjiose  of  God  in  human  history. 
It  may  be  said  to  mark  the  climax  of  his 
theological  instruction.  a.  t.  i'. 

Eph'e-sus  [according  to  tradition,  permis- 
sion]. 

A  city  of  Lydia  on  the  western  coast  of 
Asia  ISIinor,  nearly  equally  distant  from 
Miletus  on  the  south  and  Smyrna  on  the 
north.  It  was  one  of  the  twelve  cities  be- 
longing to  the  Ionian  confederation,  and  was 
itself  the  capital  of  Ionia.  It  was  situated 
at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Cayster,  and  in  the 
vicinity  of  two  lakes.  Marked  out  by  nature 
for  the  site  of  a  city,  its  prosperity  was  in- 
creased by  the  neighboring  temple  of  Diana 
and  the  influx  of  worshipers  from  all  quar- 
ters. The  first  inhabitants  were  ejected  by 
the  lonians,  a  section  of  the  Greek  race. 
Under  the  lonians  the  temple  of  Diana  rose 
into  celebrity.  Ephesns  was  taken  by  Croesus, 
king  of  Lydia,  whose  capital  was  at  Sardis. 
Then  it  fell  under  the  Persian  domination. 
When  the  victories  of  Alexander  the  Great 
overthrew' the  Persian  empire,  Eljihesus  came 
under  Macedonian -Greek  rule.  Hitherto  it 
had  been  confined  to  a  low  alluvial  plain 
liable  to  be  flooded.  About  300  b.  c,  how- 
ever, Lysimachus  extended  it  to  an  adjacent 
eminence  which  the  water  could  not  reach. 
In  190  B.  c.  the  Romans,  after  defeating  An- 
tiochus  the  Great  at  ]\Iagnesia,  took  Ephesus 
from  him,  and  gave  it  to  Eumenes  II.,  king 
of  Pergamos.  On  the  death  of  Attains  III. 
of  Pergamos  in  133  B.  c.  it  reverted  to  them, 
and  became  the  capital  of  the  Roman  prov- 
ince of  Asia.  Paul  on  his  way  to  Jerusa- 
lem, toward  the  end  of  his  second  mis- 
sionary journey,  paid  a  .short  visit  to  Ephesus, 
preached  in  the  synagogue,  and  left  Aquila 
and  Priscilla  there,  who  continued  the  work 
(Acts  xviii.  19-21).  On  his  third,  he  labored 
at  Ephesus  at  least  two  years  and  three 
months,  leaving  the  city  after  the  riot  which 
was  .stirred  up  by  Demetrius,  who  made  .shrines 
of  Diana,  and  who  found  his  craft  endangered 
by  the  preaching  of  the  apostle  (xix.  1-41 ; 
cp.  1  Cor.  XV.  32  ;  xvi.  8 ;  2  Tim.  i.  18).  Paul 
left  Timothy  behind  to  prevent  the  church 
from  being  corrupted  by  fiilse  doctrine  (1 
Tim.  i.  3).  Subsequently  at  Miletus,  return- 
ing from  Europe,  and  unable  to  revisit  Ejdie- 
sus,  he  sent  for  the  elders  of  the  church  to 
meet  him  at  Miletus,  and  gave  them  solemn 
counsel  (Acts  xx.  16,  17).  Tychicus  was  after- 
wards despatched  thither,  carrying  with  liim 
the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians  (Eph.  i.  1  ;  vi. 
21 ;  2  Tim.  iv.  12).     The  church  at  Ephesus 


Ephesus 


204 


was  the  first  of  the  seven  churches  of  Asia 
addressed  by  the  apostle  John  in  the  book 
of  Eevelation  (Rev.  i.  11  ;  ii.  1-7),  and  tradi- 
tion makes  him  spend  the  last  years  of  his 
life  in  the  city.  The  decay  of  Ephesus  arose 
chiefly  from  the  silting  up  of  the  harbor  by 
mud  brought  down  by  the  Cayster.  The  de- 
struction of  the  great  temple  by  the  Goths 
about  A.  D.  260  completed  the  desolation. 
Now  only  a  few  remains  of  the  city  exist, 


Ephod 

tration  under  Diana.  The  theater  was  one 
of  the  largest  known  of  all  that  have  re- 
mained to  modern  times.  The  auditorium 
was  semicircular,  495  feet  in  diameter,  and 
the'  orchestra  was  110.  The  stage  was  22  feet 
wide.     The  theater  seated  24,500  persons. 

Eph'lal  [judicious]. 

A  man  of  Judah  of  the  family  of  Jerahmeel 
(1  C'hrou.  ii.  37j. 


Ruins  of  Theater  at  Ephesus. 


but  they  are  of  great  interest.  These  are 
part  of  the  wall,  a  fine  theater,  probably  that 
in  which  the  natives  shouted  "  Great  is  Diana 
of  the  Ephesians,"  and  finally  portions  of 
the  temple  of  the  goddess. 

The  temple  was  a  magnificent  work  of  Ionic 
architecture,  and  ranked  as  one  of  the  seven 
wonders  of  the  world.  It  stood  on  a  platform 
about  425  feet  in  length  and  239i  feet  in 
width,  measured  from  the  lowest  step.  A  flight 
of  ten  steps  led  to  the  pavement  of  the  plat- 
form, and  three  more  steps  to  the  pavement 
of  the  temple.  The  temple  itself  was  342i  feet 
in  length  and  lfi4  feet  in  width.  It  consisted 
of  two  rows  of  eight  columns  each  in  front 
and  rear,  and  two  rows  of  twenty  columns 
each  on  either  side  of  the  sanctuary.  These 
with  two  columns  at  each  entrance  of  the 
sanctuary  made  one  hundred  in  all.  Each 
was  a  monolith  of  marble  55  feet  in  height, 
and  the  eighteen  at  each  end  were  sculptured. 
The  roof  was  covered  witli  large  white  mar- 
ble tiles.  The  cclla  or  inner  sanctuary,  which 
these  columns  surrounded,  was  70  feet  wide 
and  105  long.  Its  internal  ornamentation 
was  of  surpassing  splendor,  adorned  with 
works  of  art  by  Pliidias  and  Praxiteles, 
Scopas,  Parrhasius,  and  Apelles.     See  illus- 


Eph'od  [a  covering] . 

1.  An  upper  garment  worn  by  the  Jewish 
high  priest.  It  was  one  of  six  sacred  vest- 
ments which  he  was  required  to  jiut  on  when 
about  to  conduct  the  worship  of  God  (Ex. 
xxviii.  4).  and  was  of  gold,  blue,  purple, 
scarlet,  and  fine  twined  linen.  It  consisted 
of  two  shoulder  pieces  joined  by  the  two 
edges  (xxviii.  6,  7'),  and  falling  over  the  front 
and  back  part  of  the  body.  There  was  a 
hole  in  the  top,  doubtless  for  the  head,  with 
a  woven  border  of  the  same  materials  around, 
to  render  the  cloth  less  liable  to  tear  (8,  cp. 
32).  On  it,  so  as  to  stand  upon  the  shoulders 
of  the  priest  when  the  ephod  was  worn,  wei"e 
two  onyx  stones,  each  having  engraved  upon 
it  the  names  of  six  tribes  (xxviii.  9;  xxxix. 
6,  7).  In  front,  to  rings  attached  under- 
neath close  to  the  coupling,  the  breastjilate 
was  bound  with  a  lace  of  blue,  so  that  the 
breastplate  itself  might  be  supported  (xxviii. 
25,27,  28;  xxxix.  19-21).  When  David  de- 
sired to  a.sk  counsel  of  God  in  the  presence 
of  the  high  priest  Abiathar,  he  considered 
it  essential  that  the  ephod  should  first  be 
brought  out  (1  Sam.  xxiii.  9-12  ;  xxx.  7,  8), 
for  with  it  were  the  Urini  and  Thummim 
(Ex.  xxviii.  30).   An  ephod  might  thus  readily 


Ephphatha 


205 


Ephraim 


become  an  object  of  idolatrous  worship  ( Judg. 
viii.  ~7 ;  xvii.  5).  The  robe  of  the  ephod  was 
a  garment  distinct  from  the  ei)hod,  was  bhie, 
and  was  sleeveless,  fringed  at  the  bottom 
with  alternate  bells  of  gold  and  pomegran- 
ates of  blue,  j)urple,  and  scarlet  (Ex.  xxviii. 
31-35;  xxix.  5;  xxxix.  22-'JG). 

A  more  siini)lc  ephod  of  linen,  probably 
without  the  ornamentation,  was  worn  by 
ordinary  i)riests.  The  eighty-five  whom  Docg 
slew  all  wore  the  linen  ephod  (1  Sam.  xxii.  18). 
Samuel,  also,  wore  an  ephod  while  he  was  a 
child  in  charge  of  Eli,  the  high  priest  (1  Sam. 
ii.  18).  David  wore  one  apparently  of  simple 
linen  (2  Sam.  vi.  14;  1  Chron.  xv.  27). 

2.  The  father  of  Hanniel,  prince  of  Manas- 
seh  in  the  time  of  ]Moses  (Num.  xxxiv.  23). 

Eph'plia-tha. 

An  Aramaic  imperative  signifying  "be 
opened"  (Mark  vii.  34). 

E'phra-im  [double  fruitfulness]. 

1.  The  younger  son  of  Joseph  and  Asenath, 
daughter  of  rotiiiherah,  priest  of  On.  He 
was  born  while  Joseph  was  prime  minister 
of  Egypt  (Gen.  xli.  45-52).  When  the  two 
sons  were  brought  to  Jacob  on  his  sickbed, 
to  receive  their  grandfather's  blessing,  Jacob 
intentionally  laid  his  right  hand  (the  hand 
of  greater  honor)  on  the  head  of  Ephraim, 
the  younger  grandson,  and  his  left  on  that 
of  Manasseh,  the  elder.  Being  remonstrated 
with  by  Joseph,  he  explained  that  both  should 
become  a  people,  but  Ephraim  should  be 
the  greater  and  should  be  the  ancestor  of  a 
multitude  of  peoples  or  tribal  families  (Gen. 
xlviii.  8-20).  Ephraim  and  Manasseh,  though 
only  grandchildren  of  Jacob,  were  treated 
as  if  they  were  his  children,  and  their  de- 
scendants were  consequently  regarded  as  two 
tribes  instead  of  one.  Ephraim  had  the  sor- 
row of  losing  two  of  his  sons,  who  were  slain 
while  making  a  raid  on  the  cattle  of  the 
Philistines  (1  Chron.  vii.  20-22). 

2.  The  tribe  of  which  Ephraim  was  the 
progenitor  (Josh.  xvi.  4,  10;  .Tudg.  v.  14). 
The  gi'owth  of  the  tribe  was  for  a  time  re- 
tarded by  the  death  of  several  of  his  sons  in 
a  fray  against  the  Philistines  (1  Chron.  vii. 
21-23).  At  the  fir.st  census  in  the  wilderness 
the  Ephraimites  numbered  40,500,  being  the 
lowest  in  number  of  the  tribes  excepting  only 
Manasseh  and  Benjamin  (Num.  i.  33).  They 
fell  off  during  the  wanderings,  and  at  the 
second  census  numbered  only  32,500,  being 
now  the  lowest  of  all  the  tribes  except  Simeon 
(xxvi.  37) ;  still  the  double  tribe  of  Joseph 
was  the  largest  of  the  tribes,  and  numbered 
85,200  men,  besides  women  and  children  (.34, 
37;  cp.  Deut.  xxxiii.  17).  When  Joshua  was 
the  leader  of  Israel,  the  tribe  rose  rajiidly  in 
reputation,  for  he  was  himself  an  Ephraimite 
(Josh.  xix.  50;  xxiv.  30).  The  tribe  was  al- 
lotted territory  west  of  the  Jordan.  Its 
southern  boundary  line  ran  from  the  Jordan 
at  Jericho  to  Bethel,  Lnz,  Ataroth-addar, 
Upper  Beth-horon,  Lower  Beth-horon,  Gezer, 


and  the  sea  (Josh.  xvi.  1-3,  5).  The  north- 
ern line  ran  through  Michmetliath,  near  She- 
chem,  eastward  to  Taanatli-shiloh,  Janoah, 
Ataroth,  and  Naarah,  reached  .lerichoand  the 
Jordan  (G,  7),  and  i)assed  westward  from  Mich- 
metliath to  En-tai)i>uah,  the  river  Kanah  and 
the  Mediterranean  (8  ;  cp.  xvii.  7).  It  had  the 
territory  of  the  half-tribe  of  Manasseh,  west 
of  the  Jordan,  on  the  north,  and  Benjamin 
on  the  south  ;  it  reached  tin.'  Mediterranean 
on  the  west  and  to  the  Jordan  on  the  east. 
Shechem  was  within  the  territory  of  Ephraim 
(Josh.  xxi.  20,  21  ;  1  Kin.  xii.  25  ;  1  Chron.  vi. 
U7).  The  Ephraimites  failed  to  expel  the 
Canaanites  from  Gezer,  which  was  within  the 
lot  of  Ephraim  ;  but,  either  alone  or  in  con- 
junction with  their  kindred  the  Manassites, 
they  captured  Bethel  (Judg.  i.  22-26,  29). 
They  acted  patriotically  in  the  fight  cele- 
brated in  song  by  Deborah  (v.  14).  They 
quarreled  with  Gideon,  who  was  a  Manas- 
site,  for  not  having  called  them  to  aid  him 
in  expelling  the  Midianites  from  Canaan  (viii. 
1-3).  They  resolutely  encountered  in  battle 
Jephthah,  the  deliverer  of  Israel,  for  not 
having  summoned  them  to  assist  him  in  the 
Ammonite  war,  42,000  of  the  tribe  falling  in 
the  struggle  (xii.  1-6).  Micah,  of  graven 
image  notoriety,  resided  in  mount  Ephraim 
(xvii.  1)  ;  and  the  Levite,  the  ill-treatment 
of  whose  concubine  led  to  the  hostilities 
against  Benjamin,  sojourned  there  (xix.  1). 
Jeroboam  was  a  man  of  Ephraim,  and  after 
he  had  become  king  over  the  revolted  ten 
tribes,  he  rebuilt  Shechem  in  mount  Ephraim 
to  be  his  capital  (1  Kin.  xii.  25). 

The  hill  country  of  Ephraim,  or  mount 
Ephraim,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  was  so 
much  of  the  central  range  of  Palestine  as 
was  occupied  by  the  tribe  of  Ephraim.  It 
did  not  include  the  towns  of  Taanach,  Me- 
giddo,  Beth-shean,  and  Abel-meholali,  on  the 
north  and  east  (1  Kin.  iv.  8, 12),  nor  Kirjath- 
jearim,  Gibeah,  or  the  territory  of  Benjamin 
on  the  south  (Judg.  xviii.  12, 13 ;  xix.  16 ;  1  Sam. 
ix.  4  ;  1  Kin.  iv.  8,  19 ;  2  Chron.  xv.  8).  It  was 
thus  bounded  on  three  sides  by  the  southern 
border  of  the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  the  Jordan 
valley,  and  the  territory  of  Benjamin.  The 
term  did  not  propei-ly  designate  any  part  of 
the  district  occui)ied  by  Benjamin.  Even 
Judg.  iv.  5  and  2  Sam.  xx.  1,  21  do  not  neces- 
sarily imply  any  broader  use  of  the  term. 
But  after  the  establishment  of  the  northern 
kingdom  with  its  shifting  southern  frontier, 
the  southern  limits  of  the  hill  country  of 
E]>hraim  were  no  longer  clearly  defined. 

The  wood  of  Ephraim.  in  which  the  battle 
took  place  between  the  forces  of  David  and 
those  of  the  rebel  Absalom  (2  Sam.  xviii.  6 ;  cp. 
xvii.  22,  24,  26,  27),  was  evidently  east  of  the 
Jordan,  and  near  Mahanaim,  but  its  exact 
situation  is  unknown.  It  probably  took  its 
name  either  from  the  defeat  of  the  Ephraim- 
ites in  the  time  of  Jephthah  (Judg.  xii.  1 
seq.),  or  because  it  was  ojjposite  to  the  ter- 
ritorj-  and  mountain  of  Ephraim. 


Ephraimite 


206 


Epistles 


For  the  gate  of  Ephraim,  see  Jerusalem 
II.,  3. 

3.  The  ten  tribes  of  which  Ephraim  be- 
came the  head.  Used  in  this  sense  especially 
by  the  prophets  (Is.  vii.  2,  5,  9,  17;  ix.  9; 
xvii.  3  ;  xxviii.  3;  Hos.  iv.  17;  v.  3;  ix.  3-17). 

4.  A  city  to  which  Baal- hazor  was  adjacent 
(2  Sam.  xiii.  23),  probably  the  same  place  as 
Ephraim  near  to  the  wilderness  (John  xi.  54), 
and  Apha^rema,  which  at  one  time  belonged 
to  Samaria  (1  Mac.  xi.  34).  The  Roman  gen- 
eral Vespasian  took  Ephraim  and  Bethel  dur- 
ing his  advance  on  Jerusalem  (War  iv.  9,  9). 
Robinson  identifies  it  with  Ophrah  of  Ben- 
jamin, and  locates  it  at  the  modern  village 
of  Taiyibeh,  on  a  conical  hill  standing  on 
high  land  4  miles  east-northeast  of  Bethel. 
The  identification  has  met  general  accept- 
ance. 

E'phra-im-ite. 

A  member  of  the  tribe  of  Ephraim  (Judg. 
xii.  5).  Moi-e  frequently  Ephrathite,  as  in 
the  original. 

E'phra-in.    See  Ephron  2. 

Eph'ra-thah,  in  A.  V.  Ephratah  [fruitful- 
ness,  fruitful  land].  A  shorter  form,  occasion- 
ally used  in  the  Hebrew  text  and  preserved 
in  the  versions,  is  Ephrath. 

1.  The  original  name  of  Bethlehem  in 
Judaja  (Gen.  xxxv.  19 ;  xlviii.  7  ;  Ruth  iv. 
11).  It  is  sometimes  called  Bethlehem-eph- 
ratah  (Mic.  v.  2). 

2.  A  wife  of  Caleb,  son  of  Hezron.  She 
was  the  mother  of  Hur  (1  Chron.  ii.  19,  50 ; 
iv.  4). 

3.  The  territory  of  Ephraim  (Ps.  cxxxii.  6 ; 
see  Ephrathite  2) ;  or  better,  Kiriath-jearim, 
which  belonged  to  Caleb-ephrathah  (1  Chron. 
ii.  50,  51),  and  where  the  ark  had  been  kept 
for  a  long  time. 

Eph'rath-ite. 

1.  A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Ephrath,  i.  e. 
Bethlehem  (1  Sam.  xvii.  12 ;  Ruth  i.  2). 

2.  An  Ephraimite,  one  belonging  to  the 
tribe  of  Ephraim  (1  Sam.  i.  1  ;  1  Kin.  xi.  26). 

E'phron  [vituline]. 

1.  A  Hittite,  resident  at  Hebron,  and  owmer 
of  the  cave  of  Machpelah,  which  he  sold  to 
Abraham  (Gen.  xxiii.  8;  xxv.  9). 

2.  A  city  which  was  taken  from  Jeroboam 
by  Abijah  (2  Chron.  xiii.  19).  Abandoning  the 
Hebrew  text  for  the  traditional  pronuncia- 
tion of  the  synagogue,  A.  V.  and  the  margin 
of  the  R.  V.  have  Ephrain  [two  calves  or 
fawns],  an  Aramaic  dual.  Commonly  iden- 
tified with  the  town  of  Ephraim. 

3.  A  city  east  of  the  Jordan  in  the  terri- 
tory of  Manasseh,  in  a  pass  on  the  road  be- 
tween Karnaim  and  Beth-shcan.  It  was  cap- 
tured by  Judas  Maccabseus  (1  Mac.  v.  46-52 ; 
2  Mac.  xii.  27,  29 :  Antiq.  xii.  8.  5). 

4.  A  mountain  ridge  between  Nephtoah 
and  Kirjath-jearira,  on  the  boundary  between 
Judah  and  Benjamin  (Josh.  xv.  9). 

Ep-i-cu-re'ans. 

One  of   the   leading  philosophic  sects  of 


Greece  and  Rome.  It  derived  its  name  and 
its  existence  from  the  great  philosopher  Epi- 
curus. He  was  born  341  B.  c.  in  the  island 
of  Samos,  but  was  of  Athenian  descent,  and 
made  Athens  the  scene  of  his  lifework.  In 
306  B.  c.  he  founded  a  school  or  college  with 
a  garden  attached,  in  which  he  taught  for 
the  next  thirty-six  years,  till  his  death  in 
270  B.  c.  He  is  said  to  have  written  about 
three  hundred  philosophic  books,  nearly  all 
of  which  are  lost.  In  physics  he,  like  De- 
mocritus,  attributes  all  nature  to  changes 
among  atoms  in  themselves  eternal.  He 
does  not  recognize  a  Creator ;  but,  with  cu- 
rious inconsistency,  finds  a  place  in  his  sys- 
tem for  a  multitude  of  gods,  who,  however, 
supremely  happy  in  themselves,  take  no  part 
in  human  aflfairs.  With  regard  to  his  etliics, 
a  popular  misconception  prevails.  He  de- 
sires that  pleasure  shall  be  pursued  and  pain 
avoided  ;  but  the  notion  that  by  pleasure  he 
meant  only  sensual  gratification  is  erroneous. 
He  included  under  the  term  the  pleasure  de- 
rived from  the  exercise  of  the  intellect  and 
the  moral  faculty.  Personally  he  was  so  pure 
that  some  thought  he  was  destitute  of  pas- 
sions. The  Epicureans  were  mostly  men  of  soft 
temperament,  the  very  opposite  of  the  Stoics, 
who  were  cast  in  an  iron  mould.  Both  phil- 
osophic sects  rejected  Paul's  doctrine  at 
Athens,  but  both  showed  their  tolerance  by 
taking  the  apostle  to  the  court  of  Areopagus 
to  have  his  teaching  examined,  in  place  of 
exciting  a  riot  against  him,  as  had  been  done 
at  various  places  where  he  had  preached 
(Acts  xvii.  18-20). 

Ep-i-lep'tic. 

A  person  affected  with  the  falling  sickness, 
a  disease  which  in  its  severe  form  is  charac- 
terized by  recurrent  attacks  of  loss  of  con- 
sciousness with  spasms  (Mat.  xvii.  15,  in  A.  V. 
lunatic  ;  Mark  ix.  18).  In  this  case  the  disease 
was  occasioned  by  demoniacal  possession. 

E-pis'tles. 

The  name  given  to  twenty-one  books  of  the 
N.  T.  The  earliest  of  them  antedate  the 
gospels,  Paul  having  written  his  epistles  to 
the  Thessalonians  about  a.  d.  52.  They  are 
letters  which  were  written  by  the  apostles, 
or  which  received  apostolic  sanction ;  and 
they  are  addressed  to  particular  churches, 
and  deal  with  doctrinal  and  practical  ques- 
tions, or  to  individuals,  yet  contain  matter 
of  wide  import,  or  to  Christians  generally, 
and  not  to  any  one  ])erson  or  cliurch.  With 
the  exception  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
and  1  John,  they  open,  according  to  the 
custom  of  the  time,  with  the  name  or  title 
of  the  writer  and  that  of  the  person  or 
church  addressed,  and  then  follow  words  of 
greeting.  The  first  thirteen  begin  with  the 
statement  that  the  letter  was  sent  by  Paul, 
or  by  him  in  conjunction  with  other  Chris- 
tian workers,  as  Sosthenes  (1  Cor.  i.  1),  Tim- 
othy (2  Cor.  i.  1  ;  Phil.  i.  1  ;  (,^ol.  i.  1  :  Phile. 
1),  or  Silvanus  and  Timothy  together  (1  Thes. 


Er 


207 


Esar-haddon 


i.  1  ;  2  Thes.  i.  1).  Paul  as  a  rule  euii)l(>ye(l 
an  ajiiaiiucnsis  to  write  from  his  tlii-tation 
(Kuiu.  xsi.  2'2),  the  apustlc  adding  the  .saluta- 
tion in  his  own  haud,  whieh  he  s;iys  was  the 
token  iu  every  epistle  (1  (.'or.  xvi.  21  ;  Col. 
iv.  ly;  2  Thes!  iii.  17).  In  the  case  of  the 
Epistle  to  the  Galatians,  however,  he  departed 
from  his  rule,  and  wrote  the  whole  letter 
with  his  own  hand  ((Jal.  vi.  11).  Three  of 
the  lettei-s  which  are  addressed  to  individ- 
uals are  frequently  called  pastoral  epistles, 
namely,  1  and  2  Timothy  and  Titus.  They 
contain  directions  for  the  training  and  gov- 
erning of  churches  and  the  proper  treat- 
ment of  individual  members.  Of  the  five 
general  epistles  one  bears  the  name  of  James, 
two  that  of  Peter,  and  one  that  of  Jude.  The 
first  general  epistle  of  John  is  anonymous, 
while  the  two  letters  which  follow  have  for 
their  wHter  one  calling  himself  "the  elder" 
(2  John  1  ;  3  John  1).  The  epistles  were  writ- 
ten at  first  in  reply  to  letters  previously  re- 
ceived, or  were  based  on  verbal  information 
which  had  come  from  some  quarter  as  to 
matter  requiring  attention  iu  auy  particular 
church  (1  Cor.  i.  11 ;  1  Thes.  iii.  5,  6).  But 
they  are  adapted  to  other  persons  in  like  cir- 
cumstances ;  Paul  requested  that  certain  of 
his  epistles  be  read  by  others  than  by  those 
only  to  whom  they  are  addressed  (Col.  iv. 
IG).  The  apostles  claimed  that  thev  are  the 
word  of  God  (1  Thes.  ii.  13  :  1  Pet.  i.'  12),  and 
from  the  beginning  they  ranked  with  the 
other  Scriptures.  Peter  in  a.  D.  68  spoke  of 
Paul's  epistles  as  part  of  the  Scriptures  (2 
Pet.  iii.  1.5,  16),  and  Polycarp  iu  a.  d.  11.5 
quoted  the  Psalms  and  Ephesians  side  by  side 
as  equally  Scripture.  See  Caxox.  The  titles 
of  the  epistles  were  not  part  of  the  original 
composition.  They  were  prefixed  afterwards, 
and  are  no  part  of  Scripture.  ^lost  of  them 
are  founded  on  the  fnrst  verse  of  the  epistle, 
and  are  accurate ;  but  that  prefixed  to  the 
epistle  to  the  Hebrews  is  not  derived  from 
the  letter  itself,  and  is  of  doubtful  accuracy. 
The  notices  appended  as  to  the  place  where 
the  epistle  was  penned  were  also  no  part  of 
the  original  composition,  and  some  of  them 
are  inaccurate. 
Er  [awake,  on  the  watch]. 

1.  A  son  of  .Tudah  who  died  in  Canaan  by 
a  judgment  of  God  for  his  wickedness  (Gen. 
xxxviii.  1-7;  xlvi.  12:  1  Chron.  ii.  3). 

2.  A  descendant  of  Judah,  of  the  family 
of  Shelah  (1  Chron.  iv.  21). 

3.  An  ancestor  of  Christ,  about  midway  be- 
tween David  and  Zerubbabel  (Luke  iii.  28). 

E'ran  [watchful]. 

A  descendant  of  Ephraim  through  Shuthe- 
lah.  and  founder  of  a  tribal  family  (Num. 
xxvi.  .36). 

E-ras'tus  [beloved]. 

1.  A  Christian,  one  of  those  who  ministered 
to  Paul.  He  was  sent  with  Timothy  from 
Ephesus  into  Macedonia  just  before  the  riot 
at  the  former  place   (Acts  xix.  22).     He  is 


I>robal)ly  the  person  mentioned  in  2  Tim.  iv. 

20  as  having  abode  at  Corinth. 

2.  A  Christian  iu  high  official  position, 
chamberlain  of  the  city  of  Corinth,  who 
joined  with  Paul  in  sending  salutations  to 
the  Roman  converts  (Kom.  xvi.  23). 

E'rech  [Assyrian  Uruk  and  Arku]. 

A  city  of  .^hinar  or  Lower  Babylonia,  one 
of  those  constituting  jiart  of  Ninirod's  king- 
dom (Gen.  X.  1(1).  It  is  now  rejireseuted  by 
the  mounds  of  Warka,  a  considerable  dis- 
tance south  of  Babylon,  on  a  nuirshy  region, 
east  of  the  Euphrates.  The  extreme  ;in- 
tiquity  of  the  city  has  been  established  by 
the  Babylonian  inscriptions.  Archevites  were 
settled  iu  Samaria  by  Asnapper  (Ezra  iv.  9). 

E'ri  [watching]. 

A  sou  of  Gad  and  founder  of  a  tribal  family 
(Gen.  xlvi.  16  ;  Num.  xxvi.  16). 

E-sa'ias.     See  Isaiah. 

E-sar-had'don  [A.shur  hath  given  broth- 
ers] . 

The  favorite,  though  not  the  eldest,  son  of 
Sennacherib,  king  of  Assyria.  The  partiality 
so  annoyed  two  other  brothers,  Adrammelech 
and  Nergalsharezer,  that  they  assassinated 
their  father,  escaping  afterwards  into  Ar- 
menia  (2  Kin.  xix.  36,  37:  2  Chron.   xxxii. 

21  ;  Is.  xxxvii.  37,  38).  When  this  ba.se  mur- 
der was  perpetrated.  Esar-haddon  was  him- 
self conducting  a  campaign  in  the  northwest, 
probably  iu  Armenia.  On  receiving  news  of 
the  event,  he  at  once  started  with  his  anny 
for  Nineveh,  but  was  met  on  the  way  by  the 
rebel  forces.  The  confederates  were,  however, 
defeated,  and  Esar-haddon  was  able  to  ascend 
the  throne  of  Assyria  on  the  8th  of  Nisan, 
680  B.  c.  The  partiality  of  the  father  had 
not  been  mi.splaced.  Esar-haddon  was  equally 
eminent  as  a  military  general  and  a  political 
ruler.  In  his  first  y?ar  he  defeated  the  son 
of  Merodach-baladan  in  southern  Babj-lonia. 
Later  he  commenced  the  restoration  of  the 
city  of  Babylon  which  Sennacherib,  iirovoked 
by  its  continual  revolts  against  the  Assyrian 
domination,  had  given  up  to  plunder.  Esar- 
haddon  also  waged  war  against  the  Cim- 
merian barbarians  who  had  descended  upon 
the  more  civilized  south  from  beyond  the 
Caucasus ;  against  the  mountaineers  of  Cilicia, 
and  against  the  children  of  Eden  who  were 
in  Telassar  (cp.  Is.  xxxvii.  12).  In  his  fourth 
year  he  captured  and  pillaged  Sidon.  deported 
its  inhabitants,  razed  the  city  to  the  ground, 
and  erected  a  new  town  on  the  old  site.  Its 
king  had  escaped  by  sea,  but  he  was  pursued, 
taken,  and  beheaded.  The  same  fate  befell 
his  two  royal  allies.  Afterwards  twelve  tribes 
on  the  mainland  and  ten  in  Cyprus  submitted 
to  the  Assyrian  dominion.  Among  others 
were  Manasseh,  king  of  Judah,  and  the  kings 
of  Edom,  Moab,  Amnion,  Gaza.  Ashkelon, 
Ekron.  aud  Ashdod.  Esar-haddon  success- 
fully accomplished  two  most  difficult  mili- 
tary enterprises,  the  penetration  of  the  Ara- 
bian desert  aud  of  far  off  Media.    He  turned 


Esau 


208 


Eshtemoa 


his  attentioa  to  a  yet  greater  undertaking, 
the  conquest  of  Egypt,  but  he  was  for  a  time 
diverted,  being  compelled  in  his  eighth  year 
to  war  with  a  tribe  at  the  head  of  the  Persian 
Gulf  and  near  Ur.  At  length  in  his  tenth 
year  his  great  expedition  against  Egypt  took 
place.  Marching  past  Tyre,  he  left  the  city 
under  siege.  He  entered  Egypt,  captured 
Memphis,  and  laid  the  entire  country  and  its 
petty  kings  at  his  feet.  He  divided  all  the 
valley  of  the  Nile  from  Thebes  to  the  Medi- 
terranean into  twenty  satrapies,  over  the  less 
important  of  which  he  set  governors  of  na- 
tive descent,  while  over  those  which  Avere 
important  he  placed  Assyrian  governors.  It 
is  highly  creditable  to  Esar-haddon  that,  when 
he  found  himself  conqueror  of  Egypt,  he  had 
the  wisdom  to  act  in  a  conciliatory  manner 
to  the  vanquished.  He  died  (J69  or  668  B.  c, 
leaving  his  eldest  son,  Ashurbanipal,  who  for 
a  short  time  previously  had  been  associated 
with  him  in  the  government,  to  ascend  the 
throne. 

E'sau  [hairy]. 

Son  of  Isaac  and  Rebekah,  and  elder  twin 
brother  of  Jacob.  Esau  was  so  named  be- 
cau.se  he  was  all  over  like  an  hairy  garment 
(Gen.  XXV.  21-26).  As  he  grew  up  he  became 
a  skillful  hunter,  and  was  accustomed  to  bring 
home  venison,  doubtless  the  flesh  of  various 
antelopes,  to  his  father  Isaac.  On  one  occa- 
sion he  returned  from  the  chase  famishing, 
and  asked  for  some  red  pottage  which  Jacob 
had  just  made  ready.  Jacob  asked  from  him 
the  surrender  of  his  birthright  as  payment; 
and  Esau,  esteeming  the  higher  blessings 
lightly,  and  caring  more  for  present  gratifica- 
tion, sold  his  birthright  rather  than  wait  for 
the  preparation  of  food.  From  the  red  pot- 
tage, which  was  its  price,  Esau  obtained  a 
second  name,  Edom,  i.  e.  Red  (27-34  ;  Heb. 
xii.  16,  17).  When  he  was  40  years  old  he 
married  two  wives,  Judith  or  Oholibamah  and 
Basemath  or  Adah,  both  Hittites  (Gen.  xxvi. 
34,  35;  xxxvi.  1,  2).  Afterwards  he  wedded 
Mahalath,  called  also  Basemath,  the  daugh- 
ter of  Ishmael  (xxviii.  9 ;  xxxvi.  3).  When 
Isaac  was  old  and  nearly  blind,  he  designed 
to  confer  the  covenanted  blessing  on  Esaji, 
who  was  his  favorite  son.  But  Jacob  was 
Eebekah's  favorite,  and  she  induced  him  to 
personate  Esau  and  fraudulently  obtain  the 
blessing.  Esau  resolved  to  kill  his  selfish 
brother,  but  did  not  like  to  carry  out  the 
murder  while  his  father  was  living  (xxvii. 
1-41).  To  give  time  for  this  anger  to  cool, 
Jacob  fled  to  Mesopotamia,  and  for  twenty 
years  was  an  exile  (xxvii.  42-xxxi.  55).  On 
his  return  he  took  means  to  appease  his 
justly  ofiended  brother;  and  Esau,  who  was 
of  a  generous  nature,  dismissed  his  vindictive 
feeling,  and  gave  Jacob  a  fraternal  reception 
(xxxii.  3-xxxiii.  15).  Prior  to  this  Esau  had 
taken  up  his  abode  in  mount  Seir,  to  which 
he  at  once  returned  (16).  The  reconciliation 
between  the  brothers  was  permanent,  and 


both  met  to  bury  their  father  (xxxv.  29). 
Esau's  descendants  increased  and  ultimately 
disposse,s.sed  the  original  inhabitants  of  mount 
Seir  and  became  the  Edomite  people  (Deut. 
ii.  4,  12,  22).  Mount  Seir  could,  accordingly, 
be  called  the  mount  of  Esau  (Obad.  8,  9,  19, 
21).  For  the  election  of  Jacob  to  be  the 
child  of  promise  and  the  rejection  of  Esau, 
see  Gen.  xxv.  23 ;  Mai.  i.  2,  3 ;  Rom.  ix.  12, 13. 

Es'dras. 

The  Greek  form  of  Ezra.  It  is  used  in  the 
Septuagint  and  the  Apocrypha,  but  does  not 
occur  in  the  canonical  Scriptures.  See  Apoc- 
rypha. 

E'sek  [contention]. 

A  well  dug  l)y  Isaac  in  the  valley  of  Gerar, 
which  the  Philistine  herdmen  claimed  (Gen. 
xxvi.  20). 

E'shan,  in  A.  V.  Eshean  [support]. 

A  village  in  the  mountains  of  Judah, 
grouped  with  Dumah  and  Hebi-on  (Josh. 
XV.  52).  Septuagint  has  Soma  ;  hence  it  may 
be  identical  with  the  ruin  es-Simia,  near 
Dumah,  and  about  8i  miles  southwest  by 
south  of  Hebron. 

Esh'ba-al.    See  Lshbosheth. 

Esh'ban  [reason,  intelligence]. 
A  son  of  Dishon,  descended  from  Seir  the 
Horite  (Gen.  xxxvi.  26  ;  1  Chron.  i.  41). 

Esh'col  [a  cluster;  specially  of  grapes]. 

1.  One  of  three  Amorite  brothers,  residing 
near  Hebron  and  confederate  with  Abram 
(Gen.  xiv.  13,  24). 

2.  A  valley  near,  probably  north  of,  Hebron 
(Num.  xiii.  22,  23;  Deut.  i.  24).  The  region 
round  about  Hebron  is  celebrated  for  its  large 
clusters  of  luscious  grapes.  It  is  uncertain 
whether  the  valley  bore  this  name  before  the 
time  of  Moses  or  not.  At  any  rate  the  name 
henceforth  suggested  to  the  Israelites  the 
spot  where  the  spies,  whom  Moses  had  sent 
to  spy  out  the  land,  cut  the  famous  cluster 
which  two  of  them  carried  suspended  on  a 
pole  between  them  to  save  from  being  dashed 
and  broken  (Num.  xiii.  24). 

E'she-an.    See  Eshan. 

E'shek  [violence,  oppression]. 

A  Benjamite,  a  descendant  of  Saul  (1  Chron. 
viii.  39). 

Esh'ka-lon-ite.     See  Ashkelonite. 

Esh'ta-ol  [perhaps  petition]. 

A  town  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv. 
33),  eventually  allotted  to  the  Danites  (xix. 
41).  It  is  commonly  mentioned  in  connec- 
tion with  Zorah  (Judg.  xiii.  25  ;  xvi.  31 ;  xviii. 
2,  8,  11  ;  1  Chron.  ii.  53).  It  has  been  iden- 
tified as  the  village  of  Eshu'a,  about  Ii  miles 
east  by  north  from  Zorah,  and  13  miles  west, 
slightly  north  from  Jerusalem. 

Esh'ta-ul-ite,  in  R.  V.  Eshtaolite. 

An  inhabitant  of  Eshtaol  (1  Chron.  ii.  53). 

Esh-te-mo'a,  once  Eshtemoh  (Josh.  xv. 
50)  [obedience]. 


Esliton 


209 


Esther 


1.  A  town  ill  the  hill  couutry  of  Judah, 
given  with  its  suhiirbs  to  the  i)riests  (Josh. 
XV.  50  :  xxi.  14 ;  1  Chroii.  vi.  57).  David  sent 
it  some  of  the  si)oils  obtained  on  the  recap- 
ture of  Ziklag  (1  Sam.  xxx.  28).  The  site 
has  been  found  at  Heniu"a,  9  miles  south  of 
Hebron,  a  considerable  village  with  the  foim- 
datioii  of  ancient  walls  designed  for  a  large 

tOWD. 

•2.  A  Maacathite,  sou  of  Hodiah  (1  Chron. 
iv.  10,  R.  v.). 

Esh'ton  [i)ossiblj'  uxorious]. 

A  descendant  of  Chelub,  reckoned  in  the 
genealogy  of  Judah  (1  Chrou.  iv.  12). 

Es'li  [perhaps  from  Hebrew  'esli,  at  my 
side  (is  God)]. 

An  ancestor  of  Christ  who  lived  after  the 
captivity  (Luke  iii.  25). 

Es'rom.     See  Hezkon. 

Es-senes'. 

An  order  of  men  among  the  Jews  in  the 
time  of  Christ,  who  numbered  about  4000, 
and  devoted  themselves  to  a  more  or  less 
ascetic  life.  Hopiug  by  isolation  to  escape 
ceremonial  detileraent,  they  formed  colonies 
by  themselves.  The  wilderness  of  Judsea 
near  En-gedi  was  a  favorite  place  for  their 
settlements,  but  there  were  colonies  in  va- 
rious towns  of  Judfea  also.  Each  colony  had 
its  own  synagogue,  a  common  hall  for  meals 
aud  assemblies,  and  provision  for  daily  bath- 
ing in  running  water.  Whoever  became  a 
member  of  the  order  gave  up  all  that  he  pos- 
sessed to  it.  They  read  the  law  of  Moses 
daily  and  nightly,  and  endeavored  to  regu- 
late their  lives  in  every  detail  according  to 
it.  Their  habits  were  simple.  Their  food 
and  clothing  were  plain.  They  passed  the 
day  in  husbandry  and  other  useful  industry. 
Money  was  almost  unnecessary,  as  they  sup- 
plied their  needs  by  their  own  labor;  and 
when  they  traveled,  they  found  lodging  and 
food  free  of  cost  among  their  brethren.  They 
had  no  slaves,  as  they  recognized  no  distinc- 
tion between  men  save  that  of  clean  and  un- 
clean. They  did  not  deny  the  fitness  of  mar- 
riage ;  but  they  abstained  from  wedlock,  ex- 
cept one  party  among  them.  Their  morality 
was  lofty.  They  promised  "to  honor  God,  to 
be  righteous  toward  man,  to  injure  no  one, 
either  at  the  bidding  of  another  or  of  their 
own  accord,  to  hate  evil,  to  promote  good,  to 
be  faithful  to  every  one,  especially  those  in 
authority,  to  love  the  truth,  to  unmask  liars, 
and  to  keep  the  hand  from  theft  and  the 
conscience  from  unrighteous  gain  "  (Antiq. 
xviii.  1.  5  ;  War  ii.  8,  2-13). 

Es'ther  [from  Persian  sUareh,  star]. 

A  beautiful  maiden  whose  Hebrew  name 
was  H''dassah,  myrtle.  Early  left  an  orphan, 
she  was  brought  up  at  Susa,  the  Persian 
metropolis,  by  Mordecai,  her  cousin,  who 
adopted  her.  The  despotic  Ahasuerus,  i.  e. 
Xerxes,  king  of  Persia,  was  angered  by  the 
refusal  of  his  queen  to  do  at  his  bidding  an 
14 


immodest  act  at  a  great  banquet,  and  on  the 
advice  of  his  sycophantic  courtiers  divorced 
her.  But  his  advisers  were  afraid  that  the 
monarch  would  repent  of  the  step  he  had 
taken,  and  call  them  to  account  for  their 
prominent  i)art  in  the  catastrojihe.  They 
advised  him  to  make  choice  of  a  fair  maiden 
to  succeed  the  divorced  queen,  and  after 
many  had  been  introduced  to  him,  Esther 
was  preferred  to  them  all,  and  duly  installed 
in  the  palace  as  the  queen  consort.  It  was 
not  known  at  the  time  that  she  was  a  Jewess. 
She  came  to  the  throne  at  a  critical  time.  The 
royal  favorite  was  Hainan.  Five  years  after 
Esther's  elevation  (Esth.  ii.  16  ;  iii.  7),  Haman, 
annoyed  by  Mordecai's  refusal  to  do  him  obei- 
sance, wished  to  revenge  himself  by  the  mass- 
acre, not  simply  of  Mordecai,  but  of  all  the 
large  Jewish  population  scattered  throughout 
the  empire.  He  cast  Pur,  or  lot,  to  discover 
a  favorable  day  to  jiresent  the  matter  to  the 
king  or  for  executing  the  murderous  design. 
The  lot  fell  on  the  13th  day  of  Adar.  He  se- 
cured the  king's  consent  by  the  offer  of  a  heavy 
bribe  (Esth.  ii.  5-iii.  15).  Mordecai  urged 
Esther  to  interfere  for  the  protection  of  her 
race.  She  was  afraid ;  but,  on  being  sol- 
emnly addressed  by  her  guardian,  she,  after 
fasting  and  prayer,  risked  her  life  by  reveal- 
ing to  the  monarch  who  doted  upon  her  that 
she  was  one  of  the  hated  race.  The  king 
also  discovered  that  Mordecai  the  Jew  had 
made  known  a  plot  against  the  monarch's  life. 
Ahasuerus  ordered  that  Haman  be  hanged, 
exalted  ^Mordecai  to  high  honors,  and  per- 
mitted the  Jews  to  defend  themselves,  and 
even  to  take  the  ofl'ensive  against  their  foes. 
The  time  and  manner  of  Esther's  death  are 
unknown. 

The  Book  of  Esther  is  the  last  of  the  his- 
torical books  of  the  O.  T.  In  the  Hebrew 
canon  it  stands  among  the  Hagiographa ; 
formerly,  according  to  the  Talmud,  between 
Daniel  and  Ezra,  but  now  just  after  Ec- 
clesiastes  and  immediately  before  Daniel. 
This  latter  position  is  due  to  its  being  grouped 
with  four  other  rolls  which  were  used  on  five 
solemn  anniversaries.  The  last  of  these  an- 
niversaries is  Purim,  hence  Esther  has  been 
placed  last  among  the  Five  Polls.  Long  after 
the  completion  of  the  canon,  the  right  of 
Esther  to  its  place  in  that  canon  was  called 
in  question  by  the  Jews,  probably,  however, 
not  seriously,  but  to  afl'ord  opportunity  for 
intellectual  display  in  its  defense.  The  Jews 
now  regard  it  with  special  honor.  Christians 
have  been  more  divided  on  the  subject  of  its 
merits.  Melito  of  Sardis  and  Gregory  of 
Nazianzus  omitted  it  from  their  lists  of 
canonical  books  ;  Athanasius  classed  it  with 
non-canonical  books,  and  Luther  denounced 
it.  Opposition  to  it  was  based  mainly  on  the 
fact  that  the  name  of  God  does  not  occur  in 
it  even  once.  But  iv.  14  implies  the  existence 
of  Providence ;  iv.  16  recognizes  fasting  as  a 
religious  practice,  and  ix.  31  not  merely  fast- 
ing, but  a  cry  or  prayer.    The  great  lesson 


Etam 


210 


Ether 


of  the  book  is,  iu  fact,  the  ovcrniliiii;  power 
of  Providence.  Tiiere  is  undesi^iuHl  coin- 
cidence between  the  Book  of  Esther  and  the 
classic  writers.  Xerxes  was  passionate,  ef- 
feminate, capricious,  and  cruel,  and  easily 
swayed  by  his  courtiers  (Herod,  vii.  35,  37; 
ix.  107).  The  feast  which  led  to  Vashti's  di- 
vorce occurred  in  the  third  year  of  the  king's 
reign  (Esth.  i.  3),  while  her  successor,  Esther, 
was  not  appointed  till  the  seventh  year  (ii.  16). 
During  the  interval  the  disastrous  expedi- 
tion of  the  king  to  Greece  took  place,  during 
which  the  battles  of  Thermopylse  and  Salamis 
were  fought,  480  B.  c.  Herodotus  (vii.  7, 
etc.)  tells  that  Xerxes  convoked  a  great  as- 
sembly in  his  third  year  to  prepare  for  the 
Greek  war  (ix.  108),  and  in  his  seventh  tried 
to  forget  his  defeat  in  the  pleasures  of  the 
harem.  The  most  potent  argument  for  the 
historical  character  of  the  incidents  desci-ibed 
iu  Esther  is  the  fact  that  the  feast  of  Purim, 
instituted  to  commemorate  them  (Esth.  ix. 
2()),  is  still  observed.  Had  they  never  oc- 
curred it  would  have  been  difficult  to  get 
the  feast  established.  So  early  as  the  Second 
Book  of  the  Maccabees,  the  feast  is  referred 
to  as  the  day  of  Mordecai  (xv.  36).  The  lan- 
guage is  Hebrew,  like  that  of  Ezra  and  Ne- 
hemiah,  but  with  more  Persian  words.  From 
X.  2  it  would  seem  that  Xerxes  was  dead 
when  it  was  penned.  Its  date  is  generally 
fixed  about  425  B.  C,  forty  years  after  his 
assassination,  or  at  least  iu  the  reign  of  Arta- 
xerxes,  465-425 ;  aud  there  is  no  valid  reason  to 
date  it  later.  The  Book  of  Esther  is  neither 
quoted  from  nor  alluded  to  in  the  N.  T. 
Certain  apocryphal  additions  to  Esther  ap- 
pear in  the  Septuagint.  Jerome  separated 
them  from  the  other  portion  of  the  work,  and 
they  now  tiud  place  in  the  apocrypha. 

E'tam  [place  of  beasts  of  prey]. 

1.  A  village  on  the  border  of  the  south 
country  and  the  lowland,  transferred  from 
Judah  to  Simeon  (1  Chron.  iv.  32;  cp.  Josh. 
XV.  32  aud  42).  In  the  cleft  of  a  rock  in  its 
immediate  vicinity  Samson  dwelt  for  a  time 
(Judg.  XV.  8,  11).  He  had  gone  down  to  it 
from  Timnah.  Conder  fixes  it  at  Beit  'Atab, 
5  miles  S.  E.  by  E.  of  Zorah  ;  most  others  at 
'Aitun,  about  11  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Hebron. 

2.  A  towu  in  the  neighborhood  of  Bethle- 
hem, fortified  by  Rehoboam  for  the  defense 
of  Judah  after  the  secession  of  the  ten  tribes 
(1  Chrou.  iv.  3 ;  2  Chron.  xi.  6 ;  and  Josh.  xv. 
60  in  Septuagint).  According  to  the  Talmud, 
the  temple  of  Jerusalem  was  supplied  with 
water  conducted  from  the  spring  of  Etam, 
and  an  ancient  aqueduct  extends  for  7  miles 
from  the  temple  hill,  past  Bethlehem,  to 
three  pools,  the  lowest  of  which  is  fed  by  a 
neighboring  spring,  situated  on  the  south, 
called  'Ain  'Atan.  Josephus  relates  that  Solo- 
mon was  fond  of  driving  out  iu  the  early 
morning  to  Etan  (written  also  Etam),  distant 
2  schoiuoi  or  7  miles  from  Jerusalem,  where 
there  was  a  delightful  prospect  of  gardens 


and  rivulets  (Antiq.  viii.  7,  3 ;  cp.  Song  vi. 
11,  12;  Eccl.  ii.  5,  6).  Here,  then,  at  'Ain 
'Atan,  near  the  village  of  Urtas  and  about  2 
miles  southwest  of  Bethlehem,  was  the  site 
of  Etam.  The  three  reservoirs  were  discov- 
ered by  pilgrims  at  quite  a  late  date  and 
named  the  pools  of  Solomon.  The  aqueduct 
is  ancient,  antedating  the  Christian  era  aud 
the  Roman  period.  Pontius  Pilate  probably 
used  it  as  the  last  section  of  the  great  couduit 
which  he  uudertook  to  build  for  the  purpose 
of  bringing  water  to  Jerusalem  from  a  dis- 
tance of  200  stadia  or  23  miles  (Autiq.  xviii. 
3,  2 ;  or  400  stadia,  War  ii.  9,  4).  Another 
section  extends  from  the  three  pools  to  the 
wady  el-'Arrub  near  Hebron,  and  a  third 
reaches  a  few  miles  southward  from  the 
pools  to  the  wady  el-Biar. 

E'tham  [perhaps  boundary]. 

The  first  encampment  of  the  Israelites 
after  leaving  Succoth,  as  they  were  depart- 
ing from  Egypt.  It  was  ou  the  edge  of  the 
wilderness  (Ex.  xiii.  20 ;  Num.  xxxiii.  6).  It 
apparently  did  not  lie  on  the  direct  road 
from  Egypt  to  the  Philistine  country  (Ex. 
xiii.  17).  The  name  was  extended  to  a  por- 
tion of  the  wilderness  of  Shur,  requiring  at 
least  three  days  to  cross  it,  aud  apparently 
reaching  to  or  even  including  Marah  (Num. 
xxxiii.  8;  cp.  Ex.  xv.  22).  Identifications 
have  been  proposed,  but  are  all  conjectural. 

E'than  [firmness,  perpetuity]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Judah,  of  the  house  of 
Zerah,  family  of  Perez  (1  Chron.  ii.  6).  He 
seems  to  have  been  the  person  of  this  name 
who  was  celebrated  for  his  wisdom  (1  Kin. 
iv.  31;  Ps.  Ixxxix.,  title). 

2.  A  Levite,  of  the  family  of  Gershom, 
house  of  Libui  (1  Chron.  vi.  42,  43;  cp.  20 
aud  Num.  xxvi.  58). 

3.  A  Levite,  of  the  family  of  Merari,  house 
of  Mushi.  He  was  a  son  of  Kishi  or  Ku- 
shaiah,  aud  was  appointed  a  singer  in  the 
time  of  David  (1  Chron.  vi.  44,  47;  xv.  17, 
19).  His  name,  it  appears,  was  changed  to 
Jeduthun,  praising  one,  after  his  appoint- 
ment to  service  in  the  tabernacle  at  Gibeon 
(1   Chron.  xvi.  38-41 ;    cp.   xv.  17,  19  with 

XXV.  1). 

Eth'a-nim  [incessant  rains]. 

The  seventh  mouth  (1  Kin.  viii.  2),  called 
also  Tishri.  It  was  approximately  October. 
Within  it  fell  the  feast  of  trumpets,  the 
great  day  of  atonement,  and  the  feast  of 
tabernacles.     See  Year. 

Eth'ba-al  [with  Baal,  or,  to  judge  from 
the  Greek  form,  with  him  is  Baal]. 

A  king  of  the  Tyrians  and  Sidonians,  aud 
father  of  Jezebel  (1  Kin.  xvi.  31 ;  Antiq.  viii. 
13, 1  and  2  ;  ix.  6,  6).  He  was  priest  of  Ashto- 
reth,  but  slew  his  brother  and  seized  the 
throue  (contra  Apion.  i.  18). 

E'ther  [abundance]. 

A  village  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  42),  but  allotted  to  the  tribe  of  Simeon 


Ethiopia 


211 


Euphrates 


(xix.  7).  It  is  called  Tocheii  in  1  C'hron.  iv. 
32.  The  best  suggestitm  as  to  its  site  is  the 
ruiiK'd  villa.u'c  of  "Atr,  about  a  mile  uorth- 
•\vost  liy  iicirlh  of  Beit  Jibriii. 

E-thi-o'pi-a  [Cinck  Aithiopia,  suiil)urnt. 
Possibly,  however,  this  may  have  been  sul)- 
stituted  for  the  E£:yi)tian  Ethanxh,  Ethiopia, 
with  whieh  it  nearly  aj^rees  in  sound]. 

1.  A  country  ealled  in  the  Hebrew  language 
Cush.  which  is  continually  nieulioned  in  cou- 
Dection  with  Egypt  (Ps.  Ixviii.  ',il  ;  Is.  xx.  3-5  ; 
Ezek.  XXX.  4.  5  ;  Dan.  xi.  43;  Nah.  iii.  9)  and 
sometimes  with  Libya  or  the  Libyans  (2  Cliron. 
xvi.  iS;  Ezek.  xxx.  5;  xxxviii.  5;  Dan.  xi. 
43  ;  Nah.  iii.  9),  and  must  certainly  have  been 
iu  eastern  Africa.  It  ran  southward  from 
Syene,  the  southern  point  of  Egypt  (Ezek. 
xxix.  10.  R.  V.  margin  ;  cp.  Judith  i.  10).  It 
was  manifestly  the  ujiper  region  of  the  Nile, 
the  Soudan,  Nubia  with  Kordofan,  Seunaar, 
and  northern  Abyssinia,  a  region  iu  large 
measure  desert,  though  in  jilaces  fertile.  This 
general  region  was  known  to  the  Egyptians 
as  Kes.  The  rivers  of  Ethiojiia  (Is.  xviii.  1 ; 
Zeph.  iii.  10)  were  probably  the  White  and 
Blue  Niles,  with  the  Atbara  or  Tacazze.  The 
topazes  of  Elhiojiia  were  celebrated  (Job 
xxviii.  19).  Its  inhabitants  were  tall  (Is. 
xlv.  14).  They  were  colored  men.  probably 
black  (Jer.  xiii.  23).  They  engaged  in  mer- 
cantile transactions,  selling  the  productions 
of  their  country  in  foreign  lands  (Is.  xlv.  14), 
and  as  a  consequence  became  wealthy  (xliii. 
3).  When  the  Ethiopians,  led  by  Zerah,  in- 
vaded Judah,  they  were  signally  defeated  by 
king  Asa  (2  C'hron.  xlv.  9-15;  xvi.  8).  An 
Ethiopian  dynasty,  the  tw-enty-fifth,  estab- 
lished itself  in  Egypt ;  to  it  belonged  that 
Tirhakah  who  met  Sennacherib  in  battle  at 
Eltekeh  (2  Kin.  xix.  9;  Is.  xxxvii.  9).  Isaiah 
(xx.  1-6)  and  Zephaniah  (ii.  12)  prophesied 
against  the  Ethiopians,  while  the  psalmist 
predicted  that  Ethi(jpia  would  haste  to  stretch 
out  her  hands  unto  God  (Ps.  Ixviii.  31  ;  cp. 
Ixxxvii.  4).  The  prophecy  obtained  fulfill- 
ment in  the  conversion  of  the  Ethiopian 
eunuch  (Acts  viii.  26-40)  and  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  gospel  into  Abyssinia,  which  still 
remains  a  Christian  kingdom. 

2.  There  was  an  Asiatic  as  well  as  an  Afri- 
can Cush.     See  Cush  1  and  2. 

Eth-ka'zin,  in  A.  V.  It-tah-ka'zin,  with 
the  case-ending. 

A  jdace  on  the  boundary  line  of  Zebulun 
(Josh.  xix.  13). 

Eth'nan  [gift,  hire]. 

A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Hczron  (1 
Chron.  iv.  7  ;  cp.  5  and  ii.  24). 

Eth'ni  [bountiful,  munificent]. 

A  Gershonite  Levite  (1  Chron.  vi.  41).  In 
ver.  21  he  is  called  Jeatherai.  The  main 
difference  is  found  iu  the  last  consonant.  A 
scribe  seems  to  have  confounded  the  Hebrew 
letters  nun  and  resh. 

Eu-bu'lus  [well  advised,  prudent]. 

A  Roman  Christian  (2  Tim.  iv.  21). 


Eu'me-nes  [well  dispo.sed]. 

King  of  Pergamos,  197-159  B.  c.  When  the 
Romans  defeated  Antioclius  the  (Jreat  at 
JIagnesia  in  190  h.  c,  they  assigned  the 
greater  i)art  of  the  defeated  king's  realm 
north  of  the  Taurus  mountains  to  Eumenes  in 
return  for  the  services  wliich  he  had  ren- 
dered them  (1  Mac.  viii.  6-8;  Livy  xxxvii. 
41).  Tiiey  Ix'stowed  Lyeia  and  ('aria  on  the 
RluKlians.  The  report,  which  Judas  .Macca- 
bieus  heard,  that  the  Romans  had  taken  India 
and  Media  also  was  not  true. 

Eu-ni'ce  [blessed  with  victory]. 

A  iiious  Jewess,  mother  of  Timothy  (Acts 
xvi.  1  :  2  Tim.  i.  5). 

Eu'nuch  [having  the  couch]. 

Properly  a  chamberlain  ;  but  in  the  East 
persons  who  had  been  rendered  impotent 
were  employed  for  this  office,  hence  an  im- 
potent man  (Is.  hi.  3;  Mat.  xix.  12).  There 
is  scarcely  a  doul)t  that  the  word  is  used 
in  this  sense  throughout  Scripture,  even  when 
it  is  rendered  into  English  by  some  other 
term.  There  have  been,  and  still  are,  mar- 
ried eunuchs  (Gen.  xxxix.  1,  rendered  f)fficer, 
and  7).  Eunuchs  often  obtained  high  posi- 
tion and  great  authority.  The  captain  of 
the  guard  of  Pharaoh  and  liis  chief  butler 
and  his  chief  baker  were  eunuchs  (Gen. 
xxxvii.  36  ;  xl.  2,  7,  translated  officer).  Eu- 
nuchs ministered  at  the  court  of  liabylon 
(Dan.  i.  3).  They  served  in  the  i>resence  of 
the  Persian  king,  and  acted  as  doorkeepers 
of  his  palace  (Esth.  i.  10;  ii.  21)  ;  a  eunuch 
was  over  his  harem  (ii.  3,  14),  and  a  eunuch 
was  dcjiuted  to  attend  his  queen  (iv.  5).  They 
served  also  at  the  court  of  Ahab  and  his  son 
Jehoram,  and  they  waited  ujion  Jezebel  (1 
Kin.  xxii.  9;  2  Kin.  viii.  6;  ix.  32).  Even 
ill  Judah.  although  eunuchs  were  legally  ex- 
cluded from  the  congregation  of  the  Lord 
(Deut.xxiii.  1),  they  were  employed  at  David's 
court  (1  Chron.  xxviii.  1),  and,  in  the  last 
days  of  the  monarchy,  at  the  degenerate 
court  of  the  successors  of  Josiah  (2  Kin. 
xxiv.  15  with  Jer.  xxix.  2  ;  2  Kin.  xxv.  19). 
The  eunuchs  in  Judah  were  probably  in  most, 
if  not  in  all,  cases  foreigners  (Jer.  xxxviii.  7). 
The  cupbearer  of  Herod  the  Great  was  a  eu- 
nuch, as  were  also  the  official  who  brought 
him  his  food  and  the  one  who  assisted  him  to 
bed  ;  and  his  favorite  wife  Mariamne  was 
served  by  a  eunuch  (Antiq.  xv.  7,  4;  xvi. 
8,  1).  A  eunuch  was  over  the  treasure  of 
queen  Candace  of  Ethiopia,  and  he  was  ad- 
mitted to  baptism  (Acts  viii.  27,  37 ;  cp.  Is. 
hi.  3). 

Eu-o'di-a,  in  A.  V.  Euodias  [fragrance]. 

A  Christian  woman  at  Philippi  blemished 
by  bickering  with  Syntyche  (Phil.  iv.  2). 

Eu-phra'tes  [Greek  modification  of  the 
Hebrew  P'rath,  which  is  variously  explained 
as  meaning  sweet  or  broad  or  with  good  fords] . 

One  of  the  great  rivers  of  western  Asia 
and  the  world.  It  is  formed  by  thejunctioi* 
of  two  streams  :  the  Murad,  rising  in  Armenia, 


Eupolemus 


212 


Eve 


between  lake  Van  and  mount  Ararat,  being 
the  more  easterly ;  and  the  Frat  or  Kara, 
rising  about  40  miles  northeast  of  Erzeroum, 
the  more  westerly.  Sometimes  the  name  Frat, 
cognate  with  the  Hehvew  P^rath,  is  applied  to 
both  of  these  streams.  They  run  in  a  westerly 
direction  to  about  latitude  39°  N.,  and  longi- 
tude 39°  E.,  after  which  the  combined  waters 
turn  southward,  break  through  the  southern 
chain  of  the  Taurus  mountains,  and  at  various 
places  are  not  more  than  50  miles  from  the 
Mediterranean.  Then  the  river  bends  south- 
eastward, constituting  the  western  boundary 
of  Mesopotamia.  About  latitude  31°  N.,  lon- 
gitude 47°  E.,  the  Tigris  unites  with  the  Eu- 
phrates, to  constitute  what  is  now  called  the 
Shat  el-Arab,  which,  after  a  course  of  about 
90  miles  more,  falls  into  tlie  Persian  Gulf. 
The  whole  length  of  the  Euphrates  is  about 
1800  miles.  It  was  one  of  the  rivers  of 
Paradise  (Gen.  ii.  14).  It  was  familiarly 
known  to  the  Hebrews  as  "  the  great  river  " 
or  simply  "the  river."  It  formed  the  limit 
in  the  northeasterly  direction  of  the  Hebrew 
dominion  when  its  extension  was  at  the 
greatest  (sv.  18;  cp.  2  Sam.  viii.  3  ;  1  Chron. 
xviii.  3;  1  Kin.  iv.  21,  24).  It  was  a  bound- 
ary between  east  and  west,  between  Egypt 
and  Assyria-Bal)ylonia,  each  power  de.siring 
to  possess  the  country  between  the  brook  of 
Egypt  and  the  Euphrates.  In  the  Persian 
period  also  it  separated  east  from  west  (Ezra 
iv.  10,  11 ;  v.  3;  vi.  6;  Neh.  ii.  7).  It  was  a 
boundary  of  the  Seleucidan  kingdom  (1  Mac. 
iii.  32  ;  vii.  8),  and  it  was  regarded  as  the 
eastern  limit  of  the  Roman  empire.  The 
greatest  city  on  its  banks  was  Babylon. 
Another  important  place  was  the  old  Hittite 
capital  Carchemish,  the  scene  of  various  bat- 
tles, especially  of  one  between  the  Baby- 
lonians and  the  Egyptians,  the  latter  led  by 
Pharaoh-necho  (Jer.  xlvi.  2).  In  the  book 
of  Eevelation  certain  angels  are  described 
as  being  "bound  in  the  great  river  Euphra- 
tes" (Eev.  ix.  14),  and  the  sixth  vial  was  poured 
out  upon  the  Euphrates  itself  (xvi.  12). 

Eu-pol'e-mus  [good  at  war]. 

Son  of  that  .lohu  who  obtained  special  priv- 
ileges for  the  Jews  from  Antiochus  the  Great 
(1  Mac.  viii.  17;  2  Mac.  iv.  11).  Eupolemus 
was  one  of  two  ambassadors  sent  by  Judas 
MaccabjEUs  to  Rome  to  make  a  treaty  with 
the  Romans.  Some  think  that  he  is  the  Jew- 
ish historical  writer  Eupolemus  whom  Alex- 
ander Polyhistor  quotes  so  frequently. 

Eu-ra'qui-lo  [from  Greek  euvaJcuIoti,  the 
northeast  wind]. 

A  tempestuous  northeast  wind  which  blows 
over  the  Mediterranean  (Acts  xxvii.  14;  in 
A.  V.  Euroclydon).  The  wind  from  that 
quarter,  now  called  Gregali,  blows  generally 
in  early  spring,  and  is  the  most  violent  wind 
on  the  Mediterranean.  It  is  sometimes  termed 
a  Levanter. 

Eu-roc'ly-don  [from  Greek  eurokludon,  per- 
haps a  wind  from  the  southeast  or  east] . 


A  tempestuous  wind  which  blows  from  the 
southeast  or  the  east.  It  brought  the  vessel 
in  which  Paul  was  sailing  toward  Rome 
first  into  danger,  and  then  to  shipwreck 
(Acts  xxvii.  14,  A.  Y.).  But  the  revisers 
prefer  the  reading  Eiirakuluti,  which  is  in 
some  manu.scripts,  and  render  Euraquilo. 

Eu'ty-chus  [fortunate]. 

A  young  man  of  Troas,  who,  falling  asleep 
while  Paul  was  preaching  there,  fell  from 
the  tliird  loft  or  floor.  He  was  taken  up 
dead,  but  was  miraculously  restored  to  life 
by  the  apo.stle  (Acts  xx.  9,  10). 

E-van'gel-ist  [from  Greek  euaggelistes,  a 
mes.seuger  of  good  tidings]. 

An  order  of  men  in  the  primitive  church 
distinct  from  apostles,  prophets,  pastors,  and 
teachers  (Eph.  iv.  11).  Their  name  implied 
that  their  special  function  was  to  announce 
the  glad  tidings  of  the  gospel  to  those  before 
ignorant  of  them,  and  as  they  were  not 
pastors  of  particular  churches,  they  were 
able  to  go  from  place  to  place  preaching  to 
those  who  as  yet  were  without  the  Christian 
pale.  Philip,  who  was  the  means  of  convert- 
ing and  baptizing  the  Ethiopian  eunuch,  was 
an  evangelist  (Acts  xxi.  8),  and  we  find  him 
successively  at  Jerusalem  (vi.  5),  in  Samaria 
(viii.  5),  on  the  road  between  Jerusalem  and 
Gaza  (26),  in  the  cities  north  of  Ashdod  (40), 
and  finally  at  Csesarea  (40  ;  xxi.  8).  Timothy 
was  also  commanded  by  Paul  to  do  the  work 
of  an  evangelist  (2  Tim.  iv.5).  Atalaterdate 
the  name  was  given  to  the  writers  of  the  four 
gospels. 

Eve  [life]. 

The  name  given  by  Adam  to  the  first  wo- 
man because  she  was  the  mother  of  all  living 
(Gen.  iii.  20).  Soon  after  his  creation,  she  was 
brought  into  being  to  be  a  help  meet  for  him 
(21,  22).  The  narrative  has  been  variously 
interpreted  as  meaning  that — 1.  Woman  was 
formed  from  the  rib  of  man,  Adam  being  in 
a  trance  and  beholding  the  operation,  but 
feeling  nothing ;  2.  Woman  was  not  actually 
formed  from  man's  rib,  but  Adam  had  a 
vision  by  which  he  was  taught  his  oneness 
of  nature  with  woman  and  her  rights  and 
privileges ;  3.  Woman's  relation  to  man  is 
set  forth  in  allegory.  From  a  literary  point 
of  view  the  third  explanation  is  unlikely. 
It  is  utterly  improbalile  that  the  writer  in- 
tended to  insert  an  allegory  in  the  midst  of 
historical  narrative  which  includes  the  crea- 
tion of  the  universe,  the  creation  of  man, 
and  the  flood.  The  two  human  beings  were 
placed  in  the  garden  of  Eden  ;  and  in  order 
to  test  their  obedience,  they  were  forbid- 
den to  touch  or  taste  the  fruit  of  one  par- 
ticular tree.  Some  time  afterwards  the  ser- 
pent under  Satanic  aid  and  guidance  in- 
duced Eve  first  to  entertain  unjust  suspicions 
of  God,  and  then  to  eat  the  forbidden  fruit. 
She  afterwards  persuaded  Adam  to  eat,  who 
thus  shared  her  guilt.  The  result  was  the 
fall  of  man  (iii.  1-24 ;  2  Cor.  xi.  3 ;  1  Tim.  ii. 


Evi 


213 


Exodus 


VS).  After  the  expulsion  of  the  guilty  pair 
from  the  gardeu,  Eve  successively  became  the 
mother  of  Cain,  Abel,  Seth,  with  other  sons 
anil  also  daughters  (Gen.  iv.  1,  2,  25,  26;  v. 
1-5). 
E'vi. 

One  of  the  tive  kings  of  Midiau,  allies  or 
vassals  of  Silion,  slain  in  the  war  waged  by 
Moses  against  the  Midianites  because  they 
seduced  the  Israelites  to  licentious  idolatry 
(Num.  xxxi.  8;  Josh.  xiii.  21). 
E'vil. 

The  origin  of  evil  is  a  problem  which  has 
perplexed  speculative  minds  in  all  ages  and 
countries.  God  is  not  the  author  of  sin,  but 
he  permits  it.  He  has  permitted  it,  because 
the  revelation  of  his  infinite  perfection  is  the 
highest  conceivable  good  and  the  ultimate 
end  of  all  his  works,  and  there  could  be  no 
manifestation  of  certain  of  his  attributes  if 
sin  were  not  permitted.  Were  there  no 
misery,  there  could  be  no  mercy  shown  by 
God  ;  and  there  could  be  no  revelation  of  his 
grace  and  justice,  if  there  were  no  sin  (Eom. 
ix.  22,  23).  Sin  is  permitted  that  God's  jus- 
tice may  be  known  in  its  punishment,  and 
his  mercy  in  its  forgiveness.  Holiness  and 
sin  may  be  nearly  balanced  on  earth ;  but  in 
the  universe,  sin  is  very  limited  in  compari- 
son with  holiness,  and  the  number  of  lost 
men  and  angels  is  doubtless  small  compared 
with  the  whole  number  of  the  rational  crea- 
tures of  God. 

E-vil-mer'o-dach  [in  Babylonian,  Avil- 
mnrdiik,  man  of  god  Merodach]. 

Son  and  successor  of  Nebuchadnezzar.  He 
ascended  the  throne  as  early  as  the  seventh 
month  of  562  b.  c,  and  reigned  only  two 
years.  In  the  first  of  these  two  he  took 
Jehoiachin,  the  captive  king  of  Judah,  from 
his  prison,  and  placed  him  above  all  the  other 
rulers  whom  he  had  in  thrall,  giving  him  a 
dailv  allowance  of  food  during  the  remainder 
of  his  life  (2  Kin.  xxv.  27-30  ;  Jer.  Hi.  31-34). 
A  conspiracy  was  formed  against  Evil-mero- 
dach,  his  own  brother-in-law,  Neriglissar  or 
Nergalshiirusur,  being  at  its  head.  The  king 
was  accused  of  lawlessness  and  intemperance, 
and  was  put  to  death  in  560  B.  c.  Nerig- 
lissar, the  chief  conspirator,  then  ascended 
the  throne  (Antiq.  x.  11,  2;  contra  Apion. 
i.  20). 
E'vil  Spir'it.  See  Demon. 
Ex-e-cu'tion-er.  See  Guard. 
Ex'ile.  See  Captivity  and  Dispersion. 
Ex'o-dus  [a  going  out,  a  way  out]. 
1.  The  dei)arture  of  the  Israelites  from 
Egypt,  after  they  had  been  divinely  eman- 
cipated from  bondage  in  that  land.  There  is 
considerable  ditficulty  in  settling  the  exact 
route  of  the  Exodus.  The  miracles  by  the 
hand  of  Moses  were  wrought  at  Zoan,  that  is 
Tanis  (Ps.  Ixxviii.  12),  and  Ramses  was  a 
suburb  of  that  capital.  Thence  the  Israelites 
journeyed  to  Succoth  (Ex.  xii.  37),  the  site  of 


which  is  marked  by  Tell  el-Maskhutuh  in 
the  wady  Tumilat,  .32  miles  south-southeast 
of  Tanis  and  11  miles  west  of  Isma'iliya. 
They  did  not  take  the  shortest  route  to  Pal- 
estine, which  lay  through  the  land  of  the 
Philistines,  but  they  went  by  the  way  of  the 
wilderness  by  the  Red  Sea  (xiii.  17, 18).  Their 
first  encampment  after  leaving  Succt)th  was 
Etham.  The  site  has  not  been  identified; 
but  it  was  on  the  edge  of  the  wilderness 
(20).  Thence  they  turned  back  and  en- 
camped before  Pi-hahiroth,  between  Migdol 
and  the  sea,  before  Baal-zeplion  (xiv.  2;  Num. 
xxxiii.  7).  This  camp  has  not  been  definitely 
located.  It  w'as,  however,  west  of  the  Red 
Sea.  From  this  place  they  marched  through 
the  Red  Sea  into  the  wilderness  of  Shur  (Ex. 
XV.  4,  22  ;  Num.  xxxiii.  8),  and  thence  along 
the  coast  of  the  Red  Sea  toward  mount  Sinai 
(Ex.  xvi.  1 ;  Num.  xxxiii.  10,  15).  For  the 
date  of  the  exodus,  see  Chronology. 

2.  The  book  of  Exodus,  the  second  book 
of  the  Pentateuch.  In  the  Hebrew  Scriptures 
the  title  consists  of  the  opening  words,  ''  And 
these  the  names."  The  name  Exodus  was 
appropriately  given  to  the  book  by  the  Greek 
translators,  because  it  narrates  the  departure 
from  Egypt  which  was  a  turning  point  in 
Israel's  history. 

The  book  is  a  continuous  narrative,  and 
may  be  divided  into  three  sections:  1.  In 
Egypt  (i.-xii.  36).  The  period  of  several  cen- 
turies immediately  following  the  descent  of 
Jacob  into  Egypt  is  passed  over  with  a  single 
remark  about  the  increase  of  the  people  after 
the  death  of  Joseph  (i.  7).  Oppression  of  the 
Israelites  (8  seq.).  Birth,  earlier  life,  and 
call  of  Moses  (ii.-iv.).  Struggle  with  Pharoah 
and  infliction  of  the  plagues ;  in  connection 
with  the  last  plague,  institution  of  the  pass- 
over  (v. -xii.  36).  2.  From  Egypt  to  Sinai 
(xii.  37-xix.  2).  Departure  from  Ramses  (xii. 
37-42).  Supplementary  regulation  respect- 
ing the  passover,  stating  the  condition  upon 
which  foreigners  could  partake  of  it  (43-51). 
Sanctification  of  the  fir,stborn  enjoined  upon 
Moses  (xiii.  1,  2)  ;  announcement  to  the  people 
of  a  seven  days'  festival  to  be  observed  hence- 
forth in  connection  with  the  passover,  and 
of  God's  command  to  sanctify  the  firstborn 
(3-16).  Passage  of  the  Red  Sea  (xiv.),  song  of 
deliverance  (xv.  1-19),  bitter  water  at  jNIarah, 
manna  and  quails  (20-xvi.).  At  Rex>hidim : 
water  from  rock  in  Horeb,  victory  over  Ama- 
lek,  and  visit  of  .Tetliro  (xvii.,  xviii.).  3.  At 
Sinai  (xix.  3-xl.  38  and  uninterruptedly  to 
Num.  X.  10).  Establishment  of  the  theocracy: 
theocratic  covenant  proposed  by  God  on  con- 
dition of  obedience  (xix.  .3-6),  approval  of 
the  terms  by  the  elders  of  the  people  (7,  8), 
the  ten  commandments  and  subsidiary  laws 
enacted  and  written  in  the  book  of  the  cove- 
nant, ratification  of  the  covenant  (xx.-xxiv. 
8) ;  see  Theocr.\cy.  Manifestation  of  God's 
glory  (9-11).  Moses  in  the  mount;  plan  of 
the  tabernacle  and  its  furniture,  tables  of 
stone  (12-xxxi.).     The  golden  calf  (xxxii., 


i^ 


Exorcist 


214 


Ezekiel 


xxxiii. ).  Moses'  second  sojourn  in  the  mount, 
with  summarizing  urgent  repetition  of  cove- 
nant laws  (xxxiv.).  Construction  and  erec- 
tion of  the  tabernacle  (xxxv.-xl.).  See  Pen- 
tateuch. 

Ex'or-clst  [in  Greek,  administrator  of  an 
oath  ;  expeller  by  adjuration]. 

One  who  professes  by  using  words  and 
ceremonies  to  eject  evil  spirits,  and  deliver 
from  their  malign  influence.  Certain  im- 
postors of  this  sort,  vagabond  Jews,  were  en- 
countered by  Paul  at  Ephesus  (Acts  xix. 
13-19). 

E'zar.     See  Ezer,  II. 

Ez'bal. 

Father  of  one  of  David's  mighty  men  (1 
Chron.  xi.  37,  possibly  merely  a  variant  read- 
ing of  2  Sam.  xxiii.  35). 

Ez'bon. 

1.  A  sou  of  Gad  (Gen.  xlvi.  16).    See  OzNi. 

2.  The  head  of  a  father's  house,  family  of 
Bela,  tribe  of  Benjamin  (1  Chron.  vii.  7). 

Ez-e-ki'as.     See  Hkzekiah. 

E-ze'ki-el  [God  doth  strengthen ;  or,  per- 
haps, God  is  strong]. 

One  of  the  greater  Jewish  jirophets,  a  son 
of  Buzi,  and  of  priestly  family  (Ezek.  i.  3). 
He  was  carried  captive  from  Judah  with  Je- 
hoiachin,  eight  years  after  Daniel's  deporta- 
tion (xxxiii.  21  ;  xl.  1  ;  cp.  2  Kin.  xxiv.  11- 
16).  Jo.sephus  says  that  he  was  a  youth  at 
the  time  (Antiq.  x.  6,  3).  He  was,  in  fact, 
under  the  age  when  Levites  assumed  their 
duties  and  were  reckoned  in  the  census  as 
men,  but  he  was  not  a  child.  He  lived  with 
the  Jewish  exiles  on  the  river  Chebar  in 
Babylonia,  probably  at  Tel-abib  (Ezek  i.  1,  3  ; 
iii.  15)  ;  had  married  probably  as  early  as  the 
sixth,  at  least  by  the  ninth,  year  of  the  cap- 
tivity, and  had  a  house  (viii.  1  ;  xxiv.  1,  18). 
He  had  grown  up  in  the  home  land  under  the 
ministry  of  the  prophet  Jeremiah.  His  own 
ministry  began  in  the  fifth  year  of  Jehoia- 
chin's  captivity,  seven  years  before  the  de- 
struction of  the  temple  at  Jerusalem,  while 
he  was  dwelling  on  the  Chebar  (i.  1,  2).  He 
was  then  in  his  thirtieth  year  (i.  1),  the  age 
at  which  Levites  entered  upon  service  (Num. 
iv.  3).  The  theory  that  the  thirtieth  year 
does  not  refer  to  Ezekiel's  age,  but  is  a  date 
reckoned  either  from  the  accession  of  Nabo- 
polassar,  Nebuchadnezzar's  father,  or  from 
the  reforms  of  Josiah,  fails  in  view  of  Jer. 
XXV.  1,  3 ;  2  Kin.  xxiii.  36  ;  xxv.  6  ;  Ezek.  i.  2. 
Ezekiel's  prophetic  activity  extended  over  a 
period  of  at  least  twenty-two  years  (i.  2  with 
xxix.  17).  He  uttered  his  prophecies  with 
freedom,  and  was  resorted  to  for  advice  by 
the  elders  of  the  people  (viii.  i ;  xiv.  1 ;  xx.  1), 
though  his  words  were  not  followed  as  faith- 
fully as  could  have  been  desired  (xxxiii.  30- 
33).  The  time  and  manner  of  his  death  are 
unknown.  The  late  tradition  that  he  was 
slain  by  a  prince  of  the  people  because  he 
denounced  idolatry  is  worthless. 


The  Book  of  the  Prophet  Ezekiel  stands  in 
the  English  Bible  between  Lamentations  and 
Daniel.  As  these  two  books  are  placed  among 
the  Hagiographa  in  the  Hebrew  canon,  Eze- 
kiel's place  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  is  be- 
tween Jeremiah  and  Hosea.  The  prophecies 
are  arranged  nearly,  though  not  quite,  in 
chronological  order,  and  they  are  dated  ac- 
cording to  the  years  of  Jehoiachin's  captivity 
in  which  they  were  delivered.  The  book 
falls  into  three  divisions  : 

I.  Prophecies  delivered  before  the  capture 
of  Jerusalem,  foretelling  its  overthrow  for 
its  sins.  In  the  fifth  year  the  priest  is  called 
to  the  prophetic  oflice  and  prepared  for  his 
work  by  a  vision  (i.-iii.  21),  and  then  is  di- 
rected to  prophesy,  by  symbolical  actions 
and  their  interpretation,  the  destruction  of 
the  city  (iii.  22-vii.).  In  the  sixth  year,  are 
denunciations  of  Judah  for  idolatry  (viii.) ; 
symbolical  departure  of  Jehovah  from  the 
temple  because  of  its  profanation  (ix.-xi.  13) ; 
comfort,  the  exiles  are  still  God's  people,  he 
will  be  a  sanctuary  to  them  (16),  restore  them 
to  the  land  of  Israel  (17),  give  those  that  re- 
form their  lives  a  new  heart  (18-21).  Unbe- 
lief and  adherence  to  false  prophets  are  the 
reasons  for  Jehovah's  forsaking  his  city  (xii.- 
xiv.)  ;  the  event  is  certain  (xv.-xvii.),  but 
the  repentant  shall  enjoy's  God's  favor 
(xviii.).  Lamentation  for  the  princes  of 
Israel  (xix.).  In  the  seventh  year,  it  is  proph- 
esied that,  because  Jehovah's  name  has  been 
profaned  in  the  sight  of  the  heathen,  he  will 
punish  the  people,  but  will  afterwards  restore 
them  for  his  name's  sake  (xx.  1-44)  ;  the 
doom  is  certain,  the  transgressions  are  come 
to  remembrance  before  God  (xx.  45-xxiii.). 
In  the  ninth  year,  the  siege  of  Jerusalem 
and  the  dispersion  of  the  people  are  symbol- 
ized by  a  caldron  (xxiv.). 

II.  Prophecies  of  judgment  against  the  na- 
tions: in  the  ninth  year,  against  Ammon, 
Moab,  Edom,  and  Philistia  (xxv.)  ;  in  the 
eleventh  year,  against  Tyre  and  Sid  on  (xxvi.- 
xxviii.)  ;  and  in  the  tenth,  twenty-seventh, 
and  eleventh  years,  against  Egypt  (xxix.- 
xxxii.). 

III.  Prophecies  concerning  the  restoration, 
delivered  after  the  capture  and  destruction 
of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar.  In  the 
twelfth  year,  the  evening  before  the  news 
of  the  fall  of  the  city  reached  the  prophet, 
he  received  a  second  formal  call  to  the  pro- 
])hetic  work  (xxxiii.  1-22).  He  is  further 
taught  that,  after  the  judgment,  the  people 
shall  recognize  that  Jehovah  is  God,  and  that 
a  true  prophet  has  been  among  them  (23-33) ; 
a  good  shepherd,  even  David,  shall  be  raised 
up  (xxxiv.),  their  i)resent  foes  punished 
(xxxv.),  the  people  sanctified  and  restored  to 
their  land  (xxxvi.),  revived  as  from  the  dead, 
their  twelve  tribes  re-united  (xxxvii.),  and 
their  foes  finally  overthrown  (xxxviii.- 
xxxix.).  In  the  twent.v-fifth  year,  the  rees- 
tablishment  of  God's  church  is  disclosed, 
being   symbolically  exhibited  in  the  vision 


Ezel 


215 


Ezra 


of  the  temple  enlarged  and  holy  throughout 
(xl.-xliii.),  its  holy  services  (xliv.-xlvi.),  the 
river  of  life  issuing  from  it  and  making 
the  desert  to  rejoice  (xlvii.),  and  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  land  among  the  tribes  (xlviii.)- 
There  are  no  direct  quotations  from  Ezekiel 
in  the  N.  T.,  but  the  imagery  seen  in  his 
visions  aftects  the  language  of  the  book  of 
Revelation. 

E'zel  [separation,  departure]. 

The  jiluce  where  Uavid  hid  until  Jonathan 
could  inform  him  of  Saul's  disposition  toward 
him  (1  Sam.  xx.  19). 

E'zem,  in  A.  V.  twice  Azem  [a  bone]. 

A  village  near  the  border  of  Edom  in  that 
part  of  the  territory  allotted  to  the  tribe  of 
Judah,  which  was  afterwards  assigned  to 
Simeon  (Josh.  xv.  29  ;  xix.  3  ;  1  Chron.  iv.  29). 
Exact  site  unknown. 

E'zer,  I.,  in  A.  V.  once  Ezax,  an  error  not 
fiiiiud  in  the  original  edition  of  1611  [enclo- 
sure, treasure]. 

A  Horite  tribe  and  its  chieftain  (Gen.  xxxvi. 
21,  30;  1  Chron.  i.  38). 

E'zer.  II.  [help]. 

1.  A  descendant,  jirobably  son,  of  Ephraira, 
killed  in  a  raid  against  the  Philistines  (1 
Chron.  vii.  21). 

2.  A  man  of  Judah,  descended  from  Hur 
(1  Chron.  iv.  4). 

3.  A  Gadite  who  joined  David  at  Ziklag 
(1  Chron.  xii.  9). 

4.  A  son  of  Jeshua.  He  was  ruler  of  Miz- 
pah,  and  repaired  part  of  the  wall  of  Jerusa- 
lem (Xeh.  iii.  19). 

5.  A  priest  who  took  part  in  the  ceremony 
at  the  dedication  of  the  rebuilt  wall  of  Jeru- 
s;ilem  (xii.  42). 

E'zi-on-ge'ber,  in  A.  V.  often  Ezion-gaber 
[biiekbone  of  a  man]. 

A  town  on  the  Eed  Sea,  at  the  northern 
end  of  the  gulf  of  Akaba,  near  Elatli,  on  the 
confines  of  Edom  (Dent.  ii.  8  ;  1  Kin.  ix.  26; 
xsii.  43  ;  2  Chron.  viii.  17).  The  Israelites 
encamped  by  the  town  as  they  journeyed  in 
the  wilderness  (Xum.  xxxiii.  35).  As  Eobin- 
son  suggested,  the  name  may  linger  in  el- 
Ghudyan,  a  small  valley  with  brackish  water 
opening  into  the  Arabah  from  the  western 
mountain  some  distance  north  of  the  fortress 
of  'Akaba.  the  approximate  site  of  ancient 
Elath.  The  respective  letters  correspond  in 
Hebrew  and  Arabic. 

Ez'nite.     See  Adino. 

Ez'ra,  in  R.  V.  once  Ezrah  (1  Chron.  iv. 
17).  the  pure  Hebrew  orthography  [help]. 

1.  A  man  who  is  registered  with  Judah  (1 
Chron.  iv.  17). 

2.  One  of  the  chief  priests  who  returned 
from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Neh.  xii.  1, 
7).  A  father's  house  bore  his  name  in  the 
next  generation  (ver.  13). 

3.  A  priest  descended  from  Zadok  and  from 
Phinehas  (Ezra  vii.  1-6).  He  was  a  ready 
scribe  in  the  law  of  Moses,  making  the  writ- 


ten law,  which  was  in  his  hand  (14),  the  sub- 
ject of  study  and  teaching  (10,  11).  In  the 
seventh  year  of  Artaxerxes  Longiman\is,  king 
of  Persia  from  Aii'i  to  42.5  B.  c,  he  was  com- 
missioned by  the  king  to  go  to  Jerusalem  to 
inquire  into  the  civil  and  religious  condition 
of  the  Jewish  community  and  conform  it  to 
the  teaching  of  God's  law  (14).  He  was  given 
orders  on  the  authorities  in  the  province 
Beyond-the-river  for  monej''  and  goods  for 
the  temple  and  for  the  exemption  of  the 
temple  ofhcials  from  taxation  (21,  24).  He 
was  permitted  to  lead  a  fresh  company  of 
Jewish  exiles  to  Palestine,  in  addition  to 
those  who  had  accompanied  Zerubbabel  and 
the  high  priest,  Jeshua,  nearly  eighty  years 
before.  In  the  seventh  year  of  Artaxerxes' 
reign,  459-458  B.  c,  on  the  first  day  of  the  first 
month,  Nisan  (approximately  March),  he  be- 
gan his  journey,  accompanied  by  1500  exiles 
(vii.  9).  On  reviewing  his  followers  at  Ahava, 
he  found  a  total  absence  of  Levites,  but  on 
sending  back  for  some,  a  few  were  persuaded 
to  accompany  him  to  Palestine.  After  fast- 
ing at  Ahava,  he  again  set  out.  reaching  Je- 
rusalem on  the  first  of  the  fifth  month,  four 
months  after  the  departure  from  Babylon 
(viii.  15-32).  On  his  arrival,  he  gave  over  the 
vessels  he  had  received  for  the  temple,  offered 
sacrifice,  and  presented  the  king's  orders  to 
the  neighboring  governors  (viii.  33-36).  He 
was  grieved  to  discover  that  Jews  of  Palestine 
had  married  heathen  wives,  even  some  of 
the  priests  having  done  so ;  but  he  took  de- 
cisive measures  to  compel  them  to  observe 
the  Mosaic  law  on  the  subject,  and  induced 
many  to  divorce  their  foreign  wives  (ix.,x.). 
We  know  nothing  of  his  movements  for  the 
next  thirteen  years.  After  Nehemiah  had 
come  to  Jerusalem,  and  repaired  its  walls  in 
the  twentieth  year  of  Artaxerxes,  Ezra  took 
the  leading  part  in  reading  the  law  of  Moses 
to  the  colony  (Neh.  viii.).  Ezra  marks  the 
transition  fi'om  the  prophets  to  the  scribes. 
For  his  relation  to  the  law  and  to  the  O.  T. 
books,  see  Canon.  Josephus  states  that  Ezra 
died  about  the  time  of  the  succession  of  Elia- 
shib  to  the  highpriesthood  (Antiq.  xi.  5, 5).  He 
was  certainlj'  for  a  while  contemporary  with 
Eliashib  (Neh.  iii.  1 ;  viii.  9). 

The  book  of  Ezra  consists  of  two  parts: 
1.  A  narrative  of  the  return  of  the  Jews 
from  Babylonia  under  Zerubbabel  in  the  year 
538  B.  c,  the  restoration  of  divine  service, 
and  the  erection  of  the  temple  in  the  face  of 
Samaritan  opposition  (i.-vi.).  2.  An  account 
of  the  return  of  a  second  body  of  exiles 
under  Ezra  in  the  year  459-458,  and  of  Ezra's 
energetic  and  successful  measures  to  put  a 
stop  to  the  marriage  of  Israelites  with  for- 
eigners (vii.-x.).  The  hook  is  largely  com- 
posed of  copies  of  public  records  and  official 
documents.  The  provincial  documents  and 
history  are  written  in  Aramaic  (iv.  8-vi.  18 ; 
vii.  12-26)  ;  namely,  copies  of  the  letters  sent 
to  the  Persian  kings  by  officials  of  the  prov- 
ince Beyond-the-river  (iv.  8-16  ;  V.  7-17;  vi. 


Ezra 


216 


Faith 


6-12),  the  royal  replies  and  decrees  imposing 
commands  on  these  officials  (iv.  17-22 ;  vi. 
3-5;  and  vii.  12-26,  cp.  21,  24),  and  the  brief 
connecting  history  referring  primarily  to  pro- 
vincial atlairs  (iv.  23-v.  5;  vi.  1,  2,  13-18). 
Aramaic  had  been  for  several  centuries  the 
language  of  international  commerce  and  di- 
plomacy. The  remainder  of  the  book  records 
the  proper  domestic  history  of  Judah,  and  is 
vpritten  in  Hebrew.  It  includes  the  royal  edict 
issued  in  behalf  of  the  Jews  (i.  2-4),  copies 
of  Jewish  archives  (ii.  1-67:  viii. ;  x.  18-44), 
and  the  connecting  history.  It  has  been  sup- 
posed that  the  Aramaic  narrative  was  writ- 
ten by  a  contemporary  of  Zerubbabel  and 
eyewitness  of  the  events  described  (cp.  v.  4, 
where  the  pronoun  we  is  used)  ;  but,  since 
documents  of  the  time  of  Artaxerxes  are  in- 
serted (iv.  9-16;  17-22),  the  written  narrative 
cannot  date  earlier  than  Ezra's  time,  and  the 
pronoun  we  was  employed  in  speaking  of  a 
past  generation  because  the  writer  felt  his 
identity  with  the  Jewish  people,  past  and 
present,  as  in  ix.  6-15  and  Neh.  ix.  29,  33. 
Some  would  date  the  narrative  even  later ; 
but  see  below. 

At  least  a  section  of  the  book  was  written 
by  Ezra,  beginning  with  vii.  27,  for  it  is  ex- 
pressed in  the  first  person.  Ezra,  therefore, 
wrote  history,  and  he  may  have  compiled  the 
book  which  bears  his  name,  for  the  narrative 
closes  during  his  lifetime.  But  why,  it  may 
be  asked,  if  Ezra  compiled  the  book  which 
bears  his  name,  are  two  passages  in  which 
Ezra  is  prominent,  namely  the  ten  opening 
verses  of  chapter  vii.  and  the  last  chapter  of 
the  book,  which  is  inseparable  from  the  pre- 
ceding ninth  chapter,  not  expressed  in  the 
first  person?  The  ten  introductory  verses 
are  primarily  genealogical.  The  use  of  the 
third  person  is  natural.  As  the  introduction 
was  begun  in  the  third  person,  it  is  with 
propriety  concluded  in  the  third  person. 
Parallel  changes  of  person  occur  in  the  book 
of  Daniel,  which  is  regarded  as  the  work  of 
one  author.  As  to  the  last  chapter  of  the 
book,  it  would  seem  that  Ezra's  record  stop- 
ped at  the  ninth  chapter  and  the  narrative 
was  concluded  by  another  person,  though  not 
unlikely  he  was  a  contemporary  of  Ezra  and 
acted  under  Ezra's  authority,  and  was  the 
scribe  who  drew  up  the  protocol  of  the  pro- 
ceedings and  wrote  down  the  official  list  of 
the  men  who  gave  pledge  (x.  18-44). 

Some  have  supposed  that  those  sections  in 
which  the  pronoun  I  is  not  used  were  in- 
serted in  Ezra's  narrative  by  another  editor, 
whose  hand  is  thought  to  be  discernible  in 
Nehemiah  and  Chronicles  also,  and  many 
modern  critics  place  the  date  of  the  sup- 
posititious editor  after  330  b.  c.  The  argu- 
ment rests  ultimately  upon  the  fact  that  the 
books  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  were  reckoned 
as  one  book  in  the  Hebrew  canon,  and  upon 
the  belief  that  the  genealogies  in  the  book 
of  Nehemiah  are  carried  down  until  the  time 
of  Alexander  the  Great ;  hence  Ezra  and  Ne- 


hemiah must  have  been  edited  in  the  Grecian 
period.  Now  it  is  a  credible,  but  not  a  neces- 
sary, supposition  that  the  books  of  Ezra  and 
Nehemiah  were  combined  and  supplemented 
by  an  editor.  But  apart  from  the  possible 
implication  of  the  genealogies  (see  Nehe- 
miah), there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  this 
hypothetical  editor  belonged  to  a  younger 
generation  than  Ezra  and  Nehemiah.  His 
supposed  additions  concern  events  in  which 
Ezra  and  Nehemiah  were  participants,  and 
the  history  is  related  as  by  an  eyewitness  (cp. 
above  and  see  Nehemiah).  And  assuming 
that  the  books  were  not  edited,  and  are  en- 
tirely distinct  from  each  other  in  authorship 
throughout,  as  they  are  confessedly  in  large 
part,  there  was  reason  for  reckoning  them  as 
one.  This  reason  is  scarcely  found  in  the 
purpose  to  conform  the  number  of  books  to 
the  number  of  letters  in  the  Hebrew  alpha- 
bet, twenty-two,  or,  by  peculiar  computation, 
twenty-four ;  but  the  reason  is  found  rather 
in  the  fact  that  the  books  of  Ezra  and  Nehe- 
miah form  a  continuous  narrative  of  post- 
exilic  Jewish  history,  and  are  concerned  with 
the  interrelated  work  of  the  contemporary 
rulers  of  the  community,  Ezra  the  priest  and 
Nehemiah  the  civil  governor.  The  two  books 
were  known  to  be  of  diverse  authorship  (Neh. 
i.  1),  but  were  reckoned  as  one,  just  as  the 
twelve  minor  prophets  were  counted  as  one 
book,  although  it  was  recognized  that  the 
twelve  writings  were  by  twelve  different 
prophets. 

Ez'rah,     See  Ezea  1. 

Ez'ra-Mte  [alternate  form  of  Zarhite]. 

A  descendant  of  Zerah,  belonging  to  the 
tribe  of  Judah,  as  Ethan  (1  Kin.  iv.  31 ;  Ps. 
Ixxxix.,  title  ;  cp.  1  Chron.  ii.  6)  and  Heman 
(Ps.  Ixxxviii.,  title  ;  cp.  1  Chron.  ii.  6). 

Ez'ri  [probably,  (God  is)  a  help]. 

Overseer  of  the  laborers  who  tilled  David's 
fields  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  26). 


Fair  Ha'vens. 

A  harbor  in  Crete,  near  the  city  of  Lasea, 
where  Paul's  ship  touched  (Acts  xxvii.  8). 
Mr.  Smith  of  Jordanhill  located  it  about  5 
miles  east  of  Cape  Matala,  a  promontory  on 
the  southern  shore  of  Candia,  just  west  of 
which  the  coastline  turns  northward. 

Faith. 

As  far  as  a  difference  exists  between  belief 
and  faith,  belief  is  assent  to  testimony,  and 
faith  is  assent  to  testimony,  united  with  trust. 
Faith  is  an  active  principle ;  it  is  an  act  both 
of  the  understanding  and  the  will.  The  dis- 
tinction between  belief  and  faith  is  that  be- 
tween "believe  me  "and  "believe  on  me." 
The  verb  believe  thus  does  service  for  the 
two  nouns  faith  and  belief.  In  the  Bible 
faith  or  belief  is  confidence  in  the  absolute 


Falcon 


217 


Fan 


truthfulness  of  CTerv  statement  which  comes 
from  God  i  Gen.  iv.  6  ;  Deut.  xxxii.  "20 :  Mark 
xi.  -22 :  Rom.  iv.  3-5^.  In  this  faith  the  heroes 
of  Scripture  acted  tHeb.  xi.).  In  a  special 
jenie.  faith  is  reliance  on  God's  testimony 
regarding  the  mission  and  atoning  death  of 
bis  Son.  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  :  John  v.  24). 
\--: !  a  the  testimony  of  Jesus  regarding 
:  :  -.  If  icp.  John  iii.  IS :  Acts  iii.  16  :  xx.  il  : 
z.'j-z'..  iii.  "2.5).  Faith  in  the  Redeemer,  where- 
by a  sinner  rests  upon  him  alone  for  salva- 
tion, is  essential  to  salvation  (John  iii.  15. 16. 
IS:  Eph.  ii.  S.  etc.  Belief  in  his  historical 
existence  and  in  the  truth  of  his  claims  mav 
be  produced  by  evidence,  but  faith  in  him.  re- 
liance upon  him  for  salvation,  cannot  be.  It 
is  the  gift  of  God  ( Eph.  ii.  S)  ;  the  Spirit  ap- 
plies the  truth  to  the  soul.  Human  means 
should  be  used,  in  co«>peration  with  his 
Spirit,  for  its  production  lEom.  x.  17).  It 
may  exist  in  larger  or  in  smaller  measure 
(Eom.  iv.  19.  20 :  xiv.  1).  The  apostles  when 
they  deplored  the  weakness  of  their  faith 
prayed  to  Jesus  for  its  increase  (Luke  xvii. 
5'.  It  works  by  love  'Gal.  v.  6i.  and  over- 
comes the  world  il  John  v.  4).  But  with  all 
its  importance  it  is  not  the  greatest  of  the 
three  primary  Christian  graces,  that  position 
being  occupied  by  love  (1  Cor.  xiii.  13). 

The  system  of  doctrine  given  by  revela- 
tion of  God  is  termed  the  feith  (Acts  tL  7  ; 
xxiv.  24  :  Eom.  i.  5.  etc.). 

Fal'con. 

A  diurnal  bird  of  prey  other  than  a  vul- 
tare.  The  family  includes  among  its  genera 
felcons  strictly  so-called,  hawks,  kites,  eagles. 
The  word  is  used  in  E.  V.  to  render  the  He- 
brew \Ayyah  i  Job  xxrviii.  7 :  in  A.  V.  vul- 
torei.  an  unclean  bird  iLev.  xi.  14:  Deut. 
liv.  13:  in  A.  Y.  kite).  Several  varieties  are 
mentioned  by  Tristram  as  occurring  in  Pales- 
tine: the  hobby  hawk  iFalco  subbiiteoK  the 
red-legged  hobby  (F.  vespertinusi,  the  Elea- 
nora  falcon  <  F.  eleanorx). 

Fallow  Deer  jieer  of  fallow  or  yellowish 
hue]. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Ynhmur  in 
A.  V.  of  Deut.  xiv.  r, ;  1  Kin.  iv.  23.'  E.  Y. 
has  roebuck  iq.  v.).  The  genuine  fallow  deer 
{Dama  ndgaris;  has  horns,  with  their  upper 
part  palmated.  The  hair  in  summer  is  yel- 
lowish-brown all  over,  with  spots  :  in  winter 
the  tints  are  less  bright.  The  male  is  about 
three  feet  high  at  the  shoulder.  Its  native 
country  seems  to  be  the  Mediterranean  region. 
It  occurs  sparingly  in  Galilee  and  mount 
Lebanon. 

Fa-mil'iar  Spir^it. 

The  spirit  of  a  dead  person  which  professed 
mediums  claimed  to  summon  to  consultation 
(Deut.  iviii.  ID.  and  which  appeared  to  speak 
from  the  earth  'Is.  xxix.  4).  or  to  dwell  in 
the  controlling  medium  <  Lev.  xx.  27,  in  He- 
brew i.  The  medium  was  called  the  possessor 
or  lord  of  a  spirit  (1  Sam.  xxviii.  7,  in  He- 


brew .  It  revealed  the  future  (Is.  viii.  19). 
It  was  either  a  special  spirit  which  was  be- 
lieved to  always  respond  to  the  summons  of 
the  medium,  as  the  English  rendering  would 
lead  one  to  suppose,  and  who  might  raise 
other  ghosts ;  or  it  was  any  spirit  whom  the 
medium  desired.  1  Sam.  xxviii.  8  is  capable 
of  either  interpretation.  ■"  Divine  by  the 
ghost  "  in  you  or  "  whom  I  shall  name.''  To 
consult  familiar  spirits  was  apostasy  from 
Jehovah  iiLev.  xix;.  31 ;  Is.  viii.  19).  Under 
the  Mosaic  law  a  person  pretending  to  possess 
the  power  of  consulting  a  familiar  spirit  was 
to  be  put  to  death  ( Lev.  xix.  31 :  xx.  6.  27 : 
Deut.  xviii.  11).  Saul  carried  out  this  enact- 
ment, but  when  sorely  troubled  about  his 
fate,  he  sought  out  a  woman  of  Endor  who 
had  a  familiar  spirit,  asked  her  to  bring  back 
Samuel  to  the  world,  and  believed  her  state- 
ment that  she  had  succeeded  (1  Sam.  xxviii. 
3.  -5-25).  Manasseh  favored  them  that  pro- 
fessed to  have  familiar  spirits  (2  Kin.  xxi.  6; 
2  Chron.  xxxiii.  6).  His  grandson  Josiah 
carried  out  the  Mosaic  law  against  them  (2 
Kin.  xxiii.  24).  They  probably  included  ven- 
triloquists, and  the  voice  of  the  spirit,  which 
appeared  to  come  in  a  whisper  from  the 
ground,  emanated  from  the  human  pretender 
himself. 

Fam'ine. 

Deficiency  of  food,  generally  produced 
either  by  failure  of  rain  leading  to  the  with- 
ering of  the  crops,  or  by  the  prevention  of 
the  entrance  of  food  into  a  beleaguered  city. 
In  Palestine  and  other  countries  where  a 
rainy  season  alternates  with  a  dry.  the  only 
sure  preventive  of  famine  is  to  impound  the 
water  when  there  is  an  over-supply,  and  use 
it  for  irrigation  when  the  drought  sets  in. 
Famine  compelled  Abraham  to  leave  Canaan 
and  sojourn  in  Egypt  iGen.  xii.  10).  It  was 
the  first  of  a  series  of  famines  connected 
with  the  history  of  the  patriarch  and  his  de- 
scendants, and  which  led  the  Hebrews  to 
temporarily  withdraw  from  Palestine  (xxvi. 
i. :  xli.  27-56:  xlvii.  13).  Other  famines  oc- 
curred in  the  days  of  the  judges  which  made 
Elimelech  remove  to  Moab  (Ruth  i.  1).  in 
Davids  reign  (2  Sam.  xxi.  1).  in  the  rime  of 
Elijah  (1  Kin.  xvii.  1-xviii.  46).  in  Elisha's 
time  (2  Kin.  iv.  38;  viii.  1).  and  in  the  reign 
of  Claudius  ( Acts  xi.  2S).  The  chief  famines 
produced  in  besieged  ciries  by  the  foe  outside 
preventing  provisions  from  entering  are  those 
during  the  siege  of  Samaria  by  Benhadad  (2 
Kin.  vi.  24-vii.  20)  and  during  the  sieges  of 
Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar  (xxv.  1-3: 
Jer.  Iii.  1-6)  and  by  Titns. 

Fan. 

The  winno wing-fan.  in  Hebrew  Mizreh. 
still  called  mkihra  by  the  Arabs,  was  a  fork 
with  six  prongs  with  which  grain,  after  it 
had  been  threshed,  was  thrown  up  against 
the  air  to  clear  it  of  the  chaff  ( Is.  xxx.  24 ; 
Jer.  XV.  7  .  A  shovel  was  also  used  for  the 
same  purpose.    See  Theeshixg. 


Farthing 


218 


Feast 


Far'thing. 

1.  A  Koman  Qiiadrans,  a  small  brass  coin 
equal  to  the  fourth  part  of  an  ns.  The  Greeks 
used  the  Eoman  name,  calling  the  coin 
hodrantes.  In  the  time  of  Christ  its  value 
was  about  one-half  of  an  English  farthing,  or 
one-quarter  of  a  cent  (Mat.  v.  26 ;  Mark  xii. 
42). 

2.  An  Assarion,  diminutive  of  the  Latin  as, 
a  copper  coin  equal  to  about  one  cent  (Mat. 
X.  29j. 

Fast. 

Al)stinence  from  food,  or  the  period  during 
■which  it  takes  place. 

1.  Involuntary,  arising  from  the  fact  that 
nothing  to  eat  is  procurable.  Of  this  type 
were  apparently  the  forty  days'  fast  of  Moses 
on  mount  Sinai'  (Ex.  xxxiv.  28  ;  Deut.  ix.  9), 
of  Elijah  on  his  journey  to  Horeb  (1  Kin. 
xix.  8),  and  of  our  Lord  during  his  tempta- 
tion in  the  wilderness  (Mat.  iv.2;  Mark  i.  13; 
Luke  iv.  2) ;  also  of  Paul  (2  Cor.  vi.  5). 

2.  Vohmiary,  from  religious  motives.  In 
this  sense  it  is  often  used  regarding  pre- 
scribed periods  of  abstinence.  There  do  not 
appear  to  be  any  injunctions  regarding  fast- 
ing in  the  Mosaic  law,  and  neither  the  verb 
"to  fast,"  nor  the  nouns  "fast"  and  "fast- 
ing," occur  in  the  Pentateuch.  If  fasts  are 
prescribed  at  all,  it  is  in  the  ambiguous  lan- 
guage "Ye  shall  afflict  your  souls"  (Lev. 
xvi.  29;  xxiii.  27  ;  Num.  xxix.  7).  The  tir.st 
mention  of  voluntary  fasting  is  in  connec- 
tion with  king  David,  who  rei'used  food  when 
he  supplicated  God  for  the  life  of  the  child 
borne  to  him  in  sin  by  the  wife  of  Uriah  (2 
Sam.  xii.  22).  Many  instances  of  the  same 
unprescribed  fasting  are  found  in  the  later 
■books  of  the  O.  T.  (Ezra  viii.  21 ;  Neh.  ix.  1 ; 
Esth.  iv.  3  ;  Ps.  xxxv.  13  ;  Ixix.  10  :  cix.  24  ; 
Dan.  vi.  18;  ix.  3).  Sometimes  fasts  were 
proclaimed  at  jieriods  of  calamity  (Jer.  xxxvi. 
9  ;  Joel  i.  14),  the  object  being  to  chasten  the 
soul  (Ps.  xxxv.  13;  Ixix.  10)  and  make  the 
voice  heard  in  heaven  (Is.  Iviii.  3,  4).  The 
public  fast  signified  that  a  load  of  guilt  was 
resting  on  the  people,  for  which  they  hum- 
bled themselves  before  God  (1  Sam.  vii.  6  ;  1 
Kin.  xxi.  9,  12).  True  fasting  must  not  be 
confined  to  externals,  but  involves  abstinence 
from  iniquity  and  illicit  pleasures  (Is.  Iviii.). 
In  Zechariah's  days  there  were  stated  fasts 
in  the  fourth,  fifth,  seventh,  and  tenth  months 
(Zech.  viii.  19),  to  commemorate  the  com- 
mencement of  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  in  the 
tenth  month  (2  Kin.  xxv.  ]),  its  capture  in 
the  fourth  month  (3;  Jer.  lii.  6,  7i,  the  de- 
struction of  the  tem]>le  in  the  fifth  month 
(2  Kin.  xxv.  8,  9),  and  the  murder  of  Geda- 
liali  and  the  Jews  that  were  with  him  in 
the  .seventh  month  (25).  Anna  served  God 
with  fasting  (Luke  ii.  37).  The  Pharisee  did 
so  twice  in  the  week  (Luke  xviii.  12).  When 
in  the  time  of  Jesus  the  religious  formalists 
fasted,  they  sought  to  make  known  the  fact 
by  ostentatiously  putting  on  a  sad  counte- 


nance. This  practice  was  denounced  in  the 
Sermon  on  the  Mount  (Mat.  vi.  16,  17).  The 
disciples  of  John  the  Baptist  fasted  ;  those  of 
our  Lord  did  not,  at  least  while  he  was 
among  them  (Mat.  ix.  14,  15  ;  Mark  ii,  18, 
19;  Luke  v.  33-35),  but  afterwards  in  cer- 
tain circumstances  they  did  so  (Acts  xiii.  3 ; 
xiv.  23). 

There  are  no  injunctions  laid  upon  Chris- 
tians to  fast ;  and  the  revisers,  on  the  ground 
of  textual  criticism,  have  removed  the  word 
from  Mat.  xvii.  21  ;  Mark  ix.  29;  Acts  x.  30; 
1  Cor.  vii.  5. 

Fat. 

1.  Abel  offered  the  fat  of  the  firstlings  of 
his  flock  to  Jehovah  (Gen.  iv.  4 ;  cp.  Num. 
xviii.  17).  The  principle  was  laid  down  in 
the  Mo.saic  law  that  to  the  Lord  belongs  all 
the  fat  of  sacrificial  animals  (Lev.  iii.  16; 
vii.  23,  25).  Neither  it  nor  the  blood  -was 
eaten  (iii.  17),  but  was  burned  as  an  offering  to 
Jehovah  (Ex.  xxix.  13,  22;  Lev.  iii.  3;  iv.  8, 
9).  In  view  of  the  settlement  in  Canaan 
and  the  remoteness  of  the  majority  of  the 
people  from  the  altar,  this  provision  was  ap- 
parently abolished  with  respect  to  animals 
slain  solely  for  food  (Deut.  xii.  15, 16  ;  21-24), 
the  animals  of  the  flock  and  herd  being  eaten 
as  were  uou-sacrificial  animals. 

2.  A  vat  (Joel  ii.  24).  It  occurs  in  compo- 
sition in  the  word  winefat  (Is.  Ixiii.  2). 

Fa'ther. 

1.  The  immediate  progenitor  of  a  person 
(Gen.  xlii.  13),  or  grandfather  (xxviii.  13),  or 
more  remote  ancestor  (xvii.  4).  See  Parents. 

2.  The  founder  of  a  trade  (Gen.  iv.  20)  or  of 
anything.  The  ancestor  or  head,  or  one  of 
the  heads,  of  the  inhabitants  of  a  town  (1 
Chron.  ii.  51 ;  iv.  14,  18). 

3.  One  who  acts  toward  another  with  pater- 
nal kindness  and  wisdom  (Gen.  xlv.  8 ,  Judg. 
xvii.  10;  xviii.  19).  A  title  of  respect  and 
honor  bestowed  upon  an  authorized  teacher, 
especially  when  aged  (1  Sam.  x.  12 ;  2  Kin. 
ii.  12),  and  upon  royal  advisers  and  prime 
ministers  (Gen.  xlv.  8). 

4.  God,  either  as  the  Ci-eator  of  the  human 
race  (Mai.  ii.  10;  Antiq.  iv.  8,  24;  cp.  Acts 
xvii.  28),  or  as  the  begetter  and  loving  guard- 
ian of  his  spiritual  children  (Rom.  viii.  15; 
Gal.  iv.  6),  or  as  standing  in  a  more  myste- 
rious relation  to  Jesus  (Mat.  xi.  26 ;  Mark 
xiv.  36 ;  Luke  xxii.  42).     See  God. 

Fath'om. 

A  measure  much  used  in  reckoning  depth 
of  water  (Acts  xxvii.  28).  It  is  the  render- 
ing of  the  Greek  Orgnia,  which  denotes  the 
length  of  the  outstretched  arms,  and  was 
estimated  at  4  cubits  or  24  palms  (Herod,  ii. 
149).     The  English  fathom  is  6  feet. 

Feast. 

1.  A  sumptuous  meal  atteuded  by  mirth 
and  joyfulness  (Dan.  v.  1). 

2.  A  time  set  apart  by  the  canons  of  some 
religions  for  sacred  joy.  Besides  the  ap- 
pointed seasons,  calted  feasts  or  set  feasts  in 


Felix 


219 


Felix 


the  English  versions  (Lev.  xxiii.  2.  E.  V. 
margin),  which  incliuled  the  weekly  Sab- 
bath, the  memorial  of  trumpet-blowing  on 
the  lirst  day  of  the  seventh  month,  and  tlie 
day  of  atonement  (3.  24,  27 1,  the  Mosaic  law 
enjoined  three  annual  celebrations  expressly 
called  feasts  or  rather  festivals.  They  were 
the  passover  on  the  evening  of  the  fourteenth 
day  of  the  first  month,  with  the  accompany- 
ing feast  of  unleavened  bread  commencing 
on  the  fifteenth  and  lasting  seven  days  (5-6) ; 
the  feast  of  weeks,  called  also  fea.st  of  har- 
vest and  day  of  first  fruits  (Ex.  xxiii.  16: 
xxxiv.  22  ;  Num.  xxviii.  26),  and  in  later 
times,  because  celebrated  on  the  fiftieth  day 
after  the  passover,  Pentecost  (Acts  ii.  1) :  and 
the  feast  of  tabernacles  or  ingathering,  which 
commenced  on  the  fifteenth  day  of  the  seventh 
month  and  continued  for  seven  or  eight  days 
(Lev.  xxiii.  34-441.  These  three  annual  fe.s- 
tivals  were  deemed  so  important,  that  when 
they  came  every  adult  male  not  incai>acitated 
by  disease  or  infirmity  was  required  to  ap- 
pear before  the  Lord  at  the  sanctuary  (Ex. 
xxiii.  17 :  Deut.  xvi.  16).  For  further  de- 
scription of  these  feasts,  see  the  appropriate 
articles.  As  Jesus  desired  to  fulfill  all  right- 
«ousnes.^,  it  may  be  assumed  that  he  was  cus- 
tomarily present  at  Jerusalem  three  times  a 
year,  on  occasion  of  the  three  festivals  ( John 
ii.  23 :  vii.  2-37.  etc. :  Mat.  xxvi.  17 :  Mark 
xiv.  12;  Luke  xxii.  8:  John  xiii.  1).  In  ad- 
dition to  the  festivals  prescribed  by  the  law, 
a  festival  called  Purim  was  instituted  to  com- 
memorate annually,  on  the  fourteenth  and 
fifteenth  of  Adar.  the  deliverance  of  the  Jews 
from  the  plot  of  Hanian  (Esth.  ix.  21-2S). 
I^ter  still  the  festival  of  dedication  was  ap- 
pointed, which  was  instituted  by  Judas  Mac- 
cabseus,  to  be  celebrated  annually  for  eight 
days,  from  the  twenty-fifth  day  of  Chislev, 
in  commemoration  of  the  rededication  of  the 
temple  after  its  pollution  by  the  agents  of 
Antiochus  Epiphanes  (1  Mac.  iv.  41-59  :  John 
X.  22 1.  The  Lord's  Supper,  instituted  by 
Christ,  or  more  broadly  the  Christian's  life 
of  faith,  is  also  a  feast  (1  Cor.  v.  8). 

Fe'lix  [happy]. 

A  freedman  of  the  emperor  Claudius,  who 
"was  appointed  procurator  of  Juda-a.  The  date 
of  his  appointment  to  office  in  Palestine  is 
disputed.  Cumanus  succeeded  the  procura- 
tor Tiberius  Alexander  in  A.  D.  48  (Antiq.  xx. 
5,  2).  According  to  Tacitus,  Cumanus  gov- 
erned Galilee,  and  Felix  ruled  part  of  Sa- 
maria until,  on  the  deposition  of  Cumanus, 
he  was  appointed  procurator  of  the  whole 
province  by  Quadratus.  govenior  of  .Syria. 
Josephus,  whii  was  a  boy  in  Jerusalem  in 
A.  D.  4.-.  and  became  historian  of  the  Jews, 
represents  I'luuanus  as  procurator  of  Judaea. 
and  states  that  Felix  was  sent  as  successor  of 
C^imanus  by  the  emperor  Claudius  to  admin- 
ister the  atfairs  of  Judaea  in  .52  (Antiq.  xx.  7. 
1:  War  ii.  12,  8i.  Probably  Cumanus  and 
Felix  exercised  a  joint  procuratorship,  with 


Cumanus  higher  in  authority.  In  this  arti- 
cle A.  D.  52  is  assumed  as  the  date  of  his  sole 
procuratorship  in  Juda?a.  He  seems  to  have 
obtained  this  appointment  partly  through 
the  influence  of  his  brother  Pallas,  who  was 
a  great  man  at  the  court  of  Claudius.  Nero, 
the  successor  of  Claudius,  transferred  four 
Galilaean  cities  from  Felix  to  Agrippa.  He 
was  cruel  and  tyrannical,  and  in  the  exercise 
of  power  showed  the  disposition  of  a  slave 
(Tacitus,  Hist.  v.  9:  Annal.  xii.  54).  Under 
his  administration  arose  those  collisions  be- 
tween the  Jews  and  the  Syrians  at  Cfesarea 
which  were  destined  to  recur  and  help  to- 
ward the  ruin  of  the  Jewish  polity  i  Antiq.  xx. 
8.  7  :  War  ii.  13.  7).  Felix"  first  efl'ort  was  to 
put  down  the  robbers  who  infested  the  land. 
He  was  successful,  and  capturing  many  of 
them,  crucified  the  ordinary  sort,  but  sent 
their  leader.  Eleazar.  to  Eome  (War  ii.  13,  2). 
Josephus  charged  him  with  having  encour- 
aged the  robbers  to  murder  Jonathan,  the 
high  priest.  Jonathan  had  supported  the 
appointment  of  Felix  to  the  procuratorship, 
but  he  had  displeased  Felix  by  the  fidelity 
with  which  he  had  counseled  him  regarding 
his  government  of  the  Jews.  The  impunity 
with  which  this  gross  crime  was  committed 
emboldened  the  robbers.  They  became  the 
Sicarii,  people  who  concealed  daggers  about 
their  persons  and,  mingling  with  crowds,  stab- 
bed tho.'e  to  whom  they  had  an  antipathy 
(Antiq.  xx.  8,  5).  Next  false  prophets  arose 
and  led  people  in  multitudes  into  the  wil- 
derness, where  they  were  told  C4od  would 
show  them  the  signals  of  liberty.  No  signals 
were,  however,  shown  ;  and  Felix,  believing 
these  gatherings  in  the  wilderness  to  be  the 
commencement  of  revolt,  attacked  the  people 
present  and  slew  them  in  large  numbers  (War 
ii.  13,  3  and  4).  An  Egyptian  soon  after- 
wards made  his  appearance  as  a  prophet  and 
led  out  a  great  mob  to  the  mount  of  Olives, 
under  the  pretense  that  they  would  see  the 
walls  of  Jerusalem  fall  down,  leaving  them 
every  facility  for  entering  the  city.  Felix 
attacked  them  with  troops,  slaying  about  4(X) 
and  taking  about  2(iO  more  prisoners.  The 
Egyptian  escaped.  His  insurrection  was  in 
A.  D.  55.  and  when  about  five  years  later  the 
riot  about  Paul  arose.  Claudius  Lysias,  the  Eo- 
man  commandant  at  Jerusalem,  seems  to  have 
half  suspected  that  the  apostle  was  the  Egyp- 
tian back  again  to  excite  fresh  troubles  (Acts 
xxi.  38:  Antiq.  xx.  8.  6>.  Felix  was  procu- 
rator when  Paul  was  arrested  on  the  false 
charge  of  profaning  the  temple,  and  when  to 
prevent  the  apostle's  assassination  it  was 
needful  to  send  him  to  Caesarea.  the  letter 
explaining  the  case  was  written  by  Claudius 
Lysias  to  Felix,  whose  headquarters  were  at 
Caesarea  (Acts  xxiii.  26i.  The  trial  took  place 
before  Felix.  Felix'  wife  Drusilla.  who  was 
a  Jewess,  was  present  at  an  interview  when 
Paul  reasiiued  of  righteousness,  temperance, 
and  judgment  to  come,  with  such  power  that 
Felix  trembled  lActsxxiv.  1-26).     No  won- 


Fenced  Cities 


220 


Field 


der,  for  Felix  liad  seduced  her  away  from 
her  rightful  husband  (Antiq.  xx.  7,  l,"i).  But 
there  was  no  real  repentance  for  his  sin  on 
Felix'  part.  He  procrastinated,  and  said  to 
the  apostle,  "  Go  thy  way  for  this  time  ;  when 
I  have  a  convenient  season,  I  will  call  for 
thee."  It  does  not  apjiear  that  the  convenient 
season  ever  came.  It  is  discreditable  to  Felix 
that,  convinced  as  he  evidently  was  of  the 
apostle's  innocence,  he  failed  to  release  him, 
hoping  that  his  prisoner  would  bribe  him  to 
do  that  justice  which  it  was  his  bounden 
duty  to  grant  without  money.  Disappointed 
as  to  the  bribe,  he  attempted,  when  going  out 
of  office,  to  make  political  capital  out  of  the 
apostle,  by  leaving  him  bound  to  please  the 
Jews.  This  favor  did  not,  however,  prevent 
them  from  complaining  of  him  after  he  had 
ceased  to  be  procurator  and  returned  to  Rome, 
about  A.  D.  60.  They  represented  that  he  had 
not  acted  well  in  the  Cajsarean  riots,  and  he 
would  have  been  punished  by  Nero  had  not 
the  powerful  intercession  of  his  brother  Pal- 
las, who  was  a  favorite  with  the  reigning  em- 
peror, been  exerted  in  his  favor  (Antiq.  xx. 
8,  it).  He  was  succeeded  in  the  procurator- 
ship  by  Porcins  Festus. 

Fenced  Cit'ies. 

Towns  fortified  by  walls,  towers,  gates,  and 
bars  (Deut.  iii.  5;  2  Chron.  viii.  5  :  Neh.  iii. 
l-3'2).  Such  were  the  cities  of  the  Canaauites 
and  the  Amorites  when  the  Israelites  warred 
against  them  (Nnm.  xiii.  28 ;  Deut.  iii.  5 ; 
Josh.  xiv.  12).  After  the  Israelites  had  oc- 
cupied Canaan,  they,  like  their  predecessors, 
had  fenced  cities  (Deut.  xxviii.  52  ;  2  Sam. 
XX.  6  ;  2  Kin.  xiv.  13  ;  2  Chron.  xii.  4  ;  Jer.  v. 
17  ;  Hos.  viii.  14;  Zeph.  i.  16).  For  illustra- 
tion and  description  of  the  walls,  see  Jeru- 
salem and  Lachish. 

Fer'ret. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  '"nalcah,  a 
ceremonially  unclean  animal,  classed  by  the 
Hebrews  with  reptiles  (Lev.  xi.  30 ;  in  E.  V. 
gecko). 

Fes'tus  [festal,  joyful]. 

Porcins  Festus,  who  succeeded  Felix  as 
procurator  of  Judsea  in  the  reign  of  Nero, 
while  Pallas  was  still  the  emperor's  favorite 
and  Burrus  was  still  alive  (Antiq.  xx.  8.  9). 
Pallas  was  put  to  death  in  A.  d.  62,  and  Bur- 
rus died  not  later  than  February  of  the  same 
year.  Two  years  before  the  arrival  of  Fes- 
tus, Paul  could  say  that  Felix  had  been  for 
many  years  a  judge  unto  the  nation  (Acts 
xxiv.  10,  27).  If  the  procuratorship  of  Felix 
be  reckoned  from  A.  D.  48  (see  Felix),  he 
would  have  been  many  years  in  office  in  Pal- 
estine in  A.  D.  54  or  55,  and  Festus  may  have 
succeeded  him  in  55  or  56,  the  second  and 
third  years  of  Nero  respectively.  This  date 
is  adopted  by  some  authorities,  with  the  re- 
sult of  putting  the  dates  of  important  events 
in  Paul's  life,  among  others  his  imprison- 
ment, four  or  five  years  earlier  than  the  date 
generally  accepted  by  leading  investigators 


who  date  Felix'  accession  in  52  and  Festus' 
appointment  in  60.  The  commotions  which 
had  arisen  under  the  administration  of  his 
predecessor,  Felix,  went  on  and  increased. 
The  Sicarii  proceeded  to  assassinate  people 
whom  they  disliked.  Sometimes  they  set 
fire  to  the  villages,  having  plundered  them 
first.  Then  an  impostor  led  his  adherents 
into  the  wilderness,  where  the  forces  of  Fes- 
tus routed  them  with  great  slaughter.  King 
Agrippa  soon  after  built  himself  a  large  din- 
ing room  in  the  palace  which  overlooked  the 
temple.  The  Jews,  annoyed  to  find  them- 
selves under  supervision,  blocked  his  sight 
by  a  wall  which  also  injured  the  view  hith- 
erto possessed  by  the  Eoman  soldiers  on 
guard  near  the  temple.  Festus  ordered  the 
demolition  of  the  wall,  but  an  appeal  to  Nero 
to  allow  it  to  remain  was  successful  (Antiq. 
XX.  8,  11).  His  character  contrasts  favorably 
with  that  of  Felix  (War  ii.  14,  1).  He  rein- 
vestigated Paul's  case,  and  was  satisfied  of 
his  innocence,  but  committed  one  mistake,  in 
attempting  to  please  the  Jews,  by  asking  the 
apostle  if  he  would  consent  to  be  tried  at 
Jerusalem.  It  was  against  this  injudicious 
proposal  that  Paul  appealed  to  Caesar  (Acts 
XXV.  1-xxvi.  32).  Festus  died  at  his  post, 
and  was  succeeded,  about  A.  D.  62,  by  Albinus, 
who  is  not  mentioned  in  the  Scripture  nar- 
rative (Antiq.  xx.  9,  1). 

Fe'ver. 

A  disease,  or  rather  a  genus  of  diseases,  at- 
tended by  dryness  and  heat  of  the  body,  with 
consequent  thirst,  a  high  pulse,  and  other 
symptoms.  Fevers  are  of  three  leading  types, 
intermittent,  remittent,  and  continued.  Fe- 
vers of  all  the  types  now  named  doubtless 
existed  in  ancient  Palestine,  though  it  is  not 
possible  in  all  cases  to  identify  them  with  cer- 
tainty. Fever  is  the  rendering  of  the  He- 
brew Knddnhath,  burning  (Lev.  xxvi.  16,  in 
A.  V.  burning  ague;  Deut.  xxviii.  22).  In 
the  latter  passage  it  is  associated  with  inflam- 
mation and  fiery  heat,  both  febrile  symptoms. 
Fever  is  likewise  the  correct  rendering  of  the 
Greek  Purefos,  from  Pur,  fire  (Mat.  viii.  15  ; 
Luke  iv.  38;  John  iv.  52;  Acts  xxviii.  8). 
Galen  and  the  Greek  physicians  divided 
fevers  into  greater  and  lesser.  Luke  in  the 
passage  quoted  does  so  also,  as  might  be  ex- 
pected from  one  who  was  himself  a  medical 
man.  Fever  so  uniformly  attends  certain 
diseases  that  the  two  are  mentioned  together, 
as  in  the  designation  "  fever  and  dysentery." 
When  the  sword,  the  famine,  and  the  pesti- 
lence, are  mentioned  in  this  order  of  succes- 
sion the  pestilence  was  probably  typhus  fever. 

Field. 

In  biblical  usage,  unenclosed  ground,  wheth- 
er xiasture  or  tillage  (Gen.  xxxvii.  7,  14-16), 
of  whatever  extent,  from  a  small  area  to  the 
territory  of  a  people  (xiv.  7,  margin  of  E.  V. ; 
xxiii.  9 :  Euth  i.  6,  rendered  countiy ;  Mat. 
vi.  28  ;  xiii.  24).  It  might  be  wooded  (1  Sam. 
xiv.  25,  rendered  ground).  Boundaries,  when       | 


Fig 


221 


Firkin 


artificially  marked,  were  indicated  by  stoues 
(cp.  Deut.  xix.  14). 

Fig. 

A  tri'c  producing  good  fruit  (Judg.  ix.  10) 
and  the  fruit  itself  (Num.  xiii.  23),  both  called 
T''enah  in  Hebrew,  while  in  CTreek  the  tree  is 
Sul-e  and  the  fruit  Siikun.  The  tree  is  native 
in  western  Asia.  The  young  tree  does  not 
bear  fruit  unless  the  ground  is  cultivated 
(Luke  xiii.  <>-!•),  and  old  trees  speedily  de- 
generate and  fail  when  neglected  (Prov. 
xxvii.  18).  The  young  fruit,  or  rather  blos- 
som, appears  in  spring  before  the  leaves  open, 
on  branches  of  the  last  year's  growth,  and 
the  tirst  rijie  fruit  is  ready  in  June,  in  favor- 
ed localities  eai-lier  (Is.  xxviii.  4 ;  War  iii.  10, 
8).  The  late  figs  grow  on  the  new  wood, 
keep  appearing  during  the  season,  and  are 
ripe  from  August  onward.  They  are  dried 
for  preservation,  pressed  into  cakes,  and  form 
a  staple  article  of  food  (1  Sam.  xxv.  18  ;  xxx. 
12).  The  unripe  fruit  of  autumn  often  sur- 
vives the  winter  and  ripens  when  vegetation 
revives  in  the  spring,  before  and  after  the 
leaves  appear  (Song  ii.  13).  The  tree  was 
highly  prized,  and  is  often  mentioned  along 
with  the  vine  (Deut.  viii.  8;  Ps.  cv.  33;  Jer. 
V.  17  ;  Joel  i.  12),  and  to  sit  under  one's  vine 
and  one's  fig  tree  was  the  symbol  of  prosperity 
and  security  (1  Kin.  iv.  25  ;  Mic.  iv.  4 ;  Zech. 
iii.  10).  The  barren  fig  tree  of  our  Lord's 
parable  meant  the  Jewish  nation.  Figs  were 
used  in  medicine,  and  there  is  mention  of 
their  employment  as  a  poultice  (2  Kin.  xx.  7). 

The  fig,  the  Ficns  carica  of  cultivation,  is  a 
tree  20  to  30  feet  high.  The  leaves,  which 
come  forth  late  in  spring  and  are  shed  at  the 
approach  of  winter,  are  often  8  or  10  inches 
acro.ss.  They  are  heart  shaped  with  three  or 
four  lobes.  The  fruit  is  of  so  anomalous  a  con- 
struction that  botanists  have  had  to  give  it  a 
distinct  name  and  place  among  fruits.  It  is 
a  hollow  receptacle,  with  minute  flowers  on 
its  inner  side,  which  later  produce  the  true 
fruit.  The  tree  is  wild  in  southern  Europe 
and  the  north  of  Africa.  It  is  indigenous  in 
Palestine,  where  it  grows  wild  in  fissures  of 
rocks  and  on  walls,  besides  being  everywhere 
cultivated  (Deut.  viii.  8). 

Fir  and  Fir  Tree. 

Tlie  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  B'rosh,  Ara- 
maic B'loth  (2  Sam.  vi.  5;  Song  i.  17).  The 
R.  V.  places  cypress  on  the  margin.  The  tree 
grew  with  the  cedar  in  Lebanon  (1  Kin.  v.  8, 
10  ;  Is.  xiv.  8:  xxxvii.  24  ;  Ix.  13  ;  Zech.  xi. 
2).  It  was  used  for  the  woodwork  of  Solo- 
mon's temple  along  with  cedar  (1  Kin.  v.  8, 
10;  vi.  15,  34;  2  C'hron.  ii.  8;  iii.  5),  for  the 
planks  of  ships  (Ezek.  xxvii.  5),  for  spears 
(Nah.  ii.  3,  R.  V.),  and  for  musical  instruments 
(2  Sam.  vi.  5).  The  stork  made  its  nest  within 
its  branches  (Ps.  civ.  17).  The  Vulgate  trans- 
lates the  Hebrew  word  once  by  cypress  (Song 
i.  17),  but  elsewhei'e  by  ahies,  fir,  except  2 
Sam.  vi.  5;  2  Chnm.  ii.  8;  Nah.  ii.  3.  The 
Septuagiut  commonly  renders  it  by  cypress, 


but  also  by  pine  and  juniper.  All  of  these 
trees  belong  to  the  Cotiifeni'  or  j>ine  family. 
The  only  true  fir  of  the  region  is  Ahics  ciUca. 
It  grows  on  the  higher  i)arts  of  Lebanon  and 
in  the  mountains  northward,  attaining  a 
height  of  from  30  to  75  feet.  The  cyi>ress 
(Ctipressiis  sempervirens)  is  a  tall  tree,  from  20 
to  ()0  or  75  feet.  The  wood  is  reddish  yellow, 
pleasant  to  the  smell,  and  durable.  It  was 
much  used  for  cabinet  work.  It  is  extensively 
planted  in  burial  grounds  in  tlie  East,  for 
which  its  slender  pyramidal  form  and  grace- 
fulness render  it  well  adai)ted.  See  Cypress. 
The  Syrian  or  Alejipo  pine  {Pi nun  hale^yensh)  is 
found  in  the  mountains  of  western  Palestine, 
and  is  one  of  the  characteristic  trees  of  the 
lower  Lel)anon.  It  is  inferior  in  size  to  the 
fir  and  the  cypress.  The  stone  pine  {Piiins 
maritimn)  grows  on  the  coast  and  in  sandy 
plains,  but  is  not  common.  In  Gilead  there 
are  extensive  forests  of  Finns  carica  on  the 
highest  mountains  above  the  line  where  the 
evergreen  oaks  cease.  A  tall,  fragrant  juni- 
per (Jnni2)erus  excelsa)  grows  abundantly  on 
Lebanon.     For  Is.  xliv.  14,  see  Ash. 

Fire. 

Fire  was  found  to  be  indispensable  (Ecclus. 
xxxix.  26).  It  was  used  in  the  arts  (Gen.  iv. 
22),  in  the  preparation  of  food  (Ex.  xvi.  23  ; 
Is.  xliv.  16),  and  for  warmth  (Jer.  xxxvi.  22; 
John  xviii.  18;  Acts  xxviii.  2).  Otferiugs 
were  made  to  Jehovah  by  fire  (Gen.  viii.  20). 
The  fire  carried,  as  it  were,  the  sacrifice  to 
God,  who  took  delight  in  the  ofl'ering,  or,  to 
speak  figuratively,  smclled  a  sweet  savor  (21). 
The  otl'erer  kindled  the  fire  himself  (xxii.  6). 
Moses  oflered  burnt  ofterings  on  the  great 
altar,  newly  erected  (Ex.  xl.  29),  but  at  the 
conclusion  of  the  consecration  of  Aaron  and 
his  sons  to  the  priesthood,  fire  came  forth 
from  the  presence  of  the  Lord  and  consumed 
the  sacrifice  (Lev.  ix.  24).  God  accepted  and 
appropriated  the  offering.  This  fire  was  not 
allowed  to  go  out  (vi.  9-13).  Likewise  at  the 
dedication  of  the  temple  and  the  new  altar, 
fire  came  from  heaven  and  consumed  the 
sacrifice  (2  C'lirou.  vii.  1).  On  other  occasions 
also  God  indicated  his  acceptance  of  a  sacri- 
fice by  causing  it  to  kindle  (Judg.  vi.  21 ;  1 
Kin.  xviii.  23,  24 ;  1  Chron.  xxi.  26 ;  as  to 
this  matter,  cp.  Gen.  xix.  24 ;  Ex.  ix.  23  ;  2 
Kin.  i.  12).  Among  the  heathen  there  were 
fire  worshipers  (Wisd.  xiii.  2).  The  wor- 
shijiers  of  Moloch  and  some  other  idolaters 
burnt  their  children  in  the  fire  as  an  act  of 
pietv  (2  Kin.  xvi.  3  ;  xxi.  6  ;  Jer.  vii.  31 ;  Ezek. 
xvi." 20,  21). 

Fire 'pan. 

A  pan  made  of  brass,  gold,  or  silver  (Ex. 
xxvii.  3  ;  1  Kin.  vii.  50;  2  Kin.  xxv.  15),  and 
used  for  carrying  fire  (Lev.  xvi.  12,  where  it 
is  rendered  censer). 

Fir'kin. 

A  measure  of  capacity  (John  ii.  6).  It  is 
the  rendering  of  the  Greek  MetrHex,  which, 
reckoned  at  1952.17  cubic  inches,  held  nearly 


Firmament 


222 


FisMug 


8  gallons,  3V  pints,  wine  measure,  American 
standard. 

Flr'ma-ment  [Latin  finnamentum,  a  sup- 
port, a  lirm  foundation]. 

The  sky  or  heaven  {Gen.  i.  8),  an  expanse 
beaten  out  as  it  were,  if  we  eniiiloy  the  figure 
embodied  in  the  Hebrew  word  (cp.  Ezek.  i. 
22),  which  divided  the  primeval  watery  mass 
(Gen.  i.  6),  so  that  part  of  tlie  waters  were 
above  it  and  others  were  below  it  (i.  7;  Ps. 
cxlviii.  4).  The  stars  and  planets  were  placed 
in  it,  where  they  move  unimpeded  (Gen.  i. 
14,  17).  Birds  fly  in  front  of  it  (20,  E.  Y. 
margin).  The  heavens,  and  presumably  the 
firmament,  are  compared  to  a  teut  spread 
above  the  earth  (Ps.  civ.  2 ;  Is.  xl.  22),  are 
likened  in  strength  to  a  molten  mirror  (Job 
xxxvii.  18),  and  are  spoken  of  as  tliough 
having  doors  and  windows,  through  which 
the  rain  pours  and  God's  blessings  descend 
(Gen.  vii.  11 ;  2  Kin.  vii.  2;  Ps.  Ixxviii.  2^5; 
civ.  13).  This  conception  was  current  in 
ancient  Semitic  thought.  The  doctrine  of 
the  division  of  the  primeval  fluid  chaos  is 
not  unacceptable  to  modern  thought;  otlier 
features  are  regarded  as  naive.  They  are 
not  taught  in  the  Scriptures  as  facts.  They 
lingered  in  Hebrew  .speech  and  imagery  as  an 
inheritance,  and  were  used  in  both  poetic 
and  prose  writings  even  when,  for  example, 
the  agency  of  the  clouds  in  bringing  rain 
was  understood  (Gen.  ix.  14;  Job  xxvi.  8; 
xxxvi.  27-29;  xxxvii.  11;  xxxviii.  34;  Ps. 
Ixxvii.  17;  cxxxv.  7;  Is.  v.  6 ;  Jer.  x.  13). 

First'born  or  Firstling,  the  former  being 
used  chiefly  of  men,  the  latter  always  of 
beasts. 

To  the  firstborn  ofispring  of  men  and  ani- 
mals God  the  giver  has  the  first  claim  (cp. 
Gen.  iv.  4).  Among  the  Israelites  an  addi- 
tional reason  existed  in  the  fact  that  Jehovah 
had  purchased  the  peo]de  from  Egyptian 
bondage.  The  tenth  and  last  i)lague  of 
Egypt  had  slain  the  firstborn  of  the  Egyp- 
tians, and  the  firstborn  of  the  Israelites  had 
been  preserved  only  by  sprinkling  blood  on 
the  lintels  and  door  posts  of  the  houses  with- 
in which  they  resided  (Ex.  xii.  12,  13,  23, 
29).  Saved  in  this  manner,  they  became  con- 
secrated to  Jehovah.  Every  firstborn  male 
of  man  and  beast  was  holy  to  the  Lord  (xiii. 
2  ;  xxxiv.  19),  and  could  not  be  used  by  man 
(Lev.  xxvii.  26).  The  firstborn  of  the  father 
was  obligated  to  service  at  the  sanctuary, 
from  which  he  must  be  redeemed  (Ex.  xiii. 
13,  15;  xxxiv.  20;  cp.  Lev.  xxvii.  6).  On 
this  occasion  he  was  brought  to  the  sanctuary 
and  presented  to  the  Lord  (Luke  ii.  22 ;  cp. 
Num.  xviii.  l.'i).  The  Levites  were  after- 
wards substituted  for  the  Israelite  firstborn 
(Num.  iii.  12,  41  ;  vii.  13-19  ;  cp.  Ex.  xxxii. 
26-29  ;  Deut.  xxxiii.  9).  Those  of  animals 
also,  against  which  the  tenth  plague  was 
partly  directed,  became  similarly  consecrated 
to  Jehovah,  but  there  were  distinctions  among 
them  of  various  kinds.   The  firstling  of  clean 


animals  was  sacrificed.  Unclean  animals,  of 
which  the  ass  is  named  as  rejiresentative, 
either  had  the  neck  broken  or  were  replaced 
by  a  lamb  (Ex.  xiii.  13,  15;  xxii.  30;  xxxiv. 
20).  On  the  establishment  of  the  priesthood 
at  Sinai,  the  disposition  of  these  animals  was 
specified.  The  fat  of  the  clean  animal  was 
burned  and  the  flesh  was  given  to  the  priest. 
The  unclean  animal  was  redeemed  or  sold 
(Lev.  xxvii.  27;  Num.  xviii.  15-18).  Later, 
in  view  of  the  new  circumstances  in  which 
it  was  foreseen  that  the  people  would  be  placed 
in  Palestine,  and  the  inconvenience  and  ex- 
pense of  the  journey  to  the  sanctuary,  a  de- 
lay was  authorized  in  presenting  the  firstling 
at  the  house  of  God.  The  firstling  might  be 
kept  beyond  the  eight  days  originally  pre- 
scribed until  the  time  of  an  annual  festival ; 
and  the  flesh,  instead  of  falling  as  a  perquisite 
to  the  priest,  was  given  to  the  pilgrim  who 
brought  the  animal,  and  to  his  family,  to  eat 
at  the  sanctuary  (Deut.  xv.  19,  20).  But  de- 
fective animals  were  eaten  at  home  without 
religious  ceremony  (21-23). 

For  the  legal  privileges  of  the  firstborn  son, 
see  Birthright. 

First'fruits. 

The  fruits  first  ripe,  the  plucking  of  which 
was  an  earnest  of  the  coming  harvest.  First- 
fruits  were  to  be  given  as  an  ottering  to  Jeho- 
vah :  on  behalf  of  the  nation,  a  sheaf  at  the 
feast  of  unleavened  bread  and  two  loaves  at 
the  feast  of  weeks  (Lev.  xxiii.  10,  17)  ;  and 
bj'  individuals  (Ex.  xxiii.  19;  Deut.  xxvi.  1- 
11).  The  term  is  used  figuratively  in  Rom. 
viii.  23 ;  xi.  16  ;  xvi.  5  ;  1  Cor.  xv.  20,  23 ;  xvi. 
15 ;  Jas.  i.  18 ;  Eev.  xiv.  4.  See  Firstborn. 

Fish'ing. 

Fishing  went  on  largely  in  Egypt  in  the 


Fishing  with  the  Hook  in  Ancient  Egypt. 


Fitch 


223 


Flea 


main  channel  of  the  Nile  aud  in  the  several 
branches  into  which  it  separates  before  reach- 
ing the  Mediterranean  (Is.  xix.  8),  and  the 
Israelites  when  in  bondage  in  Egyjit  did  cat 
fish  freely  (Num.  xi.  5).  The  fishing  along 
the  Mediterranean  coast  of  Palestine  was 
largely  in  the  hands  of  the  Tyrians  and 
Sidonians  in  the  north  (Xeh.  xiii.  Hi)  and  the 
Philistines  in  the  .south.  To  the  Israelites 
belonged  the  sea  of  Galilee,  which  was  their 


meadow.  It  was  a  water  plant;  and  grew, 
among  other  places,  on  the  edge  of  the  Nile. 
It  is  not  likely  that  it  was  the  flag,  which  is 
an  iris,  with  three  brightly  colored  petals.  It 
seems  to  have  been  the  Egyptian  designation 
for  the  crowded  mass  of  water  plants,  rushes, 
reeds,  sedges  found  along  the  margin  of  the 
Nile. 

2.  The  rendering  of  Suph  (Ex.  ii.  3,  5;  Is. 
xix.  6),  a  plant  growing  by  the  brink  of  the 


Fishing  with  a  Net  in  Ancient  Egypt. 


chief  fishing  ground.  Tristram  enumerates 
twenty-two  species  of  fish  in  its  waters,  many 
of  them  also  passing  down  the  Jordan.  The 
Dead  Sea  was  too  salt  for  fish,  save  for  a  very 
few.  In  certain  places  there  were  artificial 
fish-ponds  (Song  vii.  4).  Fish  were  on  sale 
in  Jerusalem  {2  Cbron.  xxxiii.  14  ;  Xeh.  xiii. 
16).  For  fishing,  lines,  hooks,  and  spears 
were  used  (Job  xli.  1,  7 ;  Is.  xix.  8  ;  Amos  iv. 
2;  Mat.  xvii.  27),  and  nets  were  cast  from 
boats  (Luke  v.  4-7). 

Fitch  [obsolete  form  of  English  ?'efc?i]. 

A  tare  ( ]'icin),  an  herb  much  cultivated  as 
ft  forage  plant  (Is.  xxviii.  25,  27.  Hebrew 
Ke.^ah).  The  plant  so  de.signated  was  sown 
broadcast ;  and  when  its  fruits  were  ripe,  they 
were  beaten  out  with  a  staff  to  separate  the 
seeds.  R.  V..  following  Septuagint.  Vulgate, 
and  the  Eabbins.  places  black  cummin  {Xigella 
$ativa)  on  the  margin,  aud  considers  the  plant 
to  have  been  what  is  now  called,  from  its 
fennel-like  leaves,  fennel  flower.  It  is  of 
the  crowfoot  or  buttercup  order  (Ennuncu- 
lacese).  It  is  a  foot  and  a  half  high,  with 
yellow  or,  more  rarely,  blue  petals,  many 
Stamens,  and  several  seed  vessels,  with  nu- 
merous black  acrid  and  aromatic  seeds,  which 
are  used  in  the  East  for  seasoning  dishes  and 
as  a  carminative.  It  grows  wild  in  the  Medi- 
terranean lands,  and  is  cultivated  in  Pales- 
tine for  its  seeds. 

The  Hebrew  Kussemeth  is  likewise  trans- 
lated fitch  in  Ezek.  iv.  9,  A.  V. ;  but  else- 
where in  A.  V.  it  is  rendered  rye,  and  every- 
where in  E.  Y.  it  is  translated  spelt. 

Flag. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  'Ahii  in 
Job  viii.  11.  On  the  margin  of  R.  V.  it  is 
translated  reed  grass,  and  also  in  the  text  of 
(Sen.   xli.  2,  R.  V.,  where  A.  V.  renders  it 


Nile.  It  also  grew  in  salt  water  (Jon.  ii.  5, 
where  it  is  rendered  weeds).  The  Red  Sea 
ill  Hebrew  is  called  the  sea  of  Suph.  It  is 
evident  that  the  plant  meant  is  not  the  flag, 
which  does  not  grow  in  salt  water.  The  word 
denotes  aquatic  vegetation,  whether  seaweeds 
or  fresh  water  reeds  and  sedges. 
Flag'on. 

1.  A  vessel  for  holding  liquids  (Is.  xxii.24, 
in  Hebrew  Xebel). 

2.  The  rendering  in  A.  Y.  of  the  Hebrew 
word  '"sliishah,  something  pressed  closely 
together  (2  Sam.  vi.  19 ;  1  Chroii.  xvi.  3 ; 
Song  ii.  5  ;  Hos.  iii.  1).  The  R.  Y.  correctly 
translates  it  cake  of  raisius. 

Flax. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  words  Pish- 
teh  aud  Pishtah  aud  of  the  Greek  Linon 
(Is.  xiii.  3  with  Mat.  xii.  20).  It  was  a  plant 
cultivated  in  Egypt  and  elsewhere  (Ex.  ix. 
31).  It  had  stalks,  which  were  spread  on 
flat  roofs  of  houses  and  dried  by  exposure  to 
the  heat  of  the  sun  (Josh.  ii.  6).  Its  fibers 
were  fine  (Is.  xix.  9).  and  were  woven  like 
wool  (Prov.  xxxi.  13  ;  cp.  Hos.  ii.  5).  It  is 
undoubtedly  the  flax  plant  (Linum  usitatissi- 
mum),  the  type  of  the  botanical  order  Lina- 
cete.  or  flaxworts.  It  is  a  small  plant,  with 
solitary  erect  stems,  five  petals,  five  fugitive 
petals,  with  five  perfect  and  as  many  rudi- 
mentary stamens.  It  is  now  found  only  in  a 
state  of  cultivation.  The  woody  fiber  of  the 
bark  furnishes  the  flax  fiber  of  which  linen 
is  woven,  and  the  seeds  constitute  the  lin- 
seed of  commerce,  valued  on  account  of  its 
oil. 

Flea. 

An  insect,  called  in  Hebrew  Pnv'o.sTi,  leaper 
(1  Sam.  xxiv.  14 ;  xxvi.  20).  The  species  is 
very  cqmmon  in  Palestine  ;  so  much  so  that 


Flesh 


224 


Flood 


it  has  become  a  popular  saying  that  the  kiug 
of  the  iieas  has  his  court  at  Tiberias. 
Flesh. 

1.  The  muscles  of  the  auimal  body,  whether 
of  mau,  beast,  bird,  or  fish  ;  or,  less  precisely, 
all  its  softer  parts  (Gen.  xl.  19 ;  Ex.  xii.  8 ; 
xvi.  8;  Lev.  xxi.  5;  Jol)  x.  11;  Luke  xxiv. 
39;  1  Cor.  xv.  lid).  It  is  distinct  from  the 
spirit  (Job  xiv.  2-2 ;  Is.  x.  IS,  Hebrew ;  xxxi. 
3;  Mat.  xxvi.  41;  Col.  ii.  5). 

2.  All  beings  possessed  of  flesh,  man  and 
the  inferior  animals,  especially  man  (Gen. 
vi.  13,  19;  viii.  17;  Acts  ii.  17;  Rom.  iii.  20; 

1  Cor.  i.  29) ;  often  in  contrast  with  God  wlio 
is  spirit  (Ps.  Ivi.  4  ;  Is.  xxxi.  3  ;  xl.  6-8  ;  Joel 
ii.  28;  Mat.  xvi.  17). 

3.  Human  nature  deprived  of  the  Spirit 
of  God,  dominated  by  the  appetites  and 
obeyed  bv  the  mind   (Rom.  vii.  5;  viii.  5-7; 

2  Cor.  vii!  1 ;  Gal.  v.  16-20;  2  Pet.  ii.  10),  thus 
including  the  whole  unregenerated  and  un- 
sanctified  nature  of  man  (Rom.  viii.  8,  9  ;  cp. 
John  iii.  6). 

Flint. 

In  Scripture,  any  hard  or  intractable  rock 
(Deut.  viii.  15  ;  xxxii.  13 ;  Ps.  cxiv.  8) ;  and 
hence  figuratively,  uncomiiromising  firmness 
in  the  discharge  of  duty  (Is.  1.  7 ;  Ezek.  iii. 
9).  In  it  the  miner  sinks  his  shaft  in  quest 
of  gold  (Job  xxviii.  9,  R.  V.).  Broken  frag- 
ments were  used  as  rude  knives  (Ex.  iv.  25; 
Josh.  V.  2,  R.  v..  where  in  Hebrew  the  ge- 
neric word  for  rock  is  used). 

Flood. 

A  stream,  especially  a  great  stream  (Job 
xiv.  11 ;  xxviii.  11  in  A.  V.),  as  the  Nile  in 
its  inundations  ( Jer.  xlvi.  7 ;  Amos  viii.  8  in 
A.  v.),  the  Euphrates  (Josh.  xxiv.  2,  A.  V.), 
the  Jordan  (Ps.  Ixvi.  6,  A.  V.).  An  inunda- 
tion (Dan.  ix.  26;  Nah.  i.  8  ;  Mat.  vii.  25,  27; 
Luke  vi.  48).  A  great  restless  mass  of  water  ; 
the  sea  and  its  currents  (Ps.  xxiv.  2;  Jon. 
ii.  3). 

Specially,  the  deluge  in  the  time  of  Noah. 
It  was  sent  as  a  divine  judgment  on  the 
antediluvians  for  their  wickedness  (Gen.  vi. 


5-13).  Secondary  causes  were  employed  to 
bring  on  the  catastrophe.  Two  are  mentioned  : 
the  fountains  of  the  great  deep  wei'e  broken 
up,  and  the  windows  of  heaven  were  opened. 
Thus  i>art  of  the  water  was  that  of  the  ocean, 
the  rest  was  produced  by  a  downpour  of  rain 
continuing  forty  days  and  nights  (vii.  11,  12). 
All  the  high  mountains  under  the  whole 
heaven  were  covei-ed,  fifteen  cubits  upward 
the  waters  prevailed,  and  all  flesh  died  that 
moved  on  the  earth,  man,  bird,  beast,  and 
creeping  thing.  Noah  only  was  left  and  they 
that  were  with  him  in  the  ark  (vii.  19-23) ; 
see  Ark.  The  waters  prevailed  150  days, 
until  at  length  the  ark  rested  on  the  moun- 
tains of  Ararat.  Two  and  a  half  months 
later  the  tops  of  the  mountains  were  seen 
(viii.  3-5).  Three  months  later,  after  investi- 
gating the  state  of  the  water  by  means  of 
birds  which  he  sent  forth,  on  New  Year's  day 
Noah  removed  the  covering  trom  the  ark 
and  saw  that  the  face  of  the  ground  was 
dried ;  but  eight  weeks  more  elapsed  before 
God  gave  command  to  go  forth  from  the  ark 
(viii.  13-15). 

The  months  are  reckoned  at  thirty  days 
each,  and  the  number  of  days  which  measure 
an  interval  is  the  ditfereuce  between  the 
dates  obtained  by  simple  subtraction  (vii.  11 
with  viii.  3,  4).  On  this  mode  of  reckoning, 
and  dating  from  the  day  of  entrance  into 
the  ark  as  first  day,  it  is  interesting  to  note 
the  days  and  weeks.  The  first  day  which 
dawned  fair  and  beautiful  after  the  forty 
days  and  nights  of  rain  was  the  forty-second, 
a  recurring  seventh  day,  fit  reminder  of  di- 
vine rest  and  favor.  Land  was  seen  on  a  re- 
curring first  day,  the  new  world  wherein 
dwelt  righteousness  began  like  the  old  ou  a 
first  day.  Noah  released  the  birds,  at  inter- 
vals of  a  week,  either  on  successive  sixth 
days,  in  expectancy  of  the  morrow,  or  ou 
seventh  days.  Noah  removed  the  covering 
on  New  Year's  day,  old  reckoning;  but  it 
was  also  a  recurring  seventh  day.  And  eight 
weeks  later,  on  the  recurring  seventh  day, 
God  released  Noah  from  the  ark. 


vii.  4, 10.       Command  to  begin  embarking  the  animals, 
vii.  11.  Entrance  of  Noah  into  the  ark,  and  in  the  evening,  as  re- 

lated by  the  Babylonian  tradition,  bursting  of  the  storm, 
vii.  12.  Rain  40  days  and  40  nights,  so  that 

Rain  ceased  toward  evening, 
vii.  24.  The  waters  prevailed  on  the  earth 

viii.  3.  150  days,  so  that  the 

viii.  4.  Ark  str"anded 

The  waters  decreased  continually  until 
viii.  !'■>.  Tops  of  the  mountains  visible, 

viii.  6.  After  seeins  the  mountain  tops,  Noah  waited  40  days; 

exiiectiuK  tliat,  iis  the  rain  had  fallen  40  days,  the  waters 
would  iieiliaps  abate  fmm  the  ground  in  40  days;  and  then 
(or  on  the  fdllowiug-  day)  the 
Raven  released,  which  "returned  not, 
After  7  days  (cp.  "  yet  other,"  v.  10)  a 
viii.  8.  Dove  released,  which  returned. 

After  yet  other  7  days,  the 
viii.  10.         Dove  released,  which  returned  with  olive  leaf.    So  Noah 
knew  that  the  waters  were  abated  from  oft'  the  earth. 
After  yet  other  7  days,  a  third  time  the 
viii.  12.  Dove  released,  which  did  not  return,  since  food  and  shelter 

were  now  found  outside  tile  ark, 


2  mo.    10th  dav. 


2  mo. 


17th  day. 
27th  dav. 


7  mo.    17th  day. 

10  mo.    1st  day. 

11  mo.  nth  (or  12th)  day. 
n  mo.  18th  (or  19th)  day. 

11  mo.   25th  (or  26th)  day. 

12  mo.   2d  (or  3d)  day. 


Flood 


225 


Flood 


^'ot\vith^^tamUll,ar  tliese  favorable  indications,  Koah  did 
not  leave  the  ark,  but  waited  for  God's  command.    After 
nearly  a  month,  on  New  Year's  day 
viii.  i:l.  Noah  kk.moved  thk  covkiung  of  the  ark,  and  saw  that  the 

waters  were  dried  up  and  the  face  of  the  ground  was  dried,      1  mo.     1st  day. 

But  Noah  still  awaited  God's  bidding,  and  eight  weeks 
later,  the  earth  being  dry,  God  gave  the 
viii.  14,  15.    CoMM.\NU  TO  GO  FOKTH  FKOM  THE  AUK,  2  mo.    27th  day. 


A.s  is  now  gcncnilly  known,  the  account  of 
the  flood  was  handed  down  by  tradition.  The 
description  oriijinated  with  eyewitnesses.  Its 
lan.u'uasie  must  be  understood  in  the  sense 
which  it  bore  to  the  authors  and  promulga- 
tors of  the  narrative  centuries  before  the 
days  of  Moses.  The  extent  of  the  flood  can- 
not be  determined  from  the  account  of  it 
which  has  been  transmitted.  The  dehige 
may  have  been  universal  and  covered  the 
gloiie.  or  it  may  have  been  confined  to  a 
locality  of  greater  or  less  extent.  All  the 
mountains  under  the  whole  heaven,  that  is 
within  the  horizon  of  the  inmates  of  the  ark 
as  they  drifted  on  the  waters,  were  covered 
(compare  the  employment  of  similar  language 
iu  Col.  i.  23).  The  purpose  of  the  flood  was  to 
destroy  the  C()rrupt  race  of  man  (Gen.  vi.  7, 13, 
17;  vii.  4),  and  with  man  all  animals  depend- 
ent upon  the  existence  of  dry  laud  were  in- 
volved in  destruction.  This  was  also  the  re- 
sult as  discerned  by  those  who  were  saved  iu 
the  ark  (vii.  '21-23),  aud  as  confirmed  by  their 
descendants  wheu  they  migrated  in  the  earth. 
They  met  uo  survivors.  They  found  the  world 
uninhabited.  Xoah  had  been  instructed  to 
take  the  male  and  female  of  every  kiud  of 
animal,  and  to  gather  food  for  them  (vi.  20, 
21).  The  language  of  the  command  was  in- 
tended to  be  understood  iu  its  usual  sense, 
as  any  man  of  that  age  would  understand  it. 
Noah  doubtless  took  specimens  of  every  ani- 
mal of  which  he  had  knowledge  and  food 
suitable  for  them  (cp.  Dan.  vi.  25) ;  but  there 
is  no  evidence  that  he  believed  himself  to  be 
commanded  to  seek  for  species  as  yet  un- 
known, or  if  under  sui)ernatural  impulse  the 
animals  unsought  came  to  him  (as  some  would 
unnecessarily  interpret  vii.  8,  9),  to  gather 
peculiar  food  and  provide  peculiar  shelter  for 
strange  animals  of  diflerent  kinds  and  from 
different  climes. 

The  tradition  of  the  flood  was  current 
among  the  people  from  whom  the  Hebrews 
sprang.  In  the  ancestral  home  of  Abraham 
the  flood  was  remembered  as  a  great  crisis  in 
human  history.  An  Assyrian  scribe,  record- 
ing the  names  of  ancient  kings,  remarks  con- 
cerning certain  of  them,  that  they  "were 
after  the  flood."  Ashurbanipal  refers  to  in- 
scriptions "  of  the  time  before  the  flood." 
The  Babylonian  priest  Berosus  devoted  the 
second  volume  of  his  history  to  the  ten  ante- 
diluvian kings  of  the  Chaldeans,  considering 
that  the  flood  marked  the  close  of  the  first 
period  of  human  history.  The  tradition  of 
the  deluge  which  was  current  in  Babylonia 
and  Assyria  diflered  iu  some  details  from  the 
Hebrew  account.  The  Hebrews.  Assyrians, 
and  Babylonians  once  dwelt  together  in  Baby- 
15 


Ionia,  and  were  one  i>eople  with  one  tradi- 
tion, but  in  course  of  transmission  from  age 
to  age  this  tradition  underwent  slight  changes 
and  received  unessential  additions.  When 
the  Semites  of  Babylonia  became  three  na- 
tions, dwelling  apart  and  diverse  in  religion, 
the  tradition  of  the  flood  which  each  pre- 
served bore  the  impress  of  the  national  pe- 
culiarities. The  Hebrew  account  was  mono- 
theistic, the  Assyrian  aud  Babylonian  narra- 
tive is  polytheistic.  It  is  further  observable 
to  the  attentive  reader  that  the  Hebrew  ac- 
count not  only  as  a  whole,  but  in  minute 
I)articulars,  is  credible,  aud  reflects  the  con- 
ditions of  a  primitive  age,  which  cannot  be 
said  of  the  Assyrian  and  Babylonian. 

The  Assyrians  and  Babylonians  themselves 
had  slightly  divergent  traditions.  The  story, 
as  current  in  Bal)yloiiia  in  the  time  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  was  recorded  by  Berosus 
(Autiq.  i.  3,  6;  cou.  Apion.  i.  19),  and  is 
quoted  iu  full  by  the  church  historian  Euse- 
bius.  A  form  which  is  much  older,  which  in 
fact  is  the  oldest  known  and  the  best  pre- 
served, though  even  variations  of  it  were 
current,  is  embodied  in  the  epic  that  cele- 
brates the  deeds  of  Izdubar  or  Gilgamesh, 
king  of  Erech.  Izdubar  had  been  smitten  with 
disease,  and  he  determined  to  seek  help  from 
his  ancestor  Situapishtim,  who  had  been  trans- 
lated to  the  gods,  was  dwelling  "at  the 
mouth  of  the  rivers,"  and  had  knowledge 
of  life  and  death.  After  a  long  journey,  in 
which  he  encountered  many  difficulties  and 
dangers,  Izdubar  found  Sitnapishtim.  He 
belonged  to  a  generation  long  past,  but  still 
enjoyed  the  freshness  and  vigor  of  youth. 
Astonished,  Izdubar  exclaimed  :  "  Howcamest 
thou,  Sitnapishtim,  to  see  life  amid  the 
gods  •>" 

"  I  will  open  to  you,  Izdubar,"  replied  Sitnap- 
ishtim, "the  concealed  story,  and  also  the  oracle 
of  the  gods  [with  reference  to  the  cure  of  your 
disease]  will  I  declare.  You  know  the  city  of 
Surippak,  which  stands  on  the  Euphrates.  That 
citv  was  old  when  the  gods  who  dwelt  therein 
were  moved  at  heart  to  bring  about  a  flood-storm. 
God  Anu  was  there  among  others,  and  Bel  and 
Ninib.  The  god  Ea.  however,  deliberated  with 
them,  and  he  revealed  unto  me  their  purpose 
[bv  means  of  a  dream  (1.  177)].  '  Man  of  Surip- 
pak, son  of  Ubaratutu,'  said  he,  'tear  down  the 
house,  build  a  ship,  despise  property,  and  save 
life.  Bring  into  the  ship  seed  of  life  of  every 
kind.'  I  paid  attention,  and  said  to  god  Ea,  'O 
my  lord,  what  thou  hast  commanded  I  will  re- 
spect bv  carrying  out.' 

"  On  "the  morrow  [preparations  were  begun]. 
On  the  fifth  dav  I  laid  the  framework— 140 cubits 
its  height,  140  cubits  its  extent  above.  1  divided 
its  interior,  1  provided  a  rudder.  Over  the  out- 
side I  poured  three  measures  [sars]  of  bitumen 
and  likewise  over  the  inside.    ^Vllen  the  ship 


Flood 


226 


Flood 


was  completed  I  filled  it  with  all  that  I  pos- 
sessed—with silver,  gold,  and  seed  of  life  of 
every  kind.  I  took  on  board  all  my  men-ser- 
vants and  maid-servants,  the  cattle  and  the  beast 
of  the  field,  and  the  artisans. 

"  The  snn-god  set  a  time.  '  When  the  sender 
of  violent  rain  causes  a  heavy  rain  to  pour  down 
in  the  evening,  enter  into  the  ship  and  shut  the 
door.'  The  set  time  came.  He  who  sends  vio- 
lent rain  caused  a  heavy  rain  to  fall  in  the  even- 
ing. The  dawning  of  the  day  I  feared,  I  trem- 
bled to  behold  the  niorning.  I  entered  the  ship, 
closed  the  door  to  shut  it  in,  and  committed  the 
immense  structure  with  its  cargo  to  Puzur-bel, 
the  pilot. 

"  As  soon  as  the  dawn  appeared,  a  dark  cloud 
ascended  on  the  horizon.  In  the  midst  of  it  the 
storm-god  rolled  the  thunder.  The  gods  Nebo 
and  Marduk  marched  on  before,  went  as  guides 
over  hill  and  dale;  the  miglity  pest-god  tore 
loose  the  ship,  the  god  Ninib  caused  the  streams 
to  overflow  their  Ijanks.  The  Anunnaki,  spirits 
of  the  subterranean  regions,  lifted  torches  and 
made  the  laml  tlicker  by  the  light.  The  storm- 
god  raised  billows  which  reached  to  heaven. 
All  light  was  turned  to  darkness.  Man  saw  not 
his  fellow,  human  beings  were  not  discerned  by 
those  in  heaven. 

"  The  gods  also  were  terrified  at  the  flood- 
storm,  sought  refuge,  ascended  to  heaven,  and 
crouched  at  the  wall  like  a  dog  in  his  lair.  Then 
the  goddess  Ishtar,  like  a  woman  in  travail, 
cried  out— she  of  beautiful  voice  called  :  '  Man- 
kind which  was  is  become  mud,  the  very  evil 
which  I  foretold  in  the  presence  of  the  gods  and 
just  as  I  foretold  it  to  them.  A  storm  for  the 
annihilation  of  my  people  I  declared  it  would 
be.  I  brought  forth  men,  but  to  what  purpose? 
Like  fry  offish  they  fill  the  sea.'  The  gods  over 
the  spirits  of  the"  subterranean  regions  wept 
with  her,  sitting  bowed  in  tears,  their  lips  cov- 
ered. 

"Six  days  and  six  nights  *  wind,  flood-storm, 
and  rain  prevailed  :  on  the  seventh  day  the  rain 
abated  ;  the  flood,  the  storm  which  had  writhed 
like  a  woman  in  travail,  rested ;  the  sea  with- 
drew to  its  bed,  and  the  violent  wind  and  the 
flood-storm  ceased. 

"  I  looked  on  the  sea,  at  the  same  time  shout- 
ing; but  all  men  were  become  mud.  I  opened 
a  window ;  and,  as  the  light  fell  upon  my  face, 
I  shrank  back  and  sat  down  weeping ;  over  my 
cheeks  the  tears  coursed.  I  had  looked  on  every 
side— a  wide  expanse,  sea. 

"A  bit  of  land,  however,  rose  to  the  height  of 
twelve  measures.  To  the  country  of  Nisir  the 
ship  took  its  course.  A  mountain  of  that  land 
stranded  the  vessel  and  kept  it  from  moving 
farther.  On  the  first  day  and  on  the  second 
day  mount  Nisir  held  the  "ship,  on  the  third  day 
and  on  the  fourth  day  likewise,  on  the  fifth  and 
sixth  days  likewise."  When  the  seventh  day 
came  I  released  a  dove.  The  dove  flew  hither 
and  thither ;  there  was  no  resting  place,  so  it 
returned.  Next  I  sent  forth  a  swallow.  The 
swallow  also  flew  hither  and  thither,  and,  as 
there  was  no  resting  place,  returned.  Then  I 
sent  forth  a  raven.  The  raven  flew  away,  and, 
when  it  saw  that  the  waters  had  fallen,  it  ap- 
proached, alighting  but  not  returning.! 

*  Mentioning  the  nights  as  well  as  the  days,  as 
does  the  Hebrew  narrative  at  the  same  point. 
Delitzsch  reads  "six  days  and  seven  nights." 
His  text  thus  contains  a  formula  often  found 
elsewhere,  c.  f/.,  1.  188.  The  majority  of  Assyr- 
iologists  who  have  examined  the  tablet  discern 
the  marks  for  six  days  and  six  nights,  not  for 
seven  nights. 

t  Or,  the  raven  flew  away  and  saw  the  abate- 
ment of  the  waters  :  [thereupon]  he  eats,  alights 
carefully,  but  does  not  return. 


"  I  then  sent  forth  [all  the  animals]  to  the  four 
winds.  I  poured  out  a  libation,  I  made  an 
ottering  on  the  summit  of  the  mountain.  I  set 
vessels  by  sevens,  and  underneath  them  spread 
sweet  cane,  cedar,  and  herb.s.  The  gods  smelled 
the  savor  and  like  flies  gathered  about  the 
oll'erer. 

"  When  the  goddess  Ishtar  arrived,  she  raised 
aloft  the  great  ornament  which  the  god  of  the 
sky  had  made  at  her  request.  'By  the  ornament 
of  my  neck,  never  will  I  forget;  "l  will  think  of 
these  days,  and  to  eternity  not  forget  them.  Let 
all  the  gods  come  to  the  ottering  except  Bel,  for 
he  inconsiderately  caused  the  deluge  and  con- 
signed my  people  to  the  judgment.'  But  Bel 
came  also  ;  and,  when  he  saw  the  ship,  was  filled 
with  wrath  against  the  gods  of  the  heavenly 
spirits.  '  What  soul  has  escaped  ?"  he  cried  ;  '  no"t 
a  man  shall  survive  the  judgment.'  Then  god 
Ninib  opened  his  mouth  and  spake  to  the  valor- 
ous Bel :  '  Who  else  than  god  Ea  has  done  this 
thing?  Ea  knows  surely  every  exorcism.'  Ka 
also  opened  his  mouth,  and  said  to  the  valorous 
Bel;  'Thou,  valorous  chieftain  of  the  gods,  so 
utterly  without  reflection  hast  thou  acted  and 
caused  the  flood.  On  the  •sinner  lay  his  sin,  on 
the  evil  doer  his  evil  deeds.  Desist  [from  wrath] 
that  he  be  not  cut  off;  be  gracious  also.  Instead 
of  causing  a  flood-storm,  send  the  lion  and  tlie 
hyena,  famine  and  pestilence,  and  let  them  di- 
minish men.  And  as  for  me,  I  did  not  reveal 
the  purpose  of  the  great  gods;  I  sent  Atrahasis*  . 
a  dream  and  he  perceived  the  purpose  of  the 
gods.' 

"  Then  Bel  became  reasonable,  and  went  up 
into  the  ship,  grasped  my  hand  and  led  me  up. 
He  led  up  my  wife  also,  and  made  her  kneel  at 
my  side.  Then  turning  to  us  he  placed  himself 
between  us  and  blessed  us,  saying:  '  Heretofore 
Sitnapishtim  was  a  [mere]  man;  now  let  him 
and  his  wife  be  exalted  to  equality  with  tlie 
gods,  and  let  him  dwell  afar  oft"  at  "the  mouth 
of  the  rivers.'  Thereupon  he  took  me  away  and 
placed  me  afar  off  at  the  mouth  of  the  rivers."! 

The  account  of  the  flood  existed  in  this 
form  among  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians 
before  the  seventh  century  b.  c,  for  the 
colophon  affixed  to  the  tablet  on  which  it  is 
recorded  states  that  the  document  is  the 
property  of  A.shurbanipal,  who  reigned  over 
Assyria  from  668  to  about  626  b.  c,  and  that 
the  words  were  copied  from  an  older  tablet. 
It  existed  in  the  .same  form  centuries  earlier, 
for  fragments  of  it  have  been  found  which 
were  written  in  the  time  of  Ammizaduga, 
the  fourth  successor  of  Hammurabi,  king  of 
Babylon,  who  is  believed  on  good  evidence 
to  have  been  Abraham's  contemporary  Am- 
raphel. 

A  coin  bearing  a  picture  of  the  flood  was 
struck  at  Apamea  in  Phrygia  in  the  reign  of 
the  Roman  emperor  Septimius  Severus,  193- 
211  A.  D.  A  boat,  inscribed  with  the  letters  NQE, 
the  Greek  spelling  of  Noah,  floats  on  the  waves. 
A  man  and  a  woman  are  in  it.  A  bird  ]ierches 
on  it ;  and  another  bird  flies  toward  the  ves- 

*  In  the  accotint  which  Berosus  wrote  in  Greek, 
this  name  is  written  Xisuthrus,  the  constituent 
parts  l)eing  transposed.  It  is  another  name  of 
Sitnapishtim. 

t  Such  is  essentially  the  cuneiform  story.  As 
here  reproduced,  it  is  slightly  abridged ;  chiefly, 
however,  by  the  omission  of  niutilated  lines  and 
of  sentences  whose  translation  is  still  uncer- 
tain. 


Flute 


227 


Fountain 


scl,  bearing  a  branch  between  its  feet.     Be- 
fore the  ark   the  foriticr  inmates  are   seen, 


Coin  of  Apamea,re]irL'St.'ntiiij;  Noah  and  the  Ark. 

having  quitted  itand  got  on  dry  hmd.  Apamea 
was  formerly  called  Kibotos,  the  Ark.  The 
■coins  of  towns  frequently  exhibited  some 
prominent  event  in  their  history  or  local 
traditions. 

Flute. 

A  mnsical  instrument  used  in  Babylon  (Dan. 
iii.  5) ;  in  Aramaic  Maxhrokitha',  whistle,  pipe. 
Pipes  consisting  of  one,  two,  or  more  reeds 
were  in  use.  According  to  the  Septuagint,  it 
was  Pan's  pipe,  which  consisted  of  several 
reeds,  joined  side  by  side  in  a  series,  and  grad- 
ually diminishing  in  length. 

A  flute  or  pipe,  in  Greek  Aulos,  was  played 
in  the  house  of  mourning  (Mat.  ix.  23)  and  on 
occasions  of  joy  (Eev.  xviii.  22).     See  Pipe. 

Flux.     See  Dysextery. 

Fly. 

1.  A  flying  insect;  a  two-winged  insect, 
one  of  the  order  Dipfera.  specially  the  do- 
mestic fly  {^fusca  dompfticn).  So  troublesome 
are  flies  of  various  kinds  in  hot  countries  (Is. 
vii.  18 ;  Ecc.  x.  1)  that  the  Ekronites  wor- 

j  shiped  a  god  Baal-zebub,  lord  of  flies,  who  was 
supposed  to  be  able  to  keep  the  annoyance 
I  within  bounds  (2  Kin.  i.  2). 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  'Arob.  a 
[voracious,   biting  insect  of  Egypt  (Ex.  viii. 

21;  Ps.  cv.  31).  It  devoured  (Ps.  Ixxviii.  45) 
land  destroyed  (Ex.  viii.  24.  margin).  Accord- 
jing  to  the  Septuagint,  the  dog  fly. 

Fol'ly. 

The  absence  of,  wisdom,  disregard  of  the 
[true  nature  of  things  in  their  relation  to  man 

[land  C4od.  Hence  injudicious  action  or  con- 
jduct  (Prov.  XV.  21;  Ecc.  i.  17 ;  x.  1:2  Cor. 

j  xi.  1),  and  ^^-ickedness  (Gen.  xxxiv.  7;  Deut. 

IbKxii.  21 ;  Josh.  vii.  15 ;  Judg.  xix.  23 ;  xx.  6). 

I  Food. 

I I  _  The  food  of  the  Hebrews,  when  they  lived  a 
^simple  nomadic  life,  consisted  largely  of  bread 
[lind  the  products  of  the  herd,  such  as  milk, 

purds,  and  occasionally  meat  (Gen.  xviii.  7,  8  ; 
Fudg.  V.  25).  Wild  honey  was  also  eaten  (,Tudg. 
iv.  8,  9).   When  they  adopted  a  settled  life  in 


Palestine,  the  i)roducts  of  garden,  vineyard, 
and  olive  yard  Mere  added,  such  as  lentils, 
cucumbers,  beans  12  .Sam.  xvii.  28),  pome- 
granates, figs,  grapes  (Num.  xiii.  23;  xx.  5; 
Mat.  vii.  l(i).  Sweet  and  sour  wine  were  im- 
portant articles  of  food.  Fish  were  eaten, 
locusts  also,  and  fowl  and  eggs  (1  Kin.  iv. 
23;  Xeh.  xiii.  l(i;  Mat.  iv.  1« ;  Luke  xi.  12). 
A  simple  repast  consisted  of  broad  and  len- 
tils (Gen.  XXV.  34)  or  other  pottage  (2  Kin. 
iv.  38),  or  bread  and  wine  (Gen.  xiv.  18),  or 
roasted  grain  and  sour  wine  (Ruth  ii.  14). 
Abraham  honored  his  uqexpected  guests  with 
a  more  pretentious  meal,  consisting  of  butter 
and  milk,  cakes  made  of  fine  flour,  and  the 
flesh  of  a  calf  (Gen.  xviii.  3-8).  A  greater 
variety  of  foods  came  on  the  tables  of  the 
rich  and  great  (1  Kin.  iv.  22,  23  ;  Xeh.  v.  18). 
See  Meals. 

Fool. 

One  destitute  of  understanding  or  wisdom 
(2  Cor.  xi.  16) ;  especially  a  wicked  man, 
the  doctrine  taught  being  that  nothing  shows 
a  greater  want  of  understanding  than  for  a 
man  to  commit  wickedness.  The  greater  the 
talents,  the  greater  the  responsibility,  and 
consequently  the  folly  of  misusing  them  for 
evil  ends  (1  Sam.  xxvi.  21 ;  2  Sam.  iii.  33  ; 
xiii.  13 ;  Ps.  xiv.  1 ;  cp.  2,  3,  etc. ;  Prov.  xxvi. 
10;  Mat.  V.  22).  See  Folly,  Philosophy, 
and  Wisdom. 

Fool'isli-ness. 

The  same  as  folly  (2  Sam.  xv.  31 ;  Prov. 
xxii.  15). 

Foot 'man. 

1.  A  soldier  who  marches  and  fights  on 
foot,  in  contradistinction  to  one  on  horseback 
(Num.  xi.  21  ;  2  Kin.  xiii.  7;  1  Chron.  xviii.  4). 

2.  A  runner  (1  Sam.  xxii.  17). 

For'est. 

An  extensive  wood  (Is.  xliv.  14).  One  grew 
on  Lebanon,  famed  for  its  cedars  and  firs  (1 
Kin.  vii.  2) ;  another  stretched  from  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea  well  into  the  hill  country  of 
Ephraim  (Josh.  xvii.  1.5,  18)  ;  a  third  was  in 
Judah  (1  Sam.  xxii.  5) ;  and  a  fourth  existed 
bevond  Jordan  near  Mahanaim  (2  Sam.  xviii. 
6-9). 

For-tu-nat'us  [fortunate]. 

One  of  three  messengers,  apparently  from 
Corinth,  who  reached  Paul,  and  supplied 
what  was  lacking  on  the  part  of  the  church 
in  that  city  (1  Cor.  xvi.  17). 

Foun'tain. 

A  spring  arising  from  under  a  rock  or  a 
bank,  or  welling  U])  from  the  ground  (Deut. 
viii.  7).  In  the  geography  of  Palestine  it  re- 
quires to  be  carefully  distinguished  from  mere 
wells,  pools,  and  cisterns.  Strong  fountains 
are  numerous  in  Palestine.  They  are  the 
permanent  source  of  rivers,  and  give  life  and 
fertility  to  the  soil.  Many  towns  are  named 
from  them,  as  En-dor  and  the  other  com- 
pounds of  En.  Figuratively,  fountain  symbol- 
izes the  permanent  and  inexhaustible  source 


Fountain  Gate 


228 


Frontlet 


of  spiritual  blessings  (Ps.  xxxvi.  9  ;  Jer.  ii.  13  ; 
Kev.  vii.  17:  xxi.  (i).  Children  are  also  de- 
scribed as  a  fountain  proceeding  from  the 
parents  (Deut.  xxxiii.  28;  Ps.  Ixviii.  2(i). 

Foun'tain  Gate.     See  Jerusalem  II.  3. 

Fowl. 

Any  bird  ((leu.  i.  26  ;  Lev.  xi.  13-19). 

Fowl'er. 

One  who  catches  birds  by  a  net  or  other 
snare  (Ps.  cxxiv.  7  ;  Prov.  vi.  5)  ;  hence  figu- 
ratively one  who  ensnares  the  innocent  or 
unwary,  and  takes  their  life,  or  lures  them 
to  moral  and  spiritual  ruin  (Ps.  xci.  3;  cxxiv. 
7  ;  Hos.  ix.  H). 

Fox. 

An  animal  which  dwells  in  holes  iiVIat.  viii. 
20),  especially  among  solitary  ruins  (Lam.  v. 
18),  and  is  sly  and  careful  for  its  own  safety 
(Luke  xili.  *32 ;  Ezek.  xiii.  4).  Tristram 
enumerates  two  species  as  occurring  in  Pales- 
tine, the  Egyptian  fox  {Vulpes  nilotica),  and 
the  tawny  fox  (Vulpes  flave.scens).  The  farmer 
is  abundant  in  central  and  southern  Pales- 
tine, as  well  as  east  of  the  Jordan,  and  the 
latter,  which  is  somewliat  larger,  and  may 
perhaps  be  only  a  variety  of  the  common 
fox  ( Vulpes  vuhjaris),  in  the  wooded  parts  of 
the  country. 

Under  the  general  name  of  fox,  Shti'al,  the 
Hebrews,  like  the  modern  inhabitants  of 
Palestine,  appear  to  have  comjjreheuded  the 
jackal,  which  belongs  to  the  dog  family,  al- 
though they  had  a  special  name  for  the 
jackal.  The  jackal  is  perhaps  intended  in 
Judg.  XV.  4  (cp.  K.  V.  margin) ;  for  it  abounds 
in  the  lowland  of  Philistia,  goes  about  by 
night  in  bands,  and  spends  the  day  as  a  pack 
in  some  cave.  It  is  thus  easily  caught ;  where- 
as the  fox  is  a  solitary  animal  and  ditficnlt  to 
capture.  The  jackal  also  devours  carrion 
(Ps.  Ixiii.  10),  which  the  fox  is  loath  to  do. 
The  jackal  eats  fruit  as  well  as  flesh,  and 
may  be  intended  in  Song  ii.  15,  yet  the  fox 
trami)les  and  destroys  vineyards. 

Frank'in-cense. 

A  fragrant  gum  of  a  tree  (Ecclus.  1.  8; 
Song  iii.  6).  It  is  white  in  color,  as  its  He- 
brew name  iJbonah  denotes.  It  was  an  in- 
gredient in  the  holy  anointing  oil  with  which 
priests  were  consecrated  to  their  sacred  func- 
tions (Ex.  XXX.  34).  It  was  added  with  oil  to 
the  meal  offerings  (Lev.  ii.  1,  2,  15,  16,  R.  V.), 
and  ultimately  burned  (vi.  15).  No  frankin- 
cense was  added  to  sin  otTerings  (Lev.  v.  11) 
and  offerings  of  jealousy  (Num.  v.  15).  Pure 
frankincense  was  poured  upon  the  twelve 
loaves  of  showbread  (Lev.  xxiv.  7 ;  cp.  also 
]  C'hron.  ix.  29;  Neh.  xiii.  5).  The  drome- 
daries of  Midian,  Ephah,  and  Sheba,  brought 
it  to  Palestine  from  Arabia  (Is.  Ix.  6;  Jer.  vi. 
20).  A  hill  of  frankincense  is  mentioned  in 
the  Song  as  existing  apparently  in  Palestine 
(Song  iv.  (i :  cp.  Ecc.  ii.  5;  Antiq.  viii.  6,  6; 
ix.  1.  2).  Watt  (Economic  Products  of  India, 
Vol.  i.   pp.  14,   15)   considers   that    the    true 


frankincense  of  antiquity,  the  olibauum  of 
European  commerce,  comes  from  Boswellia 
floribunda,  oin;  of  the  Amyridaceie  (Amyrids), 
growing  in  India,  or  from  other  species  of 
the  genus,  especially  II.  Carferi,  B.  Freremm, 
and  B.  senuta,  of  which  there  are  two  va- 


Frankinccnse  (BoswclUa  Carteri). 

rieties,  B.  serrata  proper,  the  B.  thurifera  of 
Roxburgh,  and  the  variety  B.  glabra.  The 
first  and  fourth  species  are  Indian ;  the  sec- 
ond and  third  occur  on  the  Somali  coast  of 
Africa  and  on  the  south  coast  of  Arabia.  The 
frankincense  itself  is  gum  resin,  which  is 
dry,  consists  of  tears  often  an  inch  long, 
with  a  balsamic  odor,  especially  when  burnt. 
A  poor  quality,  reddish  in  color,  is  obtained 
in  spring.  The  best  quality  is  gotten  later 
and  is  white. 

Frog. 

An  amphibious  animal  (Ex.  viii.  3;  Ps. 
Ixxviii.  45;  cv.  30;  Rev.  xvi.  13)  ;  probably, 
in  the  former  ]>assages,  Eana  punctata,  the 
dotted  frog  of  Egypt. 

Frontlet. 

A  band  for  the  forehead  ;  then,  figuratively, 
the  constant  i)ublic  exhibition  of  a  trait  or 
obedience  to  a  command  (Ex.  xiii.  16  ;  Deut. 
vi.  8,  9:  xi.  18;  cp.  Prov.  iii.  3).  The  in- 
junction was  interjjreted  literally  by  the 
later  Jews;  and  in  obedience  to  it,  a  small 
box,  divided  into  four  compartments,  each 
with  a  short  passage  from  the  books  of  Moses, 
was  jdaced  between  the  eyes  and  kept  in  po- 
sition by  a  band  or  fillet  encircling  the  head. 
Frontlets  were  a  kind  of  phylactery. 


Fuller 


229 


Gad 


FuU'er. 

OiK'  wliosf  ocininitidii  is  either  to  full  un- 
dressed cloth,  eleaiisiug  it  from  oil  aud  j;reasc. 
and  rendering;  it  thick  or<'oniiiact  by  theapiili- 
cation  of  [ircssiire  to  it,  or  else  chielly  to  thor- 
oughly cleanse  soiled  garments  (Mark  ix.  :i). 
The  clothing  was  steeiied  in  soaj)  and  water 
(Mai.  iii.'J)  and  trodden,  as  tlic  Hel)rew  name 
denotes.  Tlie  fuller's  fountain,  En-rogel,  was 
situated  to  the  southeast  of  .lerusalem.  The 
fuller's  tield  was  near  Jerusalem,  and  had 
beside  it  a  highway  and  the  conduit  of  the 
upper  pool  (Is.  vii.  :? ;  xxxvi,  2),  which  was 
so  near  tlie  wall  of  tlie  city  that  tlie  Assyrian 
ambassadors,  standing  there  and  speaking, 
were  licard  and  undi'rstood  by  the  people  on 
the  city  wall  (2  Kin.  xviii.  17).  The  conduit 
is  commonly  regarded  as  the  channel  which 
conducts  the  water  from  the  Birket  Mamilla, 
in  the  ujiper  Hinnom  valley  northwest  of 
Jerusalem.  int(j  the  city.  If,  however,  the 
conduit  referred  to  is  the  tunnel  connecting 
the  fountain  of  the  Virgin  with  the  pool  of 
Siloam.  the  fuller's  field  laj'  near  Eu-rogel. 

Fur'long. 

The  rendering  of  the  Greek  noun  Stadiou 
(liUke  xxiv.  13;  John  vi.  19;  xi.  18;  Eev.  xiv. 
20).  The  Greek  stndion  was  600  Greek  and 
606|  English  feet,  or  about  I  of  a  Roman  mile. 
It  is  a  little  less  than  an  English  furlong, 
which  is  660  English  feet,  or  I  of  an  English 
mile.     See  Me.\sure. 

Fur'nace. 

1.  An  oven  for  smelting  iron  from  the  ore 
(Deut.  iv.  '20:  1  Kin.  viii.  51).     See  Iron. 

2.  A  crucil)le  for  refining  gold  and  silver, 
and  for  melting  gold,  silver,  brass,  tin,  and 
lead  (Prov.  xvii.  3 ;  Ezek.  xxii.  20).  See  Smith. 

3.  A  bake  oven ;  so  in  Neh.  iii.  11 ;  Is.  xxxi. 
9.    See  Bkeau. 


G. 


Ga'al  [loathing]. 

A  son  of  Ebed,  and  an  antagonist  of  Abim- 
elech,  wliom  the  men  of  Shechem  had  made 
king.  During  Abimelech's  absence  the  She- 
chemites  dealt  treacherously  against  him,  and 
set  an  ambush  ft)r  him  in  the  mountains.  At 
this  juncture  Gaal.  at  the  head  of  a  band  of 
followers,  came  to  the  city,  and  having  gained 
the  confidence  of  its  inhabitants,  began  to 
vilify  him  publicly  and  to  assume  authority. 
Zebul,  Abimelech's  governor  in  Shechem, 
sent  him  word  of  what  was  going  on,  and  ad- 
vised him  to  lay  an  ambush  against  the  city 
by  night,  and  attack  the  rebels  in  the  morn- 
ing. The  assault  was  successful.  Gaal  was 
driven  out,  but  was  neither  captured  nor 
slain  (Judg.  ix.  26-41). 

Ga'ash  [trembling,  earthquake]. 

A  hill  in  the  hill  country  of  Ei»hraim,  south 
of  Tinniath-serah  (.Tosh.  xxiv.  .'50;  Judg.  ii. 
9 ;  2  Sam.  xxiii.  30  ;  1  Chrou.  xi.  .32).  Exact 
situation  unknown. 


Ga'ba.     See  Geba. 

Gab'bai  [tax  gatherer]. 

A  I'.injamite  who  consented  to  live  in  Je- 
rus;tlem  after  the  captivity  (Neh.  xi.  8). 

Gab'ba-tha  [an  elevated  i)lace]. 

Tlie  equivalent  in  Aramaic  of  the  Greek 
word  L'lthostnituH,  a  pavt'ment  of  tessellateil 
Work  (John  xix.  131,  On  it  stood  the  public 
tribunal  on  which  Tontius  Pilate  siit  to  decide 
cases.  Probablv  it  was  an  open  space  in  front 
of  Herod's  palace  (cp.  War  ii.  14,  8).  There 
is  no  reason  to  believe  that  Pilate,  like  Ciesar 
on  his  campaigns,  carried  a  trans])ortal>li^ 
pavement  about  with  him,  which  he  laid 
wherever  he  wished  to  erect  his  tribunal. 

Ga'bri-el  [man  of  God]. 

An  angel  of  high  rank  sent  to  interpret  a 
vision  to  the  prophet  Daniel  (Dan.  viii.  16- 
27).  He  was  commissioned  again  to  visit  the 
prophet  to  give  him  skill  and  understand- 
ing, and  reveal  to  him  the  proi)hecy  of  the 
seventy  weeks  (ix.  16-27).  At  a  long  subse- 
quent period  he  was  dispatched  to  Jerusalem 
to  announce  to  Zacharias  the  birth  of  John 
the  Baptist  (Luke  i.  11-22),  and  to  Xazareth 
to  hail  the  Virgin  Mary  as  chosen  to  the  high 
privilege  of  being  mother  of  the  Messiah  (26- 
31).  Gabriel  described  himself  as  habitually 
standing  in  the  presence  of  God  (19).  Thence, 
doubtless,  he  departed  at  longer  or  shorter 
intervals  to  carry  the  divine  messages  to  and 
from  this  earth  or  other  worlds. 

Gad  [good  fortune]. 

1.  A  sou  of  Jacob  by  Zilpah,  Leah's  hand- 
maid. At  his  birth  Leah  said,  "  Fortunate  !'' 
and  she  called  his  name  Gad  (Gen.  xxx.  10, 
11  ;  cp.  13,  R.  v.).  Jewish  tradition  adopted 
a  difl'erent  reading  from  the  text,  and  made 
Leah  say,  "  A  troop  or  fortune  ctimeth."  Jacob 
prophesied  :  "  Gad,  a  troop  shall  press  upon 
him:  but  he  shall  pre-ss  upon  their  heel'' 
(Gen,  xlix.  19,  R.  V.).  Moses  blessed  God 
who  enlarged  Gad,  and  praised  the  valor  of 
the  tribe  and  its  fidelity  to  duty  (Deut.  xxxiii. 
20,  21).  Gad  had  seven  sons  (Gen.  xlvi.  16), 
each  of  whom,  with  the  possible  exception  of 
Ezbon,  founded  a  tribal  family  (Num.  xxvi. 
15-18). 

2.  The  tribe  of  which  Gad  was  the  pro- 
genitor, the  Gadites  (Num.  i.  14  ;  Deut.  xxvii. 
13 ;  Ezek.  xlviii.  27,  28,  34).  At  the  first  cen- 
sus in  the  wilderness  the  Gadites  capable  of 
bearing  arms  were  45,650  (Num.  i.  24,  25)  ; 
at  the  second  there  were  40,500  (xxvi.  15- 
It^).  Valiant  Gadites  joined  David  at  Ziklr.g 
(1  Chron.  xii.  8).  The  territory  occupied  by 
the  tribe  was  east  of  the  Jordan,  and  was  as- 
signed them  by  Moses,  but  with  the  proviso 
that,  before  finally  settling  down  in  it,  the 
warriors  of  the  tribe  should  cross  the  river 
with  their  brethren,  and  give  assistance  in 
the  conquest  of  Ganaan  (Num.  xxxii.  21-32  . 
The  territory  of  the  Gadites  was  situated  be- 
tween that  of  Reuben  on  the  south  and  the 
half  tribe  of  Manasseh  on  the  north.  It  in- 
cluded the  southern  part  of  mount  Gilead 


Gadarenes 


230 


Galatia 


from  the  Jabbok  southward  to  Heshbon,  and 
from  the  vicinity  of  Eal)))ath-ammou  on  the 
east  westward  to  the  Jordan  valley.  In  the 
valley  it  took  in  the  entire  eastern  bank  from 
IJeth-nimrah,  near  the  northern  end  of  the 
Dead  Sea,  to  the  lake  of  Genuesaret  (Josh, 
xiii.  24-28;  Deut.  iii.  12,  16,  17).  The  country 
was  adapted  to  pasturage  (Num.  xsxii.  1-4). 
Kamotli  in  C4ilead  was  in  the  territory  of 
Gad,  and  was  appointed  a  city  of  refuge  (Josh. 
XX.  8).  2  Sam.  xxiv.  5  probably  means  that 
the  enumerators  passed  from  the  Arnon  to- 
ward Gad  and  unto  Jazer. 

3.  A  prophet,  David's  seer,  who,  when 
David  was  in  the  cave  of  Adullam,  advised 
him  to  quit  that  place  of  refuge  and  seek 
safety  elsewhere  (1  Sam.  xxii.  5),  and  who 
later  gave  the  king  the  option  from  God  of 
three  kinds  of  punishment  for  his  having 
numbered  the  ])eople  (2  Sam.  xxiv.  11-14). 
He  aided  in  arranging  the  musical  service 
of  the  sanctuary  (2  (Jhron.  xxis.  25),  and  he 
wrote  an  account  of  David's  reign  (1  Chrou. 
xxix.  29). 

4.  Perhaps  a  heathen  deity  was  known  by 
the  name  of  Gad,  for  Isaiah  rei)resents  the 
Israelites  as  engaging  in  idolatrous  worship, 
and  setting  a  table  for  Fortune  [Hebrew  Gad] 
and  filling  up  mingled  wine  unto  Fate  [He- 
brew Meni]  (Is.  Ixv.  11,  R.  V.). 

6ad-a-renes'. 

Natives  or  inhabitants  of  Gadara,  which 
Josephus  calls  the  metropolis  of  Pertea  and  a 
place  of  strength,  adding  that  it  had  wealthy 
inhabitants  (War  iv.  7,  3).  He  also  describes 
it  as  a  Greek  city  (Antiq.  xvii.  11,  4).  Eu- 
sebius  places  it  east  of  the  Joi-dan,  nearly  op- 
posite to  Tiberias  and  Scy  thopolis.  It  has  been 
identifiedasUmmKeis,  about  5i  English  miles 
southeast  from  the  southern  side  of  the  sea 
of  Galilee,  with  the  river  Yarmiik  between. 
There  are  remains  of  two  theaters,  a  ceme- 
tery with  rock-hewn  tombs,  and  sarcophagi, 
the  former  cut  in  the  limestone  rocks,  the 
latter  made  of  basalt.  The  hot  springs  be-, 
longing  to  Gadara  are  north  of  the  Yarmuk, 
while  Umm  Keis  lies  to  the  south  of  that  river. 
Gadarenes  is  the  reading  approved  by  textual 
criticism  in  Mat.  viii.  28  (cp.  Mark  v.  1 ;  Luke 
viii.  26,  37,  A.  V.).     See  Gekgesenes. 

The  designation  "  counti-y  of  the  Gada- 
renes "  may  perhaps  have  been  used  by  the 
evangelist  in  a  broad,  general  sense  and  have 
been  adopted  because  Gadara  was  a  well- 
known  city,  and  sufficiently  indicated  the 
locality. 

Gad'di  [fortunate]. 

The  spy  who  represented  the  tribe  of  Ma- 
nasseh  in  the  exploration  of  Canaan  (Num. 
xiii.  11). 

Gad'di-el  [God  hath  given  fortune]. 
The  spy  representing  Zebulun  in  the  ex- 
ploration of  Canaan  (Num.  xiii.  10). 

Ga'di  [a  Gadite]. 

Father  of  king  Menahem  (2  Kin.  xv.  14). 


Ga'ham  [flaming,  burnt]. 

A  sou  of  Nahor  and  Eeumah  (Gen.  xxii.  24). 

Ga'har  [hiding  place] . 

Head  of  a  family  of  Nethinim  w'ho  returned 
from  captivity  (Ezra  ii.  47;  Neh.  vii.  49). 

Ga'ius  [a  common  Eomau  name,  sometimes 
written  Cams]. 

1.  A  Macedonian,  one  of  Paul's  companions 
in  travel  who  were  dragged  into  the  amphi- 
theater during  the  riot  at  Ephesus  (Acts  xix. 
29). 

2.  A  man  of  Derbe,  who  accompanied  Paul 
into  Asia  Minor  on  his  last  journey  thither 
(Acts  XX.  4). 

3.  A  Christian  of  Corinth,  baptized  by  Paul, 
noted  for  hospitality  to  his  fellow  Christians 
(Rom.  xvi.  23;  1  Cor.  i.  14).  Perhaps  he  was 
the  person  to  whom  John  addressed  his  third 
epistle  {',>  John  1). 

Gal'a-ad.     See  Gilead. 
Ga'lal   [a  rolling,   as  e.  g.,  the  rolling  of 
one's  way  on  the  Lord]. 

1.  A  Levite  (1  Chron.  ix.  15). 

2.  Another  Levite,  the  son  of  Jeduthun 
(1  Chron.  ix.  16 ;  Neh.  xi.  17). 

Ga-la'tia. 

A  district  of  central  Asia  Minor,  bounded 
on  the  north  by  Bithynia,  Paphlagonia,  and 
Pontus,  on  the  east  by  Poutus  and  Cappa- 
docia,  on  the  south  by  Cappadocia  and  Ly- 
caonia,  on  the  west  byPhrygia  and  Bithynia. 
Its  name  was  derived  from  the  fact  that  cer- 
tain Gallic  tribes,  after  having  about  280 
B.  c.  invaded  Macedonia  and  Greece,  mi- 
grated to  Asia  Minor  and  received  this  ter- 
ritory from  Nicomedes,  king  of  Bithynia,  in 
return  for  services  rendered  him  in  war. 
Other  Gallic  tribes  passed  onward  through 
central  Europe,  finally  settling  in  Gaul,  i.  e. 
France.  The  Gauls  were  commonly  called 
Galatai  by  the  Greeks.  The  chief  cities  of 
Galatia  were  Pessinus,  Ancyra,  and  Tavium. 
The  territory,  however,  varied  in  size  at 
different  times  according  to  the  fortunes  of 
war.  In  189  B.  c.  the  Galatians  were  sub- 
dued by  the  Romans,  but  retained  their  self- 
government,  and  were  favored  by  their  con- 
querors, since  they  were  valuable  allies. 
Hence  under  their  last  king,  Amyutas,  their 
territory  was  much  extended  to  the  south, 
so  as  to  include  part  of  Phrygia,  Pisidia,  Ly- 
caonia,  and  Isauria  ;  and,  after  the  death  of 
Amyntas  (25  B.  c),  this  enlarged  region  be- 
came the  Roman  province  of  Galatia.  In  7 
B.  c.  Paphlagonia  and  part  of  Pontus  were 
added  on  the  north,  and  after  A.  D.  63  other 
territorial  changes  were  frequently  made. 
During  the  travels  of  Paul  therefore  the 
term  Galatia  was  applicable  both  to  the  orig- 
inal Galatic  territory  and  to  the  large  Ro- 
man province.  In  which  sense  it  is  used  in 
Acts  xvi.  6  (where  the  A.  V.  has  "  when  they 
had  gone  throughout  Phrygia  and  the  region 
of  Galatia,"  and  the  R.  V.  "they  went 
through  the  region  of  Phrygia  and  Galatia," 
but  which   Prof.   Ramsay  translates   "  thej' 


Galatians 


231 


Galbanum 


went  through  the  Phrygo-CJahitic  region  "), 
and  in  Acts  xviii.  23  (wliieh  transhition  is 
open  to  simihir  ditlerences  of  opinion),  and 
in  Paul's  epistle  to  the  "  churches  of  Gala- 
tia,"  is  disputed.  If  Galatia  meant  the  Ko- 
nian  province,  then  Paul  evangelized  it  on 
his  first  missionary  journey  (Acts  xiii.,  xiv.) 
in  company  with  Barnabas.  If  it  meant  the 
old  territory  of  Galatia,  then  he  evangelized 
it  on  his  second  journey  (Acts  xvi.  (>).  The 
churches  of  Galatia  are  also  mentioned  in 
1  Cor.  xvi.  1.  In  2  Tim.  iv.  10  we  read  that 
(_'rescens  had  gone  to  Galatia,  which,  hov^-- 
ever,  many  think  meant  Gaul  (now  France). 
1  Peter  was  addressed  to  the  Christians  of 
Galatia  among  others  (i.  l),and  there  Galatia 
clearly  means  the  Koman  jnovince.  There 
are,  however,  serious  difficulties  in  so  under- 
standing it  in  The  Acts  and  in  the  Epistle  to 
the  Galatians.  G.  T.  p. 

Ga-la'tians,  E-pis'tle  to  the. 

A  letter  addressed  to  the  churches  of  Gala- 
tia (i.  2),  showing  that  there  were  a  number 
of  them  in  dilierent  parts  of  the  territory. 
What  churches  are  thus  described  depends 
on  the  meaning  we  attach  to  the  term  Gala- 
tia (q.  v.).  The  date  of  the  epistle  also  turns 
on  this  point.  If  Galatia  be  the  Roman  prov- 
ince, and  the  churches  of  Galatia  tho.'ie  found- 
ed on  Paul's  tirst  journey  (Acts  xiii.,  xiv.), 
then  the  epistle  was  probably  written  toward 
the  latter  part,  or  at  the  close,  of  Paul's  sec- 
ond journey,  since  Gal.  iv.  13  ("the  first 
time,"  R.  V.)  implies  that  he  had  visited 
them  twice,  and  since  it  seems  necessary  to 
date  the  epistle  later  than  those  to  the  Thes- 
salonians.  If.  however,  Galatia  means  Gala- 
tia proper,  and  if  it  was  evangelized  on  the 
second  journey  (Acts  xvi.  6),  then  the  epistle 
could  not  have  been  written  before  the  apos- 
tle's sojourn  in  Ephesus,  since  Acts  xviii.  23 
mentions  his  second  visit,  on  this  interpreta- 
tion, to  Galatia.  Most  scholars  take  this  latter 
Yiew,  and  date  the  epistle  in  A.  D.  55  or  56. 
Others,  however.  i)ut  it  still  later,  thinking 
that  its  resemblances  to  Romans  show  that 
it  was  written  shortly  before  that  epistle,  say 
in  the  winter  of  57-58.  Whatever  its  readers 
and  date,  it  was  occasioned  by  the  operations 
of  certain  Judaiziug  teachers  among  the  Ga- 
latians, who  assailed  Paul's  authority,  and 
taught  the  necessity  of  observing  the  Mosaic 
laws.  They  declared  that  Paul,  not  being 
one  of  the  original  apostles,  was  dependent 
on  others  for  his  knowledge  of  the  gospel. 
They  seem  also  to  have  charged  him  with 
being  himself  inconsistent  in  his  preaching 
of  gentile  freedom  from  the  law.  They  also 
attacked  his  doctrine,  and  persuaded  his  con- 
verts to  adopt  .Jewish  observances.  The  very 
gospel  being  thus  at  stake,  Paul  wrote  this 
epistle  with  great  intensity  of  feeling  and 
vigorous  argument.  After  the  introduction 
(i.  1-10),  in  which  he  opens  the  subject  of 
their  error  in  listening  to  false  teachers,  and 
■vehemently  asserts  the  divineness  of  the  gos- 


pel which  he  had  jjreached,  he  defends  his 
ajjostolic  authority  (i.  11-ii.  21)  as  given  di- 
rectly by  Christ  and  not  dependent  on  man. 
He  also  shows  that  the  Jerusalem  church 
and  the  original  apostles  agreed  with  his 
position  (ii.  1-10),  and  that  (ii.  11-21)  he  had 
never  changed  his  teaching,  even  when  Peter 
at  Antioeli  had  seemed  by  his  conduct  to  op- 
pose it.  In  chap.  iii.  and  iv.  he  defends  his 
doctrine  of  justification  by  faith  alone,  ap- 
pealing in  proof  to  their  own  experience  of 
salvation  through  faith  (iii.  1-5),  to  the  teach- 
ing of  Scripture  (iii.  0-2!)),  to  the  analogy  of 
souship  and  its  rights  under  the  civil  law 
(iv.  1-11),  to  their  personal  afl'ectiou  for  him- 
self (iv.  12-20),  and  to  the  illustration  which 
the  narrative  of  Genesis  provided  in  the 
account  of  Hagar  and  Sarah  and  their  sons 
(iv.  21-31).  In  v.-vi.  10  he  applies  the  doc- 
trine of  freedom  from  the  law,  bidding  them 
to  maintain,  yet  not  to  abuse,  their  liberty, 
and  to  exerci.sc  it  with  meekness  and  a  sense 
of  responsibility.  Vi.  11-18  is  a  conclusion, 
probably  in  the  apostle's  own  handwriting 
(see  ver.  11  in  R.  V.),  in  which  he  summarizes 
the  substance  of  his  instruction.  This  epis- 
tle is  the  magna  charta  of  Christian  liberty. 
It  is  of  special  value  also  for  the  details  it 
gives  about  the  apostle's  life.  Its  harmony 
withtheaccountinThe  Acts  of  Paul's  life,  and 
of  his  relation  to  the  church,  has  been  much 
contested,  but  may  be  completely  proved. 
The  epistle  proves  also  that  the  older  apos- 
tles were  in  accord  with  Paul,  though  to  him 
was  allotted  the  work  among  the  gentiles.  It 
gives  in  briefer  outline,  and  with  special  ap- 
plication, the  same  scheme  of  salvation  and 
the  same  view  of  the  Hebrew  dispensation 
which  is  more  elaborately  and  calmly  pre- 
sented in  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans.  All  men 
being  under  law,  and  condemned  as  sinners 
by  the  law,  salvation  is  impossible  by  the 
works  of  the  law.  Christ  alone  can  save, 
since  he  has  by  liis  death  met  the  claims  of 
the  law  against  those  who  believe.  The  law 
was  neA'er  intended  to  save,  but  to  be  a 
schoolmaster  (i.  e.  a  slave  who  led  children 
to  school)  to  bring  us  to  Christ.  By  faith 
Abraham  was  saved,  and  by  faith  alone  do 
we  become  children  of  Abraham,  partakers 
of  the  blessing  and  heirs  of  the  promise. 
Judaism,  as  a  method  of  salvation,  was  there- 
fore a  misinterpretation  even  of  the  O.  T., 
and  the  distinction  between  Jew  and  gentile 
has  been  done  away.  The  declaration  of 
these  truths  made  Christianity  a  world  re- 
ligion instead  of  a  Jewish  sect.         g.  t.  p. 

Gal'ba-num. 

A  fragrant  spice  (Ex.  xxx.  34  ;  Ecclus.  xxiv. 
15),  in  Hebrew  Ilelh'nah.  in  Greek  Chalbane. 
The  Greek  and  Roman  Galbanum  was  a  gum 
brought  from  Persia.  It  is  generally  sup- 
posed to  have  come  from  two  umbelliferous 
plants.  Ferula  galbaniflna  and  F.  rubricauUs. 
The  Levant  galbanum  of  European  com- 
merce  is   a   ditferent  plant.      The  umbellif- 


Galeed 


232 


Galilee 


eroiis  plant  from  which  it  comes  is  imper- 
fectly known. 

Gal'e-ed  [heap  of  witness]. 

A  cairn  erected  by  Jacob  iu  mount  Gilead, 
north  of  the  Jabbok.  The  exact  situation  is 
unknown.  It  was  between  the  respective 
homes  of  Laban  and  Jacob,  and  was  intended 
as  a  memorial  of  the  covenant  concluded  be- 
tween them  there,  that  neither  would  pass 
that  place  to  do  the  other  injury  (Gen.  xxxi. 
45-54) ;  see  Mizpah.  The  two  names  Gilead 
and  Galeed  are  never  confused  in  Hebrew. 
Their  pronunciation  is  ditlerent;  and  the 
former  is  a  common  noun  rather  than  a 
proper  name,  and  took  the  definite  article. 

Gal'ga-la,  in  E.  V.  Gilgal. 

A  place  (1  Mac.  ix.  2),  presumably  one  of 
the  towns  known  as  Gilgal. 

Gal-i-lse'an. 

A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Galilee  (Mark 
xiv.  70;  Luke  xiii.  1). 

Gal'i-lee  [Hebrew  g((lH,  circle, 
region,  district]. 

Oi-iginally  a  district  in  the  hill 
country  of  Naphtali  (2  Kin.  xv. 
29;  1  Chron.  vi.  76),  Kedesh  being 
one  of  its  cities  (Josh.  xx.  7  ;  xxi. 
.32).  The  twenty  unimportant 
towns  given  by  Solomon  to  Hiram 
were  iu  the  land  of  (ralilee  (1  Kin. 
ix.  11).  In  this  region  many  of 
the  Canaanites  remained  (Judg.  i. 
30-3.3 ;  iv.  5),  and  the  expression 
"  Galilee  of  the  nations  "  or  "  gen- 
tiles" implies  that  the  district  or 
region  so  called  was  inhabited 
chiefly  by  a  non-Jewish  popula- 
tion (Is.  ix.  1  ;  cp.  1  Mac.  v.  15  and 
Mat.  iv.  15).  The  name  Galilee 
gradually  extended  until  it  in- 
cluded the  countrj'  as  far  south 
as  the  plain  of  Esdraelon  (1  Mac. 
v.  55;  X.  30;  xii.  47,  49).  Many 
of  its  inhabitants  had  been  car- 
ried away,  especially  during  the 
Assyrian  wars  (2  Kin.  xv.  29;  1 
Kin.  XV.  20),  and  the  few  Jews 
who  settled  in  Galilee  after  the 
return  were  taken  to  Judpea  by 
Simon  Maccabpeus  about  1(34  b.  c. 
(1  Mac.  V.  23)  ;  but  Galilee  soon 
after  became  thoroughly  Jewish. 
It  formed  part  of  the  kingdom  of 
Herod  the  Great,  and  on  his  death 
passed  under  the  authority  of 
Herod  the  tetrarch.  It  was  the 
most  northerly  of  the  three  i)rov- 
inces  west  of  the  Jordan  into  which 
(if  Phoenicia  be  ignored)  Palestine 
was  divided  in  the  times  of  the 
Romans.  At  the  period  of  the 
Jewish  war,  a.  d.  70,  it  was  di- 
vided into  Upper  and  Lower  Gal- 
ilee, and  was  bounded  on  the  north  by  Ty- 
rian  territory,  on  the  south  by  the  north- 
ern  boundary  line  of  Samaria  and   Scj^th- 


opolis  to  the  Jordan,  on  the  east  by  Hippene, 
Gadaris,  Gaulonitis,  and  the  kingdom  of 
Agrippa  ;  that  is,  by  the  Jordan  and  its  lakes, 
and  on  the  west  by  Phojuicia.  Lower  Galilee 
lay  to  the  south  of  Upper  Galilee,  and  ex- 
tended from  Tiberias  to  near  Ptolemais,  now 
Acre,  on  the  Mediterranean  Sea  (War  iii.  3,  1  ; 
Life  13,  14,  37;  cp.  also  Judith  i.  8).  It  was 
at  that  time  densely  jiopulated.  It  furnished 
an  army  of  100,000  men  (War  ii.  20,  (i).  There 
were  240  cities  and  villages  within  the  limits 
of  the  two  Galilees  (Life  45).  The  smallest 
of  them,  it  is  incorrectly  stated  elsewhere, 
had  15,000  inhabitants  (War  iii.  3,  2).  The 
largest  city  was  Sepphoris,  and  the  largest 
village  Jajiha  (Life  45).  The  mixture  of 
races  tended  to  jiroduce  a  distinct  accent  or 
even  dialect  (Mark  xiv.  70  ;  Luke  xxii.  59  ; 
cp.  Acts  ii.  7).  The  people  also  was  sup- 
posed to  be  one  which  never  would  produce 
a  prophet  (John  vii.  41,  52).  Nevertheless, 
nearly  all  the  apostles  of  Jesus  were  natives 


I        a       3 


S,-a/o    of  Mile. 


of  Galilee,  and  he  himself  was  brought  u}i  in 
it.  In  his  maturer  years  he  made  it  the  chief 
scene  of  his  ministry,  for  on  its  eastern  limits. 


Galilee,  Sea  of 


233 


Galilee,  Sea  of 


was  the  lake  of  Geuucsaret,  or  sea  of  Gali- 
lee, while  within  its  area  were  Chorazin, 
Bethsaida,  Qiperiiauin,  Naiu,  Caua  of  (iali- 
lee,  aud  Nazareth  itself.  Galilee  is  about  60 
miles  long  by  25  broad  ;  it  is  generally  moun- 
tainous, with  fertile  valleys  between.  Its 
scenery  is  picturesque.  Lower  Galilee,  which 
is  divided  from  Upper  Galilee  on  a  line  run- 
ning almost  due  west  from  the  northern  end 
of  the  lake  to  Acre,  is  really  at  a  less  eleva- 
tion above  the  sea  level  than  I'pper  Galilee, 
its  mountains  being  all  under  l?o<J  feet  high. 
It  is  a  corn-growing  country.  The  higher 
province  has  summits  of  -JOOu"  3000,  and  4000 
feet  altitude.  It  is  characterized  by  olive 
groves. 


It  is  enclosed  by  hills,  save  where  the  Jor- 
dan enters  and  leaves.  The  hills  on  the 
eastern  side  rise  to  the  height  of  1000  feet 
and  more  :  those  on  the  western  side  toward 
the  southern  end  of  the  lake  are  of  like 
character,  but  toward  the  northwest  they  are 
lower  and  less  steep.  It  is  designated  a  sea, 
from  its  considerable  extent,  though  its  water 
is  fresh.  Its  length  from  the  entrance  to  the 
exit  of  the  Jordan  is  12i  miles :  its  greatest 
breadth,  which  is  opposite  to  ilagdala,  is  74 
miles.  Its  eastern  side  is  destitute  of  con- 
spicuous indentations,  while  on  the  western 
side  there  is  a  swelling  bay  extending  from 
Tell  Hum  on  the  north  to  Tiberias  on  the 
south.    The  depression  of  the  surface  of  the 


Southern  End  of  Sea  ui 


Gal'i-lee,  Sea  of. 

A  fresh-water  lake,  fed  by  the  river  Jor- 
dan. It  was  called  originally  the  sea  of  Chin- 
nereth  (Num.  xxxiv.  11),  later  the  lake  of 
Grennesaret  (Luke  v.  1 :  Antiq.  xviii.  2.  1  ; 
cp.  xiii.  .5.  7  :  1  Mac.  xi.  67),  and  sea  of  Galilee 
or  Tiberias  (John  vi.  1;  xxi.  1).  The  latter 
name  is  preserved  in  the  Arabic  form  Bahr 
Tabariya. 


lake  below  that  of  the  Mediterranean  is  662.5 
feet.  Lying  so  low,  it  has  a  semitropical  cli- 
mate, and  the  ice-crowned  Hermon  being  at 
no  great  distance,  sudden  and  violent  storms 
at  times  rush  down  the  mountain  slope  and 
terminate  on  the  lake.  The  water  abounds 
in  fish.  Tristram  enumerates  twenty-two 
si)ecies;  two  of  Blenuiidie.  seven  of  Chro- 
midse,   one   of    Sihiridie,   and   twelve   of  Cy- 


Galilee,  Sea  of 


234 


Gall 


Sea  of  Galilee  from  below  Tiberias,  with  Heriuou  in  the  distance. 


prinidse.  Some  are  called  after  biblical  per- 
sonages, viz.,  Chromis  Andrew.  C.  Siinonis.  and 
C.  Maiidaleme.  The  best  fish  for  the  table  of 
all  now  in  the  lake  are  the  sheattish  ( Chirias 
macracanthus)  and  the  barbel  {Burhns  lomji- 
ceps).  The  sheattish  belongs  to  the  same  fam- 
ily as  the  American  catfisli,  and  attains  a 
length  of  three  feet.  It  is  called  by  Josephus 
Cor  acinus ;  and  as  it  occurs  in  tlie  Upper  Nile 
also,  a  copious  spring  by  the  lake  was  sup- 
posed to  be  a  vein  of  the  Nile  (War  iii.  10,  8). 


Fish  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee  (Chromis  Simo7iis). 

The  most  abundant  fish  is  Chromis  tiheriadis. 
Tri.stram  has  seen  them  in  shoals  of  over  an 
acre  in  extent,  so  closely  packed  that  it 
seemed  impossible  for  them  to  move.  Their 
dorsal  fins,  rising  above  the  water,  give  it  at 
a  distance  an  appearance  as  if  a  heavy  shower 


were  pattering  on  one  spot  of  the  glassy  lake. 
These  fishes  are  taken  both  in  boats  and  from 
the  shore  in  nets.  Of  course,  most  of  the 
fishes  of  the  lake  are  found  in  the  .Jordan 
and  its  tributaries  also.  For  illustrations  of 
the  shore  of  the  lake,  see  Capernaum,  Gen- 
NESARKT,  and  Magdala. 

Gall  [remotely  from  Greek  chole,  bile]. 

1.  The  bitter  secretion  of  the  liver,  bile 
(Jol)  xvi.  13;  XX.  2.5).  In  Hebrew  M'rerah 
and  M'rornh,  as  being  fluid  or  bitter.  The 
poison  of  asps  was  anciently  l)elieved  to  come 
from  their  bile  (xx.  14).  Venomous,  malig- 
nant feeling  against  what  is  good  was  called 
the  gall  of  bitterness  (Acts  viii.  23). 

2.  A  poisonous,  bitter  herb  (Deut.  xxix. 
18  ;  xxxii.  32,  33 :  Ps.  Ixix.  21),  called  in  He- 
brew Rosh,  in  Greek  Chole.  It  grew  up  spon- 
taneously in  the  furrows  of  fields  (Hos.  x.  4, 
where  the  English  versions  translate  it  hem- 
lock, though  in  all  other  passages  they  call  it 
gall).  It  was  associated  in  rhetorical  lan- 
guage with  wormwood  (Deut.  xxix.  18).  A 
sore  punishment  was  likened  to  a  drink  of 
gall  water  (.Ter.  viii.  14 ;  ix.  1.5  ;  xxiii.  15).  A 
stupefying  drink,  made  of  wine  mingled  with 
gall,  was  mercifully  oti'ered  to  .Tesus  at  the 
place  of  crucifixion  (Mat.  xxvii.  34).  The 
characteristics  do  not  well  agree  with  hem- 
lock, which  is  not  Iiitter,  nor  with  tlie  poppy. 
They  suit  the  colocynth.  which,  however,  is 
called  in  the  Bible  the  wild  gourd. 


Gallery 


235 


Games 


Gal'ler-y. 

A  long  room  or  corridor,  or  a  partial  story 
in  a  building  (Ezek.  xli.  15,  16 ;  xlii.  3,  5).  A 
dilferi'ut  Hebrew  word,  rendered  galleries  in 
A.  V.  of  Song  vii.  5.  doubtless  uieaus  tresses, 
as  it  is  translated  in  K.  V. 

Gal'ley, 

A  low  Hat-built  vessel  with  one  or  more 
bauks,  i.  e.  rows  of  oars  (Is.  xxxiii.  21 ;  2  Mac. 
iv.  -JO). 

Gal'lim  [beaps]. 

1.  A  village  near  Gibcab  of  Suul  and  Ana- 
thotli  (Is.  X.  29,  30),  ai)pai'ently  not  a  great 
distance  from  Baburim  (1  Sam.  xxv.  44 ;  2 
Sam.  iii.  lo-llj). 

2.  A  town  of  .Tudab  called  Gallim,  men- 
tioned by  tbe  Septuagiut  in  a  group  witli 
Tekoa,  Betblebem,  Etam.  and  especially  iu 
connection  witb  towns  soutliwest  of  Jerusa- 
lem (Josb.  XV.  between  59  and  60). 

Gal'li-o. 

Koman  proconsul  of  Acbaia  at  the  time  of 
Paul's  first  visit  to  Corinth.  His  original 
name  was  Marcus  Annans  Novatus;  but  he 
was  adopted  into  the  family  of  Lucius  Junius 
Gallio,  and  took  the  name  Junius  Annseus 
Gallio.  He  was  tbe  brother  of  the  Eomau 
philosopher  Seneca,  and,  like  him,  was  put 
to  death  by  tbe  emperor  Nero.  When  the 
Jews,  maddened  by  tbe  suc- 
cess of  Paul  at  Corinth,  drag- 
ged him  before  tbe  procon- 
sul's tribunal,  Gallio  refused 
to  take  notice  of  religious 
questions,  and  summarily 
dismissed  the  case.  He  re- 
mained equally  indifferent 
■when  the  riotous  Jews  took 
Sosthenes,  the  ruler  of  tbe 
synagogue,  evidently  one  of 
Paul's  converts,  and  beat 
him  before  tbe  judgment 
seat  (Acts  xviii.  12-17). 

Gal'lows. 

Haman  had  a  gallowsmade 
fiftv  cubits  high,  on  which  to 
haiig  Mordecai  ( Estb.  v.  14,  R.  V.  margin  tree). 
Hanging  by  a  rope  about  tbe  throat  was  not 
a  Persian  nietbod  of  punishment.  Haman  no 
doubt  intended  to  impale  Mordecai  (cp.  ii. 
23:  Herod,  iii.  159). 

Ga-ma'U-el  [God's  reward]. 

1.  Son  of  Pedahzur  and  bead  of  the  tribe 
of  Manasseh  in  the  wilderness  (Num.  i.  10 ; 
ii.  20 ;  vii.  54,  .59). 

2.  A  member  of  tbe  Jewish  sanhedrin,  of 
the  Pharisee  sect,  and  a  doctor  of  the  law, 
held  in  high  reputation  by  tbe  Jewish  peo- 
lile.  He  showed  bis  superiority  to  his  col- 
leagues in  counseling  them  not  to  persecute 
Peter  and  the  other  apostles,  on  the  ground 
that  if  their  work  were  simply  man's,  it  would 
finally  come  to  nothing,  even  if  they  took  no 
measures  against  it ;  while  if  it  were  from 
God  and  they  persecuted  it,  they  would  be 


fighting  against  God,  and  the  inevitable  issue 
would  be  their  defeat  (Acts  v.  34-39).  Gama- 
liel bad  Paul  for  one  of  bis  pupils,  and  taught 
him  .hidaism  most  etlectively  (xxii.  3).  Tra- 
dition, as  embodied  in  tlu^  Talmud,  makes 
(lamaliel  the  grandson  of  tbe  celebrated 
rabbi  Hillel.  It  states  also  that  Gamaliel 
long  presided  over  tbe  sanhedrin,  which  is 
improbable,  for  at  this  time  the  i)residency 
was  held  by  the  high  i)riests.  He  died  about 
A.  D.  50. 

Games. 

In  tbe  N.  T.  there  are  numerous  allusions, 
more  or  less  clear,  to  the  games  of  ancient 
Greece.  Tbe  most  imjjortant  of  these  were 
four  in  number :  the  Olympic  games,  at  Olym- 
pia,  in  tlie  district  of  Elis.  in  the  Pelopon- 
nesus ;  tbe  Pythian  games,  at  Delphi,  in 
Phocis;  the  Nemean  games,  at  Argos,  in  Ar- 
golis,  in  the  Peloponnesus;  and  the  Isthmian 
games,  on  the  isthmus  of  Corinth.  The  con- 
tests carried  on  were  chariot,  horse,  and  foot 
racing,  quoiting,  boxing,  wrestling,  hurling 
the  sx>ear.  The  intending  comjietitors  went 
through  a  long  course  of  severe  training.  Im- 
mense multitudes  were  spectators  of  their  skill, 
and  though  tbe  direct  rewards  of  tbe  victors 
were  but  slight,  tbe  honor  given  to  them  by 
their  fellow  citizens  and  countrymen  was  be- 
yond measure  great.    Similar  games  were  in- 


Grecian  Games  of  Pulling  and  Wrestling. 


troduced  into  Judsea  by  hellenizing  Jews  in 
the  reign  of  Antiocbus  Epiphanes,  and  were 
fostered  by  Herod  tbe  Great  (1  IMac.  i.  10, 14 ; 
Antiq.  xv'.  8,  1) ;  see  Gymna.sium.  As  the 
Isthmian  games  were  held  iu  tbe  vicinity  of 
Corinth,  and  the  other  three  at  no  great  dis- 
tance, it  is  natural  for  Paul's  two  epistles  to 
the  Corinthians  to  contain  metaphors  or  com- 
parisons borrowed  from  the  games.  In  1  Cor. 
ix.  24-27  there  is  allusion  to  the  training  of 
a  competitor  in  the  games,  to  running,  and 
to  fighting,  the  object  in  view  being  to  gain 
a  prize.  There  are  scattered  allusions  of  a 
similar  kind  through  other  eT>i.stles  (Gal.  ii. 
2  ;  v.  7  ;  Phil.  ii.  16 ;  iii.  14  :  2  Tim.  ii.  5).  In 
Hebrews  there  is  a  notable  passage  (xii.  1,  2). 
The  vast  multitude  of  men  and  women  who 
have  borne  testimony  to  their  faith  iu  God 
is  likened  to  the  immense  concourse  of  spec- 


Gammadim 


236 


Garrison 


tators  at  a  foot  race.  The  competitor  lays 
aside  every  weight  to  make  himself  lighter, 
and  the  long  flowing  garment,  which  else 
would  beset  him  and  perhaps  throw  him 
down.  He  requires  patience  to  go  forward 
perseveringly,  but  obtains  it  by  looking  at 
the  umpire  seated  at  the  end  of  the  course, 
ready  to  confer  the  prize  if  it  be  fairly  won. 
Every  one  of  these  details  had  a  distinct 
spiritual  reference,  which  would  come  home 
with  great  power  to  every  reader  of  the  ei)is- 
tle  who  had  seen  any  of  the  Grecian  games. 

Gam'ma-dim,  in  A.  V.  improperly  Gam- 
madims  [valorous  men]. 

Certain  brave  people  who  garrisoned  the 
towers  of  Tyre  (Ezek.  xxvii.  11). 

Ga'mul  [recompensed]. 

A  descendant  of  Aaron  whose  family  in 
David's  reign  was  made  the  twenty-second 
course  of  the  priests  (1  Chrou.  xxiv.  17). 

Gar'den. 

The  first  garden  of  which  we  read  in  Scrip- 
ture was  that  of  Eden,  which  God  caused  to 
grow  for  man  in  his  state  of  innocence  (Gen. 
ii.  8-iii.  24;  Ezek.  xxviii.  13;  xxxi.  8,  9). 
Gardens,  specially  of  herbs,  were  watered  by 
the  foot  in  Egypt  with  water  obtained  from 
the  Nile  (Deut.  xi.  10).  The  reference  is  prob- 
ably to  irrigation  by  means  of  a  wheel  over 
which  an  endless  rope  with  buckets  passed, 
and  which  was  turned  by  the  foot.  Artificial 
irrigation  was  practiced  in  Palestine  also  (Ecc. 
ii.  6  ;  Is.  Iviii.  11  ;  Jer.  xxxi.  12),  Ahab  desired 
to  have  a  garden  of  herbs  near  his  palace  at 
Jezreel,  and  it  was  to  obtain  land  for  the 
purpose  that  he  coveted  Naboth's  vineyard 
(1  Kin.  xxi.  2).  Lilies  and  other  flowers 
were  cultivated  in  gardens  (Song  v.  1 ;  vi.  2). 
So  also  were  fruit  trees  (Jer.  xxix.  5,  28 ; 
Amos.  ix.  14).  The  garden  of  Gethsemane 
seems,  from  its  name,  to  have  been  planted 
mainly  with  olive  trees,  and  to  have  had  a 
press  in  it  wherewith  to  express  the  oil  from 
their  fruit.  There  was  a  royal  garden  at 
Jerusalem  (2  Kin.  xxv.  4),  another  at  Etam 
near  Bethlehem  (Antic],  viii.  7,  'S;  cp.  Song 
vi.  11 ;  Ecc.  ii.  5),  another  in  the  palace  at 
Shushan  (Esth.  i.  5).  To  protect  gardens 
against  depredators  they  were  enclosed  with 
fences  (Song  iv.  12 ;  Is.  v.  2,  5),  and  occa- 
sionally a  lodge  was  placed  within  them,  at- 
tended by  a  watcher  (Is.  i.  8).  In  the  seclu- 
sion and  coolness  of  gardens  people  walked 
(Hist,  of  Susanna  i.  7),  sometimes  bathed  (15), 
spread  repasts  (Esth.  i.  5),  engaged  in  devo- 
tion (Mat.  xxvi.  36),  practiced  idolatrous  rites 
(Is.  i.  29;  Ixv.  3;  Ixvi.  17;  rp.  2  Kin.  xvi.  4), 
and  occasionally  buried  their  dead  (John  xix. 
41). 

Ga'reb  [rough,  scabby]. 

1.  An  Ithrite,  one  of  David's  mighty  men 
(2  Sam.  xxiii.  38 ;  1  Chron.  xi.  40). 

2.  A  hill  near  Jerusalem  on  the  west  (Jer. 
xxxi.  39 ;  cp.  38,  40).  Exact  situation  un- 
known. 


Garlic. 

A  bulbous  plant  resembling  the  onion,  and 
in  Hebrew  called  from  its  odor  .S'/(wm.  It  was 
much  eaten  in  Egypt  (Herod,  ii.  125),  and 
the  Israelites  when  there  used  it  for  food 
(Num.  xi.  5).  It  is  AlUiott  safirnni,  of  the 
same  genus  as  the  onion,  but  with  moi'e  taste 
and  scent  than  that  esculent.  It  is  a  native 
of  central  Asia,  is  grown  largely  in  the  Medi- 
terranean region,  and  is  eaten  by  the  com- 
mon people  as  a  relish  to  their  bread. 

Gar'ment.     See  Clothing. 

Gar'mite  [pertaining  to  Gerem,  or  bony]. 

An  ajipellation  of  probably  the  father  of 
Keilah  (1  Chron.  iv.  19). 

Gar'ner. 

A  place  for  storing  grain,  a  granary  (Ps. 
cxliv.  13  ;  Joel  i.  17;  Mat.  iii.  12). 

Gar'nish. 

To  adorn,  to  decorate  with  ornamental  ad- 
ditions (2  Chron.  iii.  6  ;  Job  xxvi.  13;  Mat.  xii. 
44;  xxiii.  29;  Luke  xi.  25;  Eev.  xxi.  19). 

Gar'ri-son. 

A  military  post ;  a  body  of  troops  stationed 
in  a  fort  (1  Sam.  xiv.  1,  15 ;  2  Sam.  xxiii.  14- 
16 ;  2  Cor.  xi.  32).  A  difiereut  Hebrew  word 
from  that  used  in  the  foregoing  passages  from 
the  O.  T.  is  also  rendered  garrison  by  the  Vul- 
gate and  English  versions  in  1  Sam.  x.  5 ;  xiii. 
3.  But  this  word  certainly  means  a  pillar  in 
Gen.  xix.  26,  and  an  officer  stationed  at  a 
place  in  1  Kin.  iv.  19.  What  does  it  mean  in 
1  Sam.  X.  5;  xiii.  3?  There  is  no  authority 
for  rendering  it  by  garrison  except  that  that 
meaning  yields  good  sense  in  these  and  some 
other  passages.  The  author  of  the  Books  of 
Samuel,  however,  uses  a  difierent  word  for 
garrison.  Pillar  is  suitable  in  the  first  of 
these  passages.  If  this  is  the  true  meaning, 
then  the  Philistines  had  erected  memorial 
columns  in  the  land  of  Israel  as  monuments 
of  their  victory  or  dominion,  such  as  the  He- 
brews set  up  at  Mizjiah  (1  Sam.  vii.  12).  It 
was  quite  customary  for  conquerors  to  erect 
memorials  in  the  conquered  country.  Egyp- 
tian and  Assyrian  kings  carved  records  of 
their  conquests  on  the  clifi"  at  tlie  Nahr  el- 
Kelb  near  Beirut,  which  were  never  efiaced, 
not  even  when  the  Phoenicians  regained  their 
independence,  but  exist  to  this  day.  Driver 
believes  that  the  word  means  pillar  in  xiii.  3 
also,  and  cites  Amos  ix.  1  in  proof  that  Jona- 
than could  be  said  to  have  smitten  a  pillar. 
But  as  the  word  means  oflicer  in  1  Kin.  iv. 
19,  as  this  attested  meaning  yields  good  sense, 
not  only  in  1  Sam.  x.  5  and  xiii.  3,  but  also 
in  2  Sam.  viii.  6,  14,  and  as  a  difierent  word  is 
evidentlj'  used  to  denote  a  garrison,  it  is  better 
to  believe  that  the  author  of  the  double  Book 
of  Samuel  always  uses  it  in  the  sense  of  oflicer. 
The  smiting  of  a  Philistine  oflicer  by  Jona- 
than was  an  act  of  rebellion  and  a  just  cause 
of  war.  It  was  so  regarded  by  the  Philis- 
tines. His  overthrow  of  a  pillar  would  have 
been  a  mere  act  of  wanton  violence,  unless 


Gashmu 


237 


Gaza 


there  was  a  body  of  Philistines  posted  iu  its 
vicinity  to  i)rote(t  it  iVoin  desecration  ;  and 
it  was  not  customary  to  yiiard  such  monu- 
ments. 

Gash'mu.     See  Geshkm. 

Ga'tam  [jniuy]. 

A  descendant  of  Eliphaz  (Gen.  xxxvi.  11  ; 
1  Cliron.  i.  3tj),  and  chief  of  a  tribe  of  the 
sons  of  Esau  (Geu.  xxxvi.  Ki). 

Gate. 

In  walled  cities  or  palaces  a  gate  was  es- 
sential for  the  egress  and  ingress  of  the  in- 
habitants, and  for  defense  against  the  en- 
trance of  an  enemy.  It  was  often  protected 
by  a  strong  tower  {2  Chron.  xxvi.  9),  indeed 
the  gateway  frequently  led  through  the 
tower.  There  were  bars  to  place  across  tlie 
gates,  and  render  them  stronger  against  as- 
sault (Dent.  iii.  5  ;  1  Kin.  iv.  13  ;  2  Chron. 
viii.  5  ;  xiv.  7).  The  gate  was  a  place  of  pub- 
lic concourse  where  business  was  carried  on 
(1  Kin.  xxii.  10  ;  2  Kin.  vii.  1 ;  Ezek.  xi.  1)  ; 
legal  transactions  conducted  and  witnessed 
(Gen.  xxiii.  10, 18  ;  Ruth  iv.  1-11) ;  cases  tried 
and  judgment  pronounced  (Deut.  xxi.  19  ; 
xxii.  1.");  XXV.  7-9;  Job  xxxi.  21;  Amos  v. 
15).  There  were  gates  in  the  enclosures 
connected  with  the  mansions  of  the  aristoc- 
racy (Luke  xvi.  20),  where  love  of  magnifi- 
cence and  displav  found  expression  (Prov. 
xvii.  19). 

Gatli  [wine  press]. 

One  of  the  five  great  Philistine  cities  (Josh, 
xiii.  3  ;  Judg.  iii.  3  ;  1  Sam.  vi.  17  ;  vii.  14  ;  xvii. 
52).  It  was  noted  as  the  residence  of  a  remnant 
of  the  Anakim,  men  of  great  stature  (Josh.  xi. 
22;  cp.  Num.  xiii.  33;  Dent.  ii.  10,  11).  To 
this  race,  Goliath  and  the  other  gigantic  war- 
riors i)robably  belonged  (1  Sam.  xvii.  4  ;  2 
Sam.  xxi.  15-22  ;  1  Chron.  xx.  4-8).  The  town 
was  cai)tured  by  David  (1  Chron.  xviii.  1). 
During  Solomon's  reign,  it  had  a  king  of  its 
own  who  was  probably  subject  to  the  king  at 
Jerusalem  (1  Kin.  ii.  39,  42).  It  was  fortified 
by  Eehoboam  (2  Chron.  xi.  8),  but  soon  again 
reverted  to  the  Philistines.  It  Mas  captured 
by  Hazael  (2  Kin.  xii.  17).  Uzziah  broke 
down  its  wall  (2  Chron.  xxvi.  6) ;  and  hence- 
forth it  drops  out  of  history.  Micah,  indeed, 
names  it,  but  he  uses  an  ancient  form  of 
speech  (i.  10;  cp.  2  Sam.  i.  20).  When  after- 
wards the  Philistine  cities  are  mentioned, 
Gath  is  missing  (.Jer.  xxv.  20;  Zeph.  ii.  4; 
Zech.  ix.  5) ;  and  it  is  not  referred  to  in  Mac- 
cabees, nor  by  Josephus,  when  he  relates 
events  subsequent  to  the  year  750  b.  c.  Nu- 
merous theories  have  been  offered  as  to  its 
site.  It  has  been  located — 1.  Near  the  sea; 
at  Yebnah  (so  the  Crusaders)  ;  2.  In  or  on  the 
border  of  the  Shephelah,  at  Beit  Jibrin:  or 
Deir  Dubban.  4i  miles  north  of  Beit  Jibrin; 
or  Kefr  Dikkerin,  4  miles  to  the  northwest 
of  Beit  Jibrin  :  or,  following  the  same  high- 
way 4  miles  farther,  at  Tell  es-Safiyeh  on  the 
vale  of  Elah,  at  the  junction  of  the  She- 
phelah with  the  maritime  plain  ;  or  Tell  Zaka- 


riya,  5  miles  east  up  the  valley.  All  that  is 
known  is  that  Gath  lay  inland,  on  the  bor- 
ders of  the  Hebrew  territory,  and  in  a  sense 
between  Ashdod  and  Ekron,  but  ai>jiarently 
southwest  of  the  latter  town  and  nearer  the 
mountains  (1  Sam.  v.  8;  vii.  14;  xvii.  52). 

GatL-he'pher,  in  A.  V.  once  through  mis- 
apprehension Git-tah-he'plier  [wine  press 
of  the  well]. 

A  town  on  the  boundary  line  of  Zebnlun 
(Josh.  xix.  13).  It  was  the  birthplace  of  the 
prophet  Jonah  (2  Kin.  xiv.  25).  In  Jerome's 
day  it  existed  as  a  small  village,  2  Roman 
miles  east  of  Sei)iilioris.  This  location  cor- 
responds with  the  village  of  el-Meshhed  or 
Meshhad,  3  miles  northeast  of  Nazareth. 
Here  one  of  Jonah's  tombs  exists,  its  chief 
rival  being  at  the  site  of  ancient  Nineveh. 

Gath-rim'mon  [pomegranate  press]. 

1.  A  town  on  the  boundary  line  of  the  tribe 
of  Dan  (Josh.  xix.  45),  assigned  to  the  Koha- 
thite  Levites  (xxi.  24;  1  Chron.  vi.  69).  Ex- 
act site  unknown. 

2.  A  town  in  Manasseh  west  of  the  Jordan, 
assigned  to  the  Kohathite  Levites  (Josh.  xxi. 
25) ;  probably  an  erroneous  transcription  of 
Ibleam  or  Bileam  (q.  v.). 

Gauls.     See  Galatia. 

Ga'za,  in  A.  V.  thrice  Azzah,  according  as 
one  or  other  Greek  modification  of  the  He- 
brew word  'A~zali  is  imitated  [strong]. 

The  most  southerly  of  the  five  Philistine 
cities  (Josh.  xiii.  3;  1  Sam.  vi.  17;  Jer.  xxv. 
20).  It  was  very  ancient  (Gen.  x.  19).  It 
was  situated  on  the  great  highway  between 
Mesopotamia  and  Egypt,  at  the  very  edge  of 
the  desert ;  and  it  was  the  terminus  of  a  trade 
route  from  southern  Arabia.  It  was  assigned 
to  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  47),  and  was  captured  by 
the  men  of  that  tribe  (Judg.  i.  18).  It  re- 
verted to  the  Philistines  (cp.  Judg.  yi.  4). 
Samson  carried  ofl"  the  doors  of  the  city  gate 
(Judg.  xvi.  1-3).  When  his  eyes  were  put 
out,  it  was  in  the  prison  house  of  Gaza  that  he 
had  to  grind  (20,  21).  The  tutelary  god  of 
Gaza,  as  of  Ashdod,  was  Dagon.  The  last  act 
of  Samson's  life  was  to  bow  with  his  strength 
against  the  two  middle  pillars  of  the  temple 
of  Dagon  and  throw  them  from  their  place 
(23-31).  Gaza  was  the  limit  of  Solomon's 
dominion  toward  the  southwest  (1  Kin.  iv. 
24).  Hezekiah  smote  the  Philistines  as  far 
as  Gaza's  gates  (2  Kin.  xviii.  8).  Pharaoh 
took  the  city  (Jer.  xlvii.  1),  ]irobably  Pharaoh- 
necho  or  Pharaoh-hophra,  i.e.  Apries  (Herod, 
ii.  159.  l(Jl).  Judgment  wasdenounced  against 
it  and  the  other  Philistine  cities  by  the 
prophets  (Jer.  xxv.  20 ;  xlvii.  1.  5 :  Zeph. 
ii.  4 ;  Zech.  ix.  5).  One  sin  specified  was  its 
sale  of  captured  Hebrews  to  the  Edomites 
(Amos  i.  6).  It  held  out  against  Alexander 
the  Great  for  five  months,  and  when  it  fell 
its  inhabitants  were  massacred.  Jonathan 
Maccaba'us  was  shut  out  of  Gaza,  and  burnt 
its  suburbs;  but  he  eventually  made  peace 
without  storming  the  place   (1  Mac.  xi.  61, 


G-azara 


238 


Gedaliah 


62).  It  was  afterwards  captured  by  his 
brother  Simon  (xiii.  43-48;  Antiq.  xiii.  5,  5). 
About  96  B.  c.  it  was  captured  after  a  year's 
siege  and  destroyed  by  Alexander  Jannseus 
(Antiq.  xiii.  13,  3).  It  was  taken  by  Pompey 
in  62  B.  c.  (4,  4;  War  i.  7,  7).  Gabiuius,  the 
Roman  president  of  Syria,  rebuilt  it  in  .57 
B.  c.  on  a  new  site  (Antiq.  xiv.  5,  3).  The 
old  town  had  acquired  the  designation  Desert 
Gaza  (cp.  Antiq.  xiv.  5,  3 ;  Acts  viii.  26 ;  and 
s.'C  Smith,  IHsturiml  Geography).  About  A.  D. 
6j  the  Jews  destroyed  it;  but  it  soon  rose 
anew,  and  there  are  coins  belonging  to  it 
struck  in  honor  of  Titus  and  Adrian.  It  after- 
wards became  the  seat  of  a  Christian  bishopric. 
In  A.  D.  G34  it  was  taken  by  the  Arabs,  and, 
with  the  exception  of  one  or  two  brief  inter- 
vals during  which  it  was  held  by  the  Cru- 
saders, has  since  remained  in  Mohammedan 
hands.  Gaza,  called  by  the  Arabs  Ghuzzeh, 
still  exists  as  a  town,  with  some  thousand  in- 
habitants. It  is  situated  on  a  low,  round  hill, 
about  50  or  60  feet  above  the  plain,  but  ex- 
tends from  the  hill  acro.ss  the  plain  to  the 
east  and  north.  On  the  north  there  are  im- 
mense olive  groves,  the  finest  in  Palestine ; 
and  the  great  staple  of  the  city  is  soap,  manu- 
factured from  the  olive  oil.  Ghuzzeh  is  not 
now  fortified ;  but  there  are  indications  where 
the  ancient  walls  existed,  and  slight  remains 
of  buildings  exist  on  the  hill.  It  is  about  2^ 
miles  from  the  Mediterranean,  the  interme- 
diate space  being  occupied  by  sandhills,  with 
sandy  tracts  between. 

Ga-za'ra.     See  Gezer. 

Ga'zath-ite.     See  Gazite. 

Ga-zelle'. 

A  small  antelope,  called  in  Hebrew  S'bi. 
Where  A.  V.  renders  this  word  by  roebuck, 
E.  V.  substitutes  gazelle ;  and  where  A.  V. 
renders  it  by  roe,  R.  V.  generally  places  ga- 
zelle on  the  margin.  There  is  no  doubt 
that  the  gazelle  {Gnsella  doicas)  is  intended. 
It  was  ceremonially  clean  (Deut.  xii.  22  ;  xiv. 
5),  was  hunted  (Prov.  vi.  5 ;  Is.  xiii.  14),  and 
was  swift-footed  (2  Sam.  ii.  18 ;  1  Chron.  xii. 
8).  Its  beauty  and  grace  rendered  it  a  term 
of  endearing  comparison  (Song  ii.  9,  17;  viii. 
14).  It  is  about  3  feet  6  inches  long  by  1  foot 
9  inches  high.  The  horns  are  larger  in  the 
male  than  in  the  female  ;  the  limbs  and  whole 
form  in  both  sexes  graceful ;  the  fur  mostly 
fawn  colored  about  the  head,  more  fulvous 
on  the  other  parts.  It  is  found  in  Syria, 
Egypt,  and  Arabia,  mostly  in  small  groups  or 
nearly  solitary.  It  is  timid,  and  fiees  from  a 
pursuer  rapidly  and  with  great  bounds.  Tris- 
tram found  a  second  species  of  gazelle  {Gnzelhi 
iirabica),  larger  than  the  common  one,  east  of 
the  Jordan. 

Ga'zer  and  Ga-ze'ra.     See  Gezer. 
Ga'zez  [shearer]. 

A  son  and  perhaps  also  a  grandson  of  the 
elder  Caleb  (1  Chron.  ii.  46). 

Ga'zite,  in  A.  V.  once  GazatMte. 


A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Gaza  (Josh.  xiii. 
3  ;  Judg.  xvi.  2). 

Gaz'zam  [devourer]. 

Founder  of  a  family  of  Nethinim  who  re- 
turned with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii.  4b). 

Ge'ba,  in  A.  V.  thrice  Gaba  [a  hill]. 

A  city  within  the  limits  of  Benjamin  (Josh. 
xviii.  24),  which  was  allotted  to  the  priests 
(xxi.  17).  It  must  be  distinguished  from 
Gibeah  of  Saul  (Is.  x.  29).  Geba  was  the 
northern  extreme  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah 
(2  Kin.  xxiii.  8;  Zech.  xiv.  10).  A  village, 
still  bearing  the  old  name,  marks  the  site,  6 
miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Jerusalem  and  2  miles  S. 
W.  of  Michmash. 

Ge'bal  [mountain]. 

1.  An  ancient  city  on  the  Mediterranean 
Sea,  17  miles  north  of  Beirut  (Ezek.  xxvii.  9 ; 
cp.  Josh.  xiii.  .5  ;  1  Kin.  v.  18,  R.  Y.).  It  was  a 
great  seat  of  the  lascivious  worship  of  Adonis. 

2.  The  northern  portion  of  the  mountains 
of  Edom  (Antiq.  ii.  1,  2  ;  ix.  9, 1 ;  Ps.  Ixxxiii. 
7) ;  known  also  as  Teman. 

Ge'ber  [a  man,  a  hero]. 

Solomon's  i)urveyor  for  the  territory  of 
southern  Gilead  (1  Kin.  iv.  19),  and  probably 
father  of  the  purveyor  for  northern  Gilead 
and  Argob  (13). 

Ge'bim  [cisterns,  locusts]. 

A  village  north  of  Jerusalem  (Is.  x.  31). 
Exact  site  unknown. 

Geck'o. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  '"nnkuh,  a 
ceremonially  unclean  animal  which  the  He- 
brews classed  with  creeping  things  (Lev.  xi. 
30,  R.  v.).  The  gecko  is  a  wall  lizard.  It 
has  wliite  spots  on  its  back ;  and  it  emits  a 
plaintive  wail,  whence  the  Hebrew  name.  The 
common  gecko  or  fan-foot  {Ptyodactylus  (jecko) 
is  very  common  in  Palestine.  It  frequents 
houses,  running  over  the  walls  and  ceiling. 
It  is  able  to  do  this  by  reason  of  the  peculiar 
construction  of  its  toes,  which  are  provided 
with  plates  under  which  a  vacuum  is  created 
when  the  animal  walks,  thus  causing  it  to 
adhere. 

Ged-a-li'ah  [Jehovah  is  great] . 

1.  A  harper,  son  of  Jeduthun  (1  Chron. 
XXV.  3),  and  head  of  the  second  of  the  twenty- 
four  companies  of  twelve  musicians  each 
which  David  appointed  for  the  service  of  the 
sanctuary  (9). 

2.  An  ancestor  of  the  prophet  Zephaniah 
(Zeph.  i.  1). 

3.  A  son  of  Pashhur  in  Jeremiah's  time 
(Jer.  xxxviii.  1). 

4.  A  man  of  Judah  of  high  birth,  son  of 
Ahikam,  son  of  Shaphan.  He  was  a])poiuted 
by  Nebuchadnezzar  governor  of  Judah  after 
the  capture  of  Jerusalem.  He  fixed  his  resi- 
dence at  Mizpah,  where  he  was  treacherously 
assassinated  by  Ishmael  of  the  seed  royal  (2 
Kin.  XXV.  22-26  ;  Jer.  xxxix.  14  ;  xl.o-xli.  18). 

5.  A  priest  whom  Ezra  induced  to  divorce 
his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  18). 


Gedeon 


239 


Genealogy 


Ged'e-on.     See  Gideon. 

Ge'der  [a  wall]. 

A  lowii,  ajuiarently  in  the  extreme  south 
of  Judah  (Josh.  xii.  1.5).  Exact  site  unknown. 
It  may  be  the  -siime  as  Beth-gader  or  Gedor  '.i. 

Ge-de'rah  [wall,  enelosure,  shcepfold]. 

1.  A  tdwii  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  ;>!)).  Louder  locales  it  at  Jedireh.  a  ruin 
4  miles  and  -11  miles  respectively  to  the  north- 
west of  Zoraii  and  Eshtaol  (33).     See  Gede- 

EOTH. 

2.  A  village  of  Benjamin  (ep.  1  Chron.  xii. 
4).  Conder  suggests  Jedireh,  a  ruin  about  6 
miles  north  by  west  of  Jerusalem. 

Ge'der-ite. 

A  man  of  Geder  or  Gederah  (1  Chron.  xxvii. 
28;  cp.  Josh.  xv.  36). 

Ge-de'rotli  [enclosures,  sheepfolds]. 

A  town  in  or  near  the  lowland  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  41).  In  Ahaz'  reign  it  was  taken 
by  the  Philistines  (2  Chron.  xxviii.  18).  Its 
site,  or  that  of  Gederah,  is  commonly  fixed 
at  Katrah,  called  in  1  Mac.  xv.  39  Kidron, 
in  the  maritime  jilain  about  4  miles  south- 
west by  south  of  Ekron. 

Ged'e-^o-tha'im  [two  enclosures,  two.sheep- 
folds]. 

A  town  within  the  territory  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  36),  otherwise  unknown.  The  Septuagint 
regards  it  as  a  common  noun,  and  translates 
it  "its  cattle-enclosures."  It  is  in  favor  of 
this  rendering  that,  Avhile  the  towns  are 
reckoned  up  as  but  fourteen,  fifteen  names 
are  given,  including  this  one.  Still  this  word 
must  not  be  summarily  rejected. 

Ge'dor  [wall,  fortress,  walled  enclosure]. 

1.  A  son  of  Jehiel,  and  a  brother  of  Ner, 
the  ancestor  of  Saul  (1  Chron.  viii.  30,  31 ; 
ix.  35-37). 

2.  A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  5d ;  1  Chrou.  iv.  4,  IS).  Its  site  is 
marked  bv  the  ruins  Jedur,  7^  miles  X.  by 
W.  of  Hebron. 

3.  A  town,  apparently  in  the  territory  of 
Simeon,  not  far  from  the  southwestern  bound- 
ary of  Palestine  (1  Chron.  iv.39)  ;  see  Gedee. 
The  Septuagint,  however,  reads  Gerar. 

4.  A  village,  apparently  in  Benjamin  (1 
Chron.  xii.  7;  cp.  1). 

Ge-har'a-shim.     See  Chak.^shim. 

Ge-ha'zi  [valley  of  vision]. 

The  servant  of  Elisha.  He  informed  the 
prophet  of  the  desire  w^iich  the  Shunammite 
woman  had  for  a  son  :  but  when  the  son 
granted  died,  and  tlie  afflicted  mother  seized 
the  feet  of  Elisha  to  supplicate  him  to  pray 
God  for  her,  Gehazi  would  have  thrust  her 
away  (2  Kin.  iv.  14,  27).  Elisha.  in  order  to 
teach  that  it  is  not  magic,  but  faith  and 
prayer  which  avail,  sent  Gehazi  to  lay  the 
prophet's  staff  on  the  dead  child.  He  did 
so,  but  without  effect  (29-.37).  When  Xaaman 
the  .Syrian  obeyed  the  directions  of  Elisha, 
and  was  cured  of  leprosy,  he  wished  to  make 
the  prophet  a  present.  The  man  of  God  re- 
fused ;  but  Gehazi  thought  it  a  pity  that  his 


master  had  spared  the  Syrian,  and,  therefore, 
following  liiui,  asked  for  a  talent  of  silver 
and  two  changes  of  raiment,  and  was  easily 
l)ersuaded  to  take  two  talents  instead  of  one. 
On  being  questioned  by  his  master  as  to 
where  he  had  been,  he  denied  that  he  had 
been  anywhere,  and  as  a  jienalty  for  his 
avarice  and  lying,  and  for  bringing  the 
prophetic  oliice  into  contempt,  the  leprosy 
of  Naaman  the  Syrian  cleaved  unto  him 
(2  Kin.  V.  20-27).  More  sayings  and  doings 
of  Eli.sha's  servant  are  subsequently  reportid, 
but  the  individual  referred  to  was  ]irobably 
Gehazi's  successor,  rather  than  himself. 

Ge-hen'na.     See  Hell  2. 

Gel'i-lotli  [circles,  regions]. 

Apjiarently  the  same  place  as  Gilgal,  op- 
posite the  ascent  of  Adummim  (cp.  Josh.  xv. 
7  and  xviii.  17). 

Ge-mal'li  [probably,  possessor  or  rider  of 
a  camel]. 

Father  of  the  spy  Ammiel  (Num.  xiii.  12). 

Gem-a-ri'ah  [Jehovah  hath  completed  or 
perfected]. 

1.  A  son  of  Hilkiah.  He  was  one  of  two 
messengers  sent  by  Zedekiah  to  Nebuchad- 
nezzar. Jeremiah  took  advantage  of  the  op- 
portunity to  send  by  them  a  letter  to  the 
captives  in  Babylon  (Jer.  xxix.  3). 

2.  A  prince,  son  of  Shaphan  the  scribe,  and 
brother  of  Ahikam.  He  occupied  a  chamber 
in  the  temi)le.  He  joined  in  requesting  Je- 
hoiakim  not  to  burn  Jeremiah's  writings  (Jer. 
xxxvi.  10,  11,  12,  25). 

Gen-e-al'o-gy. 

The  tracing  backward  or  forward  of  the 
line  of  ancestry  of  an  individual  or  a  family. 
The  regulations  of  the  commonwealth  of 
Israel  necessitated  this  being  done  to  a  large 
extent.  Succession  to  the  royal  sovereignty, 
the  high-priesthood,  the  headship  of  tribe, 
tribal  family,  and  father's  house,  depended 
upon  lineage.  There  was  general  knowledge 
on  the  subject  from  the  earliest  period.  Gen- 
ealogy was  revealed  of  itself  by  reason  of 
the  constitution  of  tribes,  which  were  di- 
vided on  the  lines  of  growth  into  great  fam- 
ilies, and  these  in  turn  into  smaller  families 
and  so-called  houses.  Birth  in  a  household 
declared  one's  relation  to  the  several  divisions 
of  the  tribe  as  distinctly  as  the  native  place 
determined  one's  classification  according  to 
the  geographical  divisions  and  subdivisions 
of  a  kingdom.  Definite  genealogical  records 
are  traceable  from  the  beginning  of  the  He- 
brew nation  (Num.  i.  2.  18;  1  Chron.  v.  7, 
17).  Claimants  in  the  days  of  Ezra  sought 
their  register  among  those  that  were  reck- 
oned by  genealogy,  but  could  not  find  it,  on 
which  account  they,  as  polluted,  were  ex- 
pelled from  the  priesthood  (Ezra  ii.  61,  62; 
Neh.  vii.  63.  64).  The  endless  genealogies 
against  which  Timothy  and  Titus  were  warn- 
ed seemed  to  have  been  (Juostic  genealogies 
of  icons  and  other  imagmarv  beings  (1  Tim. 
i.  4 ;  Tit.  iii.  9). 


Genealogy 


240 


Two  genealogies  of  Christ  are  given  ;  one 
by  Matthew  in  the  direct,  and  one  by  Luke 
in  the  reverse,  order  of  descent  (Mat.  i.  1- 
16  and  Luke  iii.  23-38).  Matthew's  pur- 
pose is  to  show  Christ's  legal  title  to  the 
throne  of  David  and  to  the  covenant  with 
Abraham  (Mat.  i.  1).  Luke  begins  with  tlie 
second  Adam,  the  eternally  begotten  Son  of 
God,  and  ascends  to  the  fir.st  Adam,  the  sou 
of  God  by  creation  (Luke  iii.  .38).  Appar- 
ently to  help  the  memory,  either  Matthew 
or  the  official  record  from  which  he  quoted 
made  3  X  14  =  42  generations  for  the  period 
between  Abraham  and  Jesus  ;  viz.,  fourteen 
generations  between  Abraham  and  David, 
fourteen  between  David  and  the  Babylonian 
captivity,  and  fourteen  more  between  the 
Babylonian  captivity  and  Jesus  Christ.  To 
carry  out  this  artirtcial  division  Ahaziah, 
Joash,  and  Amaziah  are  omitted  between 
Joram  and  Uzziah  in  the  second  fourteen. 
There  may  be  similar  omissions  in  the  last 
fourteen.  In  Luke  there  are  forty-one  names 
in  the  line  of  descent  from  David  to  Jesus, 
against  twenty-eight,  or,  with  the  omitted 
three,  thirty-one  in  Matthew.  If  the  Sheal- 
tiel  and  Zerubl)abel  of  Matthew  are  the  same 
as  those  of  Luke,  as  can  scarcely  be  ques- 
tioned, the  ditliculty  arises  that  in  Matthew 
Shealtiel  is  the  son  of  Jechoniah,  but  in 
Luke  the  son  of  Neri ;  indeed,  the  two  lines 
of  descent  from  Datid  to  Jesus  are  different 
in  the  two  evangelists.  They  diverge  from 
David;  one  line  passes  through  SDhmion  and 
the  other  through  his  brother  Natlian.  Put- 
ting both  in  the  direct  order  of  descent,  they 
stand  thus : 


From  Matthew's 

From  Luke's 

genealogy. 

genealogy. 

David. 

David. 

Solomon. 

Nathan. 

Mattatha. 

Rehoboam. 

Menna. 

Abijah. 

Melea. 

Asa. 

Eliakim. 

Jouam. 

Jehoshaphat. 

Joseph. 

Joram. 

Judas. 

Symeon. 

Levi. 

Matthat. 

Uzziah. 

Jorim. 

Jotliam. 

Eliezer. 

Ahaz. 

Jesus. 

Hezekiah. 

Er. 

Manasseh. 

Elmadam. 

Amon. 

Cosam. 

Josiah. 

Addi. 

Jechoniah. 

Melchi. 

Neri. 

Shealtiel  (Salathiel). 

Shealtiel  (Salathiel). 

Zerubbabel. 

Zerubbabel. 

Rhesa. 

Joanan. 

Abiud. 

Joda. 

Joseeh. 

Seraein. 

Eliakim. 

Mattathlas. 

Maath. 

Azor. 

Naggai. 

Esli. 

Sadoc. 

Nahum. 

Amos. 

Genealogy 

Achim. 

Mattathias. 
Joseph. 

Eliud. 

.Tannai. 
Melchi. 

Eleazar. 

Levi. 

Matthan. 

Matthat. 

Jacob. 

Heli. 

Joseph,  the  husband 

Joseph,  the  husband 

of  Mary. 

of  Mary. 

Two  explanations  of  these  divergent  gen- 
ealogies are  possible. 

I.  The  early  church  generally  explained 
both  tables  as  recording  the  genealogy  of 
Joseph.  Julius  Africanus  (A.  d.  220;,  the 
first  known  investigator  of  the  question, 
adoi)ted  the  theoiy  that  Joseph's  grand- 
fathers in  the  two  genealogies,  Melchi  [Afri- 
canus has  a  corrupt  text]  and  Matthan,  had 
married  successively  the  same  woman,  and 
that  consequently  Heli  and  Jacob  were  half- 
brothers,  having  the  same  mother  but  difler- 
ent  fathers.  Heli  married  and  died  child- 
less; and  Jacob,  according  to  the  law  of 
Levirate  marriage  (Deut.  xxv.  6),  took  the 
widow  to  wife,  and  raised  up  seed  to  his 
brother  Heli  by  begetting  a  son  Joseph. 
Hence  Matthew  can  say,  "Matthan  begat 
Jacob,  and  Jacob  begat  Joseph ;"  and  Luke 
can  say,  "Joseph  the  sou  of  Heli,  the  son 
of  Matthat." 

A  readier  solution  of  the  problem  on  the 
lines  of  this  theory  is  that  the  table  in  Mat- 
thew contains  the  legal  successors  to  the 
throne  of  David,  while  that  in  Luke  gives 
the  paternal  ancestors  of  Joseph.  The  line 
of  Solomon  became  extinct  in  Jechoniah, 
otherwise  known  as  Jehoiachin ;  and  the 
succession  passed  over  to  the  collateral  line 
of  David  which  sprang  from  David's  son 
Nathan.  The  representative  of  this  line  was 
Shealtiel.  For  a  brief  space  the  royal  line 
and  the  natural  lineage  of  Joseph  were  iden- 
tical ;  but  after  Zerubbabel  the  two  lines  sep- 
arated. The  family  of  the  elder  son,  in 
whom  the  title  to  the  throne  inhered,  at 
length  became  extinct,  and  the  descendants 
of  the  younger  son  succeeded  to  the  title. 
Matthat  of  this  line  (by  some  identified  with 
Matthan)  became  heir  apparent.  He  is  sup- 
posed to  have  had  two  sons,  Jacob  and  Heli. 
The  elder  Jacob  had  no  son,  but  probably  a 
daughter,  the  Virgin  Mary.  The  younger 
Heli  had  a  son  Josei)h  ;  and  Joseph,  since  his 
uncle  Jacob  had  no  male  descendant,  became 
heir  to  his  uncle  and  to  the  throne.  Broad 
genealogical  terminology  enables  Matthew  to 
say  "Jacob  begat  Joseph,"  and  Luke  to  say 
"  Jo,seph,  the  son  of  Heli." 

II.  Since  the  Eeformation  a  different  con- 
ception of  the  two  genealogies  has  won  favor, 
and  is  probably  correct.  According  to  this 
opinion,  the  table  in  Matthew  gives  the  gen- 
ealogy of  Jo.sei)h,  and  exhibits  him  as  heir  to 
the  throne  of  David,  while  the  table  in  Luke 
gives  the  genealogy  of  Mary,  and  shows  Je.sus 
to  be  the  actual  S(m  of  David.  With  the  clear 
declaration  of  Luke  that  Jesus  had  no  human 
father,  with  the  customary  Hebrew  usage  of 


Generation 


241 


Gennesaret 


the  word  son  for  desceiuliiiit  however  remote, 
and  on  the  basis  of  the  ;ii>i)roved  (Jreek  text, 
the  advocates  of  tliis  view  render  Luke  iii. 
23,  "  Jesus,  being  son  (as  was  su])pi)sed  of 
Joseph)  of  Heli.  etc."  Jesus,  according  to 
Luke,  is  grandson  of  Heli,  Mary's  father, 
and  thus  a  lineal  descendant  of  David.  A 
difficulty,  not  however  peculiar  to  this  theory, 
but  lying  etjually  against  the  tirst-nientioned 
hypothesis,  is  Matthew's  record  that  Sheal- 
tiel  was  begotten  by  king  Jechoniah,  whereas 
l^uke  makes  Shealtiel  the  sou  of  Neri.  Per- 
haps the  simidest  solution  is  the  following  : 
Jechoniah.  who  spent  years  in  ca])tivity,  aj)- 
pears  to  have  been  the  surviving  nominal 
king  of  Judah  in  the  year  56'2,  twenty-five 
years  after  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  (2  Kin.  xxv. 
27).  He  apparently  had  no  sons  when  car- 
ried oil"  captive  in  59b  b.  c.  He  was  com- 
paratively young,  and  children  are  not  men- 
tioned in  the  enumeration  of  his  family  (2 
Kin.  xxiv.  8,  12,  15).  Jeremiah  prophesied 
that  no  son  of  his  should  occupy  the  throne 
(Jer.  xxii.  30;  cp.  what  is  sjiid  of  his  father, 
xxxvi.  30).  In  the  genealogy  as  given  in 
Mat.  i.  appears  the  eutrj-.  "After  the  carry- 
ing away  to  Babylon,  Jechoniah  begat  Sheal- 
tiel." All  Scripture  references  are  in  har- 
mony, and  the  two  genealogies  are  intelligi- 
ble, if  this  notice  in  Matthew  be  understood 
as  a  broad  declaration  in  genealogical  form 
denoting  legal  succession  to  the  throne.  The 
title  passed  from  Jechoniah  on  his  death  to 
Shealtiel,  a  lineal  descendant  of  David.  There 
may  of  course  have  been  close  kinship  be- 
tween Jechoniah  and  Shealtiel.  If  Jechoniah 
had  no  son  surviving  him,  but  only  a  daugh- 
ter, the  inheritance  passed  to  her  children 
according  to  the  law  (Num.  xxvii.  8-11).  The 
phraseology  of  the  genealogies  is  therefore 
explained  on  the  assumption  that  Neri  mar- 
ried the  daughter  of  Jechoniah  and  begat 
Shealtiel  by  her.  Shealtiel's  lineage  was  reck- 
oned as  usual  through  his  father  back  to 
Nathan  and  David,  but  his  title  to  the  throne 
"Was  reckoned  through  his  maternal  grand- 
father Jechoniah  to  .Solomon  and  David. 

In  1  Chron.  iii.  17  is  the  record  :  "The  sons 

•of  Jeconiah  ;  Assir  [not  to  be  rendered  "the 

captive,"  for  the  definite  article  is  not  used], 

I  Shealtiel  his  son,  and  Malchiram.  etc."     The 

I  epithet  "  his  son  "  is  peculiar  to  Shealtiel,  pe- 

j  culiar  also  in  that  it  is  deemed  necessary  to 

apply  it  to  one  of  a  group  already  designated 

I  as  sons  of  Jeconiah.     It  marks  Shealtiel  as 

the  king's  successor.     He  could  be  called  his 

j  son,  if  his  daughter's  .son,  just  as  Abiezer,  son 

of  the  sister  of  Gilead,  son  of  Manasseh,  is 

reckoned  among  the  sous  of  Manasseh,  and 

1  apparently  even  among  the  sons  of  Gilead 

(1  Chron.  Vii.  14,  18;  Num.  xxvi.  30). 


Gen-er-a'tion. 

1.  A  begetting  or  producing,  or  the  person 
or  thing  produced  (Gen.  ii.  4;  v.  1)  ;  in  He- 
trew  only  plural  ToI'doth. 

2.  Each  succession  of  persons  from  a  com- 

16 


mon  ancestor  (Gen.  1.  23;  Ex.  xx.  5;  Dent. 
xxiii.2) ;  in  Hebrew  expres-sed  by  a  modifica- 
tion of  the  jiroper  numeral  or  by  i)or  with  an 
ordiual  number. 

3.  The  age  or  period  of  a  body  of  contem- 
poraries, not  in  the  modern  sense  of  the 
average  lifetime  of  all  who  survive  infancy, 
but  the  average  period  of  the  activity  of 
any  body  of  contemporaries  as  determined 
by  the  normal  span  of  life.  The  generation 
lasts  as  long  as  any  of  the  meml)ers  survive 
(Ex.  i.  6;  Num.  xxxii.  13;  Judg.  ii.  10;  Ecc. 
i.  4)  ;  in  Hebrew  Dor. 

Gen'e-sis  [Greek  genesis,  origin  (of  the 
world)]. 

The  name,  borrowed  from  the  Septuagiut, 
of  the  first  O.  T.  book,  called  by  the  Hebrews 
from  its  initial  word  B^iesliith,  "In  the  be- 
ginning." It  naturally  divides  itself  into 
three  sections :  first,  the  history  of  the  uni- 
verse, showing  God's  relation  to  it,  and  intro- 
ducing human  history  (i.-ii.  3) ;  second,  a 
sketch  of  human  history  before  Abraham, 
showing  God's  relation  to  the  human  race, 
and  introducing  the  history  of  the  chosen 
people  (ii.  4-xi.  26) ;  and  third,  the  history 
of  the  covenant  people  down  to  the  descent 
into  Egypt  (xi.  27-1.).  The  second  section 
includes  the  creation  of  man  and  his  original 
condition  (ii.  4-25),  the  fall  (iii.),  the  jirogre-ss 
of  sin  (iv.  1-15),  the  worldly  race  (16-24),  the 
godly  line  (25-v.  32),  the  increase  of  wicked- 
ness (vi.  1-8),  the  flood  (vi.  9-ix.  17),  the  re- 
peopling  of  the  earth  (ix.  18-x.  32),  the  build- 
ing of  the  tower  of  Babel  (xi.  1-9),  and  the 
Semitic  race  in  its  earliest  germs  (xi.  10-26). 
The  third  section  includes  the  early  history 
of  Abraham,  his  call,  and  his  sojourn  in 
Canaan  (xi.  27-xxv.  10),  the  life  of  Isaac 
from  his  father's  death  to  the  departure  of 
Jacob  for  Mesopotamia  (xxv.  11-xxvii.  40), 
the  life  of  Jacob  from  his  departure  for  Meso- 
potamia to  the  death  of  Isaac  (xxvii.  41-xxxv. 
29),  the  descendants  of  Esau  (xxxvi.),  the  early 
history  of  Joseph  to  the  time  v\hen  he  was  sold 
into  Egypt  (xxxvii.),  Judah's  sin  and  shame 
(xxxviii.),  Joseph  in  Egyj)!  (xxxix.-xlv.), 
Jacob  and  his  whole  household  with  Joseph 
in  Egypt  (xlvi.-xlix.),  and  the  death  of  Jacob 
and  Joseph  (1.). 

The  writer  of  the  book  has  embraced  his 
narrative  after  the  introduction  in  ten  suc- 
cessive sections,  each  under  a  caption  begin- 
ning with  the  formula,  "  These  are  the  gen- 
erations of"  (ii.  4;  V.  1 ;  vi.  9;  X.  1  ;  xi.  10; 
xi.  27;  xxv.  12,  19;  xxxvi.  1;  xxxvii.  2). 
For  unity  and  authorship,  see  Pentateuch. 

Gen-nes'a-ret ;  in  A.  V.  of  1  Mac.  Gen- 
nesar,  in  R.  V.  of  same  Gennesareth  [per- 
haps, garden  of  Hazor]. 

A  land  adjacent  to  the  lake  of  Gennesaret, 
on  its  western  shore  (Mat.  xiv.  34 ;  Mark  vi. 
5.3)  ;  described  by  Josephus  as  a  fertile  plain, 
30  stades  in  length  by  20  in  breadth,  watered 
by  a  fountain  called  Capharnaum.  and  pro- 
ducing walnuts,  palms,  fig  trees,  olives,  and 


Gentiles 


242 


Gerar 


I'laiii  of  Gennesaret,  viewed  from  the  Northeast. 


grapes  (War  iii.  10,  8).  It  is  almost  certainly 
identical  with  tlie  plain  called  el-Ghuweir, 
formed  by  a  recession  of  the  hills  from  the 
shore  just  north  of  Magdala. 

The  lake  of  Gennesaret  (Luke  v.  1  ;  Antiq. 
V.  1,  22  ;  xviii.  2,  1  and  3)  or  Gennesar  (War. 
ii.  20,  6),  or  the  water  of  Gennesareth  or 
Gennesar  (1  Mac.  xi.  HT  ;  Antiq.  xiii.  .5,  7),  was 
a  common  name  for  the  sea  of  Galilee. 

Gen'tiles. 

All  nations  of  the  world  other  than  the 
Jews  (Is.  xlix.  6;  Rom.  ii.  14  ;  iii.  29).  The 
Jews  were  the  cho.sen  people  of  God  ;  their 
religion  was  sublime,  and  its  truth  stood  in 
strong  and  favorable  contra.st  to  the  untruths 
of  the  gentile  religions;  and  strict  laws  were 
enacted  to  prevent  the  corruption  of  manners 
and  of  the  true  religion  through  contact  with 
idolaters.  These  things  led  the  Jews,  though 
unjustly,  to  feel  contempt  for  the  gentiles.  * 
The  Israelites  had  tjecn  chosen  for  a  purpose. 
They  were  to  l)e  a  light  to  the  gentiles  (Is. 
xlix.  l-(i).  The  gentiles  were  embraced  in 
the  promises  (Is.  ii.  2-4;  Amos  ix.  12;  Zech. 
ix.  7).  The  attitude  of  the  Jews  recalls  that 
of  the  Indian  Brahmins,  who  will  not  eat 
witli  their  countrymen  of  inferior  caste,  and 
much  lesii  with  those  of  no  caste  at  all,  or 
with  strangers  of  another  nation.  When 
Peter,  taught  by  the  vision  at  Joppa,  broke 
through  caste  restriction,  visiting  and  eating 
with  (_V)rnelius,  it  gave  offen.se  to  some  even 
of  the  Christian  Jews  (Acts  x.  28  ;  xi.  3) ;  and 
when  Paul  in  his  defense  before  Claudius 
Lysias,  after  narrating  his  conversion,  inti- 


mated that  Jesus  had  said  unto  him  "  Depart : 
for  I  will  send  thee  far  hence  unto  the  gen- 
tiles," the  people,  who  had  given  him  au- 
dience unto  this  word,  lifted  up  their  voices 
and  said,  "  Away  with  such  a  fellow  from  the 
earth:  for  it  is  not  lit  that  he  should  live" 
(Acts  xxii.  21.  22).  The  early  churches  con- 
sisted lo  a  much  larger  extent  of  gentiles 
than  of  Jews,  and  the  first  Council  of  Jeru- 
salem declined  to  impo.se  on  the  former  the 
burden  of  the  Mosaic  law  (Acts  xv.  1-2S*). 

Ge-nu'batli  [theft,  robbery]. 
The  son  of  the  Edomite  prince  Hadad  and 
the  Egyptian  queen's  si.ster  (1  Kin.  xi.  20). 

Ge'ra  [a  grain]. 

1.  A  son  of  Bela  and  grandson  of  Benja- 
min (Gen.  xlvi.  21 ;  1  Chron.  viii.  3). 

2.  Another  descendant  of  Bela,  perhaps  re- 
moter than  son  (1  Chron.  viii.  3,  and  prob- 
ably 7). 

3.  A  Benjaniite,  father  of  Ehud  (Judg.  iii. 
1.5). 

4.  A  Benjaniite,  father  of  that  Shimci  who> 
cursed  David  (2  .'^am.  xvi.  5). 

Perhaps  3  and  4  denote  the  founder  of  the 
family  to  which  Ehud  and  Shimei  belonged, 
and  are  identical  with  the  grandson  of  Ben- 
jamin. 

Ge'rah.     See  Weights. 

Ge'rar  [water  pot  or  a  course  or  dry]. 

An  ancient  city  on  the  southern  border  of 
Palestine  near  Gaza  (Gen.  x.  19 ;  2  Chron.  xiv. 
13),  and  early  occupied  by  Philistines  (Gen. 
xxvi.  1).    Tlie  countrj' subject  to  it  extended 


Gerasenes 


243 


Gershonites 


toward  Kadesh  and  Sliur  (xx.  1,9  with  xxvi. 
6,  17,  18).  It  is  commonly  identified  witli 
the  ruins  I 'mm  Jernir.  (i  miles  south  ot'Oaza 
on  the  wady  (iluuzeh.  A  location  about  50 
miles  south,  in  the  immediati'  vicinity  of 
Kadesh,  has  been  less  plausibly  urjied,  namely 
the  wady  .Terur,  a  branch  of  the  wady  esh- 
Sheraif  which  drains  into  wady  el-'Arish. 
Possibly  this  indicates  the  considerable  ex- 
tent of  the  region  dominated  by  Gerar. 

Ger-a-senes'. 

The  jteople  of  Gerasa  (R.  V.  of  Mark  v.  1 
aud  Luke  viii.  26,  37  ;  manuserii)ts  vary  be- 
tween Gerasenes,  tiadarenes.  Gergesenes)  ; 
sec  Gekcjesexes.  Gerasa  was  one  of  the  ten 
cities  which  formed  the  Decapolis.  It  was 
situated  37  miles  southeast  of  the  sea  of 
(ialilee  and  '.12  miles  southeast  of  Gadara. 

Ger-ge-senes'. 

The  peojde  of  Gergcsa  (Mat.  viii.  28,  A.  V., 
but  in  K.  V.  Gadarenes).  Gergesa  is  perhaps 
still  echoed  by  Kersa,  the  name  of  a  ruin 
on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  sea  of  Galilee, 
opposite  Magdala,  5  miles  from  the  entrance 
of  the  Jordan  into  tlie  lake.  A  shoi't  distance 
south  of  the  site  is  the  only  {dace  on  this 
coast  where  the  steej)  hills  come  down  close 
to  the  water.  The  introduction  of  the  name- 
Gergesenes  into  the  testis,  however,  ascribed 
to  Origen,  who  is  said  to  have  felt  that  Gadara 
was  too  far  from  the  lake,  and  was  told  by 
people  acquainted  with  the  region  that  an 
old  town  named  Gergesa  existed,  and  near 
it  was  the  declivity  down  which  the  swine 
ruslied. 

Ger'i-zim  [plural  of  Gerhzi,  Gerizites  ;  cp. 
Girzite]. 

A  mountain  which  rises  in  steep  rocky 
precipices  so  as  to  constitute  the  southern 
boundary  of  the  v'alley  in  which  Xablus,  the 
ancient  Hhechem,  lies,  and  to  face  the  more 
elevated  mount  Ebal,  on  the  northern  side  of 
the  valley.  Mount  Gerizim  rises  2849  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean,  and 
700  feet  above  the  town.  When  the  Israelites 
conquered  central  Pale.stine  Joshua  carried 
out  the  direction  given  to  Moses,  and  jtlaced 
half  of  the  tribes  in  front  of  mount  Gerizim 
to  pronounce  blessings,  and  the  other  half 
over  against  mount  Ebal  to  i)ronounce  cunses 
(Deut.  xi.  29  :  sxvii.  12.  13 ;  Josh.  viii.  33- 
35).  Jotham,  the  son  of  Gideon,  standing  on 
mount  Gerizim,  proclaimed  his  parable  to 
the  men  of  Shechem  (Judg.  ix.  7).  Josepbus 
(Antiq.  xi.  8,  2,  7)  .says  that  Manasseh.  brother 
of  Jaddua,  the  high  priest  in  the  time  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  had  married  the  daugh- 
ter of  a  foreigner,  Sanballat.  The  elders  at 
Jerusalem  commanded  him  either  to  divorce 
ber,  or  no  longer  to  ajiproach  the  altar. 
Manasseh  thought  of  divorcing  her,  though 
she  was  still  dear  to  him  ;  l)Ut  her  father,  San- 
ballat, deprecating  this  step,  ju-omised  to  build 
for  his  son-in-law.  if  he  retained  his  wife,  a 
rival  temple  to  that  of  Jerusalem.  He  kept 
his  word,  erecting  one  ou  mount  Gerizim. 


This  was  the  origin  of  the  Samaritan  tem]ile 
on  that  mountain,  and  must  be  dated  before 
330  H.  r.  If  Sanliallat  was  the  Samaritan  of 
that  name  who  wa^  an  oi)]H)nent  of  the  Jews 
in  the  time  of  Xehcmiah,  about  445  n.  c.  (Neb. 
iv.  1  ;  xiii.  28),  and  not  an  official  sent  by 
Darius  Codomannus  (Autici.  xi.  7,  2  :  xii.  5, 5), 
the  tem]>le  was  built  considerably  before  330, 
jicrhaiis  about  380  B.  c.  It  was  destroyed  by 
John  llyrcanus,  129  B.  c.  The  erection  of 
the  edifice  made  Gerizim  the  Samaritan  sa- 
cred mountain.  It  was  to  it  that  the  woman 
of  Samaria  and  Jesus  referred  as  "  this  moun- 
tain "  (John  iv.  20,  21);  and  Jacob's  well,  at 
which  they  were  conversing,  was  on  a  spur 
of  mount  Gerizim.  Gerizim,  now  called  Jebel 
et-T6r,  constitutes  a  tract  of  high  tableland 
stretching  far  toward  the  west  and  southwest 
of  Nablus.  There  is  a  smooth  sheet  of  rock  on 
the  top  of  the  mountain,  with  a  cave  beside 
it.  From  the  days  of  Benjamin  of  Tudela,  a 
Jewish  rabbi  who  traveled  in  Palestine  about 
A.  D.  IKiO,  on  to  quite  recent  time.s,  the  view 
was  held  that  Gerizim,  the  mountain  of  bless- 
ings, was  fertile,  and  Ebal,  that  of  curses, 
barren,  till  Robinson  pointed  out  that,  with 
the  exception  of  a  small  ravine  coming  down 
from  Gerizim  opposite  the  west  of  Nablus, 
both  mountains  are  equally  barren.  See  il- 
lustration under  Shechem. 

Ger'shom  [often  interpreted  as  meaning 
"  .stranger  there  ;"  but  the  vocalization  and 
the  variant  form  Gershon  Avith  its  patronymic 
show  that  the  Hebrews  did  not  regard  the 
word  as  having  that  meaning.  It  rather  sig- 
nifies "banishment."  In  Ex.  ii.  22,  the  au- 
thor, according  to  custom,  plays  uj)on  the 
general  sound]. 

1.  Gershon,  the  son  of  Levi  (1  Chron.  vi. 
16,  17,  20,  43,  62,  71).     See  Gershon. 

2.  The  elder  son  of  Moses,  born  to  him  in 
Midian  (Ex.  ii.  22;  xviii.  3).  He  gave  rise  to 
a  father's  house  which  was  reckoned  among 
the  Levites,  not  among  the  priests  (1  Chron. 
xxiii.  14-16). 

3.  A  descendant  of  Phinehas  the  priest, 
and  head  of  a  father's  house  in  that  line  in 
the  time  of  Ezra  (Ezra  viii.  2). 

Ger'slion  [banishment]. 

A  son  of  Levi,  and  founder  of  the  Gershonite 
family  (Gen.  xlvi.  11;  Ex.  vi.  16;  Num.  iii. 
17).  He  is  sometimes  called  Gershom,  which 
is  formed  by  a  different  affix,  Viut  has  the  same 
meaning.  His  two  sons,  Libui  and  Shimei, 
gave  rise  to  two  subdivisions  of  the  greater 
tribal  family  (Ex.  vi.  17;  Num.  iii.  18;  1 
Chron.  vi.  17). 

Ger'shon-ites. 

The  children  and  descendants  of  Gershon, 
constituting  one  of  the  three  great  divisions 
of  the  Levitical  body.  In  the  wilderness 
they  encamped  on  the  western  side  of  the 
tabernacle,  and  had  charge  of  the  tabernacle 
itself,  the  tent  with  its  hangings,  and  those 
of  the  courtyard  (Num.  iii.  23-26;  iv.  21-28). 
To  aid  them  in  moving  the  tabernacle  there 


Gerzites 


244 


Gethsemane 


■were  assigned  them  two  wagons  and  four 
oxen  (vii.  7).  They  consisted  of  two  families, 
those  of  the  Libnites  and  those  of  the  Shim- 
eites,  and  at  the  first  census  in  the  wilder- 
ness numl)ered  7500  males  (iii.  21,  22).  Of 
the  thirteen  cities  assigned  to  them,  two  were 
in  the  half-tribe  of  Mauasseh  beyond  the 
Jordan,  four  were  in  Issacliar,  four  in  Aslier, 
and  three  in  Naphtali  (Josh.  xxi.  27-33J. 
Tliey  were  reorganized  by  David  (1  Chrou. 
xxiii.  7-11). 

Ger'zites.     See  Girzite. 

Ge'shan,  in  A.  V.  Gesham,  an  error  which 
crept  into  the  later  editions,  the  original  of 
Kill  having  Geshan. 

A  man  of  Judah,  a  sou  of  Jahdai  (1  Chron. 
ii.  47). 

Ge'shem  and  Gashmu,  the  latter  being  the 
Arabic  form,  of  which  Geshem  is  the  regular 
Hebrew  modification  [rain,  body]. 

An  Arabian,  a  great  op])onent  of  the  Jews 
after  their  return  from  captivity.  He  ridi- 
culed the  pro])osal  of  Nehemiah  to  rebuild 
the  wall  of  Jerusalem,  as  if  this  were  tanta- 
mount to  rebellion  (Neh.  ii.  19).  Not  suc- 
ceeding in  deterring  the  Jew  by  this  means, 
he  joined  with  others  in  plotting  violence,  if 


Josh.  xii.  5 ;  xiii.  11,  13 ;  1  Chron.  ii.  23).  Evi- 
dently it  was  situated  to  the  eastward  of 
Maacah,  for  Maacah  bordered  on  Naphtali. 
It  constituted  an  Arauiiean  kingdom  (2  Sam. 
xiii.  37;  xv.  8).  Here  David  obtained  a  wife, 
and  hither  his  son  Absalom  fled  after  the 
murder  of  Amnon  (2  Sam.  iii.  3;  xiii.  37). 

Gesh'u-rites,  in  A.  V.  twice  Geshuri,  the 
Heljrew  instead  of  the  English  term  being 
employed. 

1.  The  people  of  Gesliur  (Deut.  iii.  14  ; 
Josh.  xii.  5  ;  xiii.  11,  13). 

2.  A  people  who  dwelt  in  ancient  times  in 
the  country  south  of  Philistia  in  the  direc- 
tion of  Egypt  (Josh.  xiii.  2  ;  1  Sam.  xxvii.  8). 

Ge'ther. 

A  family  of  the  Arama-ans  (Gen.  x.  23;  1 
Chron.  i.  17).  Their  locality  has  not  been 
determined. 

Geth-sem'a-ne  [an  oil  press]. 

A  garden,  presumably  of  olives  and  fur- 
nished with  a  press  to  squeeze  oil  from  the 
fruit.  It  was  east  from  Jerusalem,  a  little 
beyond  the  brook  Kidron,  and  at  or  near  the 
foot  of  the  mount  of  Olives  (Mat.  xxvi.  30 
with3(J;  Mark  xiv.  26  with  32;  John  xviii. 
1).   It  was  a  favorite  spot  with  our  Lord,  who 


Tlie  Traditional  Garden  of  Gethsemane. 


noteven  actual  murder.against  him.  Failingin 
this  purpose  also,  he  allo^^ed  the  report  to  be 
circulated  far  and  wide  on  his  authority  that 
Nehemiah  was  fortifying  the  city  preparatory 
to  rebelling  against  Persia  and  proclaiming 
himself  king  (vi.  1  seq.). 

Ge'shur  [a  bridge]. 

A  district  lying  between  Hermon  and  Ba- 
shan  and  marching  on  Argob  (Deut.  iii.  14  ; 


often  resorted  to  it  for  retirement  (Luke  xxii. 
39;  .John  xviii.  2),  and  it  is  now  forever 
sacred  as  having  been  the  scene  of  his  agony 
and  of  his  betraval  and  arrest  (jVIat.  xxvi. 
36-.56:  Mark  xiv".  32-."i2 ;  Luke  xxii.  39-53; 
John  xviii.  1-12).  The  traditional  site  of 
Gethsemane  lies  a  little  east  of  the  bridge  by 
which  the  road  from  St.  Stephen's  gate  of 
Jerusalem  crosses  the  Kidron.     The  garden 


Geuel 


245 


Gibea 


is  sitiiateil  at  the  aiijilo  made  by  the  rtivision 
of  tlie  road  into  two  branches,  one,  the  most 
northerly,  leading  direelly  up  the  face  of 
the  mount  of  Olives,  while  the  more  south- 
erly one  winds  gently  around  the  southern 
brow  of  the  hill.  The  garden  is  nearly 
siiuare,  and  the  Latins  have  recently  enclosed 
it  with  a  wall,  its  northern  side  150  feet  and 
its  western  one  KiO  feet.  Eight  venerable 
olive  trees  are  within,  on  which  it  is  said 
the  tax  levy  can  be  traced  back  to  the  occu- 
jiation  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Arabs  in  the 
seventh  century  ;  and  many  equally  old  are 
outside  on  the  sloi)e  of  the  mount.  These 
trees,  however,  did  not  witness  our  Lord's 
agony,  for  all  the  trees  around  Jerusalem 
were  cut  down  during  the  siege  of  the  city 
by  Titus  (War  v.  1'2,  4).  Robinson  thinks 
that  the  spot  is  the  same  as  that  described  by 
Eusebius  as  at  the  mount  of  Olives,  and 
afterwards  more  definitely  by  Jerome  as  at 
the  foot  of  the  mount  ;  but  he  is  doubtful  if 
it  is  the  genuine  (iethsemaue.  Thomson  says, 
"  The  i)osition  is  too  near  the  city,  and  so 
close  to  what  must  have  always  been  the 
great  thoroughfare  eastward,  that  our  Lord 
would  scarcely  have  selected  it  for  retire- 
ment on  that  dangerous  and  dismal  night.*' 
He  believes  Gethsemaue  to  have  been  in  a 
secluded  vale  several  hundred  yards  north- 
east of  the  traditional  site.  Barclay  thinks 
it  evident  that  the  present  enclosure,  from 
its  narrow  dimensions,  can  occupy  only  in 
part  the  site  of  the  ancient  garden,  and  finds 
a  better  jiosition  higher  up  in  the  valley. 
Porter  strifes  that  the  Greeks,  envious  of 
the  Latins,  have  recently  enclosed  a  piece 
of  ground  a  little  north,  beside  the  Virgin's 
tomb,  and  contend  that  this  is  the  true  garden. 

Ge-u'el  [majesty  of  God]. 
The  spy  who  represented  the  tribe  of  Gad 
in  the  exploration  of  Canaan  (Num.  xiii.  15). 

Ge'zer  (in  A.  V.  twice  Gazer)  [a  place  cut 
off].  In  A.  V.  of  1  Mac.  the  Greek  forms 
Gazera  and  Gazara  are  used. 

A  Canaanite  town  not  far  from  Lachish 
and  the  lower  Bethhoron  (Josh.  x.  33).  It 
was  on  the  boundary  line  of  Ephraim  (xvi. 
3  ;  cp.  1  Chron.  vii.  28),  and  with  its  suburbs 
was  assigned  to  the  Kohathite  Levites  (Josh. 
xxi.  21  :  1  Chron.  vi.  67).  The  Ephraimites 
failed  to  expel  the  Canaanite  inhabitants,  and 
occujiied  the  city  with  them  at  least  for  a 
time  (Josh.  xvi.  10;  Judg.  i.  29).  More  than 
one  battle  in  David's  reign  was  fought  at  or 
near  Gezer  (2  Sam.  v.  25 ;  1  Chron.  xiv.  Ifi ; 
XX.  4).  One  of  the  Pharaohs  captured  Gezer 
from  theCanaanites,  who  seem  again  to  have 
possessed  it  in  every  part.  After  burning  it, 
he  gave  the  ruins  over  to  Solomon  as  a  dowry 
with  his  daughter  when  she  was  married  to 
the  Hebrew  king.  The  city  was  at  once  re- 
built. It  was  an  important  place  in  the  wars 
of  the  Maccabees.  Bacchides  strengthened 
its  fortifications  (1  Mac.  ix.  52).  It  was  be- 
sieged   and    taken    by    Simon,    and    made 


stronger  than  before  (xiii.  43,  R.  V.  4S.  .53  ; 
xiv.  34).  M.  Clermont  (ianneau  identified 
the  site  by  inscriptions;  one  of  whicli,  per- 
haps as  old  as  the  llerods,  marked  the  limits 
of  Gezer,  and  gave  in  Hebrew  letters  the 
actual  name.  It  is  now  called  Tell  Jezarand 
is  situated  about  18  miles  west-northwest  of 
Jerusalem,  and  03  east  of  Ekron. 

Gez'rite.     See  Girzite. 

Gi'ah  [lireaking  forth,  as  of  a  spring]. 

A  village  somewhere  between  (iiheon  in 
Benjamin  and  the  ford  of  the  Jordan  near 
the  Jabbok  (2  Sam.  ii.  24,  cp.  16,  29). 

Gi'ant. 

A  man  of  abnormally  tall  stature  ;  like 
Og  king  of  Bashan,  whose  bedstead  was  nine 
cubits  in  length  by  four  in  breadth  (Deut. 
iii.  11),  Goliath  of  Gath,  whose  height  was 
six  cubits  and  a  span  (1  Sam.  xvii.  4),  and 
the  man  whom  Benaiah  slew,  whose  height 
was  five  cubits  (1  Chron.  xi.  23).  A  stalwart 
race  of  men  like  the  Anakimand  other  early 
nations  of  Canaan  and  the  countrv  east  of 
the  Jordan  (Deut.  i.  28 ;  ii.  10,  11,  20,  21  ;  ix. 
2).  When  Hebron  was  captured  by  the  He- 
brews, the  Anakim  who  escaped  destruction 
took  refuge  in  the  Philistine  towns.  Goliath 
of  Gath,  Ishbi-benob.  and  other  Philistine 
giants  were  probably  of  this  expelled  race  of 
the  Anakim  (1  Sam.  xvii.  4  ;  2  Sam.  xxi.  15- 
22).  The  valley  of  the  Rephaim  or  giants 
near  Jerusalem  was  a  perpetual  reminder,  by 
its  name,  of  the  early  race  which  long  in- 
habited it  (Josh.  XV.  8  ;  xviii.  16).  The  ex- 
act meaning  of  n'philim,  the  word  rendered 
giants  in  Gen.  vi.  4 ;  Num.  xiii.  33,  A.  V., 
is  uncertain,  and  accordingly  it  is  left  un- 
translated in  E.  V.  It  may  refer  to  large- 
ness of  stature  or  fierceness  of  disi)osition  or 
debased  character  or  illegitimacy  of  birth. 
In  the  latter  passage  the  word  describes  the 
Anakim.  In  the  former  passage  the  Nephi- 
lim.  as  the  name  is  transliterated  in  R.  V., 
are  described  as  mighty  men,  men  of  renown. 
The  description  is  the  same  as  that  given  of 
David's  most  noted  warriors  (1  Chron.  xi.lO, 
24). 

Gib'bar  [mighty  man,  hero]. 

A  man  whose  children,  or  a  place  of  whose 
former  inhabitants  some  descendants,  re- 
turned from  ca])tivity  with  Zerubbabel 
(Ezra  ii.  20).  In  the  parallel  passage  in  Neh. 
vii.  25  Gibeon  stands  in  place  of  Gibbar. 

Gib'be-tlion  [perhaps,  conical  height]. 

A  town  of  Dan  (Josh.  xix.  44)  assigned  to 
the  Levites  of  the  family  of  Kohath  (xxi. 
20-23).  The  Philistines  gained  possession  of 
it.  Nadab  was  a.ssassinated  there  while  lay- 
ing siege  to  the  place  (1  Kin.  xv.  27).  Omri 
before  he  ascended  the  throne  also  besieged 
the  town  (xvi.  15,  17). 

Gib'e-a  [a  hill]. 

Probably  a   village   (1   Chron.  ii.  49) ;  cp. 

GiBEAH  1. 


Gibeah 


246 


Gibeon 


Gib'e-ah  [a  bill]. 

1.  A  village  iu  the  bill  country  of  Judali 
(Josb.  XV.  57)  ;  probably  soutb  or  southeast 
of  Hebron.  Jeb'ah  (Jeb'a),  on  au  isolated 
bill  eight  miles  west  by  south  from  Bethle- 
hem, lies  outside  the  group  included  in  verses 
55-57. 

2.  A  town  of  Benjamin  near  Ramab  (Judg. 
xix.  13,  14)  ;  called  also  Geba,  the  masculine 
form  of  the  same  name  (xx.  10,  K.  V.  margin, 
with  4).  It  is  designated  Gibeah  of  Benja- 
min (ibid.  ;  1  Sam.  xiii.  2 ;  xiv.  l(i),  and  Gibeah 
of  the  children  of  Benjamin  (2  Sam.  xxiii. 
29) ;  and  appears  to  be  identical  with  Gibeah 
of  Saul  (1  Sam.  xi.  4;  xv.  34;  _Is.  x.  29). 
Its  inhabitants  by  their  misbehavior  brought 
down  punishment,  not  merely  on  themselves, 
but  on  the  whole  tribe  of  Benjamin  (Judg. 
xix.,  XX.).  Gibeah  was  Saul's  place  of  resi- 
dence when  be  was  called  to  l)e  king  (1  Sam. 
X.  26),  and  it  served  as  the  political  capital 
of  his  kingdom,  though  the  ecclesiastical 
center  was  at  Shiloh.  Gibeah  still  existed 
iu  the  days  of  Isaiah  and  of  Hosea  (Is. 
X.  29 ;  Hos.  ix.  9 ;  x.  9).  The  town  was 
situated  on  the  highway  from  Jerusalem  to 
the  north,  about  midway  betM'een  Jerusalem 
and  Eamah  (Judg.  xix.  13  ;  Autiq.  v.  2,  8,  cp. 


west-southwest  of  Seilun  (Shiloh),  and  3^ 
miles  east  by  south  of  Tibneh  (Timnatb).  The 
tradition  of  the  Samaritans,  which  locates 
the  grave  at  'Awertah,  4i  miles  south  of  She- 
chem,  is  late. 

4.  Gibeah  or  hill  of  God  (1  Sam.  x.  5). 
Probably  essentially  the  same  as  Gibeah  of 
Saul,  for  it  appears  to  have  been  Saul's  home 
(11,  14).  For  the  reason  of  the  name,  see 
ver.  5.  Its  identity  with  Kam  Allah,  height  of 
God,  4  miles  northwest  by  north  of  Kamah, 
has  been  i)roposed.  The  determination  de- 
pends largely  upon  the  identification  of 
Kachel's  sepulcher  and  Zuph  (cp.  ver.  2-5 
with  xiii.  3). 

Gib'e-atli  [a  bill]. 

A  town  of  Benjamin,  mentioned  in  imme- 
diate connection  with  Jerusalem  (Josh,  xviii. 
28).     The  name  is  a  mere  variant  of  Gibeah. 

Gib'e-ath-ite. 

A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Gibeah  (1  Chron. 
xii.  3). 

Gib'e-on  [i)ertaining  to  a  hill]. 

The  chief  city  of  the  Hivites,  a  people  of 
Canaan  (Josh.  xi.  19),  included  iu  the  gen- 
eral designation  Amorite  (2  Sam.  xxi.  2). 
They  possessed  also  Chephirah,  Beeroth,  and 


r^-^'-n^^, 


Gibeon. 


viii.  12,  3 ;  War  v.  2,  1).  It  is  commonly 
identified  with  Tell  el-Ful,  2| miles  nrrth  of 
Jerusalem,  although  no  ancient  remains  have 
been  discovered  except  the  ruins  of  a  watch- 
tower. 

3.  A  hill  or  town  in  the  hill  country  of 
Epbraim,  belonging  to  Phinebas ;  where 
Eleazar  the  high  priest,  the  son  of  Aaron, 
was  buried  (Josh.  xxiv.  33;  Antiq.  v.  1,  29). 
Perhaps  Jibia  with  ancient  ruins,  8i  miles 


Kirjath-jearim  (Josh.  ix.  17).  They  obtained 
a  treaty  with  Joshua  by  false  pretenses.  The 
deceit  was  discovered,  and  they  were  made 
slaves  of  the  Israelites  (ix.  1-27).  But  the 
treaty  was  re.spected :  the  Gibeonites  were 
aided  against  their  enemies  (x.) ;  and  sev- 
eral centuries  later,  when  Saul  violated  its 
provisions  by  a  massacre  of  Gibeonites,  the 
sense  of  justice  was  satisfied  by  the  execu- 
tion of  seven  of  Saul's  sons  (2  Sam.  xxi.  1-9). 


Gibeonites 


247 


Gideon 


Gibeon  was  within  the  territory  assigned  to 
the  Benjaiiiites  (Josh,  xviii.  25);  and  was 
given,  witli  its  suburbs,  to  the  family  of 
Aaron  (xxi.  17).  Saul's  ancestors  dwelt  fora 
tinio  in  the  town,  and  were  nuii  of  influence 
(1  t'hron.  viii.  'J!) ;  ix.  8."j).  In  the  contest  be- 
tween Ish-bosheth  and  David,  a  battle  took 
place  here  {2  Sam.  ii.  8-17,  24 ;  iii.  30).  Here 
David  gained  a  victory  over  the  Philistines 
(1  t'hron.  xiv.  Ki;  in  2  Sam.  v.  2.')  Geba).  In 
its  vicinity  Joab  murdered  Amasa  (2  Sam. 
.\x.  S).  Ill  David's  reign,  and  in  that  of  Sol- 
omon, prior  to  the  bnildiug  of  the  temple, 
tlie  tabernacle  was  erected  there  for  a  time. 
Here  Solomon  received  a  communication 
fnim  God  in  a  dream  (1  Kin.  iii.  5-1.5  ;  ix. 
2:  1  Chrou.  xvi.  3H  ;  xxi.  29  ;  2  Chrou.  i.  3, 
13).  (libeonites  returned  from  tlie  exile 
(Nell.  vii.  2r)).  and  aided  in  rebuilding  the 
wall  of  Jerusalem  (iii.  7).  According  to  Jo- 
sephus,  Gibeon  was  40  or  50  stadia  (about  4V 
to  ()  miles)  from  Jerusalem  (Antiq.  vii.  11,  7; 
War  ii.  19. 1).  Its  site  is  found  at  tlie  modern 
village  of  el-Jib,  oi  miles  northwest  by  north 
of  .lerusalem.  Jib  being  simply  a  contraction 
of  (Til)eon.  It  is  an  oblong  hill  or  ridge, 
composed  of  horizontal  layers  of  limestone 
rock  forming  almost  regular  steps  from  the 
plain  upward.  These  are  in  parts  steep  of 
ascent,  and  the  place,  wliich  is  naturally 
strong,  could  be  easily  fortified.  The  hill 
stands  in  the  midst  of  a  basin  consisting  of 
broad  valleys  in  a  high  state  of  cultivation. 
The  houses  of  the  village  number  forty  or 
fifty,  are  scattered  over  the  broad  summit  of 
the  hill,  and  are  almost  all,  in  whole  or  in 
part,  ancient,  though  now  sadly  dilapidated. 

On  the  southeast  of  the  ridge  on  which 
Gibeon  stands  is  a  fine  fountain  of  water, 
which  flows  into  a  subterranean  reservoir 
artificially  cut.  Not  far  from  it,  among  olive- 
trees,  is  an  open  reservoir  59  feet  long  by  36 
feet  broad  ;  it  was  doubtless  intended  to  re- 
ceive the  superfluous  waters  of  the  cavern. 
On  the  west  is  a  tank,  11  by  7  feet  in  size,  cut 
in  the  rock,  and  called  el-Birkeh,  the  pool. 
In  the  plain  a  little  lake,  6  to  8  acres  in  ex- 
tent, is  formed  during  the  winter.  One  or 
other  of  these  was  doubtless  the  pool  or  great 
waters  of  Gibeon  (2  Sam.  ii.  13  :  ,Jer.  xli.  12). 

The  wilderness  of  Gibeon  was  perhaps  sim- 
ply the  uncultivated  plateau  between  Gibeon 
and  Ramah.  If  a  desert  is  meant,  it  was  at 
considerable  distance  east  from  the  city  (2 
Sam.  ii.  24). 

Gib'e-on-ites. 

The  inhabitants  of  Gibeon  or  of  that  city 
with  its  three  dependent  towns  (2  Sam.  xxi. 
1-4,  9). 

Gib'lites,  in  R.  V.  Gebalites. 

The  people  of  the  town  and,  kingdom  of 
Gebal  (Josh.  xiii.  5;  1  Kin.  v.  18;  in  text  of 
A.  V.  stonesquarers). 

Gid-dal'ti  [I  have  magnified]. 
A  singer,  a  son  of  Heman  (1  Chron.  xxv.  4), 
and  head  of  the  twenty-second  of  the  twenty- 


four  companies  of  twelve  musicians  each 
which  were  appointed  in  David's  reign  for 
the  service  of  the  sanctuary  (29). 

Gid'del  [he  hath  magnified]. 

1.  Head  of  a  family  of  Nethinim  (Ezra  ii. 
47;  Neh.  vii.  49). 

2.  Head  of  a  family  of  Solomon's  servants 
(Ezra  ii.  5(j ;  Neh.  vii.  58). 

Gid'e-on,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Gedeon  in  imi- 
tation of  the  Greek  pronunciation  [a  cutting 
ot!',  a  hewing  down]. 

A  son  of  joash,  family  of  Abiezer,  tribe  of 
Manasseh,  who  dwelt  at  Ophrah  (Judg.  vi. 
11).  He  was  divinely  summoned  to  deliver 
the  Israelites  from  the  tyranny  of  the  MU\- 
iauites,  who  had  invaded  and  seized  Pales- 
tine. As  he  was  threshing  wheat  in  the  wine 
press  at  Ophrah,  to  hide  it  from  the  Midian- 
ites,  an  angel  saluted  him,  and  conmiissioned 
him  to  undertake  the  deliverance  of  his  peo- 
ple. The  first  step  was  directed  against  his 
father's  altar  of  Baal,  which  he  threw  down. 
The  idolatrous  'worshipers  demanded  his 
death  ;  but  his  father  Joash  called  on  his 
opponents  to  hand  over  the  pleading  for  Baal 
to  Baal  himself.  If  he  was  a  god,  of  course 
this  was  within  his  power.  The  multitude 
were  pacified,  and  Gideon  received  a  second 
name,  Jerubbaal,  "Let  Baal  plead,"  and,  as 
Baal  was  regarded  as  abominable,  Jerubbe- 
sheth,  "Let  the  shameful  thing  plead"  (2 
Sam.  xi.  21  ;  cp.  Ish-bosheth).  Having  sum- 
moned the  men  of  Manasseh,  Asher,  Zebulun, 
and  Naphtali  (Judg.  vi.  35),  he  yet  hesitated 
until  his  call  had  been  confirmed  by  the 
miracle  of  the  fleece  (36-40).  Going  forward 
to  the  battle  with  his  followers  intentionally 
reduced  to  300,  that  the  glory  of  the  victory 
might  be  not  with  man  but  with  Jehovah,  he 
made  a  night  attack  on  the  Midianite  camp, 
which  was  pitched  in  the  vallev  of  Jezreel 
(33),  by  the  hill  of  Moreh  (vii.'l).  In  the 
confu.sion  thus  produced  the  Midianite  sol- 
diers slaughtered  each  other.  Then  inducing 
the  Ephraimites  to  seize  the  fords  of  Jordan, 
who  inflicted  fresh  losses  on  the  fugitives  as 
they  attempted  to  cross,  he  himself,  with  the 
tribesmen  of  Manasseh,  Asher,  Zebulun,  and 
Naphtali  (vii.  23),  pursued  the  enemy  across 
the  Jordan  to  the  confines  of  the  desert.  In 
this  flight  Oreb  and  Zeeb,  Zebah  and  Zal- 
munna  were  captured  and  slain.  This  vic- 
tory was  the  celebrated  day  of  Midian  (Is. 
ix.  4:  X.  26  ;  Ps.  Ixxxiii.  11).  Having  deliv- 
ered the  northern  Israelites  from  the  foreign 
yoke,  and  having  pacified  the  Ejihraimites, 
who  were  angry  because,  as  they  supposed, 
he  had  slighted  them,  Gideon  saw  the  land 
at  rest.  He  refused,  however,  to  be  made 
ruler,  but  returned  to  his  own  house  (Judg. 
viii.  22.  29).  It  is  painful  to  add  that  the  vic- 
tor took  the  earrings  of  the  Midianites  and 
made  them  into  an  ephod.  If  it  was  pat- 
terned after  the  ephod  of  the  high  priest,  it 
was  costly,  for  it  was  wrought  with  gold 
thread  and  bore  precious  stones  set  in  gold. 


Gideoni 


248 


Gilboa 


Gideon  put  it  in  bis  own  city,  where  tlie 
angel  of  the  Lord  had  appeared  unto  him, 
where  he  liad  erected  an  altar,  and  where  he 
had  been  divinely  authorized  to  otl'er  a  sac- 
rifice (vi.  :n-28;  'cp.  Ex.  xx.  24,  25).  These 
high  privileges  led  him  to  consider  the 
priestly  office  open  to  him,  and  he  made  the 
official  ephod,  and  pi'obably  the  Urim  and 
Thummim,  in  order  to  use  them  to  inquire 
of  the  Lord  ;  and  the  thing  became  a  snare 
to  Gideon  and  his  family  and  a  means  of 
seduction  to  Israel  (Judg.  viii.  24-27).  He 
had  many  wives,  and  seventy  sons,  besides 
one  son  by  a  concubine,  Abimelech.  who 
made  himself  king  on  the  death  of  his  father. 
Gideon  died  in  a  good  old  age  (vi.-viii. ;  Heb. 
xi.  32). 

Gid-e-o'ni  [a  cutting  off]. 

Father  of  the  prince  of  the  tribe  of  Benja- 
min in  the  time  of  Moses  (Num.  i.  11). 

Gi'dom  [a  cutting  off]. 

A  vilhige  apparently  in  Benjamin,  between 
Gibeah  and  the  rock  of  Eimmon  (Judg.  xx. 
45). 

Gier'  Eagle. 

1.  The  rendering  in  the  A.  Y.  of  the  He- 
brew Raham,  so  named  from  its  affection  for 
its  young.  In  E.  V.  the  word  is  translated 
vulture,  which  is  the  meaning  of  gier.  It 
was  ceremonially  unclean  (Lev.  xi.  18;  Dent, 
xiv.  17).  Undoubtedly  the  Egyptian  vulture, 
Pharaoh's  hen  or  chicken  (Neophron  peroiopte- 
riis),  is  meant,  which  the  Arabs  still  call 
raham.  Its  general  color  is  white,  but  the 
primary  feathers  of  the  wings  are  black.  The 
young  are  brown.  The  length  of  the  adult 
is  a  little  over  two  feet.  It  ranges  in  sum- 
mer from  the  south  of  France,  by  southern 
Europe  and  northern  Africa,  to  the  west  of 
India,  where  it  is  replaced  by  a  closely  al- 
lied species.  The  Egyptian  vulture  is  a 
funereal-looking  bird,  generally  seen  acting 
as  a  scavenger  in  Eastern  cities,  camps,  and 
outside  hospitals.  It  is  common  in  Palestine 
during  its  northern  migration,  and  breeds  in 
that  country. 

2.  The  rendering  in  the  R.  V.  of  the  He- 
brew Peres  (Lev.  xi.  13 ;  Deut.  xiv.  12).     See 

OSSIFRAGE. 

Gifts. 

Gifts  were  given  by  fathers  to  sons  (Gen. 
XXV.  6),  or  as  dowry  to  daughters  on  their 
marriage  (xxxiv.  12),  or  by  people  present  by 
invitation  at  a  wedding  (Ps.  xiv.  12).  They 
were  bestowed  upon  fellow  men  out  of  good 
will  (Esth.  ix.  22)  or  to  secure  favor  (Prov. 
xviii.  16).  It  was  forbidden  to  offer  them  to 
judges  for  the  purpose  of  bribery  (Ex.  xxiii. 
8;  Deut.  xvi.  19;  Prov.  xxix.  4).  Monarchs 
bestowed  them  as  a  reward  for  service  (Dan. 
ii.  48),  or  as  a  gracious  favor  to  cause  public 
rejoicings  (Esth.  ii.  18).  They  were  brought  by 
subjects  as  tribute  (2  Sam.  viii.  2,  G  ;  2  Chron. 
xxvi.  8;  Ps.  xiv.  12;  Ixxii.  10;  Mat.  ii.  11). 
Gifts  were  required  for  the  expenses  of  re- 
ligious worship  (Mat.  v.  23.  24  ;  viii.  4 ;  Luke 


xxi.  5).  Essentially  the  same  customs  as  to 
gifts  still  ])revail  throughout  the  East. 

The  gift  of  God  is  eternal  life  through 
Jesus  Christ  (John  iv.  10;  Kom.  vi.  23). 
Christ  received  gifts  for  men  (Eph.  iv.  8). 
He  not  only  opened  up  a  way  for  them  to 
God,  and  enables  them  to  stand  before  the 
just  and  holy  One,  but  he  has  obtained  for 
them  the  gift  of  the  Holy  (Thost  (John  xiv. 
16  ;  xvi.  7  :  Acts  ii.  38),  and  all  the  marafesta- 
tions  of  the  Spirit  in  the  hearts  and  lives  of 
believers,  repentance  (Acts  v.  31),  faith  (Ei)h. 
ii.  8),  love  (Rom.  v.  5),  joy,  peace,  long  suffer- 
ing, gentleness,  goodness,  meekness,  temper- 
ance (Gal.  V.  22).  All  Christian  virtues  are 
graces,  that  is  gifts.  God  bestows  various  gifts 
upon  men,  qualifying  them  severally  as  he 
will  for  different  forms  of  work  in  the  king- 
dom (Rom.  xii.  6 ;  1  Cor.  vii.  7  ;  xii.  4,  9 ;  Eph. 
iv.  7-16).    See  Miracle,  Tongue. 

Gi'hon  [bursting  forth,  as  a  fountain  or 
stream  ;  a  stream,  river]. 

1.  One  of  the  four  rivers  of  Paradise  (Gen. 
ii.  13).     See  Eden. 

2.  A  spring  in  a  valley  outside  the  walls  of 
Jerusalem  from  which  the  city  obtained  part 
of  its  water  supply  (2  Chron.  xxxii.  30 ; 
xxxiii.  14  ;  Antiq.  vii.  14,  5).  It  was  not 
in  sight  of  the  stone  of  Zoheleth,  near  En- 
rogel ;  but  the  sound  of  the  trumpet  and  the 
noise  of  the  shouting  at  Gihon  were  heard 
at  En-rogel  (1  Kin.  i.  40-45).  There  was  an 
upper  and  presumably  a  lower  Gihon,  as  early 
as  the  time  of  Hezekiah  at  least  (2  Chron. 
xxxii.  30).  Upper  Gihon  is  commonly  iden- 
tified with  Birket  Mamilla,  and  lower  Gihon 
with  Birket  es-Sultan.  The  former  of  these 
pools  is  less  than  half  a  mile  west,  the  latter 
not  the  third  of  a  mile  south,  of  the  Jaffa 
gate.  These  ])ools,  however,  are  not  now 
fed  by  living  springs.  Largely  on  this  ac- 
count the  question  has  been  raised  in  recent 
years  whether  Gihon  should  not  be  identified 
with  the  fountain  of  the  Virgin,  on  the  east- 
ern slope  of  Ophel,  and  distant  some  400 
yards  from  the  pool  of  Siloam.  with  which  it 
is  connected  by  an  ancient  tunnel. 

Gil'a-lai  [perhaps  weighty]. 

A  Levite,  a  musician  who  took  part  in  the 
dedication  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  when  re- 
built under  Xehemiah  (Neh.  xii.  36). 

Gil-bo'a  [a  bubbling  fountain]. 

The  mountain  on  which  Saul  sustained  de- 
feat by  the  Philistines  and  met  his  death  (1 
Sam.  xxviii.  4  ;  xxxi.  1,  8  ;  2  Sam.  i.  6,  21  ; 
xxi.  12;  1  Chron.  x.  1,  8).  It  is  the  north- 
eastern spur  of  mount  Ephraim,  and  forms 
the  watershed  between  the  Kishon  basin  and 
the  Jordan  valley.  The  ridge  lies  west-north- 
west and  east-southeast,  being  about  S  miles 
long  and  3  to  5  miles  in  breadth  ;  and  is  di- 
vided by  ravines  into  several  ]ilateaus.  The 
highest  point,  which  is  at  Jebel  Abu  Madwar. 
is  1648  feet  above  sea  level,  and  about  1200 
feet  higher  than  the  plain  of  Esdraelon  at  its 
foot.     The  western  slopes  of  the  range  are 


Grilead 


249 


Giloh 


grailiial.  but  those  facinj;  north  are  steep  and 
rallied,  witli  iirecipiees  in  many  jilaces.  The 
eastern  sUipes  over  tlie  Jordan  vaUey  are  also 
steep,  in  places  precipitous,  especially  toward 
the  south.  On  the  table-lands  and  gentle 
western  slopes  pasture  land  is  found,  wheat 
and  barley  grow,  and  olives  and  tigs  are  cul- 
tivated. The  rest  of  the  ridge  is  naked  rock, 
or  is  covered  with  wild  grass  and  brushwood. 
A  village,  .lelbon,  preserves  the  memory  of 
the  name  (Jilboa. 

Gil'e-ad,  in  A.  V.  of  Maccabees  Galaad 
[hard,  rugged,  rough]. 

1.  The  son  of  Machir  and  grand.son  of  Ma- 
uasseh.  He  founded  a  tribal  family  (Num. 
xxvi.  29.  30;  Josh.  xvii.  1). 

2.  Father  of  Jei)hthah  (Judg.  xi.  1). 

3.  A  Gadite  (1  Chron.  v.  14). 

4.  The  mountainous  country  east  of  the 
Jordan,  extending  from  the  table  laud  of 
Moab  northward  to  the  Yarmuk  at  least 
(Deut.  iii.  Itl,  17;  1  Sam.  xxxi.  11),  and  per- 
haps further,  since  the  ruggedness  of  the 
land  continues  unchanged  north  of  that  river. 
It  is  divided  by  the  Jabbok  into  two  parts 
(Josh.  xii.  2).  The  southern  half  was  as- 
signed to  the  tribe  of  Gad,  and  the  northern 
half  was  included  in  the  territory  of  half 
Manasseh  (Deut.  iii.  12,  13:  Josh.  xiii.  24-311. 
The  name  is  still  connected  with  a  mountain 
sonth  of  the  Jabbok  in  its  designation  Jebel 
Jil'ad.  The  last  interview  between  Laban 
and  Jacob  took  place  in  mount  Gilead  (Gen. 
xxxi.  21).  It  was  a  ]ilacc  well  suited  for 
cattle  (1  Chron.  v.  9,  10;  Song  iv.) ;  and  the 
sight  of  Gilead  and  the  land  of  Jazer  (cp.  1 
Chrou.  xxvi.  31)  suggested  to  the  Eeubeuites 
and  the  Gadites,  who  had  large  flocks  and 
herds,  the  expediency  of  applying  to  Moses  for 
permission,  which  was  conditionally  gran-ted 
them,  of  settling  permanently  on  the  eastern 
side  of  the  Jordan  (Num.  xxxii.  1-42  ;  Josh, 
xiii.  8-11).  Within  the  limits  of  Gilead  grew 
the  celebrated  balm  (Jer.  viii.  22 ;  cp.  Gen. 
xxxvii.  25).  In  an  extended  sense  the  term 
Gilead  includes  the  whole  region  east  of  the 
Jordan  (Deut.  xxxiv.  1 ;  Josh.  xxii.  9;  Judg. 
XX.  1 ;  2  Sam.  ii.  9  ;  1  JIac.  v.  17,  24-27,  36 ; 
Antiq.  xii.  8,  3  ;  in  ix.  8, 1,  Gilead  and  Bashan 
are  distinguished). 

5.  A  mountain  abutting  on  the  valley  of 
Jezreel  (Judg.  vii.  3;  cp.  ver.  1  and  vi.  33). 
While  Gilead  in  this  passage  may  be  a  mis- 
reading for  Gilboa,  it  must  be  remembered 
that  the  spring  which  best  corresponds  in 
position  with  that  at  which  Gideon's  men 
drank,  and  the  mountain  from  which  it 
issues,  and  the  river  down  which  the  dis- 
comfited Midianites  fled,  are  called  respect- 
ively the  spring,  mountain,  and  river  Jalud, 
which  is  Arabic  for  Goliath.  To  spring,  moun- 
tain, and  river,  are  thus  attached  a  name 
which  po.ssibly  perpetuates  Gilead  in  a  cor- 
rupt form.  There  is  perhai)s  better  evidence 
than  the  present  name.  Gilead  was  part  of 
Naphtali  (2  Kin.  xv.  29).  It  may  be  that 
Naphtali  extended  across  the  Jordan  to  the 


east,  but  it  is  quite  possible  that  Gilead  de- 
noted a  rugged  district  of  Xaphtali  west  of 
the  Jordan  ;  and  if  so,  the  correctness  of  the 
text  of  Judg.  vii.  3  is  confirmed. 

6.  A  city  in  the  region  of  Gilead  (Hos.  vi. 
8:  cp.  xii.  11). 

Gil'gal  [act  of  rolling,  wheel,  a  circle]. 

1.  The  first  encampment  of  the  Israelites 
after  crossing  the  Jordan,  and  their  head- 
quarters during  the  conciuest  of  Canaan  (.Josh. 
iv.  19-24).  The  special  association  whicli 
they  had  with  the  name  was  the  rolling  away 
of  their  reproach  by  their  circumcision  after 
long  neglect  of  the  ordinance  in  the  wilder- 
ness (Josh.  V.  7-9).  The  camp  was  pitched 
between  the  Jordan  and  Jei-icho.  On  its  site 
arose  a  town,  which  was  on  the  northern 
border  of  Judah  (xv.  7).  There  were  quar- 
ries in  its  vicinity  (Judg.  iii.  19).  These  last 
two  references  are,  however,  believed  by 
some  authorities  to  indicate  the  existence  of 
another  Gilgal  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains. 
It  is  uncertain  whether  this  town  or  another 
place  of  the  name  was  on  Samuel's  circuit 
(1  Sam.  vii.  16),  and  where,  it  may  be 
judged,  Saul,  the  opposition  to  him  having 
ceased,  was  made  king  and  the  kingdom  re- 
newed (xi.  15).  At  any  rate,  it  was  at  Gilgal 
in  the  Jordan  valley  where  a  muster  of  the 
people  took  place  to  form  an  army  which 
should  encounter  the  Philistines  then  op- 
]>rcssing  the  land,  when  Saul,  finding  it  diffi- 
cult to  hold  the  people  together  until  Samuel 
should  come  and  offer  sacrifice,  himself  of- 
fered burnt  offerings  (xiii.  4,  7,  8 ;  cp.  12,  15). 
For  his  disobedience  the  forfeiture  of  his 
kingdcmi  was  announced  to  him  (13,  14). 
There,  too,  Saul  incurred  a  second  rebuke 
for  his  disobedience  in  sparing  Agag  (xv.  12, 
21,  33  ;  cp.  34).  It  was  to  Gilgal  also  that  the 
representatives  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  went  to 
welcome  David  back  after  the  death  of  Absa- 
lom (2  Sam.  xix.  15,  40).  Like  other  holy 
places,  it  became  a  focus  of  idolatry  under 
the  kings  who  succeeded  Jeroboam,  and  it  was 
in  consequence  denounced  by  the  jirophets 
(Hos.  iv.  15  :  ix.  15  ;  xii.  11 ;  Amos  iv.  4  ;  v.  o). 
It  is  probably  the  house  of  Gilgal  or  Beth- 
gilgal  mentioned  after  the  captivity  (Xeh. 
xii.  29).  Its  site  is  Jiljiilieh,  a  ruin  2  miles 
east  of  Jericho. 

2.  A  village  from  which  Elijah  and  Elisha 
went  down  to  Bethel  (Deut.  xi.  30  ;  2  Kin. 
ii.  1-4  :  iv.  38  (?)).  It  was  probably  the  pres- 
ent village  of  Jiljilia,  on  the  top  of  a  high 
hill,  7  miles  north  by  west  of  Bethel ;  though 
when  the  levels  are  taken,  its  site  is  actually 
lower  than  that  of  Bethel. 

3.  A  town  associated  with  Dor  and  Tirzah 
(Josh.  xii.  23) ;  probably  Jiljiilieh.  a  little 
north  of  the  brook  Kauah,  and  5  miles  north- 
east by  north  of  Antipatris. 

Gi'loh  [exile]. 

A  village  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  51) :  enumerated  with  towns  lying 
to  the  south  of  Hebron. 


Gilonite 


250 


Gnat 


Gi'lo-nite. 

A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Gilob,  as  Ahith- 
opliel  (2  Sam.  xv.  12;  xxiii.  34). 

Gi'mel. 

Tlie  third  letter  of  tlie  Hebrew  alphabet. 
The  Greek  letter  gamma,  and  consequently 
tlie  English  C  have  the  same  origin  ;  but  in  the 
spelling  of  Hebrew  and  Greek  names  in  the 
English  versions,  gimel  and  gamma  (though 
not  these  letters  only)  are  represented  by  G, 
their  approximate  equivalent  in  sound  and  a 
form  fal)rieated  out  of  C. 

Gimel  stands  at  the  head  of  the  third  sec- 
tion of  Ps.  cxix.  in  several  versions,  since 
each  verse  of  the  section  begins  with  this 
letter  in  the  original. 

Gim'zo  [abounding  in  sycomores]. 

A  town  with  depeiulent  villages  situated 
in  .Tudah.  It  was  taken  by  the  Philistines 
during  the  reign  of  Ahaz  (2  Chron.  xxviii. 
18).  Robinson  identified  it  with  Jimzu,  on 
an  eminence  about  3  miles  east-southeast  of 
Lydda. 

Gin. 

A  noose  or  trap,  laid  on  the  ground,  in 
■which  birds,  beasts,  and  even  men  are  caught 
(Job  xviii.  9;  Amos  iii.,5).  The  two  words 
Mokesh  and  Pah,  of  which  it  is  the  transla- 
tion, are  usually  rendered  by  snare. 

Gi'nath. 

Father  of  Tibni  (1  Kin.  xvi.  22). 

Gin'ne-thoi,  in  A.  V.  Ginnetho  [gardener]. 

A  chief  of  tlie  jiriest.s  who  returned  with 
Zerubbabel  from  Babylon  (Xeh.  xii.  4,  7).  In 
the  next  generation,  a  father's  house  among 
the  priests,  which  occupies  the  same  position 
in  the  corresponding  catalogue,  bore  the 
name  Ginnethon  (ver.  16).  The  difl'erence  is 
merely  that  between  a  jod  and  a  final  nun. 
Probably  Ginnethon  stood  originally  in  ver.  4. 

Gin'ne-thon  [gardener]. 

1.  A  father's  liouse  among  the  priests  in 
the  days  of  the  high  priest  Joiakim  (Neh. 
xii.  16);  see  Ginnethoi. 

2.  A  priest  who,  doubtless  in  behalf  of  a 
father's  house,  sealed  a  covenant  to  worship 
Jehovah  (Neh.  x.  6). 

Gird'le.  See  Clothing  and  High  Priest. 

Gir'ga-shites,  in  A.  V.  once  Girgasites 
[perhaps,  dwellers  on  clayey  soil]. 

A  tribe  of  Canaan  (Gen.  x.  15,  16 ;  xv.  21  ; 
Deut.  vii.  1 ;  Josh.  iii.  10  ;  xxiv.  11 ;  Neh.  ix. 
8).  It  is  not  known  what  part  of  the  coun- 
try they  inhabited.  They  must  not  be  con- 
founded with  the  Gergesenes. 

Gir'zite,  in  A.  V.  Gezrite  ;  in  margin  Giz- 
rites  and  Gerzites  respectively,  following  a 
Hebrew  tradition. 

A  people  living  south  of  the  Philistine 
country  and  mentioned  with  the  Amalekites 
and  (Teshuritcs  (1  Sam.  xxvii.  8). 

Gish'pa,  in  A.  V.  Gispa  [blandishment]. 

An  overseer  of  the  Nethiuim  in  Nehemiah's 
time  (Neh.  xi.  21). 


Git'tah-he'pher.     See  Gath-hepher. 

Git'ta-im  [two  wine  presses]. 

A  village  of  Benjamin  (Neh.  xi.  31,  33),  to 
which  the  Beerothites  fled  probably  at  the 
time  of  Saul's  cruelty  (2  Sam.  iv.  3;  cp.  xxi. 
1,  2).     Exact  site  unknown. 

Git'tite  [of  Gath]. 

A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Gath  (2  Sam.  vi. 
10,  11 ;  XV.  18,  19,  22). 

Git'tith  [Gittite]. 

A  musical  term  (Ps.  viii.,  Ixxxi.,  Ixxxiv., 
titles).  It  is  the  feminine  form  of  the  He- 
brew adjective  for  Gittite,  and  it  denotes 
either  a  musical  instrument  in  use  in  Gath, 
or  a  vintage  .song  to  the  tune  of  which  the 
psalm  should  be  sung,  or  a  march  of  the  Git- 
tite guard  (2  Sam.  xv.  IS). 

Gi'zo-nite. 

The  designation  of  Hashem,  one  of  David's 
mighty  men  (1  Chron.  xi.  34).  It  points 
either  to  his  paternity  or  to  his  birthplace,  it 
is  uncertain  which.  Neither  man  nor  place 
with  a  name  like  Gizoh  is  found  in  the 
Bible. 

Giz'rite.     See  Girzite. 

Glass. 

1.  A  mirror  (Ex.  sxxviii.  8;  Job  xxxvii. 
18 ;  1  Cor.  xiii.  12,  all  A.  V.) ;  see  Mirror. 

2.  The  rendering  of  Hebrew  Z'knVdli  (Job 
xxviii.  17,  R.  V.,  where  A.  Y.  has  crystal) 
and  of  Greek  'Ualos  and  its  adjective  (Rev. 
iv.  6;  XV.  2;  xxi.  18,  21).  It  is  probably  real 
glass.  Glass  was  known  to  the  Greeks  as 
early  as  the  time  of  Herodotus,  and  to  the 
Egyptians  long  before  the  exodus. 

Glean'ing. 

Gathering  the  grain  which  the  reapers 
haVe  failed  to  remove,  or  the  grapes  which 
remain  after  the  vintage  (Judg.  viii.  2 ;  Ruth 
ii.  2,  7,  9,  16;  Is.  xvii.  6).  For  the  benefit  of 
the  i)oor,  the  fatherless,  the  widow,  and  the 
stranger,  the  owner  was  instructed  by  the 
law  not  to  glean  his  harvest  field  or  vine-* 
yard,  nor  return  for  a  forgotten  sheaf,  nor 
gather  fallen  fruit  (Lev.  xix.  9,  10;  xxiii.  22; 
Deut.  xxiv.  19). 

Glede  [the  glider]. 

The  common  kite  (Dent.  xiv.  13).  The 
word  is  used  to  render  the  Hebrew  Ra'ah; 
which,  however,  is  a  copyist's  error  for 
Da'ah;  see  Daleth.  A  later  scribe  seems  to 
have  written  Dnyyuh  on  the  margin  as  a  cor- 
recaon,  which  afterwards  crept  into  the  text 
(for  it  is  not  mentioned  in  the  corresponding 
list  in  Lev.  xi.),  and  is  rendered  kite  in  R.  V., 
vulture  in  A.  V. 

Gnat. 

The  rendering  of  the  Greek  Konops,  a  small 
insect  (Mat.  xxiii.  24),  abounding  in  marshes 
and  vexatious  by  reason  of  its  bite,  from 
which  the  Egyptians  protected  themselves  at 
night  by  sleeping  under  nets  (Herod,  ii.  95). 
It  is  evidently  some  species  of  Cule.r.  a  genus 
known  by  its  hairy  antennae,  plumed  in  the 


J 


Goad 


2.31 


God 


iiuiles,  its  proboscis,  its  slender  l)()(ly.  its  two 
gauzy  wings,  its  long  legs,  iuul  its  l)loi)(l- 
siuking  proi)ensities.  "  To  strain  at"  in  the 
A.  V.  is  a  nnsprint  in  the  original  edition  of 
Kill  for  "strain  out."  The  earlier  English 
versions  have  "out,"  and  the  K.  V.  corrects 
the  error  of  A.  V.,  and  translates  "to  strain 
out  the  gnat,  and  swallow  the  camel."  To 
anxiously  strain  out  any  small  insect  which 
has  accidentally  fallen  into  the  water  one  is 
about  to  drink,  but  unconcernedly  to  swallow 
a  camel,  is  to  be  particular  about  minute  points 
of  ceremouy  or  of  duty,  while  practicing  gross 
violations  of  the  moral  law. 

Goad. 

A  long  pole  sharpened  at  the  point  or  iron- 
tipped,  used  to  urge  cattle  forward  (1  Sam. 
xiii.  21).  With  one  Shamgar  slew  600  Philis- 
tines (.Judg.  iii.  31).  "It  is  hard  for  thee  to 
kick  against  the  pricks"  (Acts  ix.  5,  A.  V.) 
is  the  metaphor  of  a  recalcitrant  animal  in- 
juring it.self  against  the  ox  goad.  The  words 
of  the  wise  are  compared  to  goads  (Eccles. 
xii.  11). 

Go'ali,  in  A.  V.  Goath  [lowing]. 

A  place  near  Jerusalem  to  the  west  or  south 
(Jer.  xxxi.  39). 

Goat. 

The  rendering  of  cjuite  a  number  of 
Hebrew  words  in  the  Old  Testament,  and  of 
more  than  one  Greek  word  in  the  New : 
'Attud,  he  goat,  probably  as  leader  of  the 
flock;  Tai/ish.  he  goat,  perhaps  as  butting; 
Saphir,  he  goat,  as  the  leaper  ;  'Es,  she  goat, 
also  a  goat  without  regard  to  sex  ;  Sa'ir,  he 
goat,  and  f^'^irah,  she  goat,  as  shaggy  ;  and  the 
Greek  words  Tragos,  he  goat;  'Aix,  goat,  as 
the  springer;  ^Eriphos  and  'Eriphiou,  a  young 
goat,  kid.  Goats  were  tended  with  the 
sheep  by  the  same  shepherd  (Gen.  xxvii.  9  ; 
XXX.  32),  but  iu  separate  companies  (Mat. 
XXV.  32).  Their  hair  was  woven  into  cloth 
{Ex.  XXV.  4  ;  XXXV.  2(5),  the  flesh  and  milk 
were  used  for  food  (Lev.  vii.  23;  Deut.  xiv. 
4;  Prov.  xxvii.  27),  and  in  extremity  their 
hairy  skin  served  as  clothing  (Heb.  xi.  37). 
They  were  an  important  item  of  a  cattle 
owner's  wealth  (Gen.  xxx.  33,  43;  xxxi.  1; 
1  Sam.  XXV.  2;  2  Chron.  xvii.  11).  The  goat 
was  a  sacrificial  animal,  used  for  burnt  ofl'er- 
ing  and  sin  offering  (Gen.  xv.  9;  Ex.  xii.  5; 
Lev.  i.  10;  iv.  24;  Num.  vii.  17;  xv.  27;  Ps. 
Ixvi.  15  ;  Is.  i.  11  ;  Ezra  vi.  17  :  viii.  3,5  ;  Heb. 
ix.  12).  The  domestic  goat  (Capra  hircus) 
belongs  to  the  great  family  of  Bov'ulx,  or 
hoUow'-horned  ruminants.  The  closest  af- 
finity is  believed  to  be  to  the  sheep,  and 
there  is  a  series  of  connecting  links  between 
the  two  animals.  One  of  the  few  points  of 
dift'erence  is  that  in  the  goat  the  horns  are 
simply  curved  backward.  Their  habits  are 
diflerent.  In  Palestine  the  sheep  may  be 
seen  grazing  the  tender  herbage  and  grass, 
while  the  goats  browse  tender  twigs  and 
leaves.  Every  flock  of  goats  has  its  own 
Stately  leader  (cp.  Jer.  1.  8).    The  goat  was 


very  abundant  in  ancient  Palestine,  as  was 
to  be  exi)ecte(l  in  a  hilly  and  somewhat  dry 
country.  It  is  now  more  numerous  than  the 
sheep,  and  constitutes  the  chief  wealth  of 
the  country.  The  ordinary  goat  of  Syria  is 
black  in  color,  and  has  jiendant  ears  a  foot 
long  hanging  down  below  the  recurved  hoi-ns. 
It  is  Linna.'us"  Cupru  mambrica.  His  Capra 
hircus,  variety  nufiorensis,  the  Mohair  goat, 
is  also  occasionally  bred  in  the  north  of 
Palestine. 

Goat,  WUd. 

An  animal,  in  Hebrew  Ya'el,  eminent.  Its 
refuge  is  among  the  high  hills  (Ps.  civ.  18) 
and  rocks  (Job  xxxix.  1),  En-gcdi  being  its 
special  haunt  in  Palestine  (1  Sam.  xxiv.  2). 
It  is  a  species  of  ibex  (Copra  beden),  called 
hy  the  Arabs  beden.  It  is  of  a  much  lighter 
color  than  the  Euroiiean  iliex.  Its  horns  are 
more  slender  and  recurved,  wrinkled,  and 
knotted  on  the  front  face  only.  It  is  found 
iu  Egypt,  Arabia,  Persia,  Moab,  and  in  the 
wilderness  of  Jud;ea  near  the  Dead  Sea. 
Tristram  met  with  it  twice  at  its  favorite 
spot,  Eu-gedi,  and  found  its  teeth  fossil  iu 
cave  breccia  on  Lebanon,  where  it  does  not 
now  occur.  Wild  goat  is  also  the  rendering 
of  the  Hebrew  'Akko,  perhaps  meaning  grace- 
ful neck  (Deut.  xiv.  5).  It  may  be  the  .same 
species. 

Go'atli.    See  Goah. 

Gob  [small  pit,  cistern,  or  locust]. 

A  place  at  which  war  was  waged  with 
the  Philistines  twice  in  the  reign  of  David 
(2  Sam.  xxi.  18,  19).  Site  unknown.  The 
text  is  uncertain.  In  1  Chron.  xx.  4  the  seat 
of  war  is  Gezer. 

God. 

The  English  word  God  is  derived  from  a 
root  meaning  to  call,  and  indicates  simply  the 
object  of  worship,  one  W'hom  men  call  upon 
or  invoke.  The  Greek  word  which  it  trans- 
lates in  the  pages  of  the  N.  T.,  however, 
describes  this  object  of  worship  as  Spirit ;  and 
the  O.  T.  Hebrew  word,  which  this  word  in 
turn  represents,  conveys,  as  its  primary 
meaning,  the  idea  of  jjower.  On  Christian 
lips,  therefore,  the  word  God  designates  fun- 
damentally the  almighty  Spirit  who  is  wor- 
shiped and  Avhose  aid  is  invoked  by  men. 
This  primary  idea  of  God,  in  which  is 
summed  up  what  is  known  as  theism,  is  the 
product  of  that  general  revelation  which 
God  makes  of  himself  to  all  men,  on  the 
plane  of  nature.  The  truths  involved  in  it 
are  continually  reiterated,  enriched,  and 
deepened  in  the  Scriptures;  but  they  are  not 
so  much  revealed  by  them  as  presupposed  at 
the  foundation  of  the  special  revelation  with 
which  the  Scriptures  busy  themselves — the 
great  revelation  of  the  grace  of  God  to  sinners. 
On  the  plane  of  nature  men  can  learn  only  what 
God  necessarily  is,  and  what,  by  virtue  of  his 
essential  attributes,  he  must  do  ;  a  special  com- 
munication from  him  is  requisite  to  assure  us 
what,  in  his  infinite  love,  he  will  do  for  the 


God 


252 


God 


recovery  of  siuners  from  their  guilt  aud  mis- 
ery to  the  bliss  of  communion  with  him.  And 
for  the  full  revelation  of  this,  his  grace  in  the 
redemption  of  sinners,  there  was  requisite  an 
even  more  profound  unveiling  of  the  mode 
of  his  existence,  liy  which  he  has  been  ulti- 
mately disclosed  as  including  in  the  unity  of 
his  being  a  distinction  of  jiersons,  by  virtue 
of  which  it  is  the  same  God  from  whom, 
through  whom,  and  by  whom  are  all  things, 
who  is  at  once  tlie  Father  who  provides,  the 
Son  who  accomplishes,  and  the  Spirit  who 
applies,  redemption.  Only  in  the  uncovering 
of  this  supernal  mystery  of  the  Trinity  is 
the  revelation  of  what  God  is  completed. 
That  there  is  no  hint  of  the  Trinity  in  the 
general  revelation  made  on  the  plane  of  na- 
ture is  due  to  the  fact  that  nature  has  noth- 
ing to  say  of  redemption,  in  the  process  of 
which  alone  are  the  depths  of  the  divine  na- 
ture made  known.  That  it  is  explicitly  re- 
vealed only  in  the  N.  T.  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  not  until  the  N.  T.  stage  of  revelation 
was  reached  was  the  redemi)tion,  which  was 
being  prepared  throughout  the  whole  O.  T. 
economy,  actually  accomplished.  That  so 
ineffable  a  my.stery  was  placed  before  the 
darkened  mind  of  man  at  all  is  due  to  the 
necessities  of  the  plan  of  redemption  itself, 
which  is  rooted  in  the  trinal  distinction  in 
the  Godhead,  and  can  be  apprehended  only 
on  the  basis  of  the  Trinity  in  Unitv. 

The  nature  of  God  has  been  made  known 
to  men,  therefore,  in  three  stages,  corre- 
sponding to  the  three  planes  of  revelation, 
and  we  will  naturally  come  to  know  him, 
first,  as  the  infinite  Spirit  or  the  God  of  na- 
ture; then,  as  the  Kedeemer  of  sinners,  or 
the  God  of  grace  ;  and  lastly  as  the  Father, 
Son,  and  Holy  Ghost,  or  the  Triune  God. 

1.  God,  the  Infinite  Spirit. — The  conviction 
of  the  existence  of  God  bears  the  marks  of 
an  intuitive  truth  in  so  far  as  it  is  the  uni- 
versal and  unavoidable  belief  of  men,  and  is 
given  in  the  very  same  act  with  the  idea  of 
self,  which  is  known  at  once  as  dependent 
and  responsible  and  thus  implies  one  on 
whom  it  depends  and  to  whom  it  is  responsi- 
ble. This  immediate  perception  of  God  is 
confirmed  and  the  contents  of  the  idea  de- 
veloped by  a  series  of  arguments  known  as 
the  "  theistic  proofs."  These  are  derived 
from  the  necessity  Ave  are  under  of  believing 
in  the  real  existence  of  the  infinitely  perfect 
Being,  of  a  sufficient  cause  for  the  contingent 
universe,  of  an  intelligent  author  of  the 
order  and  of  the  manifold  contrivances  ob- 
servable in  nature. and  of  a  lawgiver  and  judge 
for  dependent  moral  beings,  endowed  with 
the  sense  of  duty  and  an  ineradicable  feeling 
of  responsibility,  conscious  of  the  moral  con- 
tradictions of  the  world  and  craving  a  solution 
for  them,  and  living  under  an  intuitive  per- 
ception of  right  which  they  do  not  see  real- 
ized. The  cogency  of  these  proofs  is  cur- 
rently recognized  in  the  Scriptures,  while 
they  add  to  them  the  supernatural  manifes- 


tations of  God  in  a  redemptive  process,  ac- 
comjianied  at  every  stage  by  miraculous 
attestation.  From  the  theistic  proofs,  how- 
ever, we  learn  not  only  that  a  God  exists, 
but  also  necessarily,  on  the  principle  of  a 
sufficient  cause,  very  much  of  the  nature  of 
the  God  which  they  iirove  to  exist.  The  idea 
is  still  further  developed,  on  the  principle  of 
interpreting  by  the  highest  category  within 
our  reach,  by  our  instinctive  attribution  to 
him,  in  an  eminent  degree,  of  all  that  is  the 
source  of  dignity  and  excellence  in  ourselves. 
Thus  we  come  to  know  Goil  as  a  personal 
Spirit,  infinite,  eternal,  and  illimitable  alike 
in  his  being  and  in  the  intelligence,  sensi- 
bility, and  will  which  belong  to  him  as  per- 
sonal spirit.  The  attributes  which  are  thus 
ascribed  to  him,  including  self-existence,  in- 
dependence, unity,  uniqueness,  unchange- 
ableness,  omnipresence,  infinite  knowledge 
and  wisdom,  infinite  freedom  and  power,  in- 
finite truth,  righteousness,  holiness  and  good- 
ness, are  not  only  recognized  but  richly  illus- 
trated in  Scripture,  which  thus  puts  tiie  seal 
of  its  special  revelation  upon  all  the  details 
of  the  natural  idea  of  God. 

2.  God,  the  Redeemer  of  Shiners. — While  re- 
iterating the  teaching'of  nature  as  to  the  ex- 
istence and  character  of  the  personal  Creator 
and  Lord  of  all,  the  Scriptures  lay  their 
stress  upon  the  grace  or  the  undeserved  love 
of  God,  as  exhibited  in  his  dealings  with  his 
sinful  and  wrath-deserving  creatures.  So 
little,  however,  is  the  consummate  divine 
attribute  of  love  advanced,  in  the  scriptural 
revelation,  at  the  expense  of  the  other  moral 
attributes  of  God,  that  it  is  thrown  into 
prominence  only  upon  a  background  of  the 
strongest  assertion  and  fullest  manifestation 
of  its  companion  attributes,  especially  of  the 
divine  righteousness  and  holiness,  and  is  ex- 
hibited as  acting  only  along  with  and  in  en- 
tire harmony  with  them.  God  is  not  repre- 
sented in  the  Scriptures  as  forgiving  sin  be- 
cause he  really  cares  very  little  about  sin  ; 
nor  yet  because  he  is  so  exclusively  or  pre- 
dominatingly the  God  of  love,  that  all  other 
attributes  shrink  into  desuetude  in  the  pres- 
ence of  his  illimitable  benevolence.  He  is 
rather  represented  as  moved  to  deliver  sinful 
man  from  his  guilt  and  pollution  because  he 
pities  the  creatures  of  his  hand,  imraeshed 
in  sin,  with  an  intensity  which  is  boi-n  of 
the  veheniL^uce  of  his  holy  abhorrence  of  sin 
and  his  righteous  determination  to  visit  it 
with  int(derable  retribution  ;  and  by  a  mode 
which  brings  as  complete  satisfaction  to  his 
infinite  justice  and  holiness  as  to  his  un- 
bounded love  itself.  The  biblical  presenta- 
tion of  the  God  of  grace  includes  thus  the 
richest  development  of  all  his  moral  attri- 
butes, and  the  God  of  the  Bible  is  conse- 
quently set  foi-th,  in  the  completeness  of  that 
idea,  as  above  everything  else  the  ethical 
God.  And  that  is  as  much  as  to  say  that 
there  is  ascribed  to  him  a  moral  sense  so 
sensitive  and  true  that  it  estimates  with  un- 


God 


253 


Gog 


lailiug  accuracy  the  exact  moral  character 
of  every  iiorscm  or  deed  presented  for  its 
coiiteiuiilation,  and  responds  to  it  with  the 
precisely  aiijivopriate  degree  of  satisfaction 
or  reprohatiiin.  The  intinitude  of  his  love 
is  exhihited  to  us  i)recisely  in  that  while  we 
were  yet  sinners  he  loved  us,  though  with 
all  the  force  of  his  infinite  nature  he  reacted 
against  our  sin  with  illiuiitahle  ahhorrence 
and  indignation.  The  mystery  of  grace  re- 
sides just  iu  the  inijiulse  of  a  sin-hating 
God  to  show  mercy  to  such  guilty  wretches  ; 
and  the  supreme  revelation  of  God  as  the 
God  of  holy  love  is  made  in  the  disclosure  of 
the  mode  of  his  procedure  iu  redemption, 
by  which  aloue  he  might  remain  just  while 
justifying  the  ungodly.  For  iu  this  pro- 
cedure there  was  involved  the  mighty  para- 
dox of  the  infinitely  just  Judge  himself  be- 
coming the  sinner's  substitute  before  his  own 
law  and  the  infinitely  blessed  God  receiving 
in  his  own  ]iei-son  the  penalty  of  sin. 

3.  God,  the  Fnthei\  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost.— 
The  elements  of  the  ])lau  of  salvation  are 
rooted  in  the  mysterious  nature  of  the  God- 
head, iu  which  there  coexists  a  triual  dis- 
tinction of  persons  with  absolute  unity  of 
essence ;  and  the  revelation  of  the  Trinity 
was  accordingly  incidental  to  the  execution 
of  this  plan  of  salvation,  iu  which  the  Father 
sent  the  Sou  to  be  the  propitiation  for  sin,  and 
the  Sou,  when  he  returned  to  the  glory 
which  he  had  with  tlie  Father  before  the 
world  was,  sent  the  Spirit  to  apply  his  re- 
demption to  men.  The  disclosure  of  this 
fundamental  fact  of  the  divine  nature,  there- 
fore, lagged  until  the  time  had  arrived  for 
the  actual  working  out  of  the  long-])romised 
redemption  ;  and  it  was  accpmplished  first  of 
all  in  fact  rather  than  in  word,  by  the  actual 
appearance  of  God  the  Son  on  earth  and  the 
subsequent  manifestations  of  the  Spirit,  who 
was  sent  forth  to  act  as  his  representative  in 
bis  absence.  At  the  very  beginning  of  Christ's 
ministry  the  three  persons  are  dramatically 
exhibited  to  our  sight  in  the  act  of  his  bap- 
tism. And  though  there  is  no  single  passage 
in  Scripture  in  which  all  the  details  of  this 
great  mystery  are  gathered  up  and  expounded, 
there  do  not  lack  passages  in  which  the  three 
persons  are  brought  together  in  a  manner 
which  exhibits  at  once  their  unity  and  dis- 
tinctness. The  most  prominent  of  these  are 
perhaps  the  formula  of  baptism  in  the  triune 
name,  put  into  the  mouths  of  his  followers 
by  the  resurrected  Lord  (Mat.  xxviii.  19). 
and  the  apostolic  benediction  in  which  a 
divine  blessing  is  invoked  from  each  person 
in  turn  (2  Cor.  xiii.  14).  The  es.sential  ele- 
ments which  enter  into  and  together  make 
up  this  great  revelation  of  the  Triune  God 
are,  however,  most  commonly  separately  in- 
sisted upon.  The  chief  of  these  are  the 
three  constitutive  facts:  (1)  that  there  is  but 
one  God  (Deut.  vi.  4 ;  Is.  xliv.  6  ;  1  Cor.  viii. 
4:  James  ii.  19);  (2)  that  the  Father  is  God 
(Mat.  xi.  25 ;  John  vi.  27  ;  viii.  41 ;  Eom.  xv. 


6;  1  Cor.  viii.  6;  Gal.  i.  1,  3,  4  ;  Eph.  iv.  6; 
vi.  23  ;  1  Thes.  i.  1 ;  Jas.  i.  27  ;  iii.  9  :  1  Pet. 
i.  2;  Jude  1)  ;  the  Son  is  God  (John  i.  1,  18  ; 
XX.  2.i  ;  Acts  XX.  2»  ;  Kom.  ix.  5;  Hcb.  i.  8; 
Col.  ii.  9:  Phil.  ii.  (i ;  2  Pet.  i.  1)  ;  and  the 
Spirit  is  God  (Acts  v.  3.  4  ;  1  Cor.  ii.  10,  11; 
Eph.  ii.  22),  and  (3)  that  the  Father,  Son.  and 
Holy  Ghost  are  personally  distinct  from  one 
another,  distinguished  l)y  jii-rsoual  i>rououus, 
able  to  send  and  be  si'Ut  by  one  another,  to 
love  and  honor  each  the  other,  and  the  like 
(John  XV.  2() ;  xvi.  13,  14  ;  xvii.  8,  18,  23  ;  xvi. 
14  ;  xvii.  1).  The  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  is 
but  the  synthesis  of  these  facts,  and,  adding 
nothing  to  them,  simply  recognizes  in  the 
unity  of  the  Godhead  such  a  Trinity  ol'  per- 
sons as  is  involved  in  the  working  out  of  the 
plan  of  redemption.  In  the  prosecution  of 
this  work  there  is  implicated  a  certain  rela- 
tive subordiuatiou  iu  the  modes  of  operation 
of  the  several  persons,  by  which  it  is  the 
leather  that  sends  the  Sou  and  the  Son  who 
sends  the  Spirit ;  but  the  three  i)ersons  are 
uniformly  represented  in  Scripture  as  iu  their 
essential  nature  each  alike  God  over  all, 
blessed  forever  (Rom.  ix.  5) ;  and  we  are 
therefore  to  conceive  the  subordination  as 
rather  economical.  /.  e.  relative  to  the  func- 
tion of  each  in  the  work  of  redemption,  than 
essential,  /.  e.  involving  a  ditiereuce  in  nature. 

B.  B.  w. 
Gog. 

1.  A  Eeubenite  (1  Chron.  v.  4). 

2.  The  prince  of  Eosh,  Meshech.  and  Tubal 
(Ezek.  xxxviii.  2,  E.  V.),  who  is  prophetically 
described  as  invading  the  land  of  Israel  in  the 
last  times,  and  being  defeated  on  the  moun- 
tains with  immense  slaughter  ( Ezek.  xxxviii., 
xxxix.).  He  and  his  people  and  his  allies 
serve  the  prophet  as  a  type  of  heathenism 
contending  against  the  kingdom  of  God.  The 
name  was  probably  borrowed  from  Gyges,  the 
chief  of  a  Lydiau  princely  family  called  the 
Mermuada^.  It  is  said  that  about  700  B.  c. 
they  murdered  the  reigning  sovereign  of 
Lydia,  who  belonged  to  a  rival  house  called 
the  Heraclidse,  and  jdaced  Gyges  on  the 
throne.  He  was  celebrated  by  the  Greeks  for 
his  wealth,  and  gained  popularity  by  sending 
large  donations  to  the  temple  of  Apollo  at 
Del]ihi.  He  made  war  on  the  Greek  cities  in 
Asia  Minor.  In  his  old  age  his  country  was 
invaded  by  an  apjiarently  Celtic  horde  called 
the  Cimmerians,  who  came  from  the  Crimea. 
He  defeated  them  in  battle,  capturing  sev- 
eral of  their  chiefs.  But  fearing  a  repetition 
of  the  invasion,  he  sent  presents  to  Ashur- 
banipal,  the  Assyrian  king.  For  a  long  time 
no  one  could  be  found  who  understood  the 
Lydian  language  spoken  by  the  ambassadors. 
At  length  a  man  was  obtained  who  compre- 
hended what  they  said,  and  the  friendship 
of  Gyges  was  accepted.  It  was  only  deceji- 
tive,  for  in  a  short  time  Gyges  aided  Egy]>t 
in  its  revolt  against  the  Assyrian  ruler,  who  hi 
retaliation  stirred  up  the  Cimmerians  to  a 
fresh  invasion  of  Lydia,  in  which,  about  662 


Golan 


254 


Gorgias 


B.  C  Gyges  was  killed,  leaving  his  son  Ardys 
to  asceucl  the  throne  iHerod.  i.  7-15).  See 
GoMKR,  Magog. 

3.  A  mystic  pei'souage,  akin  in  character 
to  the  Gog  of  Ezekiel.  to  appear  immediately 
befoi-e  the  close  of  the  present  dispensation 
(Rev.  XX.  S-15). 

Go'lan  [exile,  emigration]. 

A  city  of  Bashau,  within  the  territory  of 
the  half-tribe  of  Manasseh  east  of  the  Jordan. 
It  was  assigned,  with  its  snburbs,  to  the  Ger- 
shonite  Levites  (Josh.  xxi.  27;  1  Chrou.  vi. 
71),  and  was  one  of  the  cities  of  refuge  (Deut. 
iv.  4.3  ;  Josh.  xx.  8  ;  xxi.  27).  Alexander  Jan- 
njeus  sustained  a  severe  defeat  near  this 
place,  and  on  a  later  campaign  demolished 
the  town  (War.  i.  4,  4  and  8).  The  town 
gave  name  to  the  small  province  of  Gaulanitis, 
or  Gaulonitis,  as  the  name  was  also  pronounced 
(Antici.  viii.  2,  3,  various  Greek  texts).  This 
region  was  situated  between  Hermon  and  the 
Yarmuk,  and  extended  from  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  Jordan  eastward.  The  eastern 
border  has  not  been  determined.  The  dis- 
trict is  divisible  into  a  southern  and  more 
arable,  and  a  northern  and  more  rocky  half. 
It  was  surveyed  by  Schumacher,  who  with 
other  authorities  considers  that  the  site  of 
the   town   was  at   Sahem   ej-Jaulan,    about 

17  miles  east  of  the  sea  of  Galilee,  where 
there  are  extensive  ruins.  Gaulonitis  is  now 
known  as  JauUiu.  Porter  describes  it  as  a 
table-land  watered  by  streams  from  Hermon 
and  numerous  fountains,  and  with  pastures 
which  are  among  the  richest  in  Syria ;  yet  it 
is  now  almost  wholly  desolate. 

Gold. 

A  precious  metal  anciently  ol)tained  in 
Havilah  (Gen.  ii.  11,  12)  ;  Sheba  (1  Kin.  x.  2; 
Ps.  Ixxii.  15),  and  Ophir  (1  Kin.  xxii.  48;  2 
Chron.  viii.  18  ;  Job  xxii.  24 ;  Ps.  xlv.  9).  It 
was  lavishly  used  for  overlaying  the  furni- 
ture of  the  tabernacle  and  the  tem])le,  and 
ornamenting  the  latter  edifice  itself  (Ex.  xxv. 

18  ;  1  Kin.  vi.  22,  28).  It  was  made  into  idols 
(Ex.  XX.  23 ;  xxxii.  31  ;  Ps.  cxv.  4 ;  Is.  xl.  19 ; 
Acts  xvii.  29),  crowns  (Ps.  xxi.  3),  chains 
(Gen.  xli.  42),  rings  (Song  v.  14),  earrings 
(Judg.  viii.  26).  It  was  used  for  coinage  at  a 
comparatively  early  date  (Ezra  ii.  69,R.  V.; 
cp.  Acts  iii.  6  ;  xx.  33).  Its  figurative  mean- 
ing appears  in  Rev.  iii.  18,  etc. 

Gol'go-tlia  [Greek  from  Aramaic  gidgalia', 
Hebrew  (juUjolefh,  a  skull].     See  C.x^lvarv. 

Go-li'ath  [exile,  or  an  exile]. 

The  giant  from  the  Philistine  city  of  Gath 
who  was  slain  by  David  (1  Sam.  xvii.  1-58; 
xxi.  9,  10;  xxii.  10;  cj).  Josh.  xi.  22;  Num. 
xiii.  33).  Perhaps  another  giant  of  Gath,  be- 
sides the  one  slain  by  David,  bore  the  name 
of  Goliath  (2  Sam.  xxi.  19),  just  as  two  heroes 
of  the  time  were  called  Elhanan  ;  but  see  1 
Chron.  xx.  5. 

Go'mer.  I.  [perfection]. 

Daughter  of  Diblaim,  and  wife  of  Hosea 
the  prophet  (Hos.  i.  3). 


Go'mer,  II. 

A  peojile  descended  from  Japheth,  and  in- 
hal)iting  the  north  (Gen.  x.  2,  3  ;  1  Chron.  i.  5, 
tj ;  Ezek.  xxxviii.  6).  They  were  probably  the 
Cimmerians  of  classical  history.  They  are 
mentioned  by  Homer  as  people  of  the  far  north 
(Odys.  xi.  14).  They  entered  Asia  l¥om  the 
Crimea,  which  itself  preserves  their  name,  and 
the  regions  beyond  the  Caucasus  (Herod,  iv. 
11,  12),. settled  in  Cappadocia,  and  threatened 
the  Assyrian  empire,  but  were  defeated  by 
Esarhaildon.  Turning  westward,  they  overran 
pai't  of  Asia  Minor,  fighting  more  than  one 
battle  with  Gyges,  king  of  Lydia,  whose  name 
is  probably  pi-eserved  in  the  Scripture  Gog. 
Him  they  killed.  They  were  afterwards 
driven  outof  Asia  (I^ydia)  by  Alyattes  (Herod, 
i.  Kj).  They  are  generally  considered  to  have 
been  identical  with  the  Cimbri  of  Roman 
times,  and  the  Cymry  of  Wales.  Cambria 
and  even  Cumberland  still  preserve  the  mem- 
ory of  their  name. 

Go-mor'rah,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Gomorrha 
[accumulation  or,  perhajjs,  submersion]. 

One  of  the  cities  of  the  plain  ((tCU.  x.  19; 
xiii.  10).  Its  king  was  defeated  by  Chedor- 
laomer  (xiv.  2,  8,  10,  11).  It  was  one  of  the 
cities  destroyed  on  account  of  their  wicked- 
ness by  fire  from  heaven  (Gen.  xviii.  20 ;  xix. 
24-28  ;  Deut.  xxix.  23  ;  Is.  i.  9  ;  xiii.  19  ;  Jer. 
xxiii.  14  ;  xlix.  18  ;  Amos  iv.  11  ;  Zeph.  ii.  9  ; 
Mat.  X.  15).  Conder  points  out  that  there  is 
a  great  blutf  called  Tubk  'Amriyeh,  and  near 
it  a  wady  called  Wady  'Amriyeh,  whose 
stream  falls  into  the  northwestern  part  of 
the  Dead  Sea,  about  9  miles  in  a  direct  line 
from  the  entrance  of  the  Jordan.  The  con- 
sonants are  the  same  as  in  Gomorrah,  and  the 
modern  name  may  perhaps  echo  the  ancient 
name. 

For  the  vine  of  the  fields  of  Gomorrah 
(Deut.  xxxii.  32),  see  Vine. 

Go'pher  Wood. 

The  wood  of  which  the  ark  was  made  (Gen. 
vi.  14).  Geseuius  suggested  that  the  Hebrew 
gopher  is  an  altered  form  of  kopher,  pitch, 
and  refers  to  trees  of  the  pine  family,  and 
specially,  perhaps,  to  the  cypress,  the  three 
first  consonants  of  the  Greek  kiipuristius  being 
nearly  those  of  the  word  gopher. 

Gor'gi-as. 

A  Syrian  general  under  Antiocluis  IV.  In 
166  B.  c.  he  led  a  detachment  of  trooi»s  from 
Emmaus,  in  the  Philistine  jdain,  where  the 
main  army  was  encam]ied,  to  make  a  night 
attack  on  Judas  Maccaba?us ;  but  Judas,  hav- 
ing learned  of  the  plan,  withdrew  his  forces 
and  led  them  to  a  successful  attack  on  Gor- 
gias' own  camp.  When  Gorgias  returned, 
his  followers  saw  their  camji  in  fiames  and 
fled  (1  Mac.  iii.  38-iv.  25).  A  little  more  than 
a  year  later  Gorgias  was  commanding  at 
Jamnia.  and  he  met  and  defeated  Joseph  and 
Azarias.  who  in  the  absence  of  Judas  had 
charge  of  the  troops  in  Judsea,  and  were  ad- 
vancing to  attack  the  town  (v.  55-62). 


Gortyna 


255 


Gospel 


Gor-ty'na. 

All  iiii]Miitaiit  city  in  the  suuthcrii  part  of 
C'reti-    1  Mac.  xv.  23). 

Go'shen. 

1.  A  district  of  Egyjit,  adajited  for  Hocks 
and  berds.  .situated  in  the  delta,  a  few  miles 
to  tlie  northeast  of  On.  It  belonged  to  the 
nome  called  Arabia  ((ien.  xlvi.  34,  Sejitua- 
giut),  and  funned  part  of  the  laud  of  Kaiiises 
(xlvi.  28;  xlvii.  11,  27,  Septuagint).  Thither 
Joseph  went  up  in  his  chariot  to  meet  his 
father  who  wa.s  coming  from  Canaan  (xlvi. 
28.  29).  The  Hebrews  were  allowed  to  set- 
tle there  (xlvii.  (>).  and  the  mas.s  of  the  peojile 
were  still  there  at  the  time  of  their  oppres- 
sion (Ex.  viii.  22;  ix.  6). 

2.  A  regi(m  in  the  south  of  Judah  (Josh. 
X.  41  :  xi.  If)).     Exact  situation  unknown. 

3.  A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  51).     Exact  site  unknown. 

Gos'pel. 

The  English  word  gospel  is  derived  from 
the  Anglo-Saxon  godspel,  which  meant  good 
tidings.  This  etymology  is  found  in  the 
Ormulum,  Introduction,  line  l.")7.  Later 
it  became  godspel,  which  meant  God-story. 
i.  e.  the  story  about  God,  i.  e.  Christ.  The 
word,  as  now  used,  describes  both  the  mes- 
sage which  Christianity  announces  and  the 
books  in  which  the  story  of  Christ's  life  and 
teaching  is  contained.  A  similar  transition 
in  meaning  was  experienced  by  the  Greek 
word  fuaggellon  (whence  the  Latin  evunqe- 
liiim  and  our  evangel)  which  gospel  was  and 
is  used  to  translate.  In  the  N.  T.  it  never 
means  a  book,  but  the  message  which  Christ 
and  his  apostles  announced.  It  is  called  the 
gospel  of  God  (Rom.  i.  1  ;  1  Thes.  ii.  2.  9; 
1  Tim.  i.  11)  ;  the  gospel  of  Christ  (Mark  i. 
1 ;  Rom.  i.  16  ;  xv.  19 ;  1  Cor.  ix.  12,  18  ;  Gal. 
i.  7)  :  the  gospel  of  the  grace  of  God  (Acts 
XX.  24);  the  gospel  of  peace  (E])b.  vi.  15)  ; 
the  gospel  of  your  salvation  (Ei)h.  i.  13) ; 
and  the  glorious  gospel  (2  Cor.  iv.  4).  It  was 
preached  by  our  Lord  (Mat.  iv.  23;  xi.  5 ; 
Mark  i.  14';  Luke  iv.  18;  vii.  22)  ;  by  the 
apostles  (Acts  xvi.  10;  Rom.  i.  15;  ii.  16; 
1  Cor.  ix.  16,  etc.),  and  by  evangelists  (Acts 
viii.  25).  But  in  the  post-apostolic  age  the 
term  was  also  applied  to  the  writings  in 
which  the  apostolic  testimony  to  Jesus  was 
contained.  Each  one  of  them  was  called  a 
gospel  and  the  four  together  were  called  the 
gospel.  Our  present  Englisli  usage,  there- 
fore, exactly  corresponds  with  that  of  the 
early  Christians  of  the  age  immediately  suc- 
ceeding the  apostolic. 

The  Four  Go.«j>e/.s-.^Historical  evidence 
shows  that  our  four  gospels  have  been  attrib- 
uted from  the  earliest  times  to  Matthew", 
Mark,  Luke,  and  John,  respectively,  and  that 
from  the  very  beginning  of  the  post-apost<ilic 
age  they  were  received  by  the  church  as 
authoritative  documents  and  as  containing 
the  apostolic  testimony  to  the  life  and  teach- 
ings of  Christ.     In  the  second  century  they 


were  quoted,  coninieiiti'd  upon,  and  de- 
scribed ;  s<i  that  there  need  be  no  doubt  of 
their  authenticity.  An  examination  of  the 
N.  T.  ejiistles  also  shows  that  our  gospels  de- 
scribe Jesus  as  the  same  kind  of  jierson, 
doing  tlie  same  kind  nf  works,  and  having 
the  same  liist(jry  to  which  the  epistles  allude. 
They  may,  therefore,  be  coiitidently  accepted 
as  trustworthy  reports.  The  first  three  have 
much  in  common  and.  in  general,  present  the 
life  of  the  Lord  from  the  .same  point  of  view. 
They  are  called  the  synoptic  gospels  (fmm 
the  Greek  sioiopsiti,  a  seeing  together),  and 
in  particular  are  quite  dillerent  from  John's. 
The  synoptics  take  for  their  chief  theme 
Chri.st's  ministry  in  Galilee;  the  Fourth  Gos- 
pel gives  prominence  to  his  labors  in  Judfea ; 
though  his  betrayal,  arrest,  trial,  crucifix- 
ion, and  resurrection  are  so  important  that 
they  are  narrated  by  all.  The  only  prior  in- 
cident recorded  by  all  the  evangelists  is  the 
feeding  of  the  five  thousand.  The  synoptics 
al.so  say  comparatively  little  of  the  divinity 
of  Christ,  while  John  especially  records  the 
Lord's  self-testimony  to  it.  They  present 
mainly  Christ's  teaching  about  the  kingdom 
of  God,  his  parables,  his  instruction  of  the 
common  peojile ;  while  .Tohn  records  his 
teaching  about  himself  and  this  usually  in 
the  form  of  extended  discourses.  At  the 
same  time  the  Fourth  Gospel  assumes  and 
implies  the  other  three,  and  they  in  turn  are 
often  made  intelligible  only  by  the  facts- 
which  John  records.  Thus  John  i.  15  implies, 
the  fact  recorded  in  Mat.  iii.  11,  etc. ;  John 
iii.  24  the  fact  given  in  JIat.  iv.  12 ;  John  vi. 
2,  15,  the  whole  synoptic  .story  of  the  Gali- 
Isean  ministry,  etc.  So  in  turn  Christ's  re- 
ce])tion  in  Galilee  and  the  willingness  of 
Peter,  Andrew,  James,  and  John  to  leave  all 
and  follow  him  arc  only  explicable  by  sucli 
events  as  are  recorded  in  John  i.  and  ii. ; 
and  the  sudden  rise  of  the  Sabbath  contro- 
versy in  the  .synoptics  (see  Mark  ii.  23,  etc.) 
is  likewise  to  be  explained  by  the  events  of 
John  V.  Moreover,  while  the  synoptics  have 
the  same  general  point  of  view,  each  of  them 
has  its  individual  characteristics,  determined 
by  the  writer's  puri)Ose  and  the  readers 
whom  he  had  in  mind.  Matthew,  writing 
from  the  Jewish  point  of  view,  sets  Jesus 
forth  as  the  royal  ^lessiah.  He  constantly 
cites  in  jiroof  O.  T.  prophecies,  and  is  inter- 
e.sted  to  give  Christ's  teaching  concerning 
the  true  kingdom  of  God  in  contrast  to  the 
false  views  of  current  Judaism.  Mark, 
writing  evidently  for  gentiles,  and  possibly 
for  the  Romans  in  particular,  represents 
mainly  Christ's  power  to  .save  as  shown  in 
his  miracles.  Luke,  long  the  companion  of 
Paul,  sets  the  Lord  forth  as  the  gracious 
Saviour,  and  is  fond  of  exhibiting  his  favor 
to  the  fallen,  the  outca.st,  and  the  poor.  So 
John  has  his  special  purpose,  which  is  to 
represent  Jesus  as  the  incarnate,  divine 
Word,  revealing  the  Father  to  those  who 
would  receive  him.     None  of   the  gospels. 


Gospel 


256 


Gospel 


however,  aims  at  beiug  a  complete  biography 
of  our  Lord.  They  are  collections  of  his 
acts  aud  words,  made  for  the  purpose  of  jirac- 
tical  and  doctrinal  instruction.  The  student 
must  construct  his  conception  of  the  history 
of  Jesus  out  of  the  materials  furnished  by 
the  gospels.  They  themselves  were  prepared 
with  other  objects  in  view. 

The  question  has  often  been  asked  from 
what  sources  the  four  evangelists  derived 
their  information.  Matthew  aud  John  were 
ai)ostles  and  therefore  possessed  personal 
knowledge  of  the  events  they  record  or  were 
in  a  jiosition  to  obtain  it  from  those  who  had  it. 
But  Mark  also  was  a  companion  of  Paul  and 
Peter,  and  is  said,  by  very  early  tradition,  to 
have  embodied  in  his  Gospel  the  preaching  of 
Peter  about  Jesus.  Luke  himself  assures  us 
(i.  1-4)  that  his  knowledge  was  obtained  from 
"  eyewitnesses  ....  of  the  word  "  and  that  he 
had  made  himself  well  acquainted  with  the 
facts.  Thus  the  gospels  give  us  the  testi- 
mony of  the  apostles.  The  many  coinci- 
dences of  language  in  the  synoptics  confirm 
this.  If  any  itinerant  speaker  or  preacher, 
such  as  a  foreinu  missionary  home  on  furlough, 
relates  at  dirt'ercnt  places  incidents  of  his  ex- 
perience abroad,  he  gradually  settles  into  a 
fixed  narrative  through  his  very  desire  to  be 
accurate,  repeating  the  same  stories  in  the 
same  form,  though  now  and  then  adding 
particulars  wliich  he  had  omitted  elsewhere. 
It  is  probable  that  the  apostles  aud  early 
evangelists  acted  in  much  the  same  way ;  so 
that  their  recital  became  largely  stereotyped. 
After  a  while  parts  of  this  narrative  were 
put  into  writing  for  use  in  the  newly  founded 
churches.  Thus  a  gospel  narrative  became 
current  which,  while  doubtless  differing  in 
extent  in  different  places,  had  much  of  its 
matter,  even  to  the  very  words,  in  common. 
The  verbal  coincidences,  therefore,  of  our 
synoptic  gospels  attest  that  they  give  us  the 
common  apostolic  testimony  to  Jesus.  The 
Fourth  Gospel,  on  the  other  hand,  contains 
material  which  at  first  was  not  so  widely 
called  for,  but  which  John  finally  wrote,  out 
of  his  own  knowledge,  when  the  needs  of 
the  church  seemed  to  demand  it.  The  coin- 
cidences between  the  synoptics  have  raised, 
however,  the  further  question  whether  any  of 
them  have  directly  copied  from  the  others. 
This  question  is  often  called  the  synoptic 
problem.  The  facts  which  enter  into  its  so- 
lution are  very  many  and  complex.  While 
the  three  have  much  in  common,  Matthew 
and  Luke  have  much  that  is  not  in  Mark, 
and  each  of  them  has  much  that  is  not  in 
the  others.  Even  Mark  has  some  material 
peculiar  to  himself.  Moreover,  even  in  the 
sections  which  are  in  common  the  language 
of  one  evangelist  often  difl'ers  as  remarkably 
as  in  otiier  jioints  it  agrees  with  that  of  his 
colleagues.  In  the  ancient  church  it  was 
thought  that  Mark  abbreviated  Matthew  and 
Luke.  Many  modern  writers  think,  on  the 
other  hand,  that  Matthew  and  Luke  drew 


from  Mark  his  historical  narrative.  But  it 
seems  to  be  more  probable  that  all  three  were 
independent,  but  used  largely  the  language 
of  the  gospel  narrative  which  had  become 
current ;  while  at  the  same  time  they  felt 
free  also  to  use  their  own  Avords  because  they 
were  conscious  of  being  fully  acquainted 
with  the  facts.  In  attempting  to  trace  the 
literary  history  of  the  synoptics  we  should 
not  forget  also  the  promise  made  by  Christ  to 
the  apostles,  and  meant  doubtless  for  others 
who  might  be  emidoyed  in  the  proclamation 
of  the  gospel,  "  But  the  Comforter,  even  the 
Holy  Spirit,  whom  the  Father  will  send  in 
my  name,  he  shall  teach  you  all  things,  and 
bring  to  your  remembrance  all  that  I  said 
unto  you"  (John  xiv.  26,  R.  V.). 

To  obtain  a  clear  idea  of  the  life  of  Christ 
it  is  necessary  to  construct  a  harmony  of  the 
gospels.  This,  of  course,  should  be  done  with 
fidelity  to  the  chronological  indications,  few 
though  they  are,  which  the  gospels  contain. 
But  it  should  also  be  remembered  that  the  in- 
dications of  time  and  relation  are  not  only 
few,  but  also  often  doubtful,  aud  that,  there- 
fore, a  harmony  must  be  regarded  in  many 
points  as  merely  ai)proximate.  Matthew's 
method  is  mainly  topical,  and,  therefore,  he 
seldom  provides  a  basis  for  a  harmony.  Mark 
appears  to  be  much  more  chronological,  and 
his  order  may  generally  be  followed  ;  but 
there  is  much  that  he  does  not  give  at  all. 
Luke  follows  in  the  first  half  of  his  work 
nearly  the  order  of  Mark,  though  with  im- 
portant differences,  and  lie,  too,  is  often  top- 
ical in  his  method.  But  John's  Gospel  by 
noting  successive  feasts  which  Jesus  attended 
provides  the  general  framework  into  which 
the  other  material  should  be  fitted.  It  is  on 
this  basis  that  the  following  outline  aud  har- 
mony have  been  prepared  :  We  believe  that 
the  feast  of  John  v.  1  was  a  passover ;  that 
therefore  Christ's  ministry  included  four 
passovers  (John  ii.  13;  v.  1  ;  vi.  4  ;  xiii.  1),  at 
the  last  of  whi(;h  he  died.  The  ministry 
was  thus  about  three  years  and  a  quarter  in 
length, since  John  i.  shows  that  Christ  was  bap- 
tized a  few  months  before  his  first  passover. 
Others  however,  denying  that  John  v.  1  was 
a  passover,  make  the  ministry  two  and  a 
quarter  years  in  length.  On  this,  as  on 
many  similar  points,  absolute  demonstration 
is  impossible.  In  the  following  table,  more- 
over, the  dates  assigned  to  some  of  the  events 
must  likewise  be  regarded  as  open  to  ques- 
tion. It  appears  clear  to  most  students  that 
Herod  the  Great  died  about  April  1,  4  B.  c. 
If  so,  Christ  was  probably  born  in  December, 
5  B.  c,  or  January,  4  B.  c.  We  assume  the 
date  to  be  December  25,  5  b.  c,  without,  how- 
ever, meaning  to  afiirm  that  there  is  any 
evidence  for  the  exact  day  of  the  month. 
If  then,  when  he  was  baptized,  he  was  about 
thirty  (Luke  iii.  23),  his  baptism  is  probably 
to  be  assigned  to  the  latter  part  of  A.  D.  26 
or  the  beginning  of  A.  d.  27.  We  assume  for 
it  January  A.    D.   27.     If  his  ministry   in- 


Gospel 


257 


Gospel 


fliult'il  four  passovci-s,  he  died  at  the  pass- 
over  of  A.  I).  30.  Mauy  coiiiiilex  calcula- 
tions tend  to  confirm  these  dates,  though 
they  are  not  capable  of  perfect  demonstra- 
tion. One  view  assumes  that  "  the  fifteenth 
year  of  Tiberius  C'iesar"  (Luke  iii.  1)  is  to  be 
dated  from  the  time  wlicn  Tiberius  became 
co-regent  with  Augustus  in  the  empire  (A. 


D.  11-1"2).  At  that  time  he  became  in  the 
provinces  the  practical  ruler.  It  is  well 
known  that  our  common  Christian  calendar 
dates  the  birth  of  Christ  too  late.  The  fol- 
lowing harmony  nearly  agrees  with  Kobin- 
son's  ;  but  .some  changes  in  bis  arrangement 
have  been  introduced. 


Harmony  of  the  Four 

Gospels 

Incidents. 

Time. 

Place. 

Matthew. 

Mark. 

Luke. 

John. 

1.  Introductory  verses. 

1.1-4 

2.  Prologue  to  the  Fourth 

. 

i.  1-18 

(iospel. 

1 

3.  ThegeuealogyofChrist 

i.  1-17 

iii.  23''-38 

4.  .Annunciation to  Zach- 

B.  C.  C 

The  temple. 

i.  5-25 

arias  of  .John  the  Bap- 

tist's birth. 

5.  .\nnuuciation  to  Mary 

"     .') 

Nazareth. 

26-38 

of  Christ's  I)irth. 

€.  Marv's  visit  to  Eliza- 

"      " 

A  city  of  Judah. 

39-56 

l)et"h. 

7.  Birth  of  John  the  Bap- 

"      " 

"           " 

57,58 

8.  Circumcision         and 

..      .. 

•■ 

59-79 

naming  (jf  John. 

9.  Annunciation    to    Jo- 

"     " 

Nazareth. 

18-23 

seph  of  Christ's  birth. 

10.  The  birth  of  Jesus. 

"      " 

Bethlehem. 

24,  25     1      ... 

ii.  1-7 

11.  Annunciation  to   the 

"      " 

Near  Bethlehem. 

8-14 

shepherds. 

12.  Visit  of  the  shepherds 

"      " 

Bethlehem. 

15-20 

to  adore  Christ. 

1?..  Circumcision  of  Jesus. 

'•     4 

" 

.      .       . 

21 

14.  Presentation    in    the 

"     '• 

Jerusalem. 

22-38 

temple;  prophecies  of 

Simeon  and  .\nna. 

l.'i.  Visit  of  the  Masi. 

'•     " 

Bethlehem. 

ii.  1-12 

Ifi.  Fliiiht  into  Egvpt. 

'•     " 

Bethlehem  to  Egypt. 

13-15 

17.  .^laughter  of  the  chil- 

"    " 

Bethlehem. 

16-18 

dren  by  Herod. 

18.  Keturn  from  Egypt  to 

"     " 

Egj-pt  to  Nazareth. 

19-23 

39 

Nazareth. 

19.  Life  of  Jesus  at  Naza- 

B. C.  4-A.  D. 

Nazareth. 

ii.  40-52 

reth  for  thirty  years, 

26 

but  with  one  "record- 

ed visit  to  Jerusalem 

at   the   feast  of  the 

passover     when     12 

A.  D.  9 

years  of  age:  John  in 

retirement     in     the 

desert. 

i.  80 

20.  The  public  ministry  of    a.  d.  26 

At  the  Jordan. 

iii'.  1-12 

i.'  1-8 

iii.  1-18 

19-28 

John  the  Baptist." 

21.  Jesus  baptized  and  wit- 

"    27 

"            " 

13-17 

9-11 

21-23* 

29-34 

nessed  bv  John. 

22.  The  temptation  of  Je- 

"    " 

Wilderness     of    Ju- 

iv. 1-11 

12, 13 

iv.  1-13 

sus. 

diea  (?). 

2:^.  John,  Andrew,  and  Pe- 

Near the  Jordan. 

35-42 

ter,  meet  Jesus. 

24.  Philip  and  Nathanael 

On  the  way  to  Gali- 

4:3-51 

called. 

lee. 

2-i.  The  first  miracle;  wa- 

(1    11 

Cana  of  Galilee. 

ii.  1-11 

ter  changed  to  wine. 

2r..  Christ  goes  to  Caper- 

"    "       1 

Capernaum. 

.  .   . 

12 

naum. 

1 

27.  The  first  passover; 

money  changers  driv- 
en from  the  temple. 

28.  Instruction    of    Nico- 

demus. 

29.  Jesus      preaches      in 

Judfea. 
17 


Early  Judsean  Ministry 
.Vpr.  A.  D.  27;  Jerusalem. 

"      "   Judaea. 


ii.  13-25 

iii.  1-21 
22 


Gospel 


258 


Gospel 


Harmony  of  the  Four  Gospels. — Continued. 


Incidents. 


30.  Renewed  testimony  of 

John  to  .Ie.sus. 

31.  Jesus  (loparts  forGal'e. 

32.  Inttiview  with  woman 

of  Samaria. 
3S.  Cureofnobieman'ssonl 
34.  Imprisonment  of  John 

the  Baptist.  | 


27  or  28  Cana. 

.   .       [Fortress    of  Maclire 
I    rus. 


xiv.  3-5 


John. 


vl.  17-20  j  ill.  19, 20 


35.  Commencement       of 

Christ's  public  work 
in  Galilee. 

36.  First  rejection  at  Naz- 

areth. 

37.  Call  of  Simon, Andrew, 

James,  and  Jolin.        j 

38.  Cure  of  demoniac   in 

the  synagogue. 

39.  Cure  of  Peter's  wife's 

mother. 

40.  Cure  of  many  on  the 

same  evening. 

41.  Circuit throughGalilee 

42.  Cure  of  a  leper.  t 

43.  Healing  of  paralytic.    ! 

44.  Call  of  Matthew  (Levi); 

his  feast. 

45.  The    second    pass-  Apr. 

O'ver ;  healing  of  im- 
potent man  at  pool 
of  I^ethesda,  and  dis- 
cussion with  the  Jews. 

46.  Plucking  ears  of  corn 

leads  to  discussion  of 
the  Sabbath  question. 

47.  Cure    on    Sabbath   of 

man  with  withered 
hand. 

48.  Plots    against    Jesus ; 

extraordinary  enthu- 
siasm of  the  people ; 
many  follow  him 
from"  all  the  land. 

49.  Selectionof  the  twelve 

apostles. 

50.  Sermon  on  the  mount. 

51.  Healing  of  centurion's 

servant. 

52.  CircuitthroughGalilee, 
•SS.  Raising  of  widow's  son^ 

54.  Inquiry  of  John    the 

Baptist  about  Jesus, 
and  the  latter's  re- 
ply, etc. 

55.  Jesus    anointed   by  a 

sinful  woman.      "      | 

56.  A       further       circuit 

through  Galilee  with 
his  disciples.  i 

57.  Beginning  of  the  day 

of  parables  (see  iV-'i): 
cure  of  a  demoniac: 
blasphemy  of  Phari- 
sees reproved, 

58.  Pharisees'  desire  for  a 

sign  commented  on. 

59.  Christ's    mother    and 

brethren  desire  to  see 
him. 

60.  'WoesagainstPharisees 

61.  Discourses  to  the  peo- 

ple on  trust  in  God, 
against  worldliness, 
etc.  I 


Early  Galilsean  Ministry. 
D.  28  Galilee.  iv.  12-17      i.  14, 15    iv.  14, 15 


Nazareth. 

Near  Capernaum. 

Capernaum. 


Galilee. 

A  city  of  Galilee. 

Capernaum. 


Jerusalem. 

On  way  to  Galilee(?). 
Capernaum. 
Near  Capernaum. 

I  Capernaum. 

;  Galilee. 

Nain. 

Galilee. 


»    "  Capernaum. 


18-22 


viii.  14, 15 

16,17 

iv. 23-25 

viii.  2-4 

ix.  1-8 

9-13 


xii.  1-8 
9-13 
14-21 


V.  1-viii.l 
viii.  5-13 


xi.  1 
x'i.  2-19 


16-20 

21-28 

29-31 

32-34 

35-39 

40-45 

ii.  1-12 

13-17 


23-28 
iii.  1-6 
7-12 

13-19 


xii. 22-37     iii.  20-30 


38-45 
46-50 


31-35 


16-30 

v.  1-11 

iv.  31-37 

38,39 

40,41 

42-44 

v.  12-16 

17-26 

27-32 


vi.  1-5 
6-11 
17-19 

12-16 

20-49 
vii.  1-10 


vii.  11-17 
18-35 


36-50 
viii.  1-3 


xi.  14,  15, 
17-23 


16,  24-26, 
29-36 
27,28; 

viii.  19-21 

xi.  37-.54 
xii.  1-59 


Grospel 


259 


Gospel 


Hakmony  of  thk  Four  Gospels. — Continued. 


traditions. 

79.  Daughter  of  Syroplioe- 

nician  healed.  ' 

80.  Deaf  and  dnmb  man 

healed  and  others. 

81.  The  WW  fed. 

82.  The  Pharisees  and  Sad- 

ducees  again  require 
a  sign. 

83.  Diseiplcs  warned 

against  the  leaven  of 
the  Pharisees,  etc. 

84.  Blind  man  healed. 

85.  Peter's  confession. 

86.  Christ      foretells     his 

death    and  resurrec- 
tion. 

87.  The  transfiguration. 

88.  Healing  of  the  demo- 

niac boy. 

89.  Christ  again  foretells 

his  death  and  resur- 
rection. 

90.  Tile  tribute  money. 

91.  Instructions   to  disci- 

ples on  humility,  etc. 


Incidents. 

1 
Time,      i             Place. 

Matthew. 

Mark. 

Luke. 

John. 

62.  Remarks  on  theslaugh- 

A.  u.  28.  Capernaum. 

xiii.  1-5 

ter  of  the  (ialihiaiis. 

03.  Parables  of  the  sower. 

"       " 

" 

xiii.  1-53 

iv.  1-34 

viii.  4-18; 

tlie    tares,    the    seed 

xiii.  18-21 

growing  secretly,  the 

mustaril     seed,    the 

leaven,  tlie  hid  treas- 

- 

ure,    the    pearl,    tlie 

dragnet,    and    other 

sayings. 
I'll.  The  three  inquirers. 

.. 

Near  sea  of  Galilee. 

viii.  18-22 

ix.  57-62 

('>.'>.  The  tempest  stilled. 

'•       " 

Sea  of  Galilee. 

23-27 

35^1 

viii.  22-25 

til).  The  demoniacs  of  Ga- 

"       " 

East  shore  of  sea  of 

28-34 

V.  1-20 

26-10 

dara  (or  Gerasa  i. 

Galilee. 

67.  Incjuiry  of  John's  dis- 

" Capernaum. 

ix. 14-17 

ii.  18-22 

v.  33-39 

ciples  and  the  Phari- 

sees about  fasting. 

I'S.  Raising      of      .Jairus' 

"       " 

" 

18-26 

V.  21-43 

viii.  41-56 

daughter,  and  cure  of 

woman  with  bloody 

issue. 

69.  Curcof  two  blind  men. 

"       " 

"(?) 

27-31 

70.  Cure  of  a  dumb  demo- 

"      " 

"  CO 

32-34 

niac. 

71.  Second    rejection     at 

"       " 

Nazareth. 

xiii.  54-58 

vi.  l-6» 

Nazareth. 

72.  The  twelve  sent  out. 

"  Galilee. ' 

ix.  35-x.l, 

C-IS 

ix.  1-6 

X.  5-xi.  1 

73.  Herod's  inquiry  about 

A.  n.  29  (?) 

" 

xiv.  1,  2, 

14-16, 

7-9 

Jesus,  with  which  is 

6-12 

21-29 

connected     the     ac- 

count of  the   recent 

murder  of  John  the 
Baptist. 
74.  The     twelve    return; 

., 

North  east  coast  of  sea 

13-21 

30-44 

10-17 

vi.1-14 

Jesus     retires     with 

of  Galilee. 

them  across  the  sea; 

ftoon  fed. 

75.  Jesus  walks  on  the  wa- 

ter. 

76.  Triumphal          march 

"       " 

Sea  of  Galilee. 

22-33 

45-52 

l.J-21 

"       "      Gennesaret. 

34-36 

53-56 

through  Gennesaret. 

77.  Discourse  on  the  Bread  Apr.  a.  d.  2'J  Capernaum. 

22-71 

of  Life  at  the  time  of 

the  third  passover. 

78.  Reproof  of   Pharisaic 

"       " 

'* 

XV.  1-20 

vii.  1-23 

Later  Galilsenn  Mimstry. 
A.  D.  29      Region  of  Tyre  andxv  21-28  j  vii.  24-30 
Sidon.  j  1 

The  Decapolis.  I        29-31  I  31-37 

"      I     "  "  32-38   viii.  1-9 

Near  Magadan  [A.  V.  39-xvi.  4^        10-12 

Mat.  Magdala] ;  in  i 

Mark,  the  parts  of; 

Dalmanutha. 
Sea  of  Galilee.  5-12  i        13-21 


Bethsaida. 

Region    of   Csesarea 
Philippi. 


Galilee. 
Capernaum. 


22-26 
13-20  27-30 

21-28  '    31-ix.  1 


xvii.1-13 
14-21 


xviii.1-35 


2-13 
14-29 


18-21 
22-27 


28-36 
37^3» 


43''-45 


46-50 


vii.  1 


Gospel 


260 


Gospel 


Harmony  of  the  Four  Gospels. — Continued. 
The  Last  Journeys  to  Jerusalem. 


Incidents. 


Time. 


92.  Final  departure  from        a.  d.  29 

Galilee ;  rejected  in 
Samaria. 

93.  The  seventy  instruct- 

ed and  sent  out. 

94.  Christ     attends     the  Oct. ' 

feast  of  taberna- 
cles. 

95.  [The  woman  taken  in 

adultery]  bracketed  in 
R.  V. 

96.  Discussion  with   the 

Jews  during  the 
feast. 

97.  Jesus  apparently  re- 

tires from  Jerusalem 
and  the  seventy  re- 
turn to  him. 

98.  A  lawyer  instructed ; 

parable  of  the  good 
Samaritan. 

99.  Jesus  at  the  house  of 

Martha  and  Mary. 

100.  The  disciples  taught 

how  to  pray. 

101.  The  feast  of  dedi-  Dec' 

cation;  blind  man 
healed ;  parable  of 
the  shepherd;  con 
flict  with  the  Jews 
Jesus  retires  to  Pe 
rrea,  beyond  Jordan. 

102.  Ministry  in  Persea. 

103.  Parable  of  the  barren 

fig  tree, 
lot.  Healing  infirm  wom- 
an on  the  Sabbath. 

105.  Teaching   and    jour 

neying  toward  Jeru 
salem ;  warned 

against  Herod. 

106.  Dines  with  a   Phari 

see  ;  healing  of  man 
with  dropsy; parable 
of  the  wedding  feast 

107.  Requirements  of  true 

disciples. 

108.  Parables  of  the  lost 

sheep  and  coin  and 
the  prodigal. 

109.  Parable  of  the  unjust 

steward. 

110.  Pharisees    reproved ; 

parable  of  the  rich 
man  and  Lazarus 

111.  Instructs  disciples  in 

forbearance,  faith, 
and  humility. 

112.  The  ten  lepers. 


11.3.  The  suddenness  of  his 
advent. 

114.  Parable  of  the  impor 

tunate  widow. 

115.  Parable  of  the  Phari- 

see and  the  publican 

116.  The  raising  of  Laz- 

arus. 

117.  Counsel  of  Caiaphas ; 

Jesus  again  retires. 

118.  Precepts   concerning 

divorce. 


Place. 


Matthew. 


From  Galilee  to  Ju- 
dsea. 


"    Jerusalem. 


Judaea. 


"    Bethany. 
"   jJudcea. 
"    Jerusalem. 


30    Persea. 


xix.  1» 
xi.  20-24 


Mark. 


xi.  25-30 


xix.  1>>,  2 


Between  Samaria 
and  Galilee  (R.  V 
margin). 

Persea. 


Bethany. 

Jerusalem.  Ephraim 
Persea  (?). 


X.  1» 


xix.  3-12 


Luke. 


ix.  51-56 
X.  1-16 


17-24 

25-37 

38-42 
xi.  1-13 


xiii.  6-9 
10-17 
22-35 

xiv.  1-24 

25-35 
XV.  1-32 

xvi.  1-13 
14-31 

xvii.1-10 

11-19 

20-37 

xviii.  1-8 

9-14 


John. 


vii.  2-52 


[53-viii. 
11] 

viii.  12-59 


ix.  1-x.  38 


39-42 


2-12 


xi.  1-46 
47-54 


Gospel 


261 


Gospel 


Harmony  of  the  Four  Gospels. — Continued. 


Incidents. 

Time.                  Place. 

Matthew. 

Mark. 

Luke. 

John. 

U9.  Christ    blesses    Uttle 

A.  D.  30  Persea. 

xix.  13-15 

X.  13-16 

xviil.  15- 

children. 

17 

120.  The  rich  young  ruler, 

"      " 

" 

16-30 

17-31 

1&-30 

etc. 

121.  Parable  of  the  labor- 

"     " 

" 

XX.  1-16 

ers  iu  the  vinevard. 

122.  Third    prediction  of 

"      " 

" 

17-19 

32-34 

31-34 

his  death  and  resur- 

rect iun. 

123.  Ascent  to    Jerusa- 

"     " 

" 

20-28 

35-45 

lem  ;      nquest     of 

James  and  John. 

12-1.  Two  blind  men  heal- 

■'     " 

Jericho. 

29-34 

46-52 

35-43 

ed  near  Jericho. 

125.  Conversion    of    Zac- 

'•      " 

" 

.  .   . 

xix.  1-10 

chsus. 

126.  Parable  of  the  pounds 

"      " 

" 

11-28 

1-27.  Arrival    at    Bethany 

"      " 

Bethany. 

.  . 

xi.  55- 

six  days  before  the 

xii.  1 

passover. 

12S.  Supper  at  Bethany: 
anointed  by  Mary ; 
hostility  of" rulers". 

129.  Triumphal  entrj-  into 

Jerusalem  :  spends 
night  at  Bethany. 

130.  Cursing  of  barren  fig 

tree :  clean.sing  of 
temple :  praises  of 
the  children;  mira- 
cles. 

131.  Lesson  of  the  fig  tree. 

132.  The    sanhedrin     de- 

mand Christ's  au- 
thority :  his  reply 
and  parables  of  the 
two  sons, the  wicked 
husbandmen,  and 
the  marriage  of  the 
king's  son.  I 

133.  Question  of  the  Phar-| 

isees  (tribute  to 
Ccesar) :  of  the  Sad-I 
ducees  (the  resur-j 
rection) :  of  the  law-! 
yer  (the  great  com-| 
mandmehtcChrist's 
question  (David's  I 
Lordi.  ' 

lai.  Warnings  against 
scribes'  and  Phari- 
sees, j 

135.  The  widow's  mite. 

136.  Visit  of  the  Greeks;; 

last  teachings. 

137.  Christ's  prediction  of 

the  fall  of  Jerusa- 
lem, the  future  of 
the  church,  and  the 
second  advent. 

138.  Instructions  to  watch: 

parables  of  five  vir- 
gins and  talents ;  the 
last  judgment. 

139.  Conspiracy     of     the 

rulers :  tfeacherj-  of , 
Judas. 


Saturdav, 
Apr.  1," 
A.  D.  30 

Sundav, 
Apr.  2 

Mondav, 
Apr.  3 


Tuesday, 
Apr.  4 


Tuesday 

evening, 

Apr.  4 


The  Lasi  Week. 
Bethany. 


Mount  of  Olives,  Je 
rusalem,and  Beth 
any. 

Xear  and  in  Jerusa 
lem. 


On  the  way  to  Jeru- 
salem. 
Jerusalem. 


xxvi.6-13    xiv.  3-9        ...      '      2-11 

1 

xxi.    1-11    xi.  1-11    xix.  29-44     12-19 


12-19  12-19  45-48; 

xxi.  37,31 


140.  Preparations  for  the 
passover. 


Tuesday 
evening 
Apr.  4,  or 
Wednes- 
day. .\pr.  5 
Thursday, 
Apr.  6  " 


20-22       20-2.5[26] 

23-32,     I      27-33 ; 
33^6 ;     xii.  1-12 
xxli.  1-14 


15-22, 
28-33, 
34-40, 
41-46 


13-17, 
18-27, 
28-34, 
35-37 


XX.  1-8, 
9-19 


20-26, 
27-40, 
41-44 


Mount  of  Olives. 


Jerusalem. 


Bethany  and  Jerusa- 
lem. 


xxiii.1-39     38-40      '    45-47 

...      I    41-44      I  xxi.  1-J 
sxiy.  1-31  xiii.  1-27     xxi.  5-2i 


32-XXV.46         2S-37         29-36 


xxvi.  1-5,  xiv.  1,  2,  '  xxli.  1-6 
14-16    i      10,11    I 


17-19  12-16  7-13 


xii.  20-50 


Gospel 


262 


Gospel 


Harmony  of  the  Four  Gospels. — Continued. 


Incidents. 

Time.  ' 

Place. 

Matthew. 

Mark. 

Luke. 

John. 

141.  The  last  passover ; 

Thursday 

The  upper  room  in 

xxvi.  20 

xiv.  17 

xxii.  14- 

.strife    of  tho  disci- 

evening, 

Jerusalem. 

18,24-30 

ples. 

Apr.  6 

142.  The  feet  vvasliing. 

11                  11 

xiii.  1-20 

143.  The  traitor  announc- 

"                 " 

21-25 

18-21 

21-23 

21-35 

ed:  Judas  withdraws. 

144.  Tlie  Lord's  Supper. 

"           " 

"                  " 

26-29 

22-25 

19,20 

145.  Prediction  of  Peter's 

"           " 

"                  " 

31-38 

36-38 

fall,  and  other  warn- 

inss. 

146.  Last  discourses  with 

"           " 

"                  " 

xiv.  1- 

the    disciples    and 

xvii.  26 

prayer. 
147.  Renewed    prediction 

u 

On  the  way  to  Geth- 

30-35 

26-31 

of  Peter's  fall  and  of 

semane. 

the  scattering  of  the 

disciples. 

148.  The  agony  in  the  gar- 

"          " 

Gethsemane. 

36-46 

32-42 

39-46 

xviii.  1 

den. 

149.  The  arrest  of  Christ ; 

Thursday 

" 

47-56 

43-52 

47-53 

2-12 

dispersion  of  the  dis- 

night, Apr. 

ciples. 

6-7  __ 

150.  Preliminary     exami- 

High-priest's  palace 

13, 14, 

nation  before  .Annas. 

ill  Jerusalem. 

19-24 

151.  Examination    before 

"           " 

"                  " 

57,  59-68 

53,  55-65 

63-65 

sanhedrin ;      mock- 

ery of  Jesus. 

1.52.  Peter's  denials. 

"                  " 

58,  69-75 

54,  66-72 

54-62 

15-18, 
25-27 

153.  Final   condemnation 

Early  Fri- 

.< 

xxvii.  1 

XV.  1* 

66-71 

of  Jesus  by  the  san- 

day morn- 

hedrin. 

ing,  A])r.  7 

1.54.  Je.sus  led    to    Pilate, 

The  governor's  resi- 

2, n-14 

l>'-5 

xxiii.  1-5 

28-38 

who  seeks  to  secure 

dence    in    Jerusa- 

his release. 

lem. 

155.  Jesus  before  Herod. 

Friday, 
Apr.  t 

Jerusalem. 

. 

6-12 

156.  Pilate  further   seeks 

"       " 

Governor's  residence 

15-26" 

6-15" 

13-25 

39,40 

to  release  Jesus ;  the 

Jews  demand  Earab- 

bas. 

157.  Pilate  delivers  Jesus 

"       " 

"                  " 

26i'-.30 

15'>-19 

xix.  1-3 

to  death ;  scourging. 

158.  Pilate  again  seeks  to 

"       " 

"                  " 

_ 

4-16" 

release  Jesus. 

159.  Judas'    remorse    and 

"       " 

Jerusalem. 

3-10 

suicide. 

160.  Jesus    led   to    cruci- 

"      " 

31-34 

20-23 

26-33" 

16'',  17 

fixion. 

161.  The  crucifixion. 

"       " 

Near  Jerusalem. 

3.5-38 

24-28 

33>>,  34,  38 

18-24 

162.  Incidents  at  the  cross. 

" 

" 

39-49 

29-36 

.3,5-37, 
39-45» 

25-29 

163.  The  death  of  Jesus. 

Friday, 
3.  P.M.,  Apr. 

50 

37 

46 

30 

164.  Incidents     following 

Friday, 

Jerusalem  and  vicin- 

51-56 

38-41 

Lib,  47-49 

his  death. 

Ayjr.  7 

ity. 

165.  Taking  down  from  the 

" 

Near  Jerusalem. 

57-61 

42-47 

50-56 

31-42 

cross  ;  burial. 

166.  The  watch  at  the  sep- 

"           " 

62-66 

ulcher. 

107.  Visit  of  the  women.   I 

168.  Visit  of  John  and  Pe-j 

ter  :  return  of  Mary 
Magdalene  to  sepul- 
cher  nnd  Christ's  ap- 
pearance to  her. 

169.  Report  of  the  watch. 

170.  Interview    with    two 

disciples  on  the  way, 
to  Emmaus. 


Pundav, 
A  pr.  9 


The  Rcsiirirctiou. 

Jerusalem  and  vicin- 
itv. 


xxvm. 

1-10 


11-15 


xvi.  1-8    xxiv.1-11 

[xvi.  9-  ,        12        ,xx.  1-lS 

11]* 


[12,  13]* 


13-35 


Gospel 


263 


Gospel 


Harmony  of  the  Four  Gospels. — Continued. 


Incidents. 

Time. 

Place. 

Matthew. 

Mark. 

Luke. 

John. 

171.  Christ  appears  to  the 

Sundav, 

Jerusalem. 

[xvi.  14]* 

xxiv.  36- 

XX.  19-24 

eleven    Thomas  be- 

Apr. 9 

49 

ing  absent. 

ITJ.  Christ.  H  week  later. 

Apr.  16 

" 

25-29 

ai;ain     appears     to 

tiiom.  1  honias  being 

pre.-ent. 

17:'.  Ai'pearance  to  seven 

A.  D.  30 

Sea  of  Galilee. 

xxi.  1-23 

di.scipKs:        I'eter's 

restoration,  etc. 

17  i.  The    great     commis- 

"      " 

Mountain  in  Galilee. 

xxviii. 

[15-18]* 

sion,  t^ee  1  Cor.  xv.  6. 

le-iX) 

17.'>.  The  ascension.     See 

May  18, 

Mount  of  Olives  to- 

[19,20]* 

50-53 

Acts.  i.  1-11. 

A.  D.  30 

ward  Bethany. 

176.  St.     John's      closing 

XX.  30, 31: 

words. 

xxi. -24,25 

*  The  last  twelve  verses  of  Mark  are  in  R.  V.  spaced  from  the  preceding 
whether  they  originally  formed  part  of  Mark's  Gospel. 

Index  for  Finding  any  Passage  in  the  Harmony. 
Matthew. 


because  of  doubt 
G.  T.  P. 


Chapter  and  Verse. 

Section.' 

Chapter  and  Verse. 

Section. 

Chapter  and  Verse. 

Section. 

i. 

1-17 

3      ' 

xii.             14-21 

48 

xxi.            20-22 

131 

18-'23 

9 

22-37 

57 

23-xxii.  14 

132 

24-25 

10 

38-45 

58 

xxii.           15-46 

133 

11. 

1-12 

15 

46-.i0 

59 

xxiii.           1-39 

134 

13-15 

16 

xiii.             1-5:} 

63 

xxiv.           1-31 

137 

16-18 

17 

54-58 

71 

32-xxv.  46 

i:« 

19--J3 

18 

xiv.              1,2 

73 

XX  vi.            1-5 

139 

111. 

1-12 

20 

3-5 

U 

6-13 

1'28 

13-17 

•21 

6-12 

73 

14-16 

i:?9 

IV. 

1-11 

22 

13-21 

74 

17-19 

140 

12-17 

35 

■       22-33 

75 

20 

141 

18-22 

37 

34-36 

76 

21-25 

143 

2:V25 

41 

XV.                1-20 

78 

26-29 

144 

V. 

1-viii.  1 

50 

21-28 

79 

30-35 

147 

Till. 

2-4 

42 

29-31 

80 

36-46 

148 

.=W13 

51 

32-38 

81 

47-56 

149 

1-1,15 

39 

39-xvi.  4 

82 

57 

151 

16, 17 

40 

xvi.              5-12 

83 

58 

1.52 

18-22 

64 

13-20 

85 

59-68 

151 

2:^-27 

65 

21-28 

86 

69-75 

152 

28-34 

66 

xvii.            1-13 

87 

xxvii.          1 

153 

IX. 

1-8 

43 

14-21 

88 

o 

154 

9-13 

44 

'<                           22, 23 

89 

3-10 

1.59 

14-17 

67 

24-27 

90 

11-14 

1.54 

18-26 

68 

xviii.            1-35 

91 

l-5-26> 

1.56 

27-31 

69 

xix.             1» 

92 

26»'-30 

1.57 

32-34 

70 

Jb  2 

102 

31-ai 

160 

3.5-x.  1 

72 

3-12 

118 

S>-:58 

161 

X. 

•2-4 

49 

13-15 

119 

39-49 

162 

5-xi.  1 

72 

16-:?0 

120 

50 

163 

XI. 

1 

52 

XX.                  1-16 

121 

51-56 

164 

2-19 

54 

17-19 

1-22 

57-61 

165 

20-24 

93 

1                            20-28 

123 

62-66 

lf,6 

25-30 

97 

!                            29-34 

1-24 

xxviii.         1-10 

167 

xii. 

1-8 

46 

xxi.             1-11 

129 

11-15 

169 

9-13 

47 

1'2-19 

130 

16-20 

174 

Marl: 


Chapter  and  Verse. 

Section. 

Chapter  and  Verse, 
i.                 29-31 

Section.  ^ 
39 

Chapter  and  Verse. 

Section. 

i.                   1-8 

20 

ii.                18-22 

67 

9-n 

21 

32-W 

40 

23-28 

46 

12, 13 

•M 

:i5-:« 

41 

iii.                1-6 

47 

14,15 

3.-> 

40-45 

42 

7-12 

48 

]r.--io 

:'7 

ii.                1-12 

43 

1:^-19 

49 

21-28 

38 

1.3-17 

44 

■Ji3-:;0 

57 

Gospel 


264 


Gospel 


Index  for  Finding  any  Passage  in  the  Harmony. — Continued. 


Chapter 

and  Verse. 

Section. 

Chapter  and  Verse. 

Section. 

Chapter  and  Verse. 

Section. 

iii. 

31-35 

59 

ix.             33-50 

91 

xiv.            22-25 

144 

IV. 

1-34 

63 

x.                1» 

92 

26-31 

147 

35-41 

65 

1" 

102 

32-42 

148 

V. 

1-20 

66 

2-12 

118 

43-52 

149 

21-43 

68 

13-16 

119 

53 

151 

VI. 

1-6" 

71 

17-31 

120 

■54 

152 

6''-13 

72 

32-34 

122 

55-65 

151 

14-16 

73 

35-45 

123 

66-72 

152 

17-20 

34 

46-52 

124 

XV.               1» 

153 

21-29 

73 

xi.                  1-11 

129 

lb-5 

154 

30-44 

74 

12-19 

130 

6-15* 

156 

45-52 

75 

20-25[26] 

131 

15b-ly 

157 

53-56 

76 

27-xii.  12 

132 

20-23 

160 

vn. 

1-23 

7S 

xii.             13-37 

183        1 

24-28 

161 

24-30 

79 

38-40 

134 

29-36 

162 

31-37 

80 

41-44 

135 

37 

163 

vni. 

1-9 

81 

xiii.              1-27 

137 

38-41 

164 

10-12 

82 

28-37 

138 

42-47 

165 

13-21 

83 

xiv.              1,2 

139 

xvi.               1-8 

167 

22-26 

84 

3-9 

128 

9-11 

168 

27-30 

85 

10,11 

139 

12,13 

170 

31-ix.  1 

86 

12-16 

140 

14 

171 

IX. 

2-13 

87 

17 

141 

15-18 

174 

14-29 

88 

18-21 

143 

19,20 

175 

30-32 

89 

1 

Luke. 


Chapter  and  Verse. 

Section. 

Chapter  and  Verse. 

Section. 

Chapter  and  Verse. 

Sectii 

i.                  1-4 

1 

viii.            26-40 

66 

xviii.          31-34 

122 

5-25 

4 

41-56 

68 

35-43 

124 

26-38 

5 

ix.                 1-6 

72 

xix.              1-10 

125 

39-56 

6 

7-9 

73 

11-28 

126 

57,58 

7 

10-17 

74 

29-44 

129 

59-79 

8 

18-21 

85 

45-48 

1,30 

80 

19 

22-27 

86 

XX.                1-19 

132 

ii.                   1-7 

10 

28-36 

87 

20-44 

133 

8-14 

11 

37-43" 

88 

45-47 

134 

15-20 

12 

43»-45 

89 

xxi.              1-4 

135 

21 

13 

46-50 

91 

5-28 

137 

22-38 

14 

51-56 

92 

29-36 

138 

39 

18 

57-62 

64 

37,38 

130 

40-52 

19 

X.                   1-16 

93 

xxii.             1-6 

139 

iii.                1-18 

20 

17-24 

97 

7-13 

140 

19,20 

34 

2.5-37 

98 

14-18 

141 

21-23* 

21 

38-42 

99 

19,20 

144 

23''-38 

3 

xi.                 1-13 

100 

21-23 

143 

iv.                  1-13 

22 

14,15 

57 

24-30 

141 

14,15 

35 

16 

58 

31-38 

145 

16-30 

36 

17-23 

57 

39-46 

148 

31-37 

38 

24-26 

58 

47-53 

149 

38,  39 

39 

27,28 

59 

54-62 

1.52 

40.41 

40 

29-36 

58 

63-65 

151 

42-44 

41 

37-54 

60 

66-71 

1.53 

V.                    1-11 

37 

xii.               1-59 

61 

xxiii.           1-5 

154 

12-16 

42 

xiii.              1-5 

62 

6-12 

1.55 

17-26 

.     43 

6-9 

103 

13-25 

156 

27-32 

44 

10-17 

104 

26-33" 

160 

33-39 

67 

18-21 

63 

33'>-34 

161 

vi.                  1-5 

46 

22-35 

105 

35-37 

162 

6-11 

47 

xiv.              1-24 

106 

38 

161 

12-16 

49 

25-.35 

107 

39-45» 

162 

17-19 

48 

XV.                 1-32 

108 

451' 

164 

20-49 

50 

xvi.              1-13 

109 

46 

163 

Vii.               1-10 

51 

14-31 

110 

47-49 

164 

11-17 

53 

xvii.             1-10 

111 

50-56 

165 

18-35 

54 

11-19 

112 

xxiv.            1-11 

167 

36-50 

55 

20-37 

113 

12 

168 

viii.              1-3 

56 

xviii.            1-8 

114 

13-35 

170 

4-18 

63 

9-14 

115 

36-49 

171 

19-21 

59 

1.5-17 

119 

50-53 

175 

22-25 

65 

18-30 

120 

Gourd 


265 


Governor 


IxDKX  FOR  FiXDiXG  AXY  PASSAGE  IN  THE  Haemoxy. — Continued. 
John. 


Chapter 

and  Verse. 

Section. 

Chapter  and  Verse. 

Section. 

Chapter  and  Verse. 

Section. 

i. 

1-18 

o 

vii.              2-52 

94 

xviii.          15-18 

1.52 

19-28 

20 

53-viii.  11 

95        1 

19-24 

150 

•2»-S4 

21 

viii.            12-59 

% 

25-27 

152 

35-42 

23 

ix.            1-x.  38 

101 

28-38 

154 

43^1 

24 

X.                39-12 

102 

39,40 

156       - 

ii. 

1-11 

25 

xi.                 1-16 

116 

xix.              1-3 

157 

12 

26 

i                            47-.>l 

117 

4-16» 

158 

13-K 

27 

1                    55-xii.  1 

127 

16»,  17 

160 

iii. 

1-21 

28 

xii.              2-11 

12S 

lS-24 

161 

22 

29 

12-19 

129 

■25-29 

162 

23-36 

30 

20-50 

136 

30 

163 

iv. 

1-3 

31 

xiii.              1-20 

142        i 

31-42 

1G5 

4-42 

32 

21-35 

143 

XX.                1-18 

168 

43-04 

33 

36-38 

145 

19-24 

171 

V. 

1^7 

45 

xiv.    1-xvii.  26 

146 

•25-29 

172 

vi. 

1-14 

74 

xviii.            1 

148 

30,31 

176 

15-21 

75 

2-12 

149 

xxi.               1-23 

173 

22-71 

77 

13,14 

150 

24-25 

176 

vii. 

1 

80 

Gourd. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Kikayon  in 
Jonah  iv.  6.  7.  9.  10.  the  margin  of  the  R.  V. 
substituting  PalmaChristi.  The  plant  so  desig- 
nated grew  up  in  a  night,  sheltering  the  proph- 
et Jonah  from  the  fierce  heat  of  the  Ninevite 
sun :  but  its  decay  vras  as  rapid  as  its  growth. 
The  Septuagint  translates  the  Hebrew  word 
by  the  Greek  holokunfhe.  meaning  the  pump- 
kin iCticurbita  pepo),  which  may  be  consid- 
ered the  type  of  the  gourd  family  {Cucitr- 
bifacese).  A  native  of  Astrakhan,  along  the 
northwestern  coast  of  the  Caspian  Sea.  it 
may  well  have  been  introduced  into  the 
Ninevite  region  before  the  time  of  Jonah. 
It  is  in  favor  of  the  identification  that  it  is  a 
plant  of  rapid  growth.  But  the  Hebrew 
kiknjion  is  very  like  the  Graeco- Egyptian  kiki, 
which  means  the  castor-oil  plant  {Ricinus  com- 
munis). This  is  sometimes  called  Palma 
Christi  (Christ's  palmi.  It  is  not.  however, 
a  palm,  but  a  euphorbiaceous  plant,  like  the 
little  milky  weeds  called  spurges.  It  is  a 
native  of  India,  but  was  cultivated  in  south- 
em  Asia  and  Egypt  (Herod,  ii.  94 1.  It  at- 
tains a  height  of  from  8  to  10  feet,  growing 
to  a  considerable  height  in  a  few  days.  The 
stem  is  purplish-red  and  covered  with  a 
pearl-like  bloom,  the  leaves  are  peltate  and 
palmate,  the  flowers  are  in  racemes,  the  seed 
vessel  has  three  two-valved  cells,  each  one- 
seeded.  If  this  was  the  plant  which  shaded 
Jonah,  its  raj>id  growth  was  miraculous. 

Gourd,  Wild. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  Pak- 
ku'oth.  splitters,  bursters  i2  Kin.  iv.  .39).  It  is 
the  fruit  of  a  wild  vine  growing  in  Palestine, 
which  flouri.<hes  when  other  vegetation  is 
dead  or  dying  through  excessive  drought. 
A  son  of  the  prophets  gathered  a  lapful  of 
the  fruit  near  Jericho,  and  put  them  into  a 
pot  to  be  cooked,  but  the  moment  the  pottage 
of  which  they  constituted  the  chief  ingre- 
dient was  put  to  the  month  the  taste  betrayed 


that  there  was  death  in  the  pot :  in  other 
words,  that  the  fruits  gathered  were  poison- 
ous (3S-41).  The  plant  was  pretty  clearly 
one  or  other  of  two  .species  of  the  gourd  or- 
der, thecolocynth.  or  the  squirting  cucumber, 
probably  the  former.  The  colocynth  i  CHruUns 
colocynthis)  is  a  prostrate  gourd-like  plant  with 
tendrils,  growing  in  southern  Spain,  in  north- 
ern, eastern,  and  southern  Africa,  in  Arabia, 
India,  etc.  In  Palestine  it  is  wild  on  the  mari- 
time plain  and  in  the  Jordan  valley,  in  the 
latter  of  which  places  the  prophet  found  his 
wild  gourd  or  wild  vine.  It  may  be  seen  of 
a  lovely  emerald  green  when  all  vegetation 
near  has  withered  under  the  fiery  hot  wind 
of  summer.  If  the  traveler  pluck  the  smooth 
gourd-like  fruits  and  cut  them  across  with 
his  penknife,  he  will  find  that  they  both  look 
and  smell  like  the  cucumber.  If  then  he 
put  them  to  his  lips,  he  will  feel  as  if  he  had 
touched  fire.  The  colocynth  is  a  valuable 
but  dangerous  medicine.  The  other  claim- 
ant, the  squirting  cucumber  ( Ecballium  agreste, 
formerly  Momordica  elaterium).  also  a  gourd- 
like plant  with  tendrils,  has  prickly  fruits, 
which,  when  it  is  ripe  and  the  stalk  is  loosened, 
burst  and  squirt  forth  their  poisonous  pulp,  a 
phenomenon  which  would  quite  agree  with 
the  etymology  of  the  word.  The  squirting 
cucumber  grows  in  wa.ste  places  and  by  the 
roadside  throughout  Palestine,  and  its  unfit- 
ness for  food  would  probaVjly  be  known  to 
the  young  companion  of  Elisha. 

Gov'em-or. 

One  who  governs  a  land  by  authority  of  a 
supreme  ruler  to  whom  he  is  subordinate. 
Joseph  when  prime  minister  of  Egypt  was 
called  its  governor  (Gen.  xlii.  6;  xlv.  26). 
When  Nebuchadnezzar,  after  capturing  Jeru- 
salem, departed,  he  left  a  governor.  Gedaliah, 
behind,  to  rule  the  conquered  people  ( Jer.  xl. 
5:  xli.  2,  etc.).  After  the  captivity,  the  Is- 
raelites were  ruled  by  Persian  goventors; 
Zerubbabel,   Xehemiah,  and  others,  though 


Gozan 


266 


Greece 


Jews  by  birth,  beiug  Persian  officials  (Neh. 
V.  14,  18;  Hag.  i.  14).  Poutiu.s  Pilate  was 
governor  of  Jiuhea  when  our  Lord  was  cnici- 
tied,  and  is  so  called  (Mat.  xxviii.  14),  though 
his  specific  Roman  title  was  procurator  (q.  v.). 

Go'zan. 

A  town  and  district  in  Mesopotamia  on  the 
river  Habor  (2  Kin.  xvii.  6  ;  xviii.  11  ;  xix. 
12;  1  Chron.  v.  26;  Is.  xxxvii.  12).  In  an 
.Assyrian  inscription  the  town  Gozan  is  as- 
sociated with  Nisibis.  Gozan  is  probably  the 
Gauzanitis  of  Ptolemy  and  the  Mygdonia 
of  Strabo.  It  was  a  province  of  Mesopotamia, 
situated  on  the  upper  part  of  the  Khaliour 
river,  and  along  the  southern  slopes  of  mount 
Masius.  It  is  unnecessary  to  follow  Ewald, 
who,  governed  by  1  Chron.  v.  26,  thought  that 
the  river  of  Gozan  was  distinguished  from 
tiie  Habor,  and  found  it  in  the  Ozan,  which 
empties  into  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  is  suppo.sed 
to  have  formed  the  northern  boundary  of 
Media.  Ptolemy  mentions  a  town  of  Media 
called  Gauzania  in  its  vicinity. 

Grape.     See  Vine. 

Grass. 

A  i)lant  belonging  to  the  endogenous  order 
Graininaccx,  of  which  the  ordinary  grasses 
growing  in  fields,  or  the  cultivated  cereals, 
may  be  considered  as  typical  representatives. 
Popularly,  the  term  grass  is  extended  to 
many  other  endogenous  plants,  and  even  to 
various  exogens,  especially  those  possessing 
linear  leaves.  This  does  not  matei-ially  differ 
from  the  meaning  of  the  word  grass  in  the 
book  of  Genesis.  In  chap.  i.  11,  12  the  veg- 
etable kingdom  is  divided  into  three  great 
classes :  grass,  herbs,  and  trees.  The  word 
grass  is  used  in  a  more  limited  sense  when 
man's  brief  life  on  earth  is  com])ared  to 
grass,  which  in  the  morning  flourishes  and 
in  the  evening  is  cut  down  and  withers  (Ps. 
ciii.  15 ;  cp.  also  xxxvii.  2;  xc.  5;  xcii.  7;  cii. 
11 ;  Is.  xl.  6,  7;  Mat.  vi.  30;  Luke  xii.  28). 

Grass'hop-per. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  'Arheh, 
the  numerous  or  gregarious,  in  A.  V.  of  Judg. 
vi.  .5 ;  vii.  12  :  Job  xxxix.  20  ;  Jer.  xlvi.  23.  It 
is  undoubtedly  the  migratory  locust,  as  the 
E.  V.  makes  it,  and  as  even  the  A.  V.  has  it 
in  Ex.  X.  4  ;  Joel  i.  4.     See  Locust. 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Hagab  in 
Lev.  xi.  22;  Num.  xiii.  33;  Ecc.  xii.  5; 
Is.  xl.  22.  It  is  very  small  (Num.  xiii.  33) 
and  voracious  (2  Chron.  vii.  13,  where  it  is 
rendered  locust).  It  perhaps  derived  its 
name  from  its  covering  the  ground  or  hiding 
the  sun.  On  the  margin  of  Lev.  xi.  22.  R.  V., 
it  is  admitted  that  it  is  unknown  whether 
the  animal  was  a  grasshopper  or  a  locust. 
The  grasshot)per  family,  now  called  Acridiidx, 
consists  of  leaping  orthopterous  insects,  with 
four-jointed  tarsi,  wing  cases  in  repose  placed 
like  the  two  sloping  sides  of  a  roof,  and  long, 
tapering  antennse.  The  type  is  the  great 
English  grasslioiijier  {Locnxtd  riridisaima). 

3.  The  rendcrinji  of  the  Helirew  Gob  and 


Gobay,  creeper  from  the  earth  (Nah.  iii.  17). 
It  devours  the  grass  (Amos  vii.  1,  where  R. 
V.  renders  locust).  It  was  prol)ably  an  in- 
sect of  the  locust  family  ;  but  of  which  species 
is  unknown. 

Grave. 

The  cavity  in  the  ground  in  which  a  body 
is  interred.  The  Jews  were  sometimes  buried 
in  graves  dug  in  the  earth  (Tobit  viii.  9,  18), 
but  more  comnKmly  in  caves  scooped  out  in 
rocks  or  naturally  existing  (Gen.  xxiii.  I) ; 
Mat.  xxvii.60  ;  John  xi.  38).  See  Sepulcher. 

Grav-en  Im'age. 

An  image  of  wood,  stone,  or  metal  fash- 
ioned by  means  of  a  sharp  cutting  instru- 
ment as  distinguished  from  one  cast  in  a 
mould  (Is.  XXX.  22;  xliv.  16,  17;  xlv.  20;  cp. 
Hab.  ii.  IS,  19).  Sometimes,  however,  the 
image  was  first  cast  and  then  finished  by  the 
graver  (Is.  xl.  19;  xliv.  10).  Graven  images 
were  in  use  among  the  Canaanites  before  the 
Israelites  entered  the  country  (Deut.  vii.  5; 
xii.  3).  They  were  also  used  in  Babylon  and 
elsewhere  (Jer.  1.  38;  li.  47,  52).  The  second 
commandment  expressly  forbade  the  peoi)le 
of  God  to  make  them  (Ex.  xx.  4  ;  Deut.  v.  8  ; 
cp.  also  Lev.  xxvi.  1;  Ueut.  xxvii.  15;  Is. 
xliv.  9;  Jer.  x.  14;  li.  17). 

Greaves.     See  Aemok. 

Gre'cians. 

1.  The  people  of  Greece  (Joel  iii.  6). 

2.  Jews  who  spoke  Greek  as  distinguished 
from  those  who  used  Aramaic,  which  in  N.  T. 
times  was  impularly  called  by  the  Jews  He- 
brew (Acts  vi.  1  and  ix.  29,  in  R.  V.  Grecian 
Jews;  and  xi.  20,  A.  V.  and  margin  of  R.  V.). 
See  Hellenist. 

Greece,  in  A.  V.  of  Daniel  Gre'ci-a  [from 
Gntikoi,  an  old  name  of  a  tribe  in  Epirus,  and 
of  the  Greeks  generally.  It  fell  into  disuse, 
Hellenes  taking  its  place,  but  it  was  revived 
by  Sophocles] . 

A  small  but  highly  celebrated  country  in 
the  southeast  of  Europe.  Its  northern  limit 
was  never  perfectly  defined  ;  it  may.  how- 
ever, be  placed  at  the  Olympian  chain  of 
mountains.  On  the  south  it  was  bounded  by 
the  Mediterranean ;  on  the  east  bj-  the  ^Egean 
Sea,  now  the  Archipelago  ;  and  on  the  west 
by  the  Ionian  Sea,  now  regarded  as  ])art  of 
the  Mediterranean  ;  and  the  Adriatic  Sea, 
now  the  gulf  of  Venice.  Its  position  during 
the  time  when  the  Mediterranean  was  the 
highway  of  civilization  gave  it  unequaled 
advantages,  which  it  was  not  slow  to  seize. 

The  authentic  history  of  Greece  with  its 
first  written  records  dates  from  the  first 
Olympiad,  776  R.  v.  Previous  to  that  time, 
and  including  the  period  known  as  the  heroic 
age,  history  is  so  mingled  with  legend  that  it 
is  difficult  to  separate  truth  from  myth.  It 
seems  certain,  however,  that  the  Greeks  were 
descended  from  four  tribes,  which  in  turn 
claimed  descent  from  a  common  ancestor, 
Hellen.     Of  these   tribes,  the  jEolians  and 


Greece 


267 


Grove 


the  Acbseans  played  a  proniiuent  part  durin": 
the  herciie  au'e,  Htmier  sometimes  speakiiij; 
of  the  wliole  (ireek  i)eople  as  Aeha'aus.  Tlie 
other  two  tribes,  the  Dorians  and  the  louians, 
became  more  important  in  historic  times,  the 
Athenians  and  the  Spartans  being  descended 
from  them  respectively.  The  early  historic 
period,  frcmi  776  B.  c.  to  oOO  B.  c\.  may  be  re- 
garded as  a  period  of  individual  growth  by 
the  did'erent  states  comjirising  the  nation. 
These  states  were  theoretically  independent 
of  each  other,  but  were  united  by  a  common 
language  and  literature,  by  national  games, 
and  a  general  national  development.  There 
were  also  frequent  though  changing  political 
alliances.  During  this  jieriod  the  founda- 
tions of  Gn'ciau  architecture,  art,  literature, 
and  philosophy  were  laid.  (Trecce  was  early 
within  the  geographical  knowledge  of  the 
Hebrews,  who  called  it  Javan.  that  is  Ionia 
(Uen.  X.  4)  :  but  it  was  known  merely  as  a 
country  at  the  ends  of  the  earth  (Is.  Ixvi.  19  ; 
Ezek.  xxvii.  i:> :  Joel  iii.  <>).  A))out  the  year 
.')00  B.  c.  Greece  came  into  prominent  notice 
on  account  of  her  struggle  with  Persia,  at 
that  time  the  great  world-power.  As  early 
as  o4()  Cyrus  captured  Sardis,  the  capital  of 
Lydia.  The  fall  of  this  city  was  followed  by 
the  subjection  of  the  Greek  cities  of  Asia  to 
the  Persian  yoke.  The  Hellespont  was  crossed 
by  the  Persians  in  the  reign  of  Darius,  and 
^lacedonia  submitted  in  510.  But  the  Greek 
cities  of  Asia  rose  and  maintained  determined 
revolt  against  their  conquerors  during  the 
years  500  to  495  ;  and  the  Greeks  of  Europe 
defeated  the  Persians  at  Marathon  in  490, 
and,  after  sutfering  reverses  at  Thermopylfe, 
inflicted  crushing  defeats  upon  them  at  Sala- 
mis  in  480.  and  at  Plata:>a  and  Mycale  in  479. 
The  struggle  with  Persia  resulted  in  drawing 
the  entire  nation  together  under  the  leader- 
ship of  one  state.  The  first  state  to  attain 
this  supremacy  was  Athens.  She  held  the 
leadership  for  70  years,  but  during  the  last 
28  years  of  that  time  the  energies  of  the  na- 
tion were  used  in  carrying  on  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  war.  This  war,  which  began  in  a 
quarrel  between  Corinth  and  her  colonies, 
finally  drew  into  the  struggle  the  Avhole  naval 
and  military  strength  of  the  nation,  led  on 
one  side  by  .Sparta  and  on  the  other  by  Athens. 
The  war  resulted  in  the  downfall!  of  the 
Athenian  power.  Then  followed  the  period 
of  the  Spartan  supremacy,  followed  in  turn 
by  the  Theban  supremacy,  which  lasted  until 
338  B.  c,  when  all  Greece  fell  under  the 
power  of  Philip  of  Macedou,  and  became 
thenceforth  a  part  of  the  Macedonian  empire. 
It  is  under  the  rule  of  Alexander  the  Great 
that  Greece  conies  into  direct  contact  for  the 
first  time  with  .Judsea.  On  bis  march  to  Per- 
sia Alexander  passed  through  .Tudiea.  which 
fell  into  his  hands  without  a  struggle.  See 
Alexander.  From  this  time  (irecian  in- 
fluence sjiread  rapidly  and  took  firm  hold  in 
the  countries  situated  around  the  eastern  end 
of  the  Mediterranean  Sea.      Even  after  the 


Roman  conquest  the  influence  of  the  Greek 
language,  culture,  and  i)hilosoy>hy  remained 
paramount,  and  even  influenced  the  .Jewish 
religion  itself.  In  the  time  of  Christ  the 
Greek  language  was  spoken  throughout  the 
civilized  world.  After  the  death  of  Alexan- 
der, his  empire  fell  into  the  hands  of  liis  gen- 
erals, who  jiarceled  it  out  among  themselves. 
At  first  Greece  proper  was  held  in  the  name 
of  his  infant  son,  but  soon  he,  as  well  as  all 
members  of  Alexander's  family,  were  jiut  to 
death,  and  the  country  became  the  prey  of 
auyoni-  strong  enough  to  take  it.  until  it 
finally  fell  under  the  dominion  of  Rome. 
The  last  struggle  against  Rome  resulted  in 
the  battle  of  Leucoi)atra.  14G  r..  c,  and 
shortly  after  Greece  was  declared  a  Roman 
province.  The  division  of  the  Roman  jiower 
into  the  Eastern  and  Western  empires  revived 
Greek  influence  for  a  time.  The  Eastern  em- 
pire survived  long  after  the  Western  empire 
fell,  but  finally  it  came  to  an  end  in  the  cap- 
ture of  Constantiuoiile  by  the  Turks  in  1453. 

Some  of  the  apostle  Paul's  most  earnest 
labors  took  place  in  Greece,  notably  in  Athens 
and  Corinth,  besides  his  general  travels 
through  Achaia,  the  name  at  that  time  for 
ancient  Greece. 

Greek. 

1.  A  native  of  Greece,  one  of  the  Greek 
race  (Acts  xvi.  1 ;  xvii.  4).  When  Jew  and 
Greek  are  opjiosed  in  the  N.  T.,  the  term 
Greek  is  used  for  a  heathen  in  general,  the 
Greeks  being  looked  on  as  the  highest  tyjie 
of  men  existing  in  the  gentile  world  (Rom. 
i.  14,  16;  X.  12). 

2.  The  language  spoken  by  the  ancient 
Greeks,  and  of  which  that  of  their  modern 
successor  is  only  a  development  (John  xix. 
20;  Acts  xxi.  37";  Rev.  ix.  11).  It  belongs  to 
the  Aryan  family  of  tongues,  having  affini- 
ties to  the  Sanscrit  of  ancient  India,  to 
Latin,  and  to  nearly  all  the  languages  of 
modern  Europe,  not  excepting  our  own.  In 
power  of  full  and  precise  expression  it  more 
nearly  approaches  perfection  than  almost  any 
other  form  of  speech.  The  O.  T.  was  trans- 
lated into  it  before  the  advent  of  Christ  (see 
Septuagixt)  ;  the  X.  T.  (Matthew  iiossibly 
excepted)  was  composed  in  Greek  from  the 
first. 

Grey'hound. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Zarzir,  well 
girt  or  well  knit  in  the  loins,  in  Prov.  xxx. 
31.  The  greyhound  is  figured  on  the  Assyrian 
monuments.  The  word  may,  however,  de- 
note the  war  horse  (R.  \.  margin)  as  orna- 
mented with  girths  and  buckles  about  the 
loins;  or  the  starling,  as  the  corres]ionding 
word  in  Arabic,  .Syriac.  and  post-biblical 
Hebrew,   denotes. 

Grinding.     Sec  ^Iill. 

Grove. 

A  group  or  clump  of  trees.  In  the  A.  V. 
it  is  uniformly  a  mistranslation  of 

1.  The  Hebrew  word  'Eshel  (Gen.  xxi.  33  ; 


Guard 


268 


Habakkuk 


cp.  1  Sam.  xxii.  6).     The  R.  V.  renders  this  a 
tamarisk  tree.     See  Tamarisk. 

2.  The  Hebrew  word  '"shernh,  with  its  two 
plurals  '"nherim  and  '"sheroth  (Ex.  xxxiv.  13, 
and   elsewhere  except  Gen.   xxi.  33).     See 

ASHERAH. 

Guard. 

In  Oriental  countries,  where  the  king,  as  a 
rule,  is  despotic,  measures  which  give  ofl'ense 
excite  hostility  against  him  personally.  This 
necessitates  that  he  should  be  continually  de- 
fended by  a  bodyguard  ;  and  such  a  military 
organization  is  more  than  useless  unless  com- 
plete dependence  can  be  placed  on  its  fidelity. 
Hence,  service  in  the  bodyguard  is  consid- 
ered specially  honorable,  and  its  captain  is  a 
high  officer.  Such  an  appointment  was  filled 
by  Potiphar  (Gen.  xxxvii.  36;  xli.  12),  by 
Benaiah  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  22,  23 ;  1  C'hron.  xviii. 
17),  by  Nebuzaradan  (2  Kin.  xxv.  8 ;  Jer. 
xxxix.  9,  10),  by  Arioch  (Dan.  ii.  14),  and 
others.  The  captain  of  the  guard  and  his 
men  were  often  employed  to  inflict  capi- 
tal punishment  on  political  or  other  ofi'enders. 
In  Mark  vi.  27,  the  Greek  word  is  spehonla- 
tor,  spy.  Such  spies  constituted  a  division  in 
each  Eoman  legion,  and  under  the  empire 
acted  as  the  bodyguard  of  a  general  and  were 
employed  as  messengers  and  to  seek  out  per- 
sons proscribed  or  sentenced  to  death. 

Gud'go-dah.     See  Hor-haggidgad. 

Guest. 

One  temporarily  entertained  in  the  house 
of  another.  It  may  be  used  when  he  is  pres- 
ent only  for  a  few  hours  at  a  feast  (I  Kin.  i. 
41 ;  Zeph.  i.  7;  Mat.  xxii.  10, 11).  Important 
houses  had  a  guest  chamber  (Mark  xiv.  14  ; 
Luke  xxii.  11 ;  cp.  also  2  Kin.  iv.  10).  Great 
consideration  was  shown  to  a  guest  (Gen. 
xviii.  1-8;  xix.  3;  Ex.  ii.  20;  Judg.  xiii.  15; 
xix.  20-24;  Job  xxxi.  32).  Kindness  to 
strangers  was  enjoined  under  the  Mosaic  law 
(Dent.  X.  18,  19),  and  their  entertainment 
was  formally  enjoined  in  the  N.  T.  (Heb. 
xiii.  2;  cp.  Mat.  xxv.  43).  The  rule  obtained, 
which,  being  founded  on  proper  moral  feel- 
ing, was  worthy  of  all  respect,  that  unless 
there  was  a  sincere  desire  to  benefit  the  en- 
tertainer, one  should  not  be  guest  in  the  house 
of  a  notorious  sinner  (Luke  xix.  7). 

Guilt'  Of  fer-ing.     See  Offerings. 

Gu'ni  [painted  with  colors]. 

1.  A  son  of  Naphtali,  and  founder  of  a 
tribal  family  (Gen.  xlvi.  24 ;  Num.  xxvi.  48  ; 
1  Chron.  vii.  13). 

2.  A  Gadite  (1  Chron.  v.  15). 

Gur  [lion's  whelp  or  other  young  animal]. 

An  ascent  near  Ibleam,  where  Ahaziah, 
king  of  Judah,  was  killed  by  order  of  Jehu 
(2  Kin.  ix.  27).     Exact  situation  unknown. 

Gur-ba'al  [sojonrn  of  Baal]. 

A  place  inhabited  by  Arabs  (2  Chron.  xxvi. 
7) ;  probably  in  the  desert  to  the  southeast 
of  Judah. 


Gym-na'si-um,  in  A.  V.  Place  of  Exer- 
cise. 

A  public  place  in  Jerusalem  for  athletic 
exercise  and  exhibitions,  below  the  western 
cloister  of  the  temple  (War  iv.  9,  12 ;  vi.  3, 
2;  6,  2),  below  the  palace  of  the  Asmonseans 
(Antiq.  xx.  8,  11 ;  War  ii.  16,  3),  below  the 
citadel  or  acropolis  (2  Mac.  iv.  12,  27;  not  the 
Syrian  fortress  called  the  Acra,  which  was 
erected  later,  1  Mac.  i.  33).  It  was  situated 
near  the  council  house,  by  the  first  or  inner- 
most wall,  and  at  the  end  of  the  bridge 
which  led  from  the  temple  across  the  Tyro- 
pceon  valley  (War  v.  4,  2;  cp.  vi.  6,  2).  It 
was  erected  by  hellenizing  Jews,  under  the 
leadership  of  Jason,  by  permission  of  Anti- 
ochus  Epiphanes  (1  Mac.  i.  10,  14 ;  2  Mac.  iv. 
7  seq.).  The  essential  features  of  a  gym- 
nasium were:  1.  An  open  court  for  boxing, 
wrestling,  pitching  quoits,  and  throwing  the 
javelin  (2  Mac.  iv.  14,  jjahestra,  di.scus) ;  2. 
A  stadium  or  course  for  the  foot  race  ;  3.  A 
colonnade  for  a  place  of  recreation  and  for 
athletic  exercises  in  winter  (Antiq.  and  War, 
passim  xystos)  ;  4.  A  bathroom.  The  gym- 
nasium at  Jerusalem  was  condemned  by  strict 
Jews  because  it  introduced  heathen  customs  ; 
led  Jewish  youth  to  wear  the  hat  of  Hermes, 
to  exercise  stark  naked  in  public,  and  to  be 
ashamed  of  the  mark  of  their  religion  ;  and 
infected  even  the  priests  and  caused  them  to 
neglect  their  official  duties  (1  Mac.  i.  14,  15; 
2  Mac.  iv.  13-17).  It  existed  until  the  over- 
throw of  the  city  by  Titus  ;  and  was  not  only 
resorted  to  for  athletic  sports,  but  was  also 
occasionally  used  for  popular  assemblies  (War 
ii.  16,  3). 


H. 


Ha-a-hash'ta-ri  [the  Ahashtarite]. 

A  Hezronite,  son  of  Ashhur  (1  Chron.  iv. 
6  ;  cp.  ii.  24). 

Ha-ba'iah  [Jehovah  hath  hidden]. 

Father  of  certain  Jews  claiming  sacerdotal 
descent.  Their  names  not  being  found  in 
the  register,  they  were  put  out  of  the  priest- 
hood (Ezra  ii.  61  ;  Neb.  vii.  63). 

Ha-bak'kuk  [embrace,  or  ])erhaps  the 
name  of  a  garden  plant]. 

A  prophet  of  Judah,  the  details  of  who.se 
life  are  unknown.  It  is  inferred  from  his 
psalm  (chap,  iii.)  and  from  the  directions  to 
the  chief  musician  (19)  that  he  was  of  the 
tribe  of  Levi  and  one  of  the  temple  singers. 

The  book  of  Habakkuk  is  the  eighth  of 
the  minor  prophets.  It  consists  of  1.  A  first 
complaint :  his  cry  to  God  against  violence 
and  wickedness  is  unheeded  (i.  2-4).  The 
Lord's  response :  God  is  raising  up  the  Chal- 
deans to  inflict  punishment  (5-11).  2.  A 
second  complaint :  fear  lest  the  fierceness 
and  wickedness  of  this  instrument  of  judg- 
ment shall  involve  the  good  with  the  bad  in 
the  punishment   (12-17).      The    Lord's    re- 


Habazziniah 


269 


Hadadezer 


spouse  :  the  just  shall  live  by  his  faith  (ii.  1- 
4).  Aceorilingly  faith  in  the  certainty  that 
Cioil  will  iiuni^h  wickedness  enables  the 
prophet  to  i)runouuce  five  woes  against  the 
great  world-jiower  for  five  forms  of  wicked- 
ness (O-20).  3.  A  jirayer  of  praise  (iii.  1-19), 
in  which  after  an  invocation  and  a  petition 
that  (iod  in  wrath  renienil)er  mercy  (2),  the 
proi)het  describes  God's  appearance  in  maj- 
esty and  the  ensuing  consternatiou  of  his 
enemies  (3-1")),  and  expresses  the  quiet  cou- 
tidence  of  taith  in  God  (1(5-19). 

The  book  is  not  dated,  but  was  evidently  a 
production  of  the  Chaldean  period.  1.  The 
temjile  is  still  standing  (ii.  20),  and  musical 
service  is  conducted  (iii.  19).  2.  The  rise  of 
the  Chaldeans  to  a  formidable  power  among 
the  nations  occurs  during  that  generation  (i. 
5,  (i).  and  the  slaying  of  the  nations  by  the 
Chaldeans  had  already  begun  (6,  17). 

The  Chaldeans  and  their  method  of  war- 
fare had  ))een  long  known  to  the  Hebrews. 
They  began,  however,  their  great  career  of 
subjugation,  and  attained  to  the  leading  place 
among  the  powers  of  the  world  by  their  over- 
throw of  Nineveh  in  607  B.  c,  and  their  vic- 
torj-  over  the  Egyptians  at  Carchemish  in  605. 
!Most  critics  accordingly  date  the  prophecy  in 
the  early  part  of  Jehoiachim's  reign,  about 
the  time  of  the  battle  of  Carchemish.  It 
may,  however,  antedate  the  fall  of  Nineveh 
by  some  years.  Babylonian  captivity  had 
been  long  predicted  (Mic.  iv.  10;  Is.  xi.  11  ; 
xsxix.  6,  7),  and  events  before  the  fall  of 
Nineveh  indicated  that  the  time  prophesied 
was  at  hand. 

Hab-az-zi-ni'ah,  in  A.  V.  Habaziniah. 

A  Kechabite  who  lived  long  before  Jere- 
miah (Jer.  XXXV.  3). 

Ha-ber'ge-on  [a  small  hauberk]. 

A  coat  of  mail  to  defend  the  breast  and 
neck  (2  Chron.  xxvi.  14;  Neh.  iv.  16;  in  R. 
V.  coat  of  mail).  In  Job  xli.  26,  R.  V.  on 
good  grounds  substitutes  pointed  shaft  in  the 
text,  and  places  coat  of  mail  in  the  mar- 
gin. Habergeon,  or  coat  of  mail,  is  also  used 
to  translate  a  dill'erent  Hebrew  word  of  un- 
certain meaning  in  Ex.  xxviii.  32  ;  xxxix.  23. 

Ha'bor  [joining  to]. 

A  river  of  ^Mesopotamia  to  which  cap- 
tives from  the  ten  tribes  were  carried  (2  Kin. 
xvii.  6;  xviii.  11;  1  Chron.  v.  26).  It  has 
been  identified  as  the  Khabour,  which,  floM'- 
ing  southward  through  Mesopotamia,  after  a 
course  of  190  miles,  falls  into  the  eastern  side 
of  the  Euphrates  at  Kerkisij'eh,  the  ancient 
Circesium.  Those  who  regard  Gozan  as  a  river 
identify  the  Habor  with  that  eastern  branch 
of  the  Tigris  above  Nineveh  which  bears  the 
same  name. 

Hach-a-li'ali  [Jehovah  is  dark  (from  dis- 
pleasuri-i]. 

The  father  of  Nehemiah  (Neh.  i.  1). 

Hach'i-lah  [dark,  gloomy]. 

A  hill  in  the  wilderness  of  Ziph  (1  Sam. 
xxvi.  1-3),  southeast  of  Hebron,  and  on  the 


south  of  the  desert,  not  far  from  Maon  (xxiii. 
19,  24-26).  David  concealed  himself  there 
whilst  fleeing  from  .Saul,  and  there  Saul 
afterwards  encamped  when  engaged  in  his 
pursuit. 

Hacli'mo-ni  [wise]. 

The  founder  of  the  Hachmonite  family,  the 
members  of  which  are  called  sons  of  Hach- 
moni  (1  Chron.  xi.  11  ;  xxvii.  32),  or  simply 
Uachmonites  (cp.  2  Sam.  xxiii.  8). 

Ha'dad,  I.  [sharpness,  fierceness]. 

A  son  of  Ishmael  (Gen.  xxv.  15.  in  A.  V., 
following  present  Hebrew  text,  Hadar;  1 
Chron.  i.  30). 

Ha'dad,  II. 

1.  A  deity  worshiped  by  the  Aramaeans.  It 
occurs  in  jirojier  names,  as  in  Beuhadad, 
Hadadezer.  The  Assyrian  scribes  identified 
Hadad  with  their  own  weather-god  Rammau, 
i.  e.,  Rimmon. 

2.  A  king  of  Edom,  son  of  Bedad,  and  of 
the  city  of  Avith.  He  smote  Midian  in  the 
field  of  Moab  (Gen.  xxxvi.  35,  36 ;  1  Chron.  i. 
46,  47). 

3.  A  king  of  Edom,  whose  city  was  Pan  or 
Pai  (1  Chron.  i.  .50).  In  Gen.  xxxvi.  39  he  is 
called  Hadar.    See  Daleth. 

4.  An  Edomite  prince,  who  escaped  from 
his  country  when  Joab,  at  the  head  of  the 
Israelite  army,  was  engaged  for  six  months 
in  the  cruel  task  of  cutting  off  every  male  in 
Edom.  Hadad  was  then  a  little  child,  and 
was  taken  by  his  guardians  to  Egypt,  where 
he  was  received  with  much  kindness  by 
Pharaoh,  the  king,  who  as.signed  him  a  man- 
sion and  an  estate,  provided  him  with  food, 
and  gave  him  an  Egyptian  princess,  sister  of 
the  (lueen,  to  wife.  But  when  Hadad  was 
grown  to  manhood,  and  heard  that  David 
and  Joab,  the  great  foes  of  his  race,  were 
dead,  love  of  country  made  him  determine 
to  return  home,  and,  bidding  adieu  to  the 
king  of  Egypt,  he  departed  for  Edom,  and 
on  arriving  became  an  adversary  to  Solomon, 
moved,  it  would  appear,  mainly  by  the  con- 
sideration that  he  was  David's  son  (1  Kin.  xi. 
14-22). 

Ha-dad-e'zer  [Hadad  is  a  help]. 

Son  of  Rehob  and  king  of  Zobah,  in  Syria. 
When  going  to  recover  his  border  at  the  river 
Euphrates,  he  was  met  and  defeated  by  king 
David.  The  Syrians  of  Damascus,  who  after- 
wards arrived  to  assist  him,  shared  his  fate. 
From  Betah  and  Berothai,  cities  of  Hadad- 
ezer, David  took  much  brass  or  copper.  Toi, 
king  of  Hamath,  probably  a  Hittite  by  race, 
had  formerly  been  at  war  with  Hadadezer, 
and  he  congratulated  David  on  his  victory 
(2  Sam.  viii.  3-13;  1  Chron.  xviii.  3-10). 
Hadadezer  is  frequently  called  Hadarezer, 
the  latter  form  being  doubtless  an  early  mis- 
reading of  daleth ;  see  D.\^leth.  He  is  the 
same  king  who,  renewing  the  war  with  David, 
became  confederate  with  the  Ammonites,  and 
sent  his  army,  led  by  his  general,  Shobach, 
to  try  another  engagement  with  their  com- 


Hadadrimmon 


270 


Haggai 


mon  foe.  Again  it  pleased  God  that  David 
should  be  victorious,  and  Shobach  was  among 
the  slain.  The  dependent  kings  who  had 
served  Hadadezer  now  made  peace  with 
David,  and  Hadade/er  is  heard  of  no  more 
(2  8ani.  x.  6-19  ;  1  Chron.  xix.  16-19). 

Ha-dad-rim'mon  [Hadad  and  Rimmon, 
two  Syrian  divinities].  Eimmon  means  also 
a  pomegranate. 

A  city  in  the  plain  of  Jezreel,  near  Megiddo 
(Zech.  xii.  11).  Jerome  says  that  it  was  the 
place  in  his  day  called  Maximianopolis.  This 
is  now  called  Rummaneh.  and  is  about  a 
mile  northwest  by  west  of  Taanach. 

Ha'dar.     See  Hadad,  I.  and  II. 

Ha-dar-e'zer.     See  Hadadkzek. 

Had'a-shah  [new]. 

A  village  in  or  near  the  lowland  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  I!?).     It  has  not  been  identified. 

Ha-das'sah  [a  myrtle]. 

The  original  Jewish  name  of  queen  Esther 
(Esth.  ii.  7).  The  name  has  a  certain  simi- 
larity in  sound  to  that  of  Atossa,  who  was 
the  mother  of  Xerxes  (Herod,  vii.  2).  But 
the  women  were  diiiereut.  Esther  was  his 
queen. 

Ha-dat'tah.     See  Hazor-hadattah. 

Ha'des.     See  Hell  1. 

Ha'did  [sharp,  pointed  ;  a  point]. 

A  town  of  Benjamin,  mentioned  in  con- 
nection with  Lod,  i.  e.  Lydda  (Ezra  ii.  33; 
Neh.  xi.  34).  It  is  commonly  identified  with 
Adida,  a  town  built  upon  a  hill  of  the  Shephe- 
lah  and  overlooking  the  plain  (1  Mac.  xii.  38  ; 
xiii.  13  ;  Antiq.  xiii.  6,  5).  Its  site  is  located 
at  Haditheh,  3  miles  east  of  Lydda. 

Had'lai  [frail]. 

A  man  of  Ephraim  (2  Chron.  xxviii.  12). 

Ha-do'ram. 

1.  An  Arabian  tribe  descended  from  Jok- 
tan  (Gen.  x.  27;  1  Chron.  i.  21). 

2.  A  son  of  the  king  of  Hamath  (1  Chron. 
xviii.  10).     See  Joram  1. 

3.  An  officer  over  Rehoboam's  levy  (2  Chron. 
x.  18).     See  Adoniram. 

Ha'drach. 

A  country  mentioned  in  connection  with 
Damascus  and  Hamath  (Zech.  ix.  1),  and,  in 
Assyrian  inscriptions,  with  Zobah  also.  Its 
exact  situation  is  unknown. 

Ha'gab  [a  locust]. 

Founder  of  a  family  of  Nethinim  (Ezra 
ii.  46). 

Hag'a-bah  or  Hagaba  [a  locust]. 

Founder  of  a  family  of  Nethinim,  distinct 
from  that  of  Hagab  (Ezra  ii.  4.5  ;  Neh.  vii.  48). 

Ha'gar,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  both  times  Agar, 
in  imitation  of  the  Greek  [if  Hebrew,  flight]. 

An  Egyjitiau  bondwoman  of  Sarah,  prob- 
ably obtained  during  Abraham's  sojourn  in 
Egypt  (Gen.  xvi.  1 ;  ep.  xii.  10).  After  Abra- 
ham had  been  ten  years  in  Canaan,  and  the 
promised   son   had   not  been   born   to   him, 


Sarah,  now  76  years  old,  despaired  of  sharing 
in  the  promise,  and  proposed  earthlj-  means 
to  secure  a  son  to  Abraham  and  obtain  the 
name  of  mother.  In  accordance  with  a  cu.s- 
tom  of  the  times,  she  gave  her  maid  to  Abra- 
ham. When  Hagar  perceived  herself  to  be 
with  child  she  despised  her  misti-ess;  and, 
being  treated  by  her  harshly,  fled  into  the 
wilderness.  There  the  angel  of  the  Lord 
found  her  at  a  fountain  between  Shur  and 
Bered,  revealed  to  her  the  future  of  the  child 
she  was  to  bear,  and  bade  her  return  to  her 
mistress.  Hagar  called  the  name  of  the  place 
"the  well  of  the  living  one  who  seeth  me" 
(Gen.  xvi.  1-16).  She  then  returned  to  her 
mistress,  and  in  due  time  gave  birth  to  Ish- 
mael.  Some  fifteen  years  later  the  youth 
Ishmael  mocked  at  the  child  Isaac.  For  this 
offense  Hagar,  with  a  skin  of  water  on  her 
shoulder,  and  Ishmael  (for  form  of  expres.sion 
cp.  xliii.  15)  were  expelled  with  God's  ap- 
proval from  the  family  of  Abraham.  They 
wandered  in  the  wilderness  of  Beer-sheba 
until  the  water  was  spent.  The  exhausted 
boy  whom  she  had  been  supporting  she  cast, 
as  one  would  a  sick  person  (Mat.  xv.  30), 
under  the  shade  of  a  bush,  and  sat  down  a 
bow-shot  off"  that  she  might  not  see  him  die. 
Again  the  angel  of  the  Lord  intervened,  di- 
recting her  to  a  well  in  the  vicinity,  and  re- 
minding hei  of  the  promise  concerning  the 
boy.  The  la.st  we  hear  of  Hagar  is  her  taking 
a  wife  for  her  son  out  of  the  land  of  Egypt, 
whence  she  herself  had  originally  come  (xxi. 
1-21).     For  Gal.  iv.  21-31,  see  Ishmael. 

Ha-gar-ene',  Ha'gar-ite,  and  Ha'ger-ite. 

See  Hagkite. 

Hag'ga-i  [festal,  perhaps  as  born  on  a  fes- 
tival day]. 

A  prophet,  contemporary  with  Zechariah 
(Hag.  i.  1  with  Zech.  i.  1).  He  prophesied 
after  the  return  from  Babylon.  The  work 
on  the  temple  had  ceased  for  lr>  years,  and 
Haggai  was  largely  instrumental  in  arousing 
the  people  to  proceed  with  the  building 
(Ezra  V.  1,  2;  vi.  14). 

The  book  of  Haggai  is  the  tenth  of  the  minor 
prophets.  It  consists  of  four  pro]>hecies  de- 
livered within  the  space  of  four  months  in  the 
second  year  of  Darius  Hystaspis,  520  b.  c. 

1.  On  the  fii-st  day  of  the  6th  month  the 
prophet  reproaches  those  who  left  the  temple 
in  ruins,  and  built  ceiled  houses  for  them- 
selves, and  he  points  out  that  God's  blessing 
is  withholden  from  their  ordiuary  labor. 
In  consequence  of  this  exhortation,  work  on 
the  temple  was  resumed  on  the  twenty-fourth 
day  of  the  same  month  (i.). 

2.  In  the  7th  month,  21st  day,  he  en- 
courages those  who  mourn  over  the  humble 
character  of  the  new  building  as  compared 
with  the  splendor  of  the  old  edifice.  He 
predicts  that  the  latter  glory  of  the  house 
shall  be  greater  than  the  former  glory,  for 
God  will  shake  the  nations  and  the  desirable 
things  of  all  nations,  their  silver  and  gold, 


Haggeri 


271 


Halah 


shall  conic  and  fill  the  house  with  glory,  and 
God  will  give  peace  in  that  place  (ii.  1-9 ; 
Heb.  xii.  2iW2S). 

3.  In  the  9th  month,  24th  day,  he  adds  a 
sequel  to  the  first  prophecy.  As  the  touch 
of  the  unclean  pollutes  the  clean,  so  their 
former  neglect  of  God  polluted  their  labor 
and  God  did  not  bestow  his  blessing.  But 
their  revivi'd  zeal  for  God  will  be  accom- 
panied bv  fruitful  seasons  from  the  Lord  (ii. 
10-19). 

4.  On  the  s;ime  day  he  adds  a  sequel  to  the 
second  proi>hecy.  When  the  Lord  shakes 
the  nations,  he  will  establish  Zerubbabel, 
who  represents  the  royal  line  of  David  (ii. 
20-'j:ji. 

Hag'ge-ri.     See  Hagri. 

Hag'gi  [festal  or  festival  of  (Jehovah)]. 

A  son  of  Gad,  and  founder  of  a  tribal  fam- 
ily (Gcu.  xlvi.  16 ;  Num.  xxvi.  15). 

Hag-gi'ah  [a  festival  of  Jehovah]. 

A  Levite,  a  descendant  of  Merari  (1  Chron. 
vi.  30). 

Hag'gith  [festal]. 

One  of  David's  wives,  the  mother  of  Ado- 
nijah  (2  .Sam.  iii.  4;  1  Kin.  i.  5). 

Ha'gri,  in  A.  V.  Haggeri. 

Rather  an  adjective  than  a  proper  name 
(1  Chron.  xi.  38);  see  Mibh.\k. 

Ha'grite ;  in  A.  V.  Hagarite,  and  once 
Hagerite,  and  once,  in  Ps.  Ixxxiii.  6,  Haga- 
renes,  in  which  passage  R.  V.  in  its  text  fol- 
lows A.  V. 

A  nomad  people  who  dwelt  throughout  all 
the  land  east  of  Gilead,  and  were  rich  in 
camels,  sheep,  and  asses.  During  the  reign 
of  Saul  they  were  vanquished,  and  in  a  large 
measure  destroved,  by  the  Israelite  tribes  east 
of  the  Jordan"  (1  Chron.  v.  10,  18-22).  A 
Hagrite  had  charge  of  David's  flocks  (1 
Chron.  xxvii.  31).  They  are  the  Agraoi  of 
the  Greek  geographers.  It  is  questionable 
whether  their  name  is  at  all  connected  with 
the  town  Hejer  or  Hejera,  in  the  Arabian 
desert  near  the  Persian  Gulf. 

Ha'i.     See  Ai. 

Hail. 

Small  globules  of  ice  formed  of  raindrops 
which  have  been  carried  into  a  cold  stratum 
of  the  atmosphere.  Hail  falls  not  merely 
in  cold  and  temperate  climates,  but  in  hot, 
nay,  even  in  tropical  latitudes,  where  snow 
and  ice  are  not  to  be  found,  except  at  great 
elevations.  When  it  falls  in  the  warmer  re- 
gions, it  tends  to  be  larger  than  in  temperate 
countries,  as  raindrops  also  are  larger.  In 
all  places  two  or  more  hailstones  can  unite  so 
as  to  make  an  irregularly  shaped  mass  of 
ice,  which,  when  large,  becomes  formidable 
by  the  momentum  with  which  it  descends. 
Hail  occasionally  falls  in  Egypt  (Ex.  ix.  22- 
25)  between  December  and  Ai)ril.  It  is  more 
frequent  in  Palestine  (Josh.  x.  11  :  Hag.  ii. 
17).  The  area  affected  by  a  hailstorm  is 
generally  a  long,  narrow  line,  so  that  of  two 


places  near  each  other,  one  may  be  in  and 
the  other  out  of  the  storm.  Thus  Goshen 
might  oscaiic  it,  wliilst  the  adjacent  di.strict 
of  Egypt  to  tile  wi'stwanl  might  be  in  its 
track  and  sutler  severely  (Ex.  ix.  2(j) ;  and  a 
pursuing  army  might  be  untoucheel  by  the 
storm,  and  yet  see  their  fleeing  foes  beaten 
down  by  the  falling  stones  (Josh.  x.  11). 

Hair. 

The  natural  covering  and  ornament  of  the 
head.  In  Egypt  men  ordinarily  shaved  the 
head,  but  when  mourning  let  tlie  hair  grow 
(Herod,  ii.  StJ;  iii.  12).  The  Assyrians  wore 
it  long  (i.  195),  falling  to  the  shoulders.  The 
Israelites  also  woi-e  it  tolerably  long  ;  but  cut 
it  to  prevent  its  reaching  an  extreme  length 
(cp.  Num.  vi.  5 :  2  Sam.  xiv.  26 ;  Antiq.  xiv: 
9,  4),  and  the  services  of  the  barber  were 
sometimes  employed  (Ezek.  v.  1).  Hebrew 
women  wore  the  hair  long  (Song.  vii.  5 ; 
Eev.  ix.  8;  cp.  1  Cor.  xi.  15),  binding  it  up 
or  braiding  it  (Judith  x.  3;  xvi.  8;  1  Tim. 
ii.  9  ;  1  Pet.  iii.  3).  Oil  was  used  for  the  hair 
by  both  men  and  women  (Ps.  xxiii.  5 ;  Mat. 
vi.  17).  Herod  the  Great,  in  order  to  con- 
ceal his  age,  dyed  his  hair  black  (Antiq.  xvi. 
8,  1).  The  priests  were  forbidden  to  make 
any  baldness  upon  the  head  (Lev.  xxi.  5), 
and  none  of  the  Israelites  was  allowed  to 
make  a  baldness  between  the  eyes  for  the 
dead  (Deut.  xiv.  1) :  for  it  was  a  disfigui-e- 
ment  of  the  body  which  God  had  created. 
The  captive  woman  who  was  cho.sen  by  a 
Hebrew  for  his  wife,  and  the  leper  in  the 
day  of  his  cleansing  were  required  to  shave 
the  head  for  purposes  of  purification  (Lev. 
xiv.  8,  9;  Deut.  xxi.  12).  The  Nazirite  also, 
when  the  time  of  his  service  was  ended, 
shaved  his  head  as  a  sign  of  the  fulfillment 
of  his  vow  (Num.  vi.  18).     See  Beard. 

Hak'ka-tan  [the  small  or  the  younger]. 
Father  of  a  certain  Johanan  (Ezra  viii.  12). 

Hak'koz,  in  A.  Y.  sometimes  Koz,  once 
Coz,  the  first  syllable  being  omitted  since  it 
is  the  definite  article  [the  thorn]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Aaron.  His  family 
had  grown  to  a  fi^ther's  house  in  the  time  of 
David  and  was  made  the  seventh  of  the 
twenty-four  courses  into  which  David  dis- 
tributed the  priests  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  1,  6,  10). 
Perhaps  it  was  members  of  this  family  who 
returned  from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel,  but, 
failing  to  find  their  register  and  establish 
their  genealogy,  were  put  from  the  priest- 
hood (Ezra  ii.  61,  62  ;  Neh.  yii.  63,  64).  They 
appear  to  have  eventually  succeeded,  how- 
ever, in  establishing  their  right  to  the  office 
(Neh.  iii.  21 :  c]).  Ezra  viii.  33). 

2.  A  man  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  iv.  8). 

Ha-ku'pha  [bent,  bowed,  curved]. 

Founder  of  a  family  of  Nethinim  (Ezra  ii. 
51 ;  Neh.  vii.  53). 

Ha'lah. 

A  district  of  the  Assyrian  empire,  to  which 
captives  from  the  ten  tribes  were  carried  (2 


Halak 


272 


Hamath 


Kin.  xvii.  6;  xviii.  11  ;  1  Chron.  v.  26).  Prob- 
ably the  district  kni)\vn  later  as  Cbalkitis,  iu 
Mesopotamia,  uear  Gozau,  in  tbe  basin  of  tbe 
Habor  and  the  Saokoras  (Ptolem.  v.  18,  4). 
Those  who  identify  the  Habor  with  the  east- 
ern tributary  of  the  Tigris  bearing  that  name 
are  apt,  however,  to  identify  Halali  with  the 
province  of  Kahichene  (Strabo  xi.  8,  4 ; 
Ptolem.  vi.  1),  on  the  eastern  side  of  the 
Tigris  near  Adiabene,  north  of  Nineveh  ou 
the  borders  of  Armenia. 

Ha'lak  [smooth,  bare]. 

A  mountain  in  the  south  of  Palestine  on 
the  way  to  mount  Seir  (Josh.  xi.  17  ;  xii.  7). 
Its  identity  has  not  been  established. 

Hal'hul  [perhaps,  opening]. 

A  village  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  58).  The  Arabs  still  call  the  vil- 
lage Hulhul  or  Halhul.  It  is  3J  miles  north 
of  Hebron.  It  is  a  place  of  pilgrimage,  being 
regarded  as  the  birthplace  of  the  prophet  Gad, 

Ha'li  [necklace,  collar]. 

A  village  on  the  boundary  line  of  Asher 
(Josh.  xix.  25).  Guerin  suggests  Khurbet 
'Alia,  13  miles  northeast  of  Acre. 

Hal-i-car-nas'sus. 

A  city  of  Caria,  renowned  as  being  the 
birthplace  of  Herodotus  and  as  containing 
the  mausoleum  erected  by  Artemisia,  which 
was  reckoned  one  of  the  seven  wonders  of 
the  world.  Alexander  captured  and  almo.st 
totally  destroyed  the  city  in  334  b.  c.  It 
continued  to  exist,  but  did  not  thrive.  It 
contained  a  colony  of  Jews  (1  Mac.  xv.  23 ; 
Antiq.  xiv.  10,  23). 

Hall. 

A  building,  or  large  room  in  a  building,  de- 
voted to  public  use.     In  A.  V.  it  denotes 

1.  The  court  of  the  high  priest's  palace 
(Luke  xxii.  55;  in  the  R.  V.  court). 

2.  The  official  residence  of  the  provincial 
governor,  with  its  court  where  he  sat  iu 
judgment.  It  was  called  the  prsetorium 
(Mark  xv.  16;  also  Mat.  xxvii.  27;  John 
xviii.  28,  33;  xix.  9;  Acts  xxiii.  .35,  where 
E.  V.  has  palace  or  prsEtorium).     See  Pr^- 

TORIUM. 

Hal-le-lu'jah,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Alleluia, 
in  imitation  of  the  Greek  modification 
[praise  ye  Jehovah]. 

A  compound  word  used  by  the  writers  of 
various  psalms  to  invite  all  to  join  them  in 
praising  Jehovah  (R.  V.  margin  of  Ps.  civ.  35 ; 
cv.  45 ;  cvi.  1,  48 ;  cxi.  1 ;  cxii.  1 ;  cxiii.  1, 9 ;  cxv. 
18  ;  cxvi.  19  ;  cxvii.  2  ;  cxxxv.  1,  21  ;  first  and 
last  vers,  of  cxlvi.-cl. ;  cp.  A.  V.  margin  also). 
From  these  psalms  John  borrowed  the  term 
Alleluia  (Rev.  xix.  1,  3,  4,  6). 

Hal-lo'hesh,  in  A.  V.  once  Halohesh  [the 
enchanter,  the  wizard]. 

Father  of  a  certain  Shallum  (Xeh.  iii.  12). 
With  Nehemiah  he  or  the  representative  of 
his  family  sealed  the  covenant  to  worship 
Jehovah  (x.  24). 

Ham,  I.    [meaning  uncertain  ;  if  Semitic, 


possibly  dark-skinned  or,  perhaps  better, 
hot]. 

The  youngest  son  of  Noah,  born  after  the 
latter's  five  hundredth  year  (Gen.  v.  32 ; 
vi.  10  ;  ix.  24).  At  the  time  of  the  deluge  he 
was  married,  but  apparently  had  no  children 
(Gen.  vii.  7;  1  Pet.  iii.  20).  After  that  event 
he  behaved  undutifully  ou  occasion  of  his 
father's  drunkenness,  and  incurred  a  curse  to 
descend  upon  such  of  his  posterity  as  exhib- 
ited like  degraded  character  (Gen.  ix.  22-27). 
The  peoples  of  southern  Arabia,  Ethiopia, 
Egypt,  and  Canaan  were  largely  descended 
from  Ham,  and  iu  part  were  made  his  sons 
by  conquest  and  annexation  (Gen.  x.  6-14). 

Ham,  II.  [Egyptian  kam,  black,  so  called 
from  the  color  of  the  alluvial  mud  of  the 
Nile]. 

Egypt.  Used  in  the  Bible  only  in  poetry 
(Ps.  Ixxviii.  51 ;  cv.  23,  27  ;  cvi.  22). 

Ham,  III.  [meaning  unknown.  The  initial 
Hebrew  letter  is  difierent  from  that  in  I. 
and  II.]. 

A  place  between  Ashteroth-karnaim  in 
Bashan  and  the  Moabite  country,  where 
Chedorlaomer  defeated  the  Zuzim  (Gen.  xiv. 
5 ;  cp.  Deut.  ii.  10).  The  order  of  enumera- 
tion makes  it  probable  that  Ham  was  north 
of  Kiriathaim  and  the  Arnon  ;  but  Schwartz, 
followed  by  Tristram,  would  identify  it  with 
the  ruin  called  Hammat,  'Animah  or  Hamei- 
tat,  on  the  east  side  of  the  Roman  road,  3 
miles  north  of  Rabbath  Moab. 

Ha'man  [possibly,  overthrower  of  all]. 

A  high  official  at  the  court  of  the  Persian 
king  Ahasuerus.  He  was  the  son  of  Ham- 
medatha  the  Agagite  (Esth.  iii.  1),  which, 
though  his  father  bore  a  Persian  name,  may 
mean  that  he  was  of  Amalekite  descent  and 
of  the  royal  family  of  that  Arabian  tribe.  Ex- 
alted by  his  despotic  sovereign  to  high  rank, 
all  time-servers  paid  him  ostentations  rever- 
ence. But  on  account  of  his  uni)riiKipled  char- 
acter, perhaps  also  for  other  reasons.  Mordecai, 
Esther's  uncle,  deliberately  withheld  from 
him  all  courtesy.  Haman  planned  revenge, 
but  he  went  beyond  even  the  ample  latitude 
allowed  to  vindictiveness  in  the  old  Asiatic 
empires  when  he  plotted  the  destruction,  not 
of  Mordecai  alone,  but  of  the  whole  national- 
ity to  which  he  belonged.  How  Esther, 
prompted  by  Mordecai,  thwarted  his  malig- 
nant endeavors,  and  brought  Haman  to  the 
gallows  and  his  ten  sons  to  death,  is  told  in 
the  article  Esther. 

Ha'math,  in  A.  V.  once  Hemath  (Amos  vi. 
14)  and  once  AmatMs  (1  Mac.  xii.  25)  [fortifi- 
cation, citadel]. 

1.  A  city  on  the  Orontes,  north  of  Hermon 
(Josh.  xiii.  5),  about  120  miles  north  of  Da- 
mascus. It  was  an  early  settlement  of  the 
Canaanites  (Gen.  x.  IK).  Toi,  its  king,  con- 
gratulated David  on  his  victory  over  Hadad- 
ezer,  their  common  enemy  (2  Sam.  viii.  9, 10; 
1  Chron.  xviii  3,  9,  10).  'Solom(m  took  Ha- 
math,  with  the  district  subject  to  it,  building 


Hamathites 


273 


Hamuel 


witliin  the  hitter  store  cities  (2  Cbron.  viii. 
3,  4).  It  scH)U,  however,  reverted  to  its  old 
iuliabitants.  Jeroboam  II.,  king  of  Israel, 
captured  Damascus  and  Ilamath,  which  stood 
in  close  relations  to  Judah,  and  kept  them 
for  the  ten  tribes  (2  Kin.  xiv.  28).  About 
this  time  Amos  (vi.  2)  called  the  city  Ha- 
math  the  great.  It  was  again  for  a  short 
time  free,  and  relying  upon  Judah  for  aid ; 
but  it  was  conquered  by  the  Assyrians  (2  Kiu. 
xviii.  34  ;  xix.  13).  After  the  capture  of  Sa- 
maria by  the  Assyrians,  it  joined  with  the 
remnant  of  the  inhabitants  of  that  city  in 
revolt,  720  B.  c.  But  the  upri.sing  was  quickly 
suppressed  by  Sargon.  Colonists  from  Ha- 
math,  who  brought  with  them  Ashima,  their 
god,  were  placed  by  the  Assyrians  in  Sa- 
maria (2  Kiu.  xvii.  24,  30),  w'hile  some  of  the 
exiles  of  Israel  seem  to  have  been  located  in 
Hamath  (Is.  xi.  11).  Afterwards  its  history 
becomes  merged  in  that  of  Syria,  and  it 
seems  to  have  become  subordinate  to  Damas- 
cus (Jer.  xlix.  23).  Ezekiel  prophesied  that 
the  restored  land  of  Israel  should  still  ex- 
tend northward  to  Hamath  (Ezek.  xlvii.  16, 
17,  20;  xlviii.  1).  Hamath  was  known  as 
Epiphania  during  the  period  of  Grecian  su- 
premacy (Antiq.  i.  6,  2),  but  is  now  called 
Hama  or  Hamah. 

2.  Tlie  district  ruled  by  the  city  (1  Mac. 
xii.  25).  One  of  its  towns  was  Eiblah  (2  Kin. 
xxiii.  33). 

The  entering  in  of  Hamath,  that  is,  to  judge 
from  the  similar  phrase  elsewhere  (Gen.  xiii. 
10),  the  neighborhood  of  Hamath,  was  re- 
garded as  the  northern  border  of  Israel  (Num. 
xiii.  21 ;  xxxiv.  8  ;  1  Kin.  viii.  65).  To  people 
on  the  south  the  term  may  have  had  special 
meaning,  and  denoted  the  long  valley  of 
Ccelesyria,  between  Lebanon  and  Anti-Leba- 
non, through  which  the  road  to  Hamath  lay. 
Porter  considers  that  it  was  the  pass  between 
Lebanon  and  the  Xusairiyeh  mountains, 
about  60  miles  north  of  Beirut,  connecting 
the  inland  region  of  Syria  with  the  coast  of 
the  Mediterranean. 

Ha'math-ites. 

The  people  of  Hamath  (Gen.  x.  18). 

Ha-matli-zo'bah. 

The  neighbor  kingdoms  of  Hamath  and 
Zobah,  or  some  small  place  called  Hamath, 
belonging  to  the  Syrian  kingdom  Zobah.  It 
was  captured  by  Solomon  (2  Chron.  viii.  3). 

Ham'math,  in  A.  Y.  once  Hemath  (1  Chron. 
ii.  55)  [warmth,  hot  springs]. 

1.  A  fenced  city  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  xix. 
35).  Probably  one  with  Hammoth-dor  and 
Hammon,  which  was  a.ssigned  to  the  Levites 
(xxi.  .32 ;  1  CTaron.  vi.  76),  and  to  be  identified 
with  Emmaus.  a  village  with  warm  baths  at 
a  little  distance  from  Tiberias  (Antiq.  xviii. 
2.  3  ;  War  iv.  1,  3).  It  is  now  called  Hum- 
mam  Ibrahim  Basha,  and  is  on  the  western 
shore  of  the  sea  of  Galilee,  about  H  miles 
south  of  Titierias.  The  water  is  sulphurous 
and  medicinal. 
18 


2.  The  founder  of  the  house  of  Eechab,  a 
family  of  the  Kenites  (1  Chron.  ii.  55).  The 
A.  V.  has  here  Hemath. 

Ham-med'a-tha. 

An  Agagite,  father  of  Hamau  (Esth.  iii.  1). 

Ham'me-lech  [the  king]. 

Father  of  Jerahmeel  (Jer.  xxxvi.  26,  A.  V. 
and  margin  of  K.  V.).  The  word  suggests, 
however,  that  Jerahmeel  was  of  royal  blood, 
son  of  the  king  (K.  V.). 

Ham'mer. 

A  tool,  called  in  Hebrew  Patfish,  and  used 
for  smoothing  metals  and  for  breaking  rocks 
(Is.  xli.  7;  Jer.  xxiii.  29).  It  serves  as  a 
figure  for  any  crushing  power.  Babylon  was 
the  hammer  of  the  whole  earth  (Jer.  1.  23). 
God's  word  is  like  a  hammer  that  breaketh 
the  rock  in  pieces  (xxiii.  29).  Other  names 
for  an  implement  of  the  same  class  are  mak- 
kabah  and  makkebeth,  used  for  driving  the 
tent  pin  (Judg.  iv.  21).  in  building  operations 
(1  Kin.  vi.  7),  and  in  the  manufacture  of  idols 
(Is.  xliv.  12;  Jer.  x.  4). 

Ham-miph'kad.     See  Miphkad. 

Ham-more-keth  [the  queen]. 

A  ]\Ianassite,  sister  of  Gilead  (1  Chron.  vii. 
18).     Several  tribal  families  sprang  from  her. 

Ham'mon  [warm,  sunny]. 

1.  A  frontier  village  of  Asher  (Josh.  xix. 
28).  Perhaps  10  miles  south  of  Tyre  and 
about  a  mile  from  the  beach,  at  'Ain  HamM, 
3  of  a  mile  from  Umm  el-'Amud,  where,  as 
Eenan  has  shown,  Baal  Hammon  was  wor- 
shiped. 

2.  A  town  of  Kaphtali.     See  Hammath. 

Ham'moth-dor  [warm  springs  of  Dor].  See 
Hammath. 

Ham-mu'el,  in  A.  Y.  Hamuel  [warmth  of 
God]. 

A  Simeonite,  son  of  Mishma,  probably  of 
the  family  of  Shaul  (1  Chron.  iv.  26). 

Ham-o'nali  [abundance,  multitude]. 

The  name  to  be  given  to  the  city  near 
which  Gog  is  to  be  defeated  (Ezek.  xxxix. 
16).     Situation  unknown. 

Ha'mon-gog  [multitude  of  Gog]. 

A  name  to  be  given  to  a  certain  valley 
where  the  hosts  which  Gog  brings  with  him 
shall  be  slain  and  buried  (Ezek.  xxxix.  11, 
15).     Situation  unknown. 

Ha'mor,  in  A.  Y.  of  N.  T.  Emmor,  an  imi- 
tation of  the  Greek  [an  ass]. 

The  prince  of  Shechem  (Gen.  xxxiv.  20; 
Josh.  xxiv.  32 ;  Judg.  ix.  28)  ;  a  Hivite,  a 
branch  of  the  Amorites,  and  a  prince  of  that 
tribe,  at  least,  in  central  Palestine  (Gen. 
xxxiv.  2;  xlviii.  22).  His  son  Shechem  ruined 
Dinah,  and  both  father  and  son  fell  victims 
to  the  vindictiveness  of  her  brothers  Simeon 
and  Levi  (xxxiv.  1-31). 

Ham'ran.     See  Hemdan. 

Ha-mu'el.     See  Hammuel. 


Hamul 


274 


Hanes 


Ha'mul  [pitied,  spared]. 

Younger  sou  of  Perez,  and  founder  of  a 
tribal  family  of  Judah  (Gen.  xlvi.  12  ;  Num. 
xxvi.  21  ;  1  Cliron.  ii.  5). 

Ha-mu'tal  [akin  to  dew,  refreshing  Hke 
dew]. 

Daughter  of  Jeremiah  of  Libnah,  wife  of 
king  Josiah,  and  mother  of  the  kings  Je- 
hoahaz  and  Zedekiah  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  31 ;  xxiv. 
18;  Jer.  lii.  1). 

Han'a-mel,  in  A.  V.  Ha-nam'e-el  [per- 
haps, God  hath  pitied]. 

Son  of  Shallum,  and  cousin  of  the  prophet 
Jeremiah  (Jer.  xxxii.  7-15). 

Ha'nan  [gracious,  merciful]. 

1.  (juc  of  David's  mighty  men  (1  Chron. 
xi.  43). 

2.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Shashak  (1  Chron. 
viii.  23). 

3.  A  son  of  Azel,  a  descendant  of  Jonathan 
(1  Chron.  viii.  38;  ix.  44). 

4.  A  prophet,  son  of  Igdaliah.  His  sons 
had  a  chamber  in  the  temple  (Jer.  xxxv.  4). 

5.  Founder  of  a  family  of  Nethinim,  mem- 
bers of  which  returned  from  Babylon  with 
Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii.  46  ;  Xeh.  vii.  49). 

6.  A  man,  probably  a  Levite,  whom  Ezra 
employed  with  others  to  make  the  people 
understand  the  law  (Neh.  viii.  7).  He  seems 
to  have  sealed  the  covenant  (x.  10). 

7  and  8.  Two  chiefs  of  the  people,  who  also 
sealed  the  covenant  (22,  26). 

9.  A  son  of  Zaccur,  appointed  assistant 
treasurer  by  Nehemiah  (Neh.  xiii.  13). 

Han'a-nel,  iri  A.  V.  Ha-nan'e-el  [God 
hath  been  gracious]. 

A  tower  at  Jerusalem  (Jer.  xxxi.  38  ;  Zech. 
xiv.  10),  near  the  sheep-gate  and  the  tower 
of  Meah  (Neh.  iii.  1 ;  xii.  39)  ;  see  Jerusa- 
lem, II.  3. 

Ha-na'ni  [gracious]. 

1.  A  sou  of  Heman  and  head  of  the  eight- 
eenth of  the  twenty-four  courses  of  musi- 
cians appointed  by  David  for  the  sanctuary 
(1  Chrou.  XXV.  4,  25). 

2.  Father  of  the  prophet  Jehu  (1  Kin.  xvi. 
1)  and  himself  a  seer.  He  rebuked  king 
Asa,  and  was  by  his  orders  committed  to 
prison  (2  Chron.  xvi.  7). 

3.  A  brother  of  Nehemiah  who  brought 
him  news  regarding  .Jerusalem  (Neh.  i.  2). 
He  aud  the  governor  of  the  castle  were  after- 
wards given  charge  of  the  city  (vii.  2). 

4.  A  priest,  sou  of  Immer,  induced  by 
Ezra  to  put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x. 
20). 

5.  A  Levite  who  played  an  instrument  at 
the  dedication  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  by 
Nehemiah  (Neh.  xii.  36). 

Han-a-ni'ah  [Jehovah  hath  been  gra- 
cious]. 

1.  A  Benjamite.  son  of  Shashak  (1  Chron. 
viii.  24). 

2.  A  son  of  Heman  and  head  of  the  six- 
teenth of  the  twenty-four  courses  of  musi- 


cians formed  by  David  for  the  sanctuary  (1 
Chron.  xxv.  4,  23). 

3.  One  of  king  Uzziah's  captains  (2  Chron. 
xxvi.  11). 

4.  Father  of  Jeremiah's  contemporary,  the 
prince  Zedekiah  (Jer.  xxxvi.  12). 

5.  Son  of  Azzur  of  Gibeon.  In  the  fourth 
year  of  Zedekiah's  reign  he  prophesied  a  re- 
turn of  the  captives  after  two  years'  captiv- 
ity. Jeremiah  had  given  forth  a  ditiereut 
prediction.  As  a  penalty,  the  false  prophet 
was  doomed  to  death,  his  decease  occurring 
two  months  later  (Jer.  xxviii.  1-17). 

6.  Grandfather,  or  remoter  ancestor,  of 
Irijah,  the  captain  of  the  watch  who  arrested 
Jeremiah  on  the  charge  of  intending  to  desert 
to  the  Chaldeans  (Jer.  xxxvii.  13-15). 

7.  The  Hebrew  name  of  the  captive  called 
by  the  Chaldeans  Shadrach  (Dan.  i.  6,  7  ;  1 
Mac.  ii.  59). 

8.  A  sou  of  Zerubbabel,  and  father  of 
Pelatiah  and  Jeshaiah  (1  Chron.  iii.  19,  21) ; 
perhaps  the  ancestor  of  Christ  called,  by 
transposition  of  the  constituent  parts  of  the 
name,  Joanan  (Luke  iii.  27,  E.  V.). 

9.  A  son  of  Bebai,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  28). 

10.  An  apothecary  who  helped  to  rebuild 
the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  8). 

11.  A  priest  who  blew  a  trumpet  at  the 
dedication  of  the  wall  (Neh.  xii.  41). 

12.  A  chief  of  the  people,  who  with  Nehe- 
miah sealed  the  covenant  (Neh.  x.  23). 

13.  The  governor  of  the  castle  and  joint 
ruler  with  Hanani,  Nehemiah's  brother,  over 
Jerusalem  (Neh.  vii.  2). 

14.  A  priest,  head  of  the  father's  house  of 
Jeremiah;  in  the  days  of  the  high  priest  Joia- 
kim,  a  generation  after  the  exile  (Neh.  xii.  12). 

Hand'breadth. 

The  breadth  of  the  hand,  a  palm  (Ex.  xxv. 
25)  ;  see  Cubit.  It  is  used  by  the  psalmist 
figuratively  of  human  life,  especially  when 
life  closes  prematurely  (Ps.  xxxix.  5). 

Hand'broad. 

Measuring  a  handbreadth  (Ezek.  xl.  43  ; 
in  R.  V.  handbreadth). 

Hand'ker-chief. 

A  .small  cloth  used  by  the  Romans  for  wip- 
ing the  hands  and  face.  The  Jews  adopted 
it  in  the  Roman  period.  They  bound  it 
about  the  head  of  their  dead  (John  xi.  44 ; 
XX.  7 ;  in  English  version,  napkin).  Once 
in  Ephesus  handkerchiefs  were  carried  from 
the  body  of  the  apostle  Paul  unto  the  sick, 
and  their  diseases  departed  (Acts  xix.  12). 
The  man  who  received  one  talent  from  his 
lord  hid  it  in  such  a  cloth  (Luke  xix.  20  ;  in 
English  version,  napkin). 

Ha'nes  [hieroglyphic,  Su-Chenen  or  Chenen- 
su :  Coptic,  Hnes]. 

A  city  of  Egypt  (Is.  xxx.  4)  about  50  miles 
south  of  Memphis,  and  still  known  as  Ahnas. 
In  the  Graeco-Roman  period  it  was  known  as 
Heracleopolis  magna.  It  must  not  be  con- 
founded with  Tahpanhes. 


Hanging 


275 


Haran 


Hang'ing. 

A  form  of  punishment  in  which,  after  the 
criminal  was  put  to  death,  his  body  was  sus- 
pended from  a  tree  or  post.  It  was  in  vogue 
in  Egyi>t  (Gen.  xl.  lit,  2-Ji,  among  the  Israel- 
ites (Deut.  xxi.  •22  \  Josh.  x.  2tj ;  2  Sam.  iv. 
12),  and  the  Persians  (Herod,  iii.  125  ;  ix.  78). 
The  hanging  intensified  the  disgrace.  Among 
the  Israelites,  the  elevation  of  the  body  on 
the  tree  was  a  call  to  God  to  witness  that  the 
guilty  one  had  paid  just  and  sufficient  pen- 
alty, and  was  a  testimony  of  God's  abhor- 
rence of  sin.  But  while  it  remained  exposed, 
it  proclaimed  that  sin  had  been  committed  in 
Israel.  The  body  was  therefore  buried  out 
of  sight  at  nightfall  (Deut.  xxi.  23;  Josh, 
viii.  29;  cp.  Gal.  iii.  13).  Suicide  was  some- 
times committed  by  hanging  which  caused 
strangulation  (2  Sam.  xvii.  23 ;  Mat.  xxvii. 
5).     See  Gallows. 

Han'i-el.     See  Hanxiel. 

Han'nah  [grace,  compassion]. 

One  of  the  two  wives  of  Elkanah.  She 
was  her  husband's  favorite,  and  was  in  con- 
sequence subjected  to  petty  annoyances  by 
the  rival  wife.  She  vowed  that  if  she  gave 
birth  to  a  man-child,  she  would  devote  him 
to  the  service  of  Jehovah.  Her  wish  was 
gratified ;  she  became  the  mother  of  the 
prophet  Samuel,  and  carried  out  her  vow  (1 
Sam.  i.  1-28).  Her  song  of  triumph  is  highly 
poetic,  and  was  probably  in  the  mind  of  the 
Virgin  Mary  when  she  expressed  her  grati- 
tude in  similar  poetic  strains  on  learning 
that  she  was  to  give  birth  to  the  Son  of  God 
(ii.  1-10;  Luke  i.  26-55). 

Han'na-thon  [regarded  with  favor]. 

A  frontier  town  of  Zebulun  (Josh.  xix. 
14).  Conder  identifies  it  with  Kefr  "Anan,  11 
miles  X.  E.  by  X.  of  the  ruins  Rummaneh.  that 
is,  liimmou  1 13 1.  The  place  seems  too  remote. 

Han'ni-el,  in  A.  X.  H^niel  in  1  Chrou.  vii. 
39  [favor  or  grace  of  God]. 

1.  Prince  of  the  Manassites  who,  when  the 
Israelites  were  about  to  enter  Canaan,  was 
appointed  on  the  committee  to  divide  the 
land  (Xum.  xxxiv.  23). 

2.  An  Asherite,  son  of  Ulla  (1  Chrou.  vii. 
39). 

Ha'noch,  in  A.  V.  once  Henocli  il  Chrou. 
i.  33)  [initiated,  dedicated].  Exactly  the  same 
Hebrew  word  as  that  rendered  Enoch. 

1.  A  son  of  Midian,  and  a  descendant  of 
Abraham  by  Keturah  (Gen.  xxv.  4 ;  1  Chron. 
i.  33).  The  name  is  perhaps  preserved  in 
tianakuya.  a  place  three  days' journey  to  the 
north  of  Medina. 

2.  A  son  of  Reuben,  and  founder  of  a  tri- 
bal family  (Gen.  xlvi.  9 ;  Ex.  vi.  14  ;  Xum. 
xxvi.  5;  1  Chron.  v.  3). 

Ha'nun  [enjoying  favor]. 

1.  A  king  of  the  Ammonites,  son  and  suc- 
cessor of  David's  friend  X'ahash.  The  He- 
brew king  therefore  sent  to  condole  with 
him  on  his  father's  death,  and   congratulate 


him  on  his  own  accession.  Evil  counselors 
suggested  that  the  real  object  of  the  emba.ssy 
was  to  spy  out  the  Ammonite  capitiil,  with 
the  view  of  afterwards  attempting  its  capture. 
Hanun,  therefore,  grossly  ill-treated  the  am- 
bassadors, shaving  oti'  half  their  beards  and 
cutting  ofT  their  garments  in  the  middle. 
Knowing  that  the  outrage  would  be  resented, 
he  prepared  for  war.  He  ol)tained  the  Syr- 
ians as  his  allies,  but  was  defeated  (2  Sam.  x. 
1-xi.  1;  1  Chron.  xix.  1-xx.  3). 

2  and  3.  Two  Jews  who  repaired  portions 
of  the  wall  of  Jeru.salem  under  Xehemiah 
(Xeh.  iii.  13.  30). 

Haph-a-ra'im,  in  A.  V.  Haph'ra-im,  an 

error  from  which  the  original  edition  of  A. 
V.  was  free  [two  pits]. 

A  frontier  town  of  Is.sachar  (Josh.  xix.  19). 
Jerome  identified  it  with  Afarea,  6  Roman 
miles  to  the  north  of  Legio.  At  this  distance 
northwest  of  Lejjun  is  the  ruined  site  of  Far- 
riyeh  ;  while  about  7  Roman  miles  east  north- 
east of  Lejjun  lies  the  village  el-'Afule. 

Hap-piz'zez,  in  A.  V.  Aphses  [the  di.sper- 
sion]. 

A  descendant  of  Aaron.  His  family  be- 
came the  eighteenth  of  the  twenty-four 
courses  into  which  David  divided  the  priests 
(1  Chron.  xxiv.  15). 

Ha'ra  [mountainous  region]. 

A  place  in  Assyria  to  which  captives  from 
the  ten  tribes  were  carried  (1  Chron.  v.  26). 
Situation  unknown.  Some  believe  it  to  be  a 
designation  of  Media,  namely  the  mountain, 
or  a  corruption  of  "mountains"  of  Media. 

Har'a-dah  [terror]. 

An  encampment  of  the  Israelites  in  the 
wilderness,  after  being  turned  back  from 
Rithmah  (Xum.  xxxiii.  24).  Palmer  and 
Drake  identified  it  with  the  present  Jebel 
'Aradeh,  in  the  peninsula  of  Sinai,  about  40 
miles  southwest  of  Elath.  Both  etymology 
and  situation  are  against  the  identification. 

Ha'ran.  I.  [meaning  unknown]. 

1.  A  son  of  Terah,  and  brother  of  Abra- 
ham. He  died  early,  in  his  native  place.  Ur 
of  the  Chaldees:  but  left  a  son.  Lot,  and  two 
daughters,  Milcah  and  Iscah  ((ien.  xi.  29). 

2.  A  Gershonite  Levite,  son  of  Shimei  (1 
Chron.  xxiii.  9). 

Ha'ran,  II.,  in  A.  V.  of  X'.  T.,  Charran 
[road,  business]. 

1.  A  city  of  Mesopotamia,  about  240  miles 
west  by  north  from  Xineveh  and  280  north- 
northeast  of  Damascus.  It  was  a  commer- 
cial center;  and.  like  Ur  of  the  Chaldees, 
had  the  moon-god  for  its  patron  deitj'.  Terah 
and  Abraham  sojourned  in  it  for  a  time,  and 
Terah  died  there  (Gen.  xi.  31,  32:  xii.  4,  5i. 
The  family  of  Xahor  settled  there,  and  Jacob 
for  a  time  resided  there  (xxiv.  24  ;  xxviii. 
10;  xxix.  5).  The  Assyrians  hunted  in  its 
vicinity  as  early  as  1100  B.  c. ;  and  they  long 
held  sway  over  it.  A  capture  of  the  city  by 
them  is  mentioned   (2  Kin.   xix.  12).     The 


Hararite 


276 


Harodite 


Greeks  called  it  Karrhai,  and  the  Romans 
Carrse.  In  53  b.  c.  the  Roman  triumvir 
Crassus,  the  colleague  of  Pompey  and  of 
Julius  Caesar,  allowed  himself  to  be  out- 
maneuvered  and  defeated  near  Harau  by  the 
Parthian  general  Sureua,  by  whose  repre- 
sentatives he  was  soon  afterwards  barbarously 
slain.  It  is  now  a  small  Arab  village,  still 
retaining  the  name  of  Harran,  situated  in 
upper  Mesopotamia,  on  the  Belik,  a  tribu- 
tary of  the  Euphrates,  about  240  miles  west 
'  by  north  from  Nineveh  and  82  east  from  the 
gulf  of  Scanderoon. 

2.  Son  of  Caleb  and  Ephah,  of  the  family 
of  Hezron  (1  Chrou.  ii.  46). 

Ha'ra-rite  [inhabitant  of  a  mountain]. 

Possibly  it  means  a  mountaineer,  one  from 
the  hill  country  of  Judah  or  Ephraim  (Si- 
monis,  Gesenius,  Siegfried-Stade).  But  this 
designation  seems  too  geuei-al.  Probably,  to 
judge  from  the  context  of  2  Sam.  xxiii.  33, 
it  means  an  inhabitant  of  a  hamlet  called 
Harar,  mountain,  from  its  location  on  some 
peak,  like  Gibeah,  hill,  and  its  inhabitants 
Gibeathites  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  11 ;  1  Chron.  xi. 
34,  35). 

Har-too'na  and  Harbonah  [Persian,  per- 
haps ass-driver]. 

A  chamberlain  of  Ahasuerus  (Esth.  i.  10; 
vii.  9). 

Hare. 

An  animal,  in  Hebrew  'Arnebeth,  said  to 
chew  the  cud,  but  not  to  part  the  hoof,  and 
therefore  unclean  (Lev.  xi.  6 ;  Deut.  xiv.  7). 
The  opinion  of  the  Hebrews  that  the  animal 
chewed  the  cud  was  founded  on  a  peculiar 
movement  of  its  mouth.  Physiologically, 
however,  it  is  not  a  ruminating  animal,  but 
a  rodent,  and  is  so  arranged  by  modern  nat- 
uralists. The  common  hare  of  Palestine 
{Lepus  syriacus-)  is  two  inches  shorter  than  the 
European  hare  (L.  europieus),  and  has  slightly 
shorter  ears.  It  frequents  wooded  aud  culti- 
vated places.  The  common  hare  of  southern 
Judsea  and  the  Jordan  valley  {L.  jiulese  of 
Gray)  has  very  long  ears  and  light  tawny  fur. 
Tristram  enumerates  three  other  species  of 
the  southern  frontier :  L.  segyptiacns,  the 
Egyptian  hare,  in  the  southeastern  part  of 
Judaea ;  L.  isabillinu^,  in  the  sandy  deserts  of 
southeastern  Palestine  ;  and  L.  sinaiticus,  with 
fur  of  a  reddish  hue. 

Ha'rel  [the  mount  of  God]. 

A  portion  of  the  altar  described  by  Eze- 
kiel  (xliii.  15).  In  the  text  of  tlie  A.  V.  it  is 
rendered  altar,  and  in  that  of  the  R.  V.  upper 
altar. 

Ha'reph  [picking,  plucking  off]. 

A  son  of  Caleb,  and  ancestor  of  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Beth-gader  (1  Chron.  ii.  51). 

Ha'reth.     See  Hereth. 

Har-ha'iah. 

Father  of  the  goldsmith  Uzziel  (Neh.  iii.  8). 

Har'has. 

An  ancestor  of  Shallum,  husband  of  Hul- 


dah  the  prophetess  (2  Kin.  xxii.  14).  Called 
Hasrah  in  2  Chron.  xxxiv.  22.  The  two 
names  differ  in  Hebrew  in  the  second  H,  and 
not  merely  in  transposition  of  letters. 

Har'hur  [inflammation,  fever]. 

The  founder  of  a  family  of  Nethinim, 
some  of  whom  returned  from  Babylon  with 
Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii.  51 ;  Neh.  vii.  53). 

Ha'rim  [flat-nosed,  snub-nosed,  or  conse- 
crated]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Aaron.  His  family 
had  grown  to  a  father's  house  in  the  time  of 
David  and  constituted  the  third  course  when 
David  distributed  the  priests  into  divisions 
(1  Chron.  xxiv.  1,  6,  8).  Probably  they  were 
members  of  this  family  who  returned  from 
Babylon  (Ezra  ii.  39  ;  Neh.  vii.  42).  A  father's 
house  among  the  priests  in  the  next  genera- 
tion after  the  exile  bore  this  name  (Neh.  xii. 
15) ;  see  Rehum.  At  a  later  period  some  of 
this  family  were  among  those  who  had  mar- 
ried foreign  wives  (Ezra  x.  21).  And  later 
still  a  priest  of  this  name,  doubtless  head  of 
a  father's  house,  signed  the  covenant  to  ob- 
serve the  law  of  God  and  to  endeavor  to  pre- 
vent intermarriages  with  foreigners  (Neh.  x. 
5). 

2.  Founder  of  a  non-priestly  family,  mem- 
bers of  which  returned  from  Babylon  with 
Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii.  32  ;  x.  31 ;  Neh.  iii.  11 ; 
vii.  35). 

Ha'ripli  [autumnal  rain]. 

Founder  of  a  family,  members  of  which 
returned  from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel 
(Neh.  vii.  24).  A  prince  of  this  name 
sealed  the  covenant,  doubtless  as  representa- 
tive of  the  family  (x.  19).  The  same  as 
Jorah  (Ezra  ii.  18),  which  also  means  au- 
tumnal rain. 

Har'lot. 

A  prostitute  (Gen.  xxxviii.  15  ;  Lev.  xxi. 
7  ;  Deut.  xxiii.  18  ;  Josh.  ii.  1 ;  Judg.  xvi.  1). 
To  play  the  harlot' or  to  go  a  whoring  after, 
often  means,  in  scriptural  usage,  to  go  with 
or  after  a  paramour  ;  in  a  figurative  sense, 
to  depart  from  Jehovah  and  give  the  affec- 
tions and  worship  to  other  gods  (Jer.  ii.  20  ; 
iii.  1  ;  Ezek.  xvi.  15,  16;  xxiii.  5). 

Har-Mag'e-don.     See  Armageddon. 

Har'ne-pher  [perhaps,  panting]. 

An  Asherite,  son  of  Zophah  (1  Chron.  vii. 
36). 

Ha'rod  [fear,  terror]. 

A  well  near  which  Gideon  pitched  while 
his  adversaries,  the  Midianites,  were  by  the 
hill  of  Moreh,  in  the  valley  (Judg.  vii.  1). 
It  is  commonly,  but  without  certainty,  iden- 
tified with  the  fountain  of  Jalud,  on  the 
northwestern  side  of  mount  Gilboa,  about  a 
mile  east  by  south  of  Jezreel.  A  village  ap- 
pears to  have  stood  in  the  vicinity  (2  Sam. 
xxiii.  25). 

Ha'rod-ite. 

An  inhabitant  of  the  town  of  Harod  (2 
Sam.  xxiii.  25). 


Haroeh 


277 


Harvest 


Har'o-eh.     See  Eeaiah. 
Ha'ro-rite. 

Kather  Harodite  (q.  v.),  as  there  is  reason 
to  read  this  word  (1  Chron.  xi.  27;  cp.  2  Sam. 

xxiii.  25). 

Ha-ro'sheth  [carving,  artificers'  work  iu 
woo<l  or  stone]. 

A  town  more  fully  called  Harosheth  of  the 
gentiles  or  nations.  Si.sera  had  his  residence 
there  (Jndg.  iv.  2,  l.'J,  Ki).  Formerly  the 
site  was  sought  somewhere  west  of  the  waters 
of  Merom.  and  not  far  from  the  northern 
Hazor.  Xow  it  is  more  commonly  located  at 
el-Harathiyeh,  a  small  village  on  the  north- 
ern bank  of  the  Kishon,  at  the  point  where 
the  stream,  hidden  among  oleander  bushes, 
passes  through  a  narrow  gorge  to  enter  the 
jilain  of  Acre.  Thomson  states  that  he  has 
no  doubt  as  to  its  identification. 

Harp. 

Eendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  Kinnor, 
emitter  of  a  tremulous  sound  ;  and  in  the  N. 
T.  of  the  Greek  word  Kithara,  lyre,  lute.  It 
was  a  stringed  musical  instrument  of  the 
harp  kind,  small  enough  to  be  carried  about 
(Is.  xxiii.  16),  and  was  played  with  the  fingers 
(1  Sam.  xvi.  23)  or  with  a  plectrum  (Autiq. 
vii.  12,  3).    It  was  played  by  Jubal,  an  ante- 


Ancient  Egj-ptlan  Harp. 

diluviau,  of  the  race  of  Cain  (Gen.  iv.  21), 
was  known  to  Laban  (xxxi.  27),  was  the  in- 
strument with  which  David  soothed  Saul 
during  his  tits  of  melancholy  madness  (1 
Sam.  xvi.  16).  The  prophets  and  others  used  it 
for  sacred  purposes  (1  Sam.  x.  5;  Ps.  xliii.  4  ; 
xlix.  4),  and  it  was  played  in  the  temple  orches- 
tra (1  Chron.  xxv.  1,3);  see  Music.  It  was  em- 
ployed also  in  festive  entertainments  (Job 
xxi.  12).  Even  harlots  sometimes  carried  it 
about  with  them  (Is.  xxiii.  15,  16).  It  was 
the  instrument  which  the  captive  Jews  hung 
on  the  Babylonian  willows  (Ps.  cxxxvii.  2). 
Two  kinds  were  in  use  in  Egypt  :  a  larger,  of 
the  height  of  a  man,  and  a  smaller,  which 


was  easily  carried.  The  Hebrews  were  ac- 
quainted with  the  harp,  hut  it  is  not  certain 
that  the  word  khnior  really  means  harp. 
The  Seventy  regarded  it  rather  as  a  lyre  or 
lute,  than  a  harp,  for  they  render  the  Hebrew 
word  by  kithara. 

Har'row. 

An  implement  of  agriculture,  consisting 
of  a  wooden  frame  armed  with  teeth  of  wood 
or  iron  (2  Sam.  xii.  31).  It  is  drawn  over 
plowed  land  to  level  it  and  break  the  clods 
preparatory  to  sowing  the  seed,  and  to  cover 
the  seed  when  sown.  It  cannot  be  show'n, 
however,  that  the  Hebrew  word  in  2  Sam. 
xii.  31  denotes  such  an  instrument.  The 
Israelites  broke  the  clods  in  some  manner 
(Job  xxxix.  10;  Is.  xxviii.  24;  Hos.  x.  11), 
but  it  is  doubtful  whether  they  used  a  har- 
row. The  modern  inhabitants  of  Palestine 
sometimes  turn  iu  the  cattle  for  this  purpose. 

Har'sha  [artificer's  work,  enchantment]. 

Founder  of  a  family  of  Nethinim,  some 
of  whom  returned  from  Babylon  with 
Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii.  52 ;  Neh.  vii.  54). 

Hart. 

A  stag,  or  male  deer,  five  years  old,  and 
which  has  developed  its  sur-royal  or  crown 
antler.  It  is  the  rendering  of  the  Hebrew 
'Ayyal,  deer,  a  wild,  clean  animal  (Deut.  xii. 
15 ;  xiv.  5 ;  1  Kin.  iv.  23 ;  Ps.  xlii.  1  ;  Song 
viii.  14).    See  Deer. 

Ha'rum  [exalted,  high]. 

A  man  of  Judah,  father  of  Aharhel  (1  Chron. 
iv.  8). 

Ha-ru'maph  [flat  of  nose]. 

Father  of  a  certain  Jedaiah  (Xeh.  iii.  10). 

Har'u-phite. 

The  designation  of  Shephatiah,  a  Benja- 
mite,  who  joined  David  at  Ziklag  (1  Chron. 
xii.  5).  The  Hebrew  traditional  reading  is 
Hariphite,  a  member  of  the  family  of  Hariph 
(cp.  Neh.  vii.  24-32,  where  Hariph  is  enume- 
rated with  Benjamites). 

Ha'ruz  [sedulous,  industrious]. 
Father-in-law  of  king   Manasseh  (2  Kin. 
xxi.  19). 

Har'vest. 

The  period  of  harvest  in  ancient  Palestine 
may  be  divided  into  two  portions :  that  of 
barley  and  that  of  wheat  harvest,  the  former 
preceding  the  latter  by  about  a  fortnight 
(Ruth  ii.  23).  Its  beginning  was  consecrated 
by  the  bringing  of  the  sheaf  of  firstfruits 
(Lev.  xxiii.  10).  It  began  in  the  lowlands 
before  the  crops  were  ripe  on  the  hills.  In 
the  hot  Jordan  valley  barley  harvest  com- 
menced iu  April,  when  the  Jordan  was  full 
(Josh.  iii.  15 ;  cp.  v.  10),  at  the  close  of  the 
rainy  season  (1  Sam.  xii.  17,  18;  Prov.  xxvi. 
1).  Wheat  harvest  lingered  in  the  uplands  to 
the  month  of  June.  It  was  a  hot  time  of  the 
year  (Prov.  xxv.  13  :  Is.  xviii.  4).  When  the 
harvest  was  completed,  and  the  produce  gath- 
ered in,  there  were  great  rejoicings  (Is.  ix.  3). 


Hasadiah 


278 


Hassenuah 


Harvest  in  Ancient  Egypt. 


Tile  feasts  of  unleavened  bread,  of  weeks  or 
harvest,  and  of  ingathering,  had  all  a  rela- 
tion to  the  season  of  reaping.     See  Ye.\k. 

Has-a-dl'ah  [Jehovah  hath  shown  kind- 
ness] . 

A  son  of  Zerubbabel  (1  Chron.  iii.  20). 
Has-e-nu'ah.     See  Hassenuah. 

Hash-a-bi'ah  [Jehovah  hath  imputed  or 
devised]. 

1.  A  Merarite  Levite,  descended  through 
Amaziah,  and  an  ancestor  of  Jeduthuu  (1 
Chron.  vi.  45).  Perhaps  he  is  the  descendant 
of  Bunni  mentioned  as  ancestor  of  Shemaiah 
(ix.  14;  Neh.  xi.  15). 

2.  A  Merarite  Levite,  son  of  Jeduthuu  and 
head  of  the  twelfth  company  of  musicians 
appointed  by  David  for  the  sanctuary  (1 
Chron.  xxv.  3,  19). 

3.  A  Koliathite  Levite  of  the  family  of 
Hebron,  and  inspector  for  the  country  west 
of  Jordan  (1  Chron.  xxvi.  30;  cp.  xxiii.  12). 

4.  A  Levite,  son  of  Keniuel,  prince  of  the 
tribe  of  Levi  in  David's  reign  (1  Chron. 
xxvii.  17). 

5.  A  chief  of  the  Levites  during  the  reign 
of  Josiah  (2  Chron.  xxxv.  9). 

6.  A  Merarite  Levite,  who  joined  Ezra  at 
the  river  of  Ahava,  and  was  apparently  one 
of  the  twelve  who  were  entrusted  with  the 
treasure  which  was  being  conveyed  to  Jeru- 
salem  (Ezra  viii.  19,  24).  Probably  it  was  he 
who  sealed  the  covenant  (Neh.  x.  11).  and 
who  was  a  chief  Levite  and  one  of  the  tem- 
ple musicians  (Neh.  xii.  24). 

7.  The  ruler,  in  Nehemiah's  time,  of  half 
Keilah.  He  repaired  part  of  the  wall  of  Je- 
rusalem (Neh.  iii.  17). 

8.  A  Levite,  descended  from  Asaph  (Neh. 
xi.  22). 

9.  A  priest,  head  of  the  father's  house  of 
Hilkiah,  in  the  time  of  Joiakim  the  high 
priest  (Neh.  xii.  21). 

Ha-shab'nah. 

One  of  those  who  with  Nehemiah  sealed 
the  covenant  (Neh.  x.  25). 
Hash-ab-ne'iah,  in  A.  V.  Hash-ab-ni'ah. 

1.  Father  of  a  certain  Hattush  (Neh.  iii. 
10). 

2.  One  of  those  Levites  who  by  their  ex- 
hortations ])repared  the'  returned  exiles  for 


sealing   the   covenant   with   Jehovah    (Neh. 
ix.  5). 

Hash-bad'da-na,  in  A.  V.  Hash-bad'a-na. 

One  of  those  who  stood  beside  Ezra  when 
he  addressed  the  returned  exiles  (Neh.  viii.  4). 

Ha'shem  [make  astonished  !  lay  waste!]. 

A  Gizonite,  mentioned  in  the  catalogue  of 
David's  mighty  men  (1  Chron.  xi.  34).  See 
Jashen. 

Hash-mo'nah  [place  of  fertility]. 

A  camiiing  ground  of  the  Israelites  in  the 
wilderness  (Num.  xxxiii.  29,  30).  Exact  sit- 
uatitju  unknown. 

Ha'shub.     See  Hasshub. 

Ha-shu'bah  [esteemed,  purposed]. 

A  son  of  Zerubbabel  (1  Chron.  iii.  20). 

Ha'shum  [rich,  wealthy]. 

Founder  of  a  family,  members  of  which  re- 
turned from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra 
ii.  19;  X.  33;  Neh.  vii.  22).  The  representa- 
tive of  the  faiuily,  or  a  person  of  this  name, 
supported  Ezra  while  the  latter  addressed  the 
people  (Neh.  viii.  4),  and  then  sealed  the  cov- 
enant (x.  18). 

Ha-shu'pha.     See  Hasupha. 

Ha-si-dse'ans,  in  A.  V.  Asideans  and  Assi- 
deans  [Greek  'Asidaioi,  from  Hebrew  H"sidim, 
the  pious]. 

A  party  among  the  Jews  who  held  stren- 
uously to  the  old  faith  (1  Mac.  ii.  42).  They 
joined  Mattathias,  and  later  cooj)cratcd  with 
Judas  Maccabseus  in  most  of  his  plans  (ii. 
42 ;  2  Mac.  xiv.  6),  although  contrary  to  his 
judgment  thev  sought  peace  from  the  Svrians 
(1  Mac.  vii.  13). 

Has-mo-nse'an.     See  Asmon.ean. 

Has'rah  [jjcrhaps,  want].     See  Harhas. 

Has-se-na'ah,  and  without  the  definite 
article  Senaah  [])erliaps,  thorny]. 

The  sons  of  Hassenaah  rebuilt  the  fish- 
gate  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  3).  Of  the  chil- 
dren of  Senaah,  some  three  thousand  return- 
ed from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii. 
35;  Neh.  vii.  38).  Whether  Senaah  is  a  man 
or  a  town  is  uucertaiu. 

Has-se-nu'ah,  in   A.  V.  Hasenuah,  and, 
witliout  the  article,  Senuah  [perhaps,  thorny]. 
1.  A    Benjamite,    father  of    Hodaviah  '  (1 
Chron.  ix.  7). 


Hasshub 


279 


Hawoth-jair 


•2.  Piiront  of  a  certain  Judali  (Neli.  xi.  9). 
Has'shub,  in  A.  V.  of  Neberaiali  Hashub 
[thouglitful]. 

1.  A  son  of  P;ihath-moab.  He  repaired 
part  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  11). 

2.  A  Jew  who  rejiaired  juirt  of  the  wall  of 
Jerusalem  ojiposite  to  his  house  (Neh.  iii.  23). 
It  was  probably  either  he  or  No.  1  who  signed 
the  covenant  (x.  23). 

3.  A  Merarite  Levite,  father  of  Shemaiah 
(1  Chron.  ix.  14  ;  Neh.  xi.  15). 

Ha-su'pha,  in  A.  V.  once  Hashupha  [made 
bare]. 

Founder  of  a  family  of  Nethinim,  mem- 
bers of  which  returned  from  captivity  with 
Zernbbabel  (Ezra  ii.  43;  Neh.  vii.  46). 

Hat. 

The  rendering  of  the  Aramaic  word  Kar- 
bel.  binding,  wrap  (Dan.  iii.  21  ;  in  E.  V., 
mantle).     See  Clothing. 

Ha'tach. 

A  chamberlain  of  king  Ahasuerus,  whowas 
appointed  to  attend  Esther  (Esth.  iv.  5,  10). 

Ha'thath  [terror]. 

A  son  of  Othniel  (1  Chron.  iv.  13). 

Hafi-pha  [captive]. 

One  who  founded  a  family  of  Nethinim, 
members  of  which  returned  fi'om  Babylon 
M-ith  Zernbbabel  (Ezra  ii.  54;  Neh.  vii.  56). 

Hat'i-ta  [engraving,  exploration]. 

A  porter  who  founded  a  family,  members 
of  which  retnrned  from  Babylon  with  Zerub- 
babei  (Ezra  ii.  42  ;  Neh.  vii.  45). 

Hat'til  [tottering,  vacillating]. 

One  of  .Solomon's  servants,  who  founded  a 
family,  the  members  of  which  returned  from 
Babylon  with  Zernbbabel  (Ezra  ii.  57 ;  Neh. 
\n.  59). 

Hat'tush  [congregated,  gathered  together]. 

1.  A  man  of  Judah,  son  of  Shemaiah,  and 
family  of  Shecaniah  (1  Chron.  iii.  22). 

2.  A  chief  of  the  priests,  who  returned 
with  Zernbbabel  from  Babylon  (Neh.  xii. 
2,  7). 

3.  Head  of  a  father's  house,  of  the  sons  of 
David,  who  returned  with  Ezra  to  Jerusalem 
(Ezra  viii.  2). 

4.  A  son  of  Hashabneiah.  He  repaired  part 
of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  10). 

5.  A  priest  who  with  Nehemiah  sealed  the 
covenant  (Neh.  x.  4). 

Hau'ran  [hollow  land,  so  called  because  a 
depression  or  because  of  the  multitude  of  its 
caverns]. 

A  region  south  of  Damascus  and  bordering 
on  Gilead  (Ezek.  xlvii.  16,  18).  In  the 
Oreco-Roman  period  it  designated  a  smaller 
district.  It  was  then  known  as  Aurauitis, 
and  was  one  of  four  provinces,  having  Trach- 
onitis  on  the  north  and  Gaulonitis  and  ap- 
liareutly  Batanea  toward  the  northwest  (An- 
tn\.  xvii.  11.  4  ;  xviii.  4,  6 ;  War  i.  20,  4 ;  ii. 
6,  3;  17,  4;  iii.  3,  5).  It  thus  probably  con- 
sisted of  the  plain  lying  between  Gaulonitis 


and  the  present  Jebel  Hauran,  and  perhaj)s 
included  the  latter.  About  the  year  23  B.  c. 
Auranitis  with  Trachonitis  and  Batanea  was 
bestowed  on  Herod  the  (Jreat  by  Augustus. 
When  Herod's  kingdom  was  divided,  these 
districts  constituted  the  major  part  of  Philip's 
tetrarchy  (Luke  iii.  1  ;  Antiq.  xvii.  11, 4).  The 
surface  is  flat,  broken  only  by  a  few  volcanic 
mounds.  The  soil  is  so  fertile  that  the  Hau- 
ran is  the  granary  for  the  whole  region  round. 
Many  towns  and  villages,  nuxstly  deserted, 
exist  within  its  limits,  some  of  them  "the 
giant  cities  of  Bashan,"  as  they  have  been 
called,  built  of  basalt,  with  doors  of  the  same 
material. 

Hav'i-lah  [perhaps,  sandy]. 

A  district  of  Arabia,  peopled  in  part  by  a 
body  of  Cushites  and  in  part  by  a  body  of 
Joktanites,  a  Semitic  people  (Gen.  x.  7,  29;  1 
Chron.  i.  9,  23).  The  association  of  Havilah 
with  Hazarmaveth  and  other  places  points  to 
a  locality  in  central  or  southern  Arabia.  To 
Havilah  belonged  the  river  Pishon  ;  and  the 
region  was  rich  in  gold,  aromatic  gum,  and 
precious  stones  (Gen.  ii.  11,  12).  These  pro- 
ductions strongly  indicate  the  mountainous 
district  to  the  north  of  Yemama  ;  and  in  this 
neighborhood  Havilah  is  best  sought.  How 
far  beyond  these  mountains  the  boundaries 
of  Havilah  extended  is  not  clear.  From  the 
record  of  Saul's  warfare  with  the  Amalekites 
it  may  be  inferred  that  the  Arabian  desert 
for  several  hundred  miles  north  of  the  moun- 
tains bore  the  name  Havilah  (1  Sam.  xv.  7 ; 
cp.  Gen.  XXV.  18).  Migrations  of  the  people 
would  also  carry  the  name  to  distant  local- 
ities, as  perhaps  to  the  coast  of  Africa  near 
the  straits  of  Bab  el-Mandeb,  where  a  gulf, 
Aualites,  and  a  people,  Abalitai,  are  traceable. 

Hav-voth-ja'ir,  in  A.  Y.Havoth-jair  [Jair's 
circuit  of  villages  or  of  nomad  encamjiments] . 

Unwalled  towns  in  the  northwestern  part 
of  Bashan,  in  the  region  of  the  Argob,  where 
this  tract  approaches  the  country  of  the 
Geshurites  and  Maacathites,  and  where  the 
boundaries  between  the  rugged  land,  Gilead, 
and  the  open,  sandy  land,  Bashan,  insen- 
sibly merge  into  each  other  (Dent.  iii.  4,  14). 
They  were  captured  by  Jair,  a  Manassite. 
Their  number  was  liable  to  fluctuation,  be- 
cause they  lay  in  a  debatable  land,  and  for 
other  reasons  (1  Chron.  ii.  23).  They  are  to 
be  carefully  distinguished  from  the  sixty 
walled  cities  in  the  heart  of  Bashan,  and 
likewise  in  the  Argob  (Dent.  iii.  4,  5;  1  Kin. 
iv.  13).  Since  the  boundary  between  Gilead 
and  Bashan  was  not  clearly  defined  by  na- 
ture, it  never  was  conventionally,  and  places 
on  this  undefined  border  are  referred  to  as  in 
Gilead  or  in  Bashan,  according  to  the  mo- 
mentary point  of  view  of  the  narrator.  The 
conquest  of  Bashan  by  the  Israelites  included 
the  capture  of  the  unwalled  towns  in  the 
Argob  on  this  invisible  border ;  and  when 
their  capture  by  Jair  is  related  in  connection 
with  the  conquest  of  Og's  kingdom,   which 


Hawk 


280 


Hazeroth 


was  carried  on  from  Edrei  in  Bashan  as  the 
center,  the  Havvoth-jair  are  described  as  in 
Bashan  (Deut.  iii.  14;  Josh.  xiii.  30).  When, 
however,  the  eastern  country  is  before  the 
mind  of  a  sojourner  in  the  valley  of  the  Jor- 
dan or  in  Canaan  west  of  the  river,  he  nat- 
urally speaks  first  of  Gilead,  and  sometimes 
even  uses  that  designation  broadly  for  the  en- 
tire highland  east  of  the  river,  or  he  may 
speak  of  a  conquest  of  Gilead  which  was  not 
narrowly  confined  to  the  distinctively  rugged 
land.  From  this  point  of  view,  he  is  apt  to 
refer  to  the  towns  on  the  undefined  border 
of  Gilead  and  Bashan  as  in  Gilead  (1  Chron. 
ii.  21-23  ;  indefinitely,  Num.  xxxii.  40  seq. ; 
1  Kin.  iv.  13).  The  Havvoth-jair  were  scat- 
tered over  this  indefinite  tract  in  the  Argob  ; 
and  hence,  according  to  the  shifting  point  of 
view,  even  of  one  and  the  same  narrator,  are 
mentioned  as  in  Gilead  or  in  Bashan.  Some 
of  them  were  doubtless  more  evidently  in 
the  open  land,  while  others  were  more  clearly 
in  the  rugged  land. 

Hawk. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Nes,  flyer 
(Job  xxxix.  26).  It  was  ceremonially  unclean 
(Lev.  xi.  16;  Deut.  xiv.  15),  and  included 
more  than  one  species  of  the  smaller  preda- 
tory birds  (ibid.).  It  comprehended  the  spar- 
row hawk  (Accipiter  nisus)  and  the  kestrel 
(Falco  tinnunculus).  The  former  abounds  in 
Lebanon  and  the  hilly  parts  of  Galilee  in 
summer,  and  in  Judaea  and  the  Arabah  in 
winter;  the  latter,  which  is  properly  a  fal- 
con instead  of  a  genuine  hawk,  is  abundant 
in  every  part  of  Palestine  throughout  the 
year. 

Haz'a-el  [God  hath  seen]. 

A  Syrian  courtier  whom  Elijah  was  directed 
by  Jehovah  to  anoint  king  over  Syria  (1  Kin. 
xix.  15,  17).  Some  years  later,  between  845 
and  843  B.  c,  Benhadad  II.,  who  then  reigned 
over  that  country,  with  Damascus  for  his  cap- 
ital, hearing  that  Elisha  was  in  the  city,  sent 
Hazael  to  ask  the  prophet  whether  he  should 
recover  of  a  serious  illness  from  which  he 
then  suffered.  Elisha  told  Hazael  that  his 
master  would  not  recover,  and  that  he  him- 
self would  be  king  of  Syria,  and  would  per- 
petrate great  cruelties  on  the  people  of  Israel. 
He  replied,  "But  what  is  thy  servant,  who 
is  but  a  dog,  that  he  should  do  this  great 
thing?"  Then,  returning  to  his  master,  he 
falsely  told  him  that  the  prophet  foretold  his 
recovery,  and  next  day  assassinated  him  and 
reigned  in  his  stead  (2  Kin.  viii.  7-15,  R.  V.). 
In  842  the  Assyrian  king  Shalmaneser  war- 
red against  Hazael  and  exacted  tribute.  In 
839  Shalmaneser  again  warred  with  him. 
Toward  the  close  of  Jehu's  reign  over  Israel, 
about  820,  Hazael  smote  the  countrj'  of  the 
Hebrews  east  of  the  Jordan  (x.  32)  ;  and  in 
the  succeeding  reign,  crossing  the  river,  he 
mightily  oppressed  the  Israelites  (xiii.  4-7), 
invaded  the  country  of  the  Philistines,  took 
Gath,  and  was  only  deterred  from  attacking 


Jerusalem  by  a  rich  present  consisting  of  the 
dedicated  treasures  of  the  temple  (xii.  17, 18). 
He  died  shortly  after.  The  house  of  Hazael 
(Amos  i.  4)  is  Damascus. 

Ha-za'iah  [Jehovah  hath  seen]. 

A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Shelah  (Neh. 
xi.  5). 

Ha-zar-ad'dar.     See  Addak. 

Ha-zar-e'nan  and  Hazar-enon  [village  of 
fountains]. 

A  village  on  the  northern  boundary  of 
Palestine,  near  Damascus  (Num.  xxxiv.  9 ; 
Ezek.  xlvii.  17 ;  xlviii.  1).  Exact  site  un- 
known. 

Ha-zar-gad'dah  [village  of  good  fortune]. 

A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  27).     Exact  site  unknown. 

Ha-zar-hat'ti-con.  See  Hazee-hatticon. 

Ha-zar-ma'veth  [village  of  death]. 

A  body  of  Joktauites  who  peopled  a  dis- 
trict in  Arabia  (Gen.  x.  26 ;  1  Chron.  i.  20). 
A  region  in  Arabia  Felix,  in  the  south  of  the 
peninsula,  is  still  called  by  the  Arabs  Ha- 
dramaut,  which  corresponds  etymologically 
to  Hazarmaveth.  The  place  is  mentioned  iu 
the  inscriptions  of  the  ancient  Sabaeans,  the 
people  of  Sheba. 

Ha-zar-shu'al  [fox  village]. 

A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah,  as- 
signed to  the  Simeonites  (Josh.  xv.  28;  xix. 
3;  1  Chron.  iv.  28).  It  was  occupied  after 
the  captivity  (Neh.  xi.  27).  Perhaps  the  ruin 
eth-Tha'li,  a  word  equivalent  to  Shual. 

Ha-zar-su'sah,  in  plural  Hazar-susim  [vil- 
lage of  a  mare  or  mares] . 

A  village  belonging  to  the  Simeonites  (Josh. 
xix.  5  ;  1  Chron.  iv.  31).  Tristram  places  it  at 
the  ruin  Susin,  10  miles  south  of  Gaza,  on 
the  caravan  route  to  Egypt.  Perhaps  it  is 
Susiyeh,  2  miles  east  by  north  of  Semua. 

Haz-a-zon-ta'mar,  in  A.  V.  once  Hazezon- 
tamar  (Gen.  xiv.  7).    See  En-gedi. 

Ha'zel. 

The  rendering  in  Gen.  xxx.  37,  A.  V.  of  the 
Hebrew  Luz,  which  is  almost  certainly,  as  the 
E.  V.  makes  it,  the  almond  tree. 

Haz-e-lel-po'ni.     See  Hazzelelponi. 

Ha-zer-hat'ti-con,  in  A.  V.  Hazar-hatti- 
con  [the  middle  Hazer  or  village]. 

A  town  on  the  border  of  the  Hauran  (Ezek. 
xlvii.  16).     Exact  site  unknown. 

Ha-ze'rim  [villages]. 

Habitations  of  the  Avvim  (Deut.  ii.  23) ; 
in  the  E.  V.  properly  translated  by  villages. 

Ha-ze'roth  [encampments]. 

An  encamping  ground  of  the  Israelites 
in  the  wilderness  beyond  Kibroth-hattaavah 
(Num.  xi.  35)  and  on  this  side  of  Paran  (xii. 
16;  xxxiii.  17;  Deut.  i.  1).  It  was  there  that 
Miriam  and  Aaron  murmured  against  Moses 
(Num.  xi.  35-xii.  16).  'Ain  el-Hudera,  about 
36  miles  northeast  of  mount  Sinai,  was  sug- 
gested by  Burckhardt,  and  adopted  bj-  Eobin- 


Hazezon-tamar 


281 


Heaven 


son  and  others,  as  the  site.  The  identifica- 
tion rests,  liowever,  solely  on  the  similarity 
of  the  name,  and  is  iineertain.  Palmer  found 
at  the  sjiot  many  stone  circles,  which  evi- 
dently marked  the  site  of  an  encampment 
formed  by  a  pastoral  people. 

Haz-e-zon-ta'mar.   See  Hazazon-tamar. 

Ha'zi-el  [vision  of  God]. 

A  (iershouite  Levite,  son  of  Shimei  (1  Chron. 
xxiii.  fi). 

Ha'zo  [perhaps,  vision]. 

A  sou  of  Nahor  and  Milcah  (Gen.  xxii.  22). 
The  name  is  probably  preserved  in  the  hilly 
region  Hazii,  which  Esarhaddoa  traversed, 
not  remote  from  the  Hauran. 

Ha'zor  [an  enclosure]. 

1.  The  capital  of  the  Canaanite  kingdom 
in  the  north  of  Palestine,  ruled  over  in 
Joshua's  time  by  Jabin.  According  to  Jo- 
sephus,  it  was  situated  above  the  waters  of 
Merom  (Antiq.  v.  5,  1).  The  town  was  taken 
by  Joshua  and  burnt  (Josh.  xi.  1-13;  xii.  19). 
It  was  rebuilt,  and  was  assigned  to  the  tribe 
of  Naphtali  (Josh.  xix.  3(i).  In  the  days  of 
Deborah  and  Barak  it  was  ruled  by  another 
king  Jabin.  On  the  defeat  of  his  general, 
Sisera,  he  attempted  to  continue  the  war 
against  the  Israelites,  but  was  ultimately 
overcome  and  slain  (Judg.  iv.  1-24 ;  1  Sam. 
xii.  9).  It  is  doubtful  whether  this  or  some 
other  Hazor  was  the  town  fortified  by  Solo- 
mon (1  Kin.  ix.  15),  but  it  was  certainly  the 
place  so  named  whose  inhabitants  were  car- 
ried into  cajttivity  to  Assyria  by  Tiglath- 
pileser  (2  Kin.  xv.  29).  In  the  neighboring 
plain  Jonathan  defeated  Demetrius  (1  Mac. 
xi.  67;  in  A.  V.  Nasor ;  Antiq.  xiii.  5,  7). 
Eobinson's  identification  of  Hazor  with  Tell 
Khureibeh,  3J  miles  west  of  the  waters  of 
Merom,  is  the  most  probable  yet  proposed. 
Conder  locates  it  at  Jebel  Hadireh,  about  2 
miles  farther  west. 

2.  A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah, 
called  also  Kerioth-hezron  (.Tosh.  xv.  25,  E.V.). 
Exact  site  unknown.  Robinson  located  it  at 
Kureitein,  12  miles  south  of  Hebron.  Hazor, 
a  tow'n  of  Judah  near  Kedesh,  is  mentioned 
in  ver.  23  ;  see  Hezron. 

3.  A  village  of  Benjamin  (Xeh.  xi.  33). 
Conder  identifies  it  witli  the  ruin  Ilazzur, 
4  miles  north-northwest  of  Jerusalem,  and 
directly  west  of  Beit  Haniua,  perhaps  Ana- 
niah  of  ver.  32. 

4.  A  region  in  the  Arabian  desert,  eastward 
of  Palestine.  Jeremiah  prophesied  its  plun- 
dering by  Xebuchadnezzar  (xlix.  28-33).  Be- 
rosus  states  that  Nebuchadnezzar  conquered 
Arabia  (con.  Apion.  i.  19).  The  name  is  prob- 
ably a  collective  and  refers  to  the  settled  vil- 
lage life  of  thecommuuitj-  in  contrast  to  the 
nomads.     Exact  situation  unknown. 

Ha-zor-ha-dat'tali,  in  A.  V.  punctuated  as 
two  i>laces,  Hazor,  Hadattah  [if  the  second 
word  is  Aramaic,  the  name  means  new  vil- 
lage]. 


A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah, 
ai)i)arently  near  Hazor  2.  Exact  site  un- 
known (Josh.  XV.  25). 

Haz'ze-lel-po'ni,    in    A.   V.    Hazelelponi 

[give  shade,  thou  who  turnest  toward  me]. 

A  woman  of  Judah,  daughter  of  the  an- 
cestor of  the  men  of  Etam  (1  Chron.  iv.  3). 

He. 

The  fifth  letter  of  the  Hebrew  ali)habet. 
The  English  letter  E  has  the  same  origin,  but 
is  a  vowel.  Where  he  preserves  its  jxiwer  as 
a  consonant  in  Hebrew  names,  and  properly 
at  other  times,  it  is  represented  by  h  in  the 
English  form  ;  as  in  Abraham. 

It  stands  at  the  head  of  the  fifth  section 
of  Ps.  cxix.,  since  each  verse  in  the  section 
begins  with  this  letter  in  the  original. 

Through  some  similarity  of  form  combined 
with  careless  writing  and  slight  effacement 
of  the  text,  it  was  sometimes  misread  as 
aleph  on  the  one  hand  and  tau  on  the  other. 

Head'band. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Kishshnr, 
encircle,  band  (Is.  iii.  20,  in  E.  V.  a  sash  ; 
Jer.  ii.  32,  in  E.  V.  attire).  It  is  an  article 
of  female  attire. 

Hea'then  [dweller  in  the  heath].  The 
word  suggests  the  fact  that  the  gospel  first 
rooted  itself  in  towns,  the  inhabitants  of 
which  became  Christians,  while  the  dwellers 
on  heaths  remained  worshipers  of  false  di- 
vinities. The  word  Pagan,  from  Latin 
Pa(j(tnns,  belonging  to  a  village,  rustic,  has  a 
somewhat  similar  reference. 

One  of  a  people  who  do  not  worship  the  God 
of  the  Bible,  especially  if  they  are  addicted  to 
idolatry.  It  is  a  frequent  rendering  of  the 
Hebrew  Goy  and  Greek  Eiluios,  each  of  which 
means  nation  or  people.  R.  V.  employs  the  word 
heathen  only  in  O.  T.  and  then  only  when 
the  character  of  the  gentile  nations  is  clearly 
referred  to  ;  as  in  speaking  of  the  abomina- 
tions of  the  heathen  (2  Kin.  xvi.  3;  Ezek. 
xxiii.  30),  their  filthincss  (Ezra  vi.  21),  their 
ignorance  of  the  trutli,  ojiposition  to  the  true 
religion,  barbarous  trampling  upon  it  and 
upon  the  people  of  God,  and  consequent  ex- 
posure to  the  righteous  indignation  of  Je- 
hovah (Ps.  Ixxix.  1,  6,  10,  biit  not  cxv.  2  ; 
also  in  Jer.  x.  25 ;  Lam.  i.  3,  10 ;  Ezek. 
xxxiv.  28,  29;  xxxvi.  6,  7,  15). 

Heav'en,  often  The  Heavens  [probably 
originally,  covering] . 

1.  The  sky,  the  expanse  around  the  earth. 
It  embraces  all  that  is  apart  from  the  earth 
(Gen.  ii.  1) ;  hence  heaven  and  earth  com- 
prehend the  universe  (Gen.  i.  1;  xiv.  19; 
xxiv.  3  ;  Jer.  xxiii.  24  ;  Mat.  v.  18).  Beyond 
the  visible  firmament  was  the  primeval 
watery  mass  (Gen.  i.  7;  Ps.  cxlviii.  4) ;  which 
is  not  further  referred  to  in  the  account  of 
creation,  but  out  of  which  it  is  reasonable  to 
believe  the  heavenly  bodies  were  formed. 
These  upper  waters  remained  in  Hebrew 
thought  along  with  other  conceptions.     In 


Heber 


282 


Hebrews 


the  visible  heavens  are  the  stars  and  planets 
(Gen.  i,  14,  15,  17;  Ezek.  xxxii.  7,  H).  In 
the  part  of  it  next  the  earth  is  the  atmos- 
phere, in  which  clouds  float,  through  wliich 
birds  fly,  and  from  which  rain  descends  (Gen. 
i.  20;  vii.  11;  viii.  2;  xxvii.  28;  2  Sam.  xxi. 
10;  Ps.  cxlvii.  8;  Lam.  iv.  19)  ;  see  Firma- 
ment. The  Hebrews,  by  a  familiar  idiom, 
spoke  of  the  heaven  of  heavens  (Dent.  x.  14 ; 
1  Kin.  viii.  27 ;  P&.  cxv.  l(j),  meaning  the . 
heavens  in  their  widest  extent.  The  later 
Jews  were  fond  of  dividing  the  heavens  into 
seven  diflerent  strata.  No  fixed,  definite 
conception  of  these  several  regions  prevailed  ; 
but  fancy  was  allowed  fullest  freedom.  The 
higiiest  was  regarded  as  God's  dwelling  place. 
Paul  describes  CUirist  as  ascending  far  above 
all  the  heavens  (Eph.  iv.  10) ;  and  he  relates 
an  experience,  whether  in  vision  or  reality 
he  knew  not,  in  which  he  was  caught  up  into 
the  third  heaven  and  into  Paradise  (2  Cor. 
xii.  1-4). 

2.  The  place  where  God's  immediate  pres- 
ence is  manifested  (Gen.  xxviii.  17 ;  Ps. 
Ixxx.  14  ;  Is.  Ixvi.  1 ;  Mat.  v.  12,  16,  45,  48  ; 
xxiii.  9),  where  the  angels  are  (Mat.  xxiv. 
3H;  xxviii.  2  ;  Mark  xiii.  32  ;  Luke  xxii.  43), 
and  where  the  redeemed  shall  ultimatelv  be 
(Mat.  V.  12  ;  vi.  20  ;  xviii.  10 ;  Eph.  iii.  15 ;  1 
Pet.  i.  4  ;  Rev.  xix.  1,  4).  Christ  descended 
from  heaven  (John  iii.  13),  and  ascended 
thither  again  (Acts  i.  11),  where  he  niaketh 
intercession  for  the  saints  and  whence  he 
shall  come  to  judge  the  quick  and  the  dead 
(Rom.  viii.  33,  34 ;  Heb.  vi.  20  ;  ix.  24  ;  Mat. 
xxiv.  30;  1  Thes.  iv.  16). 

3.  The  inhabit/ants  of  heaven  (Luke  xv. 
18;  Rev.  xviii.  20). 

He'ber  [union,  society,  fellowship]. 

1.  A  son  of  Beriah,  grandson  of  Asher, 
and  founder  of  a  tribal  family  (Gen.  xlvi.  17 ; 
Num.  xxvi.  45). 

2.  A  Kenite,  descendant  of  Moses'  brother- 
in-law  or  father-in-law  Hobab,  and  the  hus- 
band of  Jael,  who  slew  Sisera  (Judg.  iv.  11- 
24). 

3.  A  man  registered  with  Judah,  de- 
scended from  Ezra,  and  ancestor  of  the  men 
of  Socoh   (1  Chron.  iv.   18). 

4.  A  Benjamite,  descended  from  Shaha- 
raim  through  Elpaal  (1  Chron.  viii.  17). 

For  two  others  bearing  this  name  in  A.  V., 
see  Eber. 

He'brew  [pertaining  to  the  other  side  or  to 
Eber]. 

1.  According  to  biblical  history,  the  He- 
brews were  men  from  the  other  side  of  the 
Euphrates  (Gen.  xiv.  13  with  xii.  5  ;  Josh, 
xxiv.  2,  3 ;  and  see  Euphrates).  The  name 
may  have  denoted  this,  or  it  may  have  been 
originally  a  patronymic  formed  from  Eber, 
and  have  designated  all  his  descendants,  in- 
cluding the  Israelites  (Gen.  x.  21),  until  the 
increasing  prominence  of  the  Israelites  led  to 
restricting  its  use  to  them  ;  see  Eber.  He- 
brews in  the  plural  was  applied  to  the  Is- 


raelites (Gen.  xl.  15;  1  Sam.  iv.  6  ;  xiii.  3  :  2 
Cor.  xi.  22).  In  N.  T.  times  it  was  used  spe- 
cially of  those  Jews  who  spoke  Hebrew  or 
rather  Aramaic  in  distinction  from  the  Hel- 
lenists, their  fellow-countrymen  who  spoke 
Greek  (Acts  vi.  1).  An  Hebrew  of  the  He- 
Ijrews  was  a  thorough  Hebrew  ;  as,  for  ex- 
ample, a  person  of  Hebrew  parentage  both 
on  the  father's  and  the  mother's  side  (Phil, 
iii.  5). 

2.  The  language  spoken  bv  the  Hebrews 
(2  Kin.  xviii.  26,  28;  Is.  xxxvi.  11,  13).  and 
called,  poetically,  the  language  of  Canaan 
(Is.  xix.  18).  There  is  reason  to  believe  that 
Abraham  found  it  in  Canaan,  instead  of 
bringing  it  with  him  from  Chaldea  ;  and  the 
tablets  from  Tell  el-Amarna  and  the  Moabite 
stone  have  shown  that  at  least  the  Cauaanites 
and  the  Moabites,  if  not  even  the  adjacent 
tribes,  spoke  a  language  not  very  different 
from  Hebrew.  It  belongs  to  the  Semitic 
group  of  languages.  Like  the  rest  of  them, 
it  is  read  from  right  to  left,  not,  like  English, 
from  left  to  right.  Its  alphabet  consists  of 
twenty-two  consonants.  Their  names  are 
found  in  Ps.  cxix.,  which  is  divided  into 
groups  of  eight  verses.  In  each  of  these 
groups  a  several  letter  of  the  alphabet  domi- 
nates, beginning  each  verse.  Originally  the 
language  was  written  without  vowel-points, 
these  not  being  introduced  earlier  than  the 
sixth  century  A.  D.,  or  perha])s  even  a  little 
later.  They  were  the  work  of  certain  Jewish 
doctors  called  Masorites,  whose  headquarters 
were  at  Tiberias.  With  the  exception  of  por- 
tions of  the  books  of  Daniel  and  Ezra  and  a 
few  verses  elsewhere  in  Aramaic,  the  whole  of 
the  O.  T.  was  written  originally  in  Hebrew. 
Languages  have  their  periods  of  growth, 
comparative  perfection,  and  then  decay.  Two 
stages  are  traceable  in  Hebrew  ;  these  are 
generally  called  its  golden  and  its  silver  age. 
The  first  extended  from  the  commencement 
of  the  Helirew  nation  to  the  Babylonian  cap- 
tivity, the  second  from  the  captivity  till  the 
language  ceased  to  be  spoken.  During  the 
golden  age,  while  the  Jews  w-ere  generally 
independent,  their  language  remained  com- 
paratively pure.  During  the  silver  age  it 
was  corrupted  by  a  continually  increasing  in- 
flux of  Aramaic,  till  the  latter  tongue  super- 
seded it  altogether.  The  Aramaic  in  the 
time  of  our  Lord  had  taken  the  ])lace  of  the 
genuine  Hebrew  as  the  colloquial  language 
(Mark  v.  41),  and  had  usurped  its  name  ;  and 
Aramaic  is  intended  by  the  Hebrew  lan- 
guage, or  the  Hebrew  tongue,  or  the  Hebrew, 
or  simply  Hebrew,  in  John  v.  2 ;  xix.  13,  17, 
20  ;  Acts  xxi.  40  ;  xxii.  2  ;  xxvi.  14 ;  Rev.  ix. 
11. 

He'brews,  E-pis'tle  to  the. 

The  fourteenth  of  the  N.  T.  epistles  as  they 
are  arranged  in  the  English  Bible.  That  it 
was  addressed  to  Jewish  Christians  is  clearly 
shown  by  its  contents.  To  no  others  would 
its  arguments  be  so  appropriate.  They  were 
in  danger  of  returning  to  Judaism  through 


Hebrews 


283 


Hebrews 


the  pressure  of  outward  trial  and  opposition 
(ii.  1  ;  iii.  1:2  ;  iv.  1.  11  ;  v.  12  ;  vi.  (J ;  x.  23- 
2.").  29).  They  had  been  early  converts  (v.  12) 
and  liad  received  tlie  gospel  from  its  first 
preacliers  (ii.  o).  Tliey  had  h)n<j;  ago  been 
])ei-seeuted  (x.  32-34)  and  had  often  minis- 
tered to  the  siiints  (vi.  10;  x.  34).  There  is 
no  reference  to  gentile  members  in  their 
cluirclies,  and  their  danger  lay  in  a  return 
not  so  nnuh  to  the  law  as  to  tlie  ritual. 
Tliese  allusions  best  suit  the  Hebrew  Chris- 
tians of  I'alestine,  and  to  them  doubtless, 
with  jierhaps  other  Jewish  believers  of  the 
East,  tlie  e])istle  was  addressed. 

Its  authorship  has  always  been  disputed. 
Even  in  the  ancient  church  opinion  was  di- 
vided, thougli  the  canonicity  and  authority 
of  the  book  were  recognized.  The  early 
eastern  church  received  it  as  Pauline,  though 
it  was  felt  to  be  unlike  the  rest  of  Paul's 
epistles,  and  theories  were  advanced  to  ex- 
jilain  the  ditl'erence.  Clement  of  Alexandria. 
<■.  f/..  thought  that  i)erhaps  I^uke  translated  it 
from  a  Hebrew  original.  Li  the  early  west- 
ern churches  its  Pauline  authorship  was 
doubted  and  denied,  and  Tertulliau  attrib- 
uted it  to  liarnabas.  For  a  while  indeed  in 
the  Avestern  churches  its  history  becomes 
obscure,  so  far  as  our  information  goes ;  but 
finally  the  eastern  opinion  became  the  uni- 
versally acceiited  one.  The  book  is  anon- 
ymous. Chaj).  ii.  3,  however,  seems  to  imjily 
that  the  author  w'as  not  an  apostle.  It  certainly 
implies  that  he  was  not  one  of  the  original 
ajiostles,  and  it  is  unlike  Paul  to  represent 
himself  as  receiving  the  gospel  from  others 
Icp.  Gal.  i.  11-24).  From  xiii.  18,  19  we 
learn  that  the  writer  was  well  known  to  his 
readers  and  was  unhappily  separated  from 
them.  In  xiii.  23  the  reference  to  Timothy 
is  not  sufficient  to  indicate  the  author,  nor 
does  the  exjiression  "they  of  Italy "  (xiii. 
24  ;  prove  his  locality,  though  the  natural  in- 
ference is  that  he  was  in  Italy.  The  evi- 
dence of  the  contents  and  style  also  im- 
presses different  minds  in  diflerent  ways.  It 
certainly  is  not  a  translation  of  a  Hebrew' 
original.  Its  doctrine  has  much  in  common 
with  Paul,  though  the  truth  is  put  in  a 
slightly  diflerent  way.  Its  language  has  a 
large  classic  element  in  it,  and  its  style  has 
seemed  to  most  critics  unlike  the  apostle's, 
being  smoother,  often  more  elegant,  and  less 
impetuous.  The  omis.sion  of  any  address 
also  is  unlike  Paul's  usage  elsewhere  ;  and  the 
author  seems  to  have  used  exclusively  the 
Greek  translation  of  the  O.  T.,  while  Paul 
constantly  .shows  his  familiarity  with  the  He- 
brew as  well.  There  is  still  room,  therefore, 
for  difference  of  ojiinion  as  to  the  author. 
Various  suggestions  have  been  made  by  those 
who  deny  that  Paul  wrote  it.  Lutherguessed 
Apollos.  The  most  plausible  view,  if  Paul 
he  not  the  author,  is  that  which  attri))utes  it 
to  Barnabas,  who  has  at  least  some  ancient 
testimony  in  his  favor,  and  who  in  The  Acts 
appears  as  the  mediator  between  the  Jewish 


Christians  and  Paul,  nnich  as  this  e])istle 
seeks  to  estal)lish  its  Hebrew  readers  in  a 
doctrine  which  is  thoroughly  Pauline.  The 
following  analysis  will  exhibit  the  thought 
of  the  e]>istle  : 

(1)  The  anthcn"  begins  by  stating  the  supe- 
riority of  Christianity  to  all  previous  and 
possible  revelation  l)ecause  of  the  superigr 
dignity  of  Christ  to  all  i)revious  and  possible 
organs  of  revelation  (i.),  a  fact  which 
should  warn  us  not  to  forsake  the  gospel  (ii. 
1-4).  Nor  should  the  humiliation  of  Christ 
api)ear  a  difficulty,  since  just  by  it  he  be- 
comes our  Saviour  and  high  priest  (ii.). 
Christ,  therefore,  is  of  su]ierior  dignity  even 
to  Moses  (iii.  1-6).  and  the  warnings  against 
unbelief  in  the  older  revelation  which  were 
addressed  to  Israel,  are  doubly  applicable 
against  unbelief  in  the  final  revelation  of 
the  gospel  (iii.  7-iv.  13). 

(2)  The  epistle  then  unfolds  the  value  of 
Christ's  high-])riestly  office  (iv.  14-l(j)  :  ex- 
plaining its  nature  and  showing  that  Christ 
did,  and  that  it  was  predicted  he  would, 
exercise  it  (v.) ;  and,  after  gently,  yet 
vigorously,  rebuking  them  for  their  failure 
to  grasp  the  full  truth  of  the  gospel  (vi.), 
unfolding  the  sujieriority  of  Christ's  priest- 
hood, as  typified  in  Melchizedek,  to  the 
levitical,  the  consequent  abrogaticm  of  the 
latter  with  its  ritual,  and  the  all-sufficiency 
of  Christ's  (vii.). 

(3)  Then  the  epistle  shows  that  Christ's 
priesthood  must  now  be  necessarily  exercised 
in  heaven,  so  that  his  invisibility  should  be 
no  difficulty  to  them.  In  this  heavenly  min- 
istry Christ  fulfills  the  types,  realizes  the 
]iromises  and  remedies  the  imperfections  of 
the  earthly  ritual  (viii.  1-x.  18). 

(4)  The  fourth  section  (x.  19-xii.  29)  urges 
them  to  live  up  to  these  truths  by  an  endur- 
ing faith.  The  writer  exhorts  to  renewed 
confidence  in  Christ  and  to  the  maintenance 
of  their  Christian  associations  (x.  19-25) ;  de- 
picts the  hopelessness  which  would  follow 
apostasy  (x.  26-31)  ;  incites  them  by  recall- 
ing their  former  zeal  (x.  32-39),  the  examples 
of  the  Hebrew  heroes  of  faith  (xi.)  and  of 
Christ  himself  (xii.  1-3)  ;  and  bids  them  con- 
sider their  trials  as  but  the  chastening  of  the 
Lord  preparatory  to  a  glorious  salvation  (xii. 
4-29). 

(5)  In  ch.  xiii.  are  added  some  specific  ex- 
hortations. 

This  epistle  is  the  only  one  in  which  the 
title  of  priest  is  applied  to  Christ,  though 
of  conr.se  the  substance  of  the  doctrine  is 
elsewhere  taught :  it  represents  Christianity 
as  the  completion  and  goal  of  the  old  dispen- 
•sation  :  the  clear  announcement  of  that  way 
of  .salvation  previously  taught  by  type  and 
ritual.  It  gives  the  argument,  therefore, 
most  likely  to  establish  Hebrews  in  the  faith, 
and  without  it  the  N.  T.  teaching  Mould  be 
obviously  incomplete.  It  was  probably  written 
A.  D.  65-68,  while  the  temple  was  still  stand- 
ing (xiii.  10-14).  G.  T.  p. 


Hebron 


284 


Hebron 


He'bron  [union]. 

1.  A  Levite,  son  of  Kohatb  and  founder 
of  a  tribal  family  (Ex.  vi.  18;  1  Chron.  vi. 
2) ;  see  Hebronit?:s. 

2.  A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  48,  54),  called  originally  Kirjath- 
arba,  meaning  either  city  of  four,  because 
consisting  of  four  separate  hamlets,  or  city 
of  the  croucber  (Gen.  xxiii.  2  ;  Josh.  xx.  7) ; 
see  Arba.  It  was  built  seven  years  before 
Zoan,  in  Egypt  (Num.  xiii.  22),  and  existed 
at  least  as  early  as  the  days  of  Abraham, 
who  for  a  time  resided  in  its  vicinity,  under 
the  oaks  or  terebinths  of  Mamre  (Gen.  xiii. 
18  ;  XXXV.  27).     Sarah  died  there,  and  Abra- 


utterly  destroyed  their  cities.  After  this 
first  general  campaign,  however,  the  sur- 
vivors of  the  old  population  gradually  re- 
turned from  their  hiding  places  and  retreats, 
and  in  the  course  of  a  few  years  rebuilt  many 
of  the  ruined  towns.  Among  those  who  thus 
returned  were  remnants  of  the  three  families 
of  Anakim  who  bad  dwelt  at  Hebron.  Here 
they  were  found  reestablished  after  the  con- 
quest of  Canaan  (xiv.  10,  12).  Caleb  claimed 
that  district  as  his  own  ;  and  when  the  tribe 
of  Judah  took  possession  of  its  allotted  terri- 
tory after  the  death  of  Joshua,  Caleb  retook 
Hebron  (Judg.  i.  10-15  ;  and,  apparently  by 
anticipation,  Josh.  xv.  13-19).     Hebron  had 


Hebron  and  Sacred  Enclosure  over  the  Cave  of  Machpelah,  viewed  from  the  North. 


ham  bought  the  cave  of  Machpelah  for  a 
sepulcher.  He  purchased  it  from  the  Hit- 
tites  who  then  occupied  the  town  (xxiii.  2- 
20).  Isaac  and  Jacob  for  a  time  sojourned  at 
Hebron  (Gen.  xxxv.  27;  xxxvii.  14).  It  was 
visited  by  the  si>ies,  who  found  Anakim 
among  its  inhabitants  (Num.  xiii.  22).  Its 
king,  Hoham,  was  one  of  the  four  kings  who 
allied  themselves  with  Adoni-zedek  against 
Joshua,  but  who  wei'e  defeated,  captured, 
and  slain  (Josh.  x.  1-27).  Hebron  itself  was 
afterwards  taken,  and  its  inhabitants  de- 
stroyed (36-39).  Thisaccountissupplemented 
by  xi.  21,  22,  where  it  is  recorded  that  at  that 
time  .Joshua  cutoff  the  Anakim  from  Hebron, 
Debir,  Anab,  and  all  the  hill  country,  and 


dependent  villages  (Josh.  xv.  54).  was  as- 
signed to  the  priests,  and  was  one  of  the 
cities  of  refuge  (Josh.  xx.  7;  xxi.  10-13;  1 
Chron.  vi.  54-57).  David  sent  thither  part 
of  the  recaptured  spoil  of  Ziklag  (1  Sam. 
XXX.  31),  and  iit'terwards  reigned  in  it  for 
seven  and  a  half  years  (2  Sam.  ii.  1-3,  11, 32 ; 
v.  1-5,  13  ;  1  Kin.  ii.  11  ;  1  Chron.  xxix.  27), 
several  of  his  sons  being  born  there  (2  Sam. 
iii.  2-5 ;  1  Chron.  iii.  1-4  ;  xi.  1-3 :  xii.  23-38). 
Abner  was  buried  there  (2  Sam.  iii.  32),  and 
the  bead  of  Ish-bosbeth  was  placed  in  the 
same  grave  (iv.  1-12).  It  was  at  Hebron  that 
Absalom  raised  the  standard  of  relu'l lion  (xv. 
7-10).  It  was  fortified  Iiy  Rehoboam  (2 
Chron.  xi.  10).     When,  during  the  captivity, 


Hebronites 


285 


Helem 


the  Eilomites  occupied  the  south  of  Judah, 
Hebron,  among  otlier  places,  fell  into  their 
hands.  It  was  recaptured  from  them  by 
Judas  Maccal)a'us,  having  then  a  fortress 
with  towers  and  being  the  head  of  other 
towns  (1  Mac.  v.  6.3).  It  is  not  mentioned  in 
the  N.  T.  Hebron  is  now  called  el-Khulil 
er-Kahman.  It  is  one  of  the  oldest  towns  in 
the  world  which  is  still  inhabited,  instead  of 
being  simjily  a  ruin.  Hebron  is  situated  in 
a  valley  and  on  an  adjacent  slope,  3040  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  ocean.  It  is  19  miles 
south-southwest  of  Jerusalem,  and  13i  south- 
southwest  of  Bethlehem.  It  has  no  walls  at 
present,  but  possesses  gates.  The  houses, 
which  are  of  stone,  are  well  built,  with  flat 
roofs,  domed  in  the  middle.  It  was  formerly 
divided  into  three  quarters,  but  has  so  in- 
creased since  187.3  as  to  have  required  six 
more.  The  population  is  believed  to  be 
about  10,000,  most  of  them  ISIussulmans,  the 
remainder  chiefly  Jews.  There  is  a  great 
mosque,  the  preciuts  of  which  are  called  el- 
Haram  (the  enclosure).  It  has  a  quadrangle 
197  feet  long  by  111  broad.  The  masonry  is 
like  tliat  of  the  Haram  at  Jerusalem.  With- 
in the  enclosure  is  a  cave,  believed  to  be  that 
of  Machpelah.  The  oak  or  terebinth  of 
Abraham  has  been  shown  at  two  places  ;  that 
which  now  exists  is  a  genuine  oak  (Quercus 
pseiulucoccifera)  ;  see  Mamre.  There  are 
twenty-five  springs  of  water  and  ten  large 
wells  near  Hebron,  with  vineyards  and  olive- 
groves. 

3.  A  town  of  Asher  (Josh.  xix.  28,  A.  V.), 
but  its  Hebrew  name  is  different  from  that 
of  Hebron  in  Judah  ;  see  Ebron. 

He'bron-ites. 

The  descendants  of  Hebron  the  Kohath- 
ite  (Num.  iii.  27:  1  Chron.  xxvi.  30,  31). 

He'gai  and  He'ge. 

One  of  the  chamberlains  of  king  Ahasue- 
rus.  He  was  the  keeper  of  the  women  (Esth. 
ii.  3,  8,  15). 

Heifer. 

A  young  cow  (Gen.  xv.  9  ;  Deut.  xxi.  3 ;  1 
Sam.'xvi.  2) ;  see  Cow  and  Purification. 

Heir. 

Inheritance  early  became  a  custom.  Abra- 
ham was  acquainted  with  it  (Gen.  xv.  3,  4). 
Only  sons  of  a  legal  wife,  not  those  of  a  con- 
cubine, had  the  right  of  inheritance.  Ish- 
mael,  son  of  the  bondwoman,  might  not. in- 
herit with  the  son  of  the  free  woman  (xxi. 
10)  ;  and  Abraham  dismissed  with  presents 
the  sons  whom  he  had  begotten  by  concu- 
bines (xxv.  5,  6).  Still  all  of  Jacob's  sous 
were  accorded  equal  rights.  Daughters  some- 
times inherited  like  sons  (Job  xlii.  1.3).  By 
the  Mosaic  law  a  man's  property  was  divided 
on  his  death  among  his  sons,  the  eldest  ob- 
taining double  the  portion  assigned  to  his 
younger  brothers  (Deut.  xxi.  15-17).  When 
there  were  no  sons,  the  property  went  to  the 
daughters  (Num.  xxvii.  1-8),  who,  however, 
were  required  to  abstain  from  marrying  out 


of  their  own  tribal  family  (Num.  xxxvi.  1- 
12  ;  Tob.  vi.  10-12).  If  circumstances  de- 
manded that  a  man  of  other  family  marry  a 
sole  heiress,  the  children  of  such  a  marriage 
appear  to  have  taken  the  name  of  the  mother's 
father  (1  Chron.  ii.  34-41 ;  Ezra  ii.  Gl).  Fail- 
ing both  Sons  and  daughters,  the  inheritance 
went  to  the  father's  brother,  and  after  him 
to  the  nearest  of  kin  (Num.  xxvii.  9-11). 
Greek  and  Roman  rule  introduced  new  cus- 
toms, and  made  testaments  and  testators 
familiar  to  the  Jews  (Heb.  ix.  16,  17).  In  a 
figurative  sense,  believers  are  heirs  of  God 
and  joint  heirs  with  Christ  (Rom.  viii.  17). 

He'lall  [scum,  rust,  verdigris]. 

One  of  the  two  wives  of  Ashhur,  the  ances- 
tor of  the  men  of  Tekoa  (1  Chron.  iv.  5,  7). 

He 'lam. 

A  place  east  of  Jordan,  where  David  de- 
feated Hadarezer,  king  of  Syria  (2  Sam.  x. 
16-19).  Ewald  and  others  doubtfully  iden- 
tify it  with  Alamatha,  a  town  mentioned  by 
Ptolemy  as  west  of  the  Euphrates,  near  Nice- 
phorium. 

Hel'bali  [fatness,  a  fertile  region]. 

A  city  within  the  territory  of  Asher,  from 
which  the  Canaauites  were  not  driven  out 
(Judg.  i.  31).     Site  unknown. 

Hel'bon  [fat,  fertile] . 

A  city  of  Syria,  celebrated  for  its  wines 
(Ezek.  xxvii.  18).  It  is  commonly  identified 
with  Helbun,  13  miles  north  of  Damascus. 
The  village  is  situated  in  a  narrow  valley 
shut  in  by  steep,  bare  clifl's  and  long,  shelving 
banks  2000  to  3000  feet  high.  The  bottom 
of  the  glen  is  occupied  by  orchards,  and  far 
up  the  mountain  slopes  are  terraced  vine- 
yards. Along  the  terraces  and  in  the  valley 
below  are  extensive  ruins.  Tlie  wine  was 
celebrated  in  Assyria,  Babylonia,  and  Per.sia 
(Strabo  xv.  735  ;  Nebuchadnezzar  1  R.  65, 
32). 

Hel'dai  [durable,  transitoriness]. 

1.  A  Netophathite,  descended  from  Othniel. 
He  was  David's  captain  for  the  twelfth 
mouth  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  15).  Doubtless  the 
person  called  Heled  in  xi.  30. 

2.  An  exile  who  returned  from  Babylon 
(Zech.  vi.  10),  called  also  Helem  (ver.  14). 

He'leb  [fatness]. 

The  name  given  to  Heled  in  2  Sam.  xxiii. 
29.  It  may  possibly  be  the  original  name, 
but  probably  arose  from  the  mistake  of  an 
early  copyist,  which  is  quite  intelligible  and 
common. 

He'led  [endurance,  transitory  life]. 

The  son  of  Baanah,  a  Netophathite,  and 
one  of  David's  mighty  men  (1  Chron.  xi.  30). 
See  Heleb  and  Heldai. 

He'lek  [smoothness,  portion,  lot]. 

A  son  of  Gilead,  and  founder  of  a  tribal 
family  of  Manasseh  (Num.  xxvi.  30 ;  Josh, 
xvii.  2). 

He'Iem,  I.  [blow,  stroke]. 

An  Asherite,  brother  of  Shamer  (1  Chron. 


Helem 


286 


Hell 


vii.  35),  aud  probably  the  person  called 
Hotham  iu  ver.  'S2. 

He'lem,  II.  [dream,  or,  perhaps,  mauly 
vigor] . 

The  same  as  Heldai  2  (Zech.  vi.  10  with  14). 

He'leph  [permutation,  change,  exchange]. 

A  frontier  town  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  xix.  o3). 
Van  de  Velde  identified  it  with  Beit  Lif,  in 
the  mountains  of  Galilee,  midway  between 
Kadesh  and  Eas  el-Abiad. 

He'lez  [perhaps,  alertness]. 

1.  A  Paltite  or  Pelonite,  David's  captain  for 
the  seventh  month  (1  Ciiron.  xxvii.  10). 

2.  A  man  of  Judah,  descended  from  Hez- 
rou  {1  Chron.  ii.  39). 

He'li  [Greek  form  of  Eli,  probably  eleva- 
tion]. 

The  father  of  Mary,  the  mother  of  Jesus. 
This  belief  is  founded  on  the  Greek  text, 
which  represents  Jesus  as  "  being  son  (as  was 
supposed  of  Joseph)  of  Heli"  (Luke  iii.  23). 

Hel'kai  [smooth]. 

A  priest,  head  of  the  father's  house  Merai- 
oth  (Neh.  xii.  !'■>). 

Hel'kath  [smoothness,  a  part  (of  a  iield),  a 
field]. 

A  town  on  the  boundary  line  of  Asher 
(Josh.  xix.  25),  assigned,  with  its  suburbs,  to 
the  Gershonite  Levites  (xxi.  31).  Called  in 
1  Chron.  vi.  75  Hukok,  which  is  probably  a 
corruption  of  the  text.  Van  de  Velde  and 
Robinson  doubtfully  identify  it  with  Yerka, 
8i  miles  east  by  north  of  Acre. 

Hel-kath-haz'zu-rim  [field  of  the  sharp 
knives]. 

A  name  given  to  the  scene  of  the  combat, 
at  the  pool  of  (ptibeon,  between  twelve  Benja- 
mites  of  Ish-bosheth's  party  and  the  same 
number  of  David's  men  (2  Sam.  ii.  16). 

Hell. 

1.  The  place  of  the  dead.  It  is  one  render- 
ing of  the  Hebrew  word  Sh''ol  and  the  Greek 
'Aides  (Ps.  xvi.  10  with  Acts  ii.  27).  R.  V. 
of  O.  T.  places  Sheol  either  in  the  text  or  on 
the  margin  ;  in  the  prophetical  books,  on  the 
margin  with  hell  generally  iu  the  text,  and 
in  Dent,  xxxii.  22;  Ps.  Iv.  15;  Ixxxvi.  13,  on 
the  margin,  with  pit  in  the  text.  In  N.  T. 
it  puts  Hades  iti  the  text.  The  two  words 
are  also  rendered  grave  (Gen.  xxxvii.  35; 
Is.  xxxviii.  10,  18 ;  Hos.  xiii.  14 ;  and  A.  V. 
of  1  Cor.  XV.  55,  in  R.  V.  death).  The  ety- 
mology of  the  words  is  in  doubt.  Sheol 
may  mean  the  insatiable  (cp.  Prov.  xxvii. 
20,  R.  V. ;  XXX.  15,  1(5).  Hades,  when  pro- 
nounced without  the  aspiration,  means  the 
unseen.  Both  words  denote  the  i)lace  of 
the  dead.  The  evidence  is  not  all  in,  but 
it  may  be  safely  affirmed  that  for  centuries 
the  Hebrews  shared  the  common  Semitic  con- 
ception of  Sheol.  This  conception  was  vague 
and  undefined.  There  was  consequently  room 
for  the  imagination  to  yday,  and  fancy  was 
fond  of  supplying  all  manner  of  details  ;  and 
care  must  be  taken  not  to  confound  fixncios 


with  faith  The  ancient  Hebrews,  like  other 
Semites,  thought  of  Sheol  as  beneath  the 
earth  (Num.  xvi.  30,  33;  Ezek.  xxxi.  17; 
Amos  ix.  2).  They  pictured  it  as  entered 
through  gates  (Is.  xxxviii.  10),  a  dark,  gloomy 
region,  where  the  inhabitants  pass  a  conscious, 
but  dull,  inactive  existence  (2  Sam.  xxii.  6  ; 
Ps.  vi.  5  ;  Ecc.  ix.  10).  They  regarded  it  as 
the  i)lace  whither  the  souls  of  all  men  with- 
out distinction  go  (Gen.  xxxvii.  35;  Ps.  xxxi. 
17 ;  Is.  xxxviii.  10),  where  punishments  may 
be  sutl'ered  and  rewards  enjoyed,  and  from 
which  a  return  to  earth  was  not  an  impos- 
sibility (1  Sam.  xxviii.  8-19;  Heb.  xi.  19). 
It  is  important  to  note,  however,  that  in 
authoritative  Hebrew  doctrine  Sheol  was 
open  and  naked  to  God  (Job  xxvi.  6  ;  Prov. 
XV.  11),  that  God  was  even  there  (Ps.  cxxxix. 
8),  ancl  that  the  spirits  of  his  people,  and  their 
condition  in  that  abode,  were  ever  under  his 
watchful  eye.  This  doctrine  of  God's  knowl- 
edge of  his  people  after  death,  presence  with 
them,  and  unceasing  love  for  them,  involved 
the  blessedness  of  the  righteous  aud  the  woe 
of  the  wicked  after  death,  and  two  places  of 
abode  for  them,  the  righteous  being  with  the 
Lord  and  the  wicked  being  banished  from  his 
presence.  This  doctrine  lay  also  at  the  basis 
of  the  related  teaching  of  the  eventual  resur- 
rection of  the  body,  and  the  life  everlasting. 
The  doctrine  of  future  glory,  and  even  of 
the  resurrection  of  the  body,  was  cherished 
in  O.  T.  times  (Job  xix.  25-27 ;  Ps.  xvi.  8-11  ; 
xvii.  15  ;  xlix.  14,  15 ;  Ixxiii.  24  ;  Dan.  xii.  2.  3). 
A  foundation  for  it  was  early  aflbrded  by  the 
translation  of  Enoch  and  Elijah,  and  it  was 
fostered  by  centuries  of  intimate  association 
with  the  Egyptians,  who  had  congruous  teach- 
ing regarding  the  future  life  and  the  relation 
of  morality  in  the  present  life  to  happiness 
beyond  the  grave.  But  it  remained  for  Christ 
to  bring  immortality  to  full  light,  and,  by  re- 
vealing the  bliss  of  the  saved  soul  even  out 
of  the  body  in  his  presence,  to  dispel  all  gloom 
fron^  the  future  abode  of  his  saints  (Luke 
xxiii.  43;  John  xiv.  1-3  ;  2  Cor.  v.  6-8;  Phil, 
i.  23).    See  Paradise. 

2.  The  place  of  woe.  In  this  sense  it  is 
the  rendering  of  the  Greek  Gehenna  in  Mat. 
V.  22,  29,  30;  x.  28;  xviii.  9;  xxiii.  15,  33; 
Mark  ix.  47  ;  Luke  xii.  5,  and  Jas.  iii.  6.  This 
word  is  the  Greek  form  of  the  Hebrew  Ge- 
hin)wm,  valley  of  Hinnom,  where  children 
were  burnt  to  Molech.  From  the  horrible 
sins  practiced  in  it,  its  pollution  by  Josiah, 
and  perhaps  also  because  ofl'al  was  burnt  in 
it,  the  valley  of  Hinnom  became  a  type  of 
sin  and  woe,  aiid  the  name  passed  into  use  as 
a  designation  for  the  place  of  eternal  pun- 
ishment (Mat.  xviii.  8,  9 ;  IMark  ix.  43). 
From  the  scenes  witnessed  in  the  valley 
imagery  was  borrowed  to  describe  the  (tc- 
henna  of  the  lost  (Mat.  v.  22;  cp.  xiii.  42; 
Mark  ix.  48).  In  2  Pet.  ii.  4,  "  to  cast  down  to 
hell  "  is  the  rendering  of  the  verb  tartarod, 
meaning  "to  cast  down  to  Tartarus."  The 
Tartarus  of  the  Romans,  the  Tartaros  of  the 


Hellenist 


287 


Heresh 


Greeks,  \v:is  tlieir  ])laee  of  woe,  situated  as 
far  below  Hades  as  Hades  was  below  heaven. 
Thoujjh  the  etymologies  are  dill'ereiit,  Ge- 
heuna  and  Tartarus  are  essentially  the  same 
in  meaning.  Eaeh  is  the  place  of  punish- 
ment for  the  lost. 

Hel'len-ist. 

One,  not  of  the  Greek  nation,  who  spoke 
(ireek.  The  term  is  used  s]>ecially  of  Jews,  in 
whatever  part  of  the  world  they  lived,  who  had 
adojited  the  tireek  tongue,  and  with  it  often 
Greek  practices  and  opinions  (R.  V.,  margin 
of  Acts  vi.  1  and  i.\.  '29).  The  text  calls  them 
Grecian  Jews;  the  A.  V.  simply  Grecians. 

Hel'met.     See  Armor. 

He'lon  [perhaps,  strong]. 

Father  of  Eliab,  prince  of  Zebuluu  (Num. 
i.  9;  ii.  7;  vii.  24,  29;  x.  16). 

Hem. 

The  edge,  border,  or  margin  of  a  garment 
(Ex.  xxviii.  33,  34;  xxxix.  24,  25,  2(),  in  the 
I\.  V.  skirts;  and  Mat.  ix.  20;  xiv.  3(i.  in  the 
R.  V.  bordei-s).  The  Jews  attached  a  certain 
sacrcdness  to  the  hem,  fringe,  or  border  of 
their  garments. 

He'mam.     See  Homam. 

He'man  [faithful]. 

1.  A  sage  whose  reputation  for  wisdom  was 
high  in  Solomon's  reign  (1  Kin.  iv.  31).  He 
belonged  to  the  tribe  of  Judah  (1  C'hron.  ii.  6). 
He  composed  a  meditative  psalm  (Ps.  Ixxxviii., 
according  to  its  second  and  doubtless  original 
title). 

2.  A  singer  in  David's  reign,  a  son  of  Joel, 
a  grandson  of  the  i)rophet  Samuel,  of  the 
Levite  family  of  Korah  (1  Chron.  vi.  33 ;  xv. 
IT).  In  addition  to  singing,  he  was  appointed 
to  sound  a  brazen  cymbal  (19).  He  rose  to  a 
prominent  place  among  David's  musicians 
(xvi.  41,  42). 

He'matb.  See  H.\math  for  Amos  vi.  14, 
A.  v.,  and  Hammatu  for  1  C'hron.  ii.  55,  A.  V. 

Hem 'dan  [pleasant,  desirable]. 

A  Horite,  the  eldest  son  of  Dishon  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  26).  In  the  parallel  passage,  1  Chron. 
i.  41,  the  Hebrew  text  and  R.  V.  have  Ham- 
ran,  which  A.  V.  erroneously  represents  by 
Amram.  The  two  Hebrew  words  ditfer  only 
in  the  third  consonant.  The  difference  is  un- 
doubtedly due  to  a  scribe  Avho  confounded 
resh  and  daleth  (q.  v.).  Whether  Hemdan 
or  Hamran  was  the  original  form  cannot  be 
determined  at  present. 

Hemlock.     See  Gall  2  and  Wormwood. 

Hen,  I.     See  Cock. 

Hen,  II.  [grace,  favor,  kitidncss]. 

A  son  of  Zephaniah  (Zech.  vi.  14).  But  on 
the  margin  of  R.  V.  Hen  is  translated,  the 
passage  reading  thus,  "for  the  kindness  of 
the  son  of  Zephaniah,"  in  which  case  that 
Son's  name  disappears. 

He'na. 

A  city  captured  by  the  As.syrians  (2  Kin. 
xviii.  .34 ;  xix.  13  ;  Is.  xxxvii.  iS).    It  is  men- 


tioned in  connection  with  Sepharvaim.  and 
is  accordingly  sought  for  in  thi'  neighborhood 
of  Babylonia.  Hena  is  commonly  identilied 
with  the  ancient  town  of  Ana,  at  a  ford  over 
the  Euphrates,  about  160  miles  northwest  of 
Bagdad.  Extensive  ruins  still  exist  at  the 
spot.  The  two  names,  however,  are  radically 
diflerent.  Another  conjecture  places  it  on 
an  island  in  the  Eui)hrates,  where  the  As- 
syrian inscriptions  locate  a  certain  Anat. 

Hen'a-dad  [j.robably,  favor  of  Hadad]. 

Fountlt  r  of  a  Levitical  family,  whose  sons 
supported  Zerubbabel  at  the  time  the  founda- 
tions of  the  temple  were  being  laid  (Ezra  iii. 
9),  and  assisted  in  rebuilding  the  wall  of  Je- 
rusalem (Nell.  iii.  18). 

Hen'na  [Persian  henna.  Arabic  hanxa]. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Kopher,  cov- 
ering, in  the  Septuagint  and  in  R.  V.  of  Song 
i.  14  and  iv.  13.  It  is  translated  in  the  A.  V. 
camphire.  Henna  is  a  plant  of  the  Lytluariese 
or  loosestrife  order  (Lausovia  alba  or  incrmis), 
with  opposite  entire  leaves,  and  fragrant,  yel- 
low and  white  flowers  in  corymbs  or  clusters 
(Song  i.  14).  The  Greeks  called  it  kiipros, 
from  the  island  of  Cyprus,  where  it  grew.  In 
Palestine  its  special  seat  was  the  virtually- 
tropical  region  of  En-gedi  (Song  i.  14)  and 
Jericho  (War  iv.  8, 3).  The  leaves  and  young 
twigs  are  made  into  a  fine  powder,  converted 
into  paste  with  hot  water,  and  used  by  ori- 
ental women  and  wealthy  men  to  dye  the 
finger  and  toe  nails  and  the  soles  of  the  feet 
a  reddish  orange  color.  Some  Egyptian 
mummies  are  found  with  these  parts  dyed 
in  the  same  manner. 

He'noch.  See  Enoch  for  1  Chron.  i.  3,  A. 
v.,  and  Haxoch  for  1  Chron.  i.  33,  A.  Y. 

He'pher  [pit,  well]. 

1.  A  town,  the  king  of  which  was  con- 
quered by  Joshua  (Josh.  xii.  17).  The  name 
was  also  attached  to  a  district  (1  Kin.  iv.  10). 
Situation  unknown. 

2.  A  son  of  Gilead,  founder  of  a  tribal  fam- 
ily of  Manasseh  (Num.  xxvi.  32;  xxvii.  1; 
Josh.  xvii.  2). 

3.  A  man  of  Judah,  son  of  Ashhur  of  Tekoa 
(1  Chron.  iv.  6). 

4.  A  Mecherathite,  and  one  of  David's 
worthies  (1  Chron.  xi.  36).  See,  however, 
remarks  under  Ur,  II. 

Heph'zi-bah  [my  delight  is  in  her]. 

1.  ^Mother  of  king  IManasseh  (2  Kin.  xxi.  1). 

2.  A  svmbolical  name  to  be  given  to  Zion 
(Is.  lxii.4). 

He'res  [sun]. 

1.  An  eminence  in  the  district  of  Aijalon 
(Judg.  i.  .35).  The  meaning  and  a  comparison 
with  Josh.  xix.  41,  42  render  the  opinion 
probable  that  mount  Heres  is  essentially 
identical  with  the  town  Ir-shemesh,  that  is 
Beth-shemesh. 

2.  An  Egyptian  city  (Ls.  xix.  18,  margin). 
See  On. 

He'resb  [artificial  work,  artifice,  silence]. 
A  Levite  (1  Chron.  ix.  15). 


Heresy 


288 


Hermon 


Her'e-sy  [Greek  'airesis,  taking  (especially 
of  a  town)  ;  a  sect  (Acts  v.  17  ;  xv.  5)]. 

1.  A  party,  sect,  or  faction  ;  strong  party 
spirit,  even  when  this  is  not  produced  on  one 
side  or  the  other  by  departure  from  sound 
doctrine  (1  Cor.  xi.  19,  on  margin  of  E.V.  sects, 
factions ;  Gal.  v.  20,  on  margin  of  K.  Y.  par- 
ties). 

2.  A  doctrine  or  a  sect  consequent  upon  de- 
parture from  sound  doctrine  (2  Pet.  ii.  1,  mar- 
gin of  R.  V.  sects  of  perdition). 

He'reth,  in  A.  V.  Hareth,  the  Hebrew  paus- 
al  form. 

A  forest  in  Judah,  in  which  David  for  a 
time  lurked  while  his  life  was  being  sought 
by  Saul  (1  Sam.  xxii.  5). 


Her-mog'e-nes  [sprung  from  Hermes]. 

An  inhabitant  of  the  Roman  province  of 
Asia,  who  finally,  with  many  others,  turned 
away  from  the  apostle  Paul  (2  Tim.  i.  15). 

Her'mon  [mountain  peak  or  sacred  moun- 
tain]. 

A  mountain  called  by  the  Sidonians  Sirion, 
a  coat  of  mail,  and  by  the  Amorites  Senir  or 
Shenir  (Deut.  iii.  8,  9).  The  last  name  be- 
longed especially  to  a  part  of  the  mountain. 
Another  name  for  it  was  Sion,  elevated  (iv. 
48).  It  constituted  the  northeastern  limit 
of  the  Israelite  conquests  under  Moses  and 
Joshua  (Deut.  iii.  8,  9;  Josh.  xi.  3,  17;  xii. 
1,  5 ;  xiii.  5,  11 ;  1  Chron.  v.  2.3).  It  figures 
in  Hebrew  poetry,  being  coupled  with  Tabor 


Mount  Hermon. 


Her'mas. 

A  Christian  at  Rome  to  whom  Paul  sent  his 
salutations  (Rom.  xvi.  14). 
Her'mes. 

1.  The  Greek  god  corresponding  to  the  Ro- 
man Mercury  (Acts  xiv.  12,  R.  V.  margin). 
See  Mercury. 

2.  A  Christian  (not  the  same  as  Hermas) 
at  Rome,  to  whom  Paul  sent  his  salutations 
(Rom.  xvi.  14). 


(Ps.  Ixxxix.  12),  Zion  (cxxxiii.  3),  and  Leba- 
non (Song  iv.  8),  really,  however,  overtopping 
them  all.  It  constitutes  the  southern  end  of 
the  Anti-Lebanon  chain,  and  rises  to  the  ele- 
vation of  91G6  feet  above  the  sea.  It  may  be 
seen  from  many  parts  of  Palestine.  From  the 
plain  of  Tyre,  the  north  peak  seems  higher 
than  the  southern  one,  and  tlie  center  more 
depressed  than  either.  Hence  it  is  once 
described  as  the  Hermons  (Ps.  xlii.  6,  R.  V.) ; 


Hermonites 


289 


Herod 


or  I'L-rhaps  the  word  in  this  passajre  is  a  com- 
nutii  noun  and  means  jieaks  of  Palestine. 
The  sinniuit  of  the  mountain  is  covered  with 
snow  all  the  year  round,  wavy  white  fur- 
rows descending  from  tlie  crest  in  the  lines 
(if  the  several  valleys.  The  proper  source  of 
I  he  Jordan  is  in  Hernum.  Some  one  of  its 
Military  recesses  rather  than  the  summit  of 
Tahor  was  jirobably  the  scene  of  our  Lord's 
transfiguration.  Hermon  is  now  called  Jebel 
.>li-Slieik. 

Her'mon-ites. 

Natives  or  inhabitants  of  mount  Hermon 
Ps.  xlii.  6,  A.  V.  ;  in  E.  V.,  the  Hermous). 

Her'od. 

The  name  of  several  rulers  over  Palestine 
:uid  the  adjacent  regions  or  portions  of  them. 
Three  are  mentioned  in  the  N.  T.  by  the 
name  of  Herod  and  one  by  the  name  of 
Ai^rijipa. 

1.  Herod  the  Great. — He  was  the 
sucoiul  son  of  the  Idumjeau  Antipas,  or 
Anlipater,  by  his  wife  Cyprus,  who  was  of 
tlie  same  race  (Autiq.  xiv.  1,  3 ;  7,  3). 
Thus,  neither  by  the  father's  nor  by  the 
mother's  side  was  Herod  a  real  Jew, 
though  the  Idumwans.  who  had  been 
conquered  125  b.  c.  by  John  Hyrcanus, 
and  compelled  to  be  circumcised  and  adopt 
Judaism,  had  now  become  nominally  Jews. 

Antipater  was  made  procurator  of  Judiea 
by  C'pesar  in  47  B.  C.  (Autiq.  xiv.  8,  3  and  5). 
He  had  five  children,  Phasaelus,  Herod, 
Joseph,  Pheroras,  and  a  daughter  Salome  (7, 
3).'"  Phasaelus,  the  eldest  son,  was  made  gov- 
ernor of  Jerusalem  and  vicinity  by  his 
father,  and  Galilee  was  committed  to  Herod, 
who  was  then  2.5  years  old  (9,  2).  After  the 
murder  of  Antipater,  43  B.  c,  Marc  Antony 
visited  Syria  and  appointed  the  two  brothers 
tetrarchs,  committing  the  public  affairs  of 
the  Jews  to  them  (13,  1).  They  were  after- 
wards sorely  pressed  by  Antigonus,  last  king 
of  the  Maccabpean  family,  and  the  Parthians. 
Phasaelus  fell  into  their  hands  and  committed 
suicide  to  avoid  being  put  to  death  by  them 
(13,  10).     The  Romans  were  now  induced  by 


Antony  to  espouse  the  cause  of  Herod;  and 
war  ensued  with  Antigonus  and  the  Par- 
thians, in  the  course  of  which  Herod's  brother 
Joseph  was  slain  in  battle  (15,  10),  Jerusalem 
was  captured  and  Herod  became  king  of 
Judiea  in  37  b.  r. 

The  surviving  children  of  Antipater  were 
now  Herod,  Pheroras,  and  Salome.  Salome 
nuirried  her  uncle  Jose])h  (Antiq.  xv.  3,  5 ; 
War  i.  22,  4).  After  he  had  been  put  to  death 
for  adultery.  34  B.  c  she  married  Costobarus, 
an  Idumtean  of  good  family  whom  Herod 
made  goveruor  of  Idumtea  and  Gaza  (Au- 
tiq. XV.  7,  9:  War  i.  24,  6).  She  divorced 
him  (Antiq.  xv.  7,  10),  and  against  her  will 
was  married  to  Alexas,  a  friend  of  Herod's 
(War  i.  28,  6).  Duriug  the  whole  of  Herod's 
reign,  she  engaged  in  intrigues  against  mem- 
bers of  his  family ;  but  she  was  faithful  to 
him,  and  he  bequeathed  to  her  Jamnia,  Ash- 
dod,  and  Phasaelis  near  Jericho  (Antiq. 
xvii.  6,  1;  8,  1:  11,  5).  She  accompanied 
Herod's  son  Archelaus  to  Eome,  when  he 
went  thither  to  obtain  imperial  sanction  to 
ascend  the  throne.  Her  ostensible  purpose 
was  to  assist  him  in  prosecuting  his  claim, 
but  her  real  object  was  to  thwart  him  (War 
ii.  2,  1-4).  She  died  about  A.  D.  10,  when 
Marcus  Ambivius  was  procurator  (Antiq. 
xviii.  2,  2).  Pheroras,  the  youngest  of  the 
four  sons  of  Antipater  (Antiq.  xiv.  15,  4), 
lived  nearly  as  long  as  Herod.  He  was  part- 
ner in  the  kingdom,  had  the  title  of  tetrarch, 
and  enjoyed  the  revenue  accruing  from  the 
country  east  of  the  Jordan  (War  i.  24,  5). 
He  was  more  than  once  accused  of  plotting 
the  death  of  Herod,  and  matters  came  to  a 
crisis  shortly  before  the  latter's  death  ;  but 
Pheroras  died  without  being  brought  to  trial 
(Antiq.  xvii.  .3.  3). 

Herod  the  Great  had  ten  wives  from  first 
to  last  (Antiq.  xvii.  1.  3 ;  War  i.  xxviii.  4). 
His  first  wife  was  Doris,  a  woman  of  an  ob- 
scure family  in  Jerusfilem.  She  bore  him 
one  son,  Antipater,  who  took  an  active  part 
in  the  events  of  Herod's  reign,  plotting 
against  his  younger  half-brothers  to  secure 
the  kingdom  for   himself.     Herod,  just  be- 


*  Antipater. 

I  Procur.itor  of  Judxa, 
47-4.'5  B.  c. 


Phasaelus. 


Herod  the  Great. 

I  King  of  Judaea, 
37  B.  c.-A.  D.  4. 


I 

Joseph. 


Pheroras. 


Salome. 


III!  I 

Antipater.   Alexander  and  Aristobulus.  Herod.     Archelaus  and  Herod  Antipas.    Herod  and  Philip. 

Slain  5  B.  c.  Both  slain  aboui  7  I  B.  c.  Ethnaich  of  Judtea,     Tetrarch  of  Gali-  Tetrarch  of 

I  A.  D.  4-6.  lee,  a.  d.  4-39.  country  east 

of  Galilee, 
A   D.  4-33. 


Herod. 

Kino  of  Chalcis, 
A.  D.  41-48. 


Herod  Agrippa  I. 

I  King  of  Judsa, 
A.  D.  41-44. 


n 


Herodias. 


r 


Herod  Agrippi 

King  of  Chafe 


all. 


Bernlce. 


Drusilla. 


19 


A.  D.  50-53. 
Afterwards  ruler  of  Philip's 
former  tetrarchy  and  adja- 
cent regions.   DiedA.  D.  100. 


Hernd  the  Great  had  seven 
other  children,  two  sons 
and  five  daughters,  but 
they  did  not  play  a  prom- 
ineiit  part  in  the  history. 


Herod 


290 


Herod 


fore  the  capture  of  Jeriisaleni,  by  which  lie 
became  kiiifr,  nuirried  his  second  wile,  tlie 
beautiful  and  chaste  Miirianine,  granddaugh- 
ter of  Jlyrcanus.  Slie  bore  iiim  three  sons, 
Alexander,  Arislol)ulus,  and  the  youngest  sou 
who  died  childless,  and  two  daughters, 
Cyprus  and  Salampsio.  Marianuie  was  put 
t<i  death  in  -J!)  H.  c.  (Anti(i.  xv.  7,  4).  About 
21  H.  c.  he  married  .Mariannie.  daughter  of 
Simon,  whom  he  raised  to  the  high-priesthood 
(xv.  9,  3;  xviii.  5,  4).  Herod  also  took  to 
wife  his  two  nieces,  whose  names  are  not 
given  and  who  died  chihlless,  Malthace  a 
Samaritan,  Cleopatra  of  .Jerusalem,  Pallas, 
Phiedra,  and  Elpis.  With  the  two  unnamed 
nieces  and  last  three  of  known  name  history 
is  not  specially  concerned.  The  descendants 
of  the  others  are  more  imiiortant.  Of  Mari- 
amne,  Simon's  daughter,  Jh'rod  was  born  ; 
Malthace  became  motlier  of  Archelaus,  Herod 
Autipas,  and  a  daughter  Olympias  ;  and  Cleo- 
patra bore  Herod  and  Philip. 

The  domestic  troubles  of  Herod  began 
early  in  his  reign  in  the  hatred  which  he 
incited  in  the  beloved  Mariamne  toward 
himself;  and  they  culminated  in  the  last  dec- 
ade of  his  reign,  when  his  sons  had  reached 
manhood.  Tlie  domestic  history  eventually 
revolves  about  the  eight  young  men,  Antip- 
ater,  son  of  Doris ;  Alexander  and  Aristo- 
biilus,  sons  of  Mariamne ;  Herod,  son  of 
Marianine,  Simon's  daughter  ;  Archelaus  and 
Antipas,  sons  of  ^lalthace  ;  and  Herod  and 
Philip,  sons  of  Cleopatra.  Alexander  nuir- 
ried Glyphyra,  daughter  of  Archelaus,  king 
of  Cappadocia.  Two  .sons  were  born  to 
them  whose  history  is  not  important  (Anticj. 
xvi.  1,  2;  War  i.  24,  2).  Aristobulus  mar- 
ried his  first  cousin,  Bernice,  daughter  of 
Herod's  sister,  Salome,  and  became  tlie  father 
of  five  children,  several  of  whom  played  an 
important  part  later  in  the  history.  Of 
these  two  young  men.  sons  of  the  beloved 
Mariamne,  Anti])ater,  the  firstborn  of  Herod, 
was  Jealous.  His  jealousy  was  aroused 
against  his  half-brothers  by  the  evident  in- 
tention of  his  father  to  overlook  his  right  as 
firstborn  in  their  favor  (War  i.  22,  1),  and  he 
and  his  clique  at  court  jjoisoncd  the  mind  of 
Herod  against  them.  At  length.  al)out7(n'()  is. 
C,  Herod  had  them  luit  to  deatli.  named  An- 
tipater  his  heir  and  apjiointed  Herod,  son  of 
Mariamne,  Simon's  daughter,  next  in  succes- 
sion (.\ntiq.  xvi.  11,  7  ;  xvii.  :?,  2  ;  War  i.  29, 
2).  This  order  conformed  to  birth,  his  sons 
Archelaus  and  .\ntipas,  Herod  and  Pliilii), 
being  doubtless  younger  than  Herod,  son  of 
Mariamne.  AntijKiter  next  accused  Herod's 
sister,  .Salome,  and  his  sons,  Archelaus  and 
Philip,  who  were  in  Kome  Iieiiig  educated, 
of  plotting  the  murder  of  Herod  ;  but  the 
crime  charged  against  Salome  was  lirought 
home  to  himself.  He  and  his  uncle  Phe- 
roras,  Herod's  brother,  w-ere  accused  of  seek- 
ing the  king's  life.  Pheroras  died,  but 
Antii)ater  was  cast  into  jjrison.  Herod's  sus- 
picions were  thereby  aroused  that  Antipater 


had  falsely  accused  Alexander  and  Aristo- 
bulus. who  had  already  been  executed,  and 
he  altered  his  will,  appointing  Autipas  to  be 
his  successor,  and  passed  over  Archelaus,  the 
elder  brother,  and  Philip,  as  he  still  held 
them  in  susj)icion  (War  i.  32,  7).  Soon  after- 
wards he  ordered  Antipater  to  be  slain  and 
altered  his  will  again,  giving  the  kingdom  to 
Archelaus,  making  Autipas  tetrareh  of  Gali- 
lee and  Perpea,  and  Philip  tetrareh  of 
Batauea,  Trachouitis,  and  Auranitis,  and 
bestowing  several  cities  on  his  sister  Salome 
(Antiq.  xvii.  8,  1  ;  War  i,  33,  7).  Herod's 
disposition  of  his  afi'airs  was  observed  at  his 
death,  excejjt  that  Archelaus  was  finally  con- 
firmed by  the  emjieror  Augustus  not  as  king 
but  as  ethuarch  of  Judsea  (Autiq.  xvii.  11,  4 
and  '•>}. 

Herod,  son  of  Simon's  daughter,  Mariamne, 
married,  or  had  married,  Herodias,  daughter 
of  his  half-brother,  the  dead  Aristobulus. 
She,  however,  left  him  and  married  another 
half-brother  of  his,  Herod  the  tetrareh,  and 
her  former  husband  disapj)ears  from  history. 
So  does  Herod,  son  of  Cleopatra  and  brother 
of  Philip,  the  tetrareh.  See  Hkkodias  and 
Philip.  Aristobulus,  as  already  mentioned, 
had  married  his  cousin,  Bernice,  daughter  of 
Salome,  and  had  begotten  five  children 
(War  i.  28.  1).  They  were  Herod,  Agrippa, 
Aristobulus,  Herodias,  and  Mariamne.  Herod 
married  Mariamne,  daughter  of  Olynijiias, 
daughter  of  Herod  the  Great  and  the  Sama- 
ritan Malthace ;  Agrippa  married  Cyprus, 
daughter  of  Salampsio  and  Phasaelus  the 
younger,  son  of  Herod  the  Great's  brother, 
Phasaelus;  Aristobulus  married  Jotape, 
daughter  of  a  king  of  Emesa ;  Herodias 
married  two  uncles  in  succession,  as  already 
noted  ;  and  Mariamne  married  Antijiater, 
son  of  Doris  (Antiq.  xviii.  5,  4  ;  War  i.  28,  5; 
cp.  4).  Three  of  these  children  of  Aristo- 
bulus are  persons  of  note — namely,  Herod, 
Agrijjpa,  and  Herodias.  Herodias  was  the 
woman  who  crowned  her  infamies  by  telling 
her  daughter  to  demand  the  head  of  John  the 
Baptist  in  a  charger.  Herod  was  made  king  of 
Chalcis,  and  after  his  wife's  death  took  his 
niece,  Bernice,  Agrippa's  daughter,  to  wife. 
Agrii)pa  became  king  Agrippa  I.  He  mar- 
ried, had  one  son  and  three  daughters.  Three 
of  these  children  are  mentioned  iu  Scripture, 
Agrippa  II.  and  the  two  notorious  women, 
Bernice  and  Drusilla. 

Besides  this  domestii'  liistory  of  the  rise  of 
the  faniiiy  to  power  and  the  intrigues  among 
its  members,  there  is  the  political  history  of 
Herod's  reign.  Soon  after  he  had  been  made 
rnler  in  Galilee,  which  was  in  47  or  46  b.  c, 
he  came  in  contact  with  the  sanhedrin 
through  his  summary  execution  of  some 
robbers  without  the  sanhedrin's  formal  per- 
mission. He  was  summoned  for  trial  and 
appeared  with  an  armed  body  guard,  intimi- 
dating the  council.  He  was  acquitted  for 
lack  of  evidence.  Herod  sought  to  be,  for 
his  own  iuterest,  on  good  terms  with  the  sue- 


Herod 


291 


Herod 


cessive  represcutatives  of  the  warring  fac- 
tions into  which  the  Roman  people  were  then 
divided.  He  obtained  a  generalship  from 
Sextus  Csesar,  president  of  Syria,  a  relative 
of  the  great  Julius  Csesar  ;  and  then,  after  a 
time,  gained  the  favor  of  Cassius,  the  most 
malignant  of  the  gi-eat  dictator's  assassins. 
Then  he  cast  in  his  lot  with  Marc  An- 
tony, one  of  the  murdered  man's  chief 
avengers  ;  nor  was  even  this  his  last  change 
of  sides.  Ahout  41  B.  C.  Herod  was  made 
tetrarcli'of  Galilee  by  Antony,  and  having, 
after  fresh  vicissitudes,  gone  to  Rome  in  40  B. 
c,  as  a  fugitive  rather  than  a  visitor,  his 
patron  induced  the  Roman  senate  to  appoint 
him  king  of  the  Jews.  It  was  not,  however, 
till  37  B.  c.  that,  with  the  assistance  of 
Sosius,  a  general  of  Antony's,  he  succeeded 
in  taking  Jerusalem,  and  commencing  his 
actual  reign.  By  his  marriage  at  this  time 
with  Mariamne,  granddaughter  of  Hyrcanus 
and  daughter  of  Alexander,  son  of  Aristo- 
bulus,  he  became  allied  with  the  royal  As- 
monsean  family.  He  now  endeavored  to 
further  strengthen  his  position  by  the  re- 
moval of  possible  rivals.  The  principal  mem- 
bers of  the  party  of  Antigonus,  forty-five  in 
number,  were  sought  out  and  put  to  death. 
Soon  afterwards  Mariamne's  brother,  Aristo- 
bulus,  a  boy  of  seventeen,  whom  Herod  had 
just  raised  to  the  high-priesthood,  was 
drowned  in  a  bath  by  Herod's  orders,  within 
a  year  after  his  elevation  to  the  pontificate  ; 
and  about  31  b.  C.  her  grandfather,  although 
eighty  years  old,  was  put  to  death  (Antiq. 
XV.  1,  2  ;  3,  3 ;  6,  2).  Herod's  attention  was 
called  from  these  atrocities  by  the  new  crisis 
which  had  arisen.  His  patron  Antony  was 
totally  defeated  by  Octavius  in  the  sea  fight 
at  Actium  on  September  2,  31  B.  C.  The  po- 
sition of  Herod  was  now  critical,  but  be 
made  a  manly  and  judicious  speech  to  the 
victorious  Octavius,  and  was  forgiven  for  his 
partisanship  toward  Antony.  He  was  given 
the  friendship  of  the  man  he  had  oflfended, 
and  retained  it  through  most  of  his  life,  be- 
sides having  his  dominions  increased  (xv.  6, 
5-7  ;  10,  3).  The  murder  of  a  wife's  brother 
and  her  grandfather  did  not  tend  to  increase 
her  attachment  to  her  husband,  and  by  and 
by  variance  arose  between  Herod  and  Mari- 
amne. It  increased,  till  it  culminated  at 
length  in  the  queen's  being  falsely  accused 
and  executed.  Remorse  followed  in  due 
course,  and  almost,  if  not  altogether,  deprived 
the  king  of  reason  (Antiq.  xv.  7.  7  ;  xvii.  6,  5 ; 
War  i.  22,  5  ;  33,  5).  Partly  to  divert  his 
mind  from  gloomy  remembrances,  partly  to 
please  Octavius,  now  the  emperor  Augustus, 
he  built  theaters  and  exhibited  games,  both 
of  these  acts  being  incon.sistent  with  Judaism. 
He  also  rebuilt,  enlarged,  and  beautified  a 
place  named  Strato's  Tower,  calling  it,  after 
his  imperial  patron,  Caesarea.  It  ultimately 
became  the  Roman  capital  of  Palestine  (Antiq. 
XV.  8,  5  ;  9,  6  ;  cp.  Acts  xxiii.  23,  24).  Then, 
to  conciliate  the  Jews,  he,  between  19  and 


11  or  9  B.  c,  rebuilt  and  beautified  the  tem- 
ple. The  birth  of  Jesus  Christ  took  place  at 
the  close  of  Herod's  life,  after  he  had  re- 
moved his  rivals  from  other  families  by  vio- 
lent deaths,  and  when  his  domestic  troubles 
were  at  their  height.  He  had  slain  his  sons 
Alexander  and  Aristobulus,  and  more  re- 
cently Antipater,  for  plotting  against  his  life  ; 
and  now  he  was  told  that  a  child  of  David's 
line  had  just  been  born  to  be  king  of  the 
Jews.  The  slaughter  of  the  infants  who 
came  into  the  world  about  the  same  time 
and  place  was  such  a  method  of  meeting  the 
dilBculty  as  would  suggest  itself  to  one  with 
Herod's  propensity  to  bloodshed  (Mat.  ii.  1- 
19).  It  was  one  of  the  last  acts  of  his  life. 
Seized  at  length  with  loathsome  and  mortal 
disease,  he  repaired  to  Callirhoe,  the  hot 
sulphur  springs  of  the  Zerka,  the  water 
from  which  runs  into  the  eastern  part  of  the 
Dead  Sea.  They  came  to  be  called,  in  con- 
sequence, by  many,  the  baths  of  Herod  ;  but 
they  did  not  do  the  king  much  good  (Antiq. 
xvii.  6,  5).  He  felt  that  he  was  dying,  and 
that  there  would  be  rejoicing  when  he  passed 
away.  He  therefore  told  his  sister  Salome  and 
her  husband  Alexas  to  shut  up  the  principal 
Jews  in  the  circus  at  Jericho,  and  put  them  to 
death  whenever  he  expired,  that  there  might 
be  mourning  at,  though,  of  course,  not  for, 
his  death.  Then,  about  4  b.  c,  he  passed 
away,  in  the  seventieth  year  of  his  age  and 
the  thirty-fourth  of  his  reign,  counting  from 
the  time  when  he  actually  obtained  the  king- 
dom. '?\'hen  news  of  his  demise  arrived,  the 
circus  prisoners  were  set  free,  and  the  death 
of  the  tyrant  was  welcomed  as  a  relief  in- 
stead of  being  attended  by  mourning,  lamen- 
tation, and  woe  (Antiq.  xvii.  6,  5 ;  8,  2). 

2.  Herod  the  Tetrarch.— A  son  of 
Herod  the  Great  by  his  Samaritan  wife  called 
Malthace.  He  was,  therefore,  half  Idumsean 
and  half  Samaritan,  perhaps  without  a  single 
drop  of  Jewish  blood  in  his  veins.  He  was 
called  indifl'erently  Antipas  and  Herod 
(Antiq.  xvii.  1,3;  xviii.  5,  1  :  6,  2  ;  War  ii. 
9,  1),  and  it  is  customary  to  distinguish  him 
from  the  other  Herods  of  the  family  as 
Herod  Antipas.  He  was  the  full  brother  of 
Archelaus,  and  was  A'ounger  than  Archelaus 
(Antiq.  xvii.  6,  1 ;  War  i.  32,  7  ;  33,  7).  He  was 
educated  with  him  and  his  half-brother  Philip 
at  Rome  (Antiq.  xvii.  1,  3).  By  the  second 
testament  of  his  father,  the  kingdom  was 
bequeathed  to  him  (6,  1)  ;  but  by  his  father's 
final  will  he  was  appointed  tetrarch  of 
Galilee  and  the  kingdom  was  given  to 
Archelaus  (8,  1).  On  his  father's  death  he  com- 
peted with  his  brother  for  the  kingdom,  but 
received  only  the  tetrarchy  of  Galilee  and 
Persea  (Antiq.  xvii.  11,  4  ;  Luke  iii.  1).  He 
erected  a  wall  around  Sepphoris,  and  made 
it  his  metropolis.  Finding  Bethsaida  a  vil- 
lage, he  advanced  it  to  the  dignity  of  a  city, 
and  named  it  Julias,  after  Tiberius  f'ffsar's 
daughter  Julia  (Antiq.  xviii.  2,  1).  He  also 
built  Tiberias  (3).     He  married  a  daughter 


Herod 


292 


Herod 


of  Aretas,  king  of  the  Nah;itl\a?an  Arabs, 
wliii.stM;ai)ital  was  Petra  ;  butaftorwards.wliile 
ludniiij;  at  Kiiiiif  with  Herod  Philij),  liis  half- 
hiiitiuT,  ill'  iii(liilKi'<l  a  fiiiilty  iiassioii  for  his 
entertainer's  wife,  Herodias,  and  arranged 
to  divorce  his  hiwfnl  consort  and  take 
Herodias  instead.  Tliis  innnoral  transaction 
was  carried  into  effect.  Herodias  was  a  mas- 
culine Woman,  Herod  ;i  weak  man  ;  she  was 
liis  evil  genius,  and  made  a  tool  of  him,  as 
Jezebel  had  done  of  Aliab.  Aretixs  resented 
the  injury  inflicted  ujion  his  daughter,  and 
lie  commenced  a  war  against  Herod  and 
waged  it  successfully  (5,  1).  Herodias  was 
the  ])rime  mover  in  the  murder  of  John  the 
IJaptist  (Mat.  xiv.  1-13  ;  Autiq.  xviii.  5,  2). 
Because  of  his  cunning,  the  tetrarch  was 
dt'scritn'd  l)y  our  Lord  as  that  fox  (Lukexiii. 
31.3:2).  Rtit  the  tetrarch  liad  a  following, 
fiir  mention  is  made  of  the  leaven  of  Herod 
(Mark  viii.  15)  :  see  Herodi.\ns.  When  the 
fame  of  Jesus  began  to  si)read  abroad,  the 
nneasy  conscience  of  Herod  made  him  fear 
that  John  had  risen  from  the  dead  (Mat.  xiv. 
1.  ".'i.  He  was  )>resent  at  Jerusalem  at  the 
time  of  the  crucifixion,  and  Jesus  was  .sent 
to  him  by  Pilate.  He  thought  that  now  he 
WMuld  have  the  oi)portunity  of  seeing  a  mir- 
acle i)erformed,  but  he  was  disa])i)ointed,  and 
wilh  his  men  of  war  set  Jesus  at  naught. 
The  same  day  he  was  reconciled  to  Pilate, 
whereas  they  had  before  been  at  variance 
(Luke  xxiii.Y-l-i,  15  ;  Acts  iv.  27).  The  ad- 
vancement of  Herodias'  brother  Agrippa  to 
be  king,  while  her  husband  remained  only 
tetrarcli.  aroused  the  envy  of  this  proud 
WoMian,  and  she  ]n'evailed  upon  Herod  to  go 
with  her  to  Rome  and  ask  for  a  crown. 
Agrippa,  however,  sent  letters  after  them  to 
the  enijieror  Caligula,  accusing  Herod  of  be- 
ing secretly  in  league  with  the  Parthians, 
and  Heiod  was  in  conse(|uence  banished  to 
]-yons  in  (iaul,  A.  D.  39,  where  he  died 
(.Vntiq.  xviii.  7,  1,  2 ;  War  ii.  9,  6,  Greek 
text). 

3.  Hkrop  the  King.— Josephiis  calls  him 
sim])ly  Agrii)i)a.  Both  names  are  generally 
eombined,  and  he  isdesignated  Herod  Agrippa 
L,  to  distinguish  him  from  Herod  Agrippa  II., 
before  whom  Paul  was  tried.  Agrippa  I.  was 
the  son  of  .Vristobulus,  son  of  Herod  the  Great 
and  Mariamne,  granddaughter  of  Hyrcanus. 
He  was  educated  in  Rome  with  Drusus,  son 
of  the  emjR'ror  Tiberius,  and  Claudius  (.\ntiq. 
xviii.  (i,  1  and  1);  but  the  death  of  Drusns 
and  lack  of  funds  led  to  his  return  to  Judjea 
(2).  In  A.  1).  .37  he  made  another  jonrney  to 
Rome  to  bring  accusati<ms  against  Herod  the 
tetrarch  (Anti(i.  xviii.  5,  3;  War  ii.  9,  5).  He 
dill  not  return  when  his  business  was  tran.s- 
acted,  but  remained  in  the  metropolis,  culti- 
vating the  ac(|uaintance  of  people  who  might 
be  of  nse  to  him  in  the  future.  Among 
others,  he  ingratiated  himself  with  Cains,  son 
of  German iciis,  who  shortly  liecame  the  em- 
peror Caligula  (.\nti(|.  xviii.  (i.  4  ;  War  ii.  9, 
5).    For  rash  words  spoken  in  favor  of  Cains, 


Tiberius  cast  him  into  chains ;  but  six  months 
later  Caius  became  emperor,  and  appointed 
Agripj)a  to  be  king  of  the  tetrarchy  which 
his  late  uncle  Philip  had  governed,  and  also 
of  the  tetrarchy  of  Lysanias  (Antiq.  xviii.  6, 
10).  In  A.  D.  39  the  emperor  banished  Herod 
the  tetrarch,  and  added  his  tetrarchy,  which 
was  Galilee,  to  the  kingdom  of  Agrippa  (7,2). 
Agri])i)a  left  his  kingdom"  for  a  time,  and  re- 
sided at  Rome  (8,  7).  During  this  sojourn  at 
the  capital  he  prevailed  npon  the  emperor  to 
desist  from  his  determination  to  erect  his 
statue  in  the  temple  at  Jerusalem  (8,  7  and 
8).  When  Caligula  was  assassinated,  and 
Claudius,  against  his  own  will,  cho.sen  in  his 
room,  Agrippa,  who  was  then  at  Rome,  acted 
as  negotiator  between  the  senate  and  the  new 
emperor,  whom  he  persuaded  to  take  office. 
As  a  reward,  Agrippa  had  Judjea  and  Sa- 
maria added  to  his  dominions,  which  now 
equaled  those  of  Herod  the  Great  (Antiq. 
xix.  3-5 ;  War  ii.  11,  1-5).  He  commenced 
to  build  a  wall  about  the  northern  suburb  of 
Jerusalem,  so  as  to  include  it  in  the  city,  but 
was  ordered  to  abandon  the  work  (Antiq.  xix. 

7,  2).  He  slew  James,  the  l)rother  of  John, 
with  the  sword  (Acts  xii.  1,  2),  imprisoned 
Peter  (3-19),  and  at  Cwsarea,  immediately 
after  he  had  accepted  divine  honor,  was  mis- 
erably eaten  up  of  worms  (20-23;  Antiq.  xix. 

8,  2).  He  died  a.  d.  44,  in  the  fifty-fourth 
year  of  his  age,  leaving  four  children,  of 
whom  three  are  mentioned  in  Scripture, 
Agrippa,  Bernice,  and  Drusilla  (Warii.  11,6). 

4.  Agrippa,  commonly  known  as  Herod 
Agrii)pa  II.  He  was  son  of  Herod  Agrippa 
I.,  and  consequently  great-grandson  of  Herod 
the  Great,  and  was  the  brother  of  the  noto- 
rious women  Bernice  and  Drusilla  (War  ii. 
11,  6).  At  the  time  of  his  father's  death, 
a.  d.  44,  he  was  17  years  old,  and  residing  at 
Rome,  where  he  was  being  brought  up  in  the 
imperial  household  (Antiq.  xix.  9,  1  and  2). 
The  emperor  Claudius  was  dissuaded  from  ap- 
pointing him  to  the  throne  of  his  fiither  on 
account  of  his  youth,  and  Judiea  was  placed 
under  a  procurator.  Agrippa  remained  in 
Rome.  He  successfully  seconded  the  efforts 
of  the  Jewish  ambassadors  to  obtain  the  im- 
perial permission  to  retain  the  official  robes 
of  the  high  priest  under  their  own  control 
(xx.  1,  1).  When  his  uncle  Herod,  king  of 
Chalcis,  died  about  a.  d.  48,  Claudius  pres- 
ently bestowed  his  small  realm  on  the  west- 
ern slope  of  Anti-Lebanon  on  Agrippa  (5,  2 ; 
War  ii.  12,  1  ;  14,  4  ;  cp.  i.  9.  2).  so  that  he  be- 
came king  Agrippa.  He  esjiou.sed  the  cause 
of  the  Jewish  commissioners  who  had  come 
to  Rome  to  appear  against  the  procurator 
Cumanus  and  the  Samaritans,  and  he  pre- 
vailed upon  the  emperor  to  grant  them  an 
audience  (Antiq.  xx.  G,  3  ;  War  ii.  12,  7).  In 
A,  I).  52  Claudius  transferred  him  fnnn  the 
kingdom  of  Chalcis  to  a  larger  realm  formed 
of  the  tetrarchy  of  Philip,  which  contained 
Batanea,  Trachonitis,  and  Gaulonitis.  the 
tetrarchy  of  Lysanias,  and  the  province  of 


Herod,  Palace  of 


293 


Herodias 


Abilene  (Aiitiq.  xx.  7,  1  ;  War  ii.  12,  8).  His 
constant  eoniiianii)nslii|)  witli  liis  sister  Bei'- 
niee  about  this  time  befjan  to  create  seandal 
(Antiq.  xx.  7,  3).  In  A.  D.  54  or  55  Nero 
added  the  cities  of  Tiberias  and  Tarichepe  in 
Galilee  and  Julias  in  Persea  with  its  depend- 
ent towns  to  his  dominion  (8,  4).  When  P\'lix 
had  been  succeeded  l)y  Festus  as  procurator 
of  Judiva.  Agrijtjia  went  to  Ca>sarea  to  salute 
him,  accompanied  by  Bernice.  Paul  was 
then  in  confinement.  Festus  laid  his  case 
before  the  king,  and  on  the  morrow  the  apos- 
tle was  permitted  to  jilead  his  cause  before 
the  procurator,  the  king,  and  Bernice.  He 
was  entirely  successful  in  clearing  himself 
(Acts  xxY.  13-xxvi.  32).  Soon  afterwards 
Agrippa  built  an  addition  to  the  palace  of  the 
Asmonjeans  at  Jerusalem  (Antiq.  xx.  8,  11). 
Later  still  he  enlarged  and  beautified  L'sesarea 
Philippi,  and  established  theatrical  exhibi- 
tions at  Berytus  (9,  4).  When  the  troubles 
which  culminated  in  the  Jewish  war  began, 
Agrippa  endeavored  to  dissuade  the  Jews 
from  making  armed  resistance  to  Fadus  the 
procurator  and  the  Eomaus  (War  ii.  16,  2-5; 
17,  4 ;  18,  9 :  19,  3).  When  the  war  broke  in 
its  fury,  he  fought  by  the  side  of  Vespasian, 
and  was  wounded  at  the  siege  of  Gamala  (iii. 
9,  7  and  8  ;  10,  10;  iv.  1,  3).  After  the  cap- 
ture of  Jerusalem  he  removed  with  Bernice 
to  Eome,  where  he  was  invested  with  the  dig- 
nity of  pr*tor.     He  died  A.  d.  100. 

Her'od,  Pal 'ace  of. 

A  palace-fortress  erected  by  Herod  the 
Great  about  the  year  24  or  23  b.  c.  (Antiq. 
XV.  9,  1  and  3).  It  stood  at  the  northwest 
corner  of  the  upper  city,  adjoined  the  tow- 
ers of  Hijijiicus,  Phasaclus,  and  ^lariamne 
on  their  south,  and  formed  with  them  a 
stronghold  which  excited  the  admiration  of 
even  the  Romans  (War  v.  4,  4  ;  5,  8 ;  vi.  8,  1 ; 
9,  1).  Its  site  is  the  modern  citadel  by  the 
Jaffa  gate.  The  three  towers  were  built  of 
white  stone.  Hippicus  was  scjuare,  with  sides 
25  cubits  in  length.  To  the  height  of  30  cubits 
it  consisted  of  .solid  masonry  ;  over  this  was 
a  reservoir,  20  cubits  deep;  and  over  this 
again  a  two-story  house,  25  cubits  in  height, 
surmounted  by  battlements  2  cubits  high 
with  turrets  3  cubits  higher.  The  entire  al- 
titude of  the  tower  was  80  cubits.  Phasaelns 
was  larger.  Its  stock  was  a  cube  of  solid 
masonry  measuring  40  cubits  iu  each  direc- 
tion, surmounted  by  a  cloister,  and  that  in 
turn  by  a  palatial  tower.  Its  entire  height 
was  about  90  cubits.  It  was  completed  about 
the  year  10  B.  c.  (Antiq.  xvi.5.  2).  Mariamne 
had  half  the  dimensions  of  Phasaelus,  save 
that  it  was  50  cubits  high.  It  was  magnifi- 
cently adorned  by  Herod  as  befitted  a  tower 
named  iu  honor  of  his  wife.  The  palace 
proper  on  the  south  of  these  towers  was  en- 
tirely walled  about  to  the  height  of  30  cubits, 
and  was  further  protected  by  turrets  which 
surmounted  the  wall  and  stood  at  equal  dis- 
tances from  each  other.     Within  were  open 


courts  with  groves  of  trees,  and  numerous 
apartments,  among  which  two  were  consjiic- 
uous  for  size  and  beauty,  and  were  called 
Cffsareum  and  Agrippium,  aftir  Herod"s 
friends  (Antiq.  xv.  9,  3  ;  10,  3  ;  War  i.  21.  1 ;  v. 
4,  4).  The  palace  was  occupied  by  Sabinus,  the 
procurator  of  Svria  (Antiq.  xvii.  10,  2  and  3  ; 
War  ii.  3,  2  and"  3).  In  it  Pilate  irected  gold- 
en shields  in  honor  of  the  emiicror  Tiberius  ; 
and  it  is  expressly  called  the  house  of  the  pro- 
curators (Philo,  de  legal,  ad  Caium,  xxxviii. 
and  xxxix.).  The  procurator  Floras  took  up 
his  quarters  in  this  building,  erected  his  tri- 
bunal before  it,  and  sentenced  men  to  scourg- 
ing and  crucifixion  (War  ii.  14,  8  and  9).  It 
was  burned  by  the  seditious  Jews  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  war  with  the  Romans.  The 
three  mighty  towers,  however,  withstood  the 
flames,  and  were  allowed  by  the  comiueror  to 
stand  as  a  witness  to  the  kind  of  city  the  Ro- 
mans had  overthrown  (War  ii.  17,  8  ;  vii.  1, 1). 

He-ro'di-ans. 

A  Jewish  party  in  the  time  of  our  Lord, 
who  were  evidently  partisans  of  the  Herod 
family.  The  Herods  were  not  of  projjer  Jew- 
ish descent,  and  they  had  supplanted  a  royal 
family  not  merely  Jewish,  but  of  jiriestly 
blood  and  rank.  They  also  supported  their 
authority  by  trj'ing  to  please  their  Roman 
patrons.  If  the  Herodians  took  the  jiart  of 
the  Herods  in  these  two  respects,  then  they 
were  iu  direct  antagonism  to  the  Pharisees, 
with  whom,  however,  they  combined  at  Jeru- 
salem to  entangle  our  Lord  by  the  ensnaring 
question  about  paying  tribute  to  Cfesar  (Mat. 
xxii.  16  ;  Mark  xii.  13)  ;  and  earlier  in  Galilee 
had  joined  in  plotting  against  his  life  (Mark 
iii.  6;  cp.  Mark  viii.  15).  Another  view  is 
that,  condoning  the  Herods'  Idumsean  de- 
scent, the  Herodians  supported  them  mere- 
ly as  the  representatives  of  national  against 
foreign  rule,  in  which  case  their  union  with 
the  Pharisees  would  be  quite  natural. 

He-ro'di-as. 

Daughter  of  Aristobulus,  and  half-sister  of 
Herod  Agrippa  I.  She  was  married  to  Herod, 
the  son  of  Herod  the  (ireat  by  Mariamne,  the 
high  priest  Simon's  daughter.  This  husband 
is  called  Philip  in  the  N.  T.,  but  is  not  en- 
titled a  tetrarch  (Mat.  xiv.  3;  Mark  vi.  17). 
He  was  a  different  ])erson  from  Philip  the 
tetrarch.  It  is  customary  to  sjieak  of  him  as 
Herod  Philip,  which  was  ])robably  his  full 
name.  See  Philip  4.  His  half-brother,  Herod 
the  tetrarch,  indulged  a  guilty  passion  for  her, 
and  divorcing  his  wife,  a  daughter  of  king 
Aretas  of  Arabia,  married  Herodias  while  her 
first  husband  was  still  alive  (Anti(i.  xviii.  5,  1, 
4  ;  6,  2  ;  7,  2  :  War  ii.  9.  6).  John  the  Baptist 
reproved  the  guilty  pair,  on  which  Herodias 
plotted  his  death,  and  when  her  daughter 
Salome  had  gained  Herod's  favor  by  dancing 
before  him  at  a  gathering  of  the  dignitarii  s 
of  his  tetrarchy,  extorted  from  him  a  jironii  c 
to  give  her  the  head  of  John  the  Baptist.  Tl  e 
king  was  sorrj\  but,  for  his  oath's  s;ike,  com- 


Herodion 


294 


Hezekiah 


plied  with  her  wishes  (Mat.  xiv.  3-12 ;  Mark 
vi.  17--2y;  Luke  iii.  19,  20;  cp.  Prov.  vi.  26). 
Oil  the  iKuii.sliiiieut  of  the  tetrarch,  Herodias 
went  with  liim  into  e.\ile  (Autiq.  xviii.  7,  2  ; 
War.  ii.  !),  if). 

Herodias'  daiifjhter  Sakinie  married  Philip 
the  tetrarch,  son  of  Herod  the  Great.  After 
Jii.s  death  she  married  her  first  cousin,  Aris- 
tobulus,  son  of  king  Agrippa's  brother  Herod 
and  great-Kreat-graudson  of  Herod  the  Great 
(.\nti(i.  xviii.  5,  4). 

He-ro'di-on. 

A  Christian  at  Rome  whom  Paul  called  his 
kinsman,  and  to  whom  he  sent  a  salutation 
(Koin.  xvi.  11). 

Her'on. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  '"naphah 
(Lev.  xi.  19,  on  margin  of  K.  V.  ibis;  Deut. 
xiv.  18).  The  bird  .so  designated  was  held  to 
be  typical  of  a  family,  for  it  is  followed  by 
the  words  "after  its  kind."  The  heron  fam- 
ily {Ardeidx),  is  placed  under  the  Grallatores  or 
Waders.  The  birds  which  it  includes  are 
generally  of  large  size.  They  have  a  long 
bill,  long  bare  legs  adapted  for  wading,  a 
large  hind  toe,  and  large  wings,  their  flight, 
however,  being  comparatively  slow.  Their 
food  is  principally  lish  and  reptiles.  The 
family  contains  the  herons,  the  egrets,  etc. 
The  bufl-backed  herou  {Ardea  bubtdcus),  often 
ealled  the  W'hite  ibis,  is  the  most  abundant. 
These  birds  live  and  breed  in  vast  numbers 
in  the  swamps  of  lake  Huleh,  and  they  asso- 
ciate with  cattle  in  the  pastures,  where  sev- 
eral puri)le  ibises  may  usually  be  seen  with 
them.  The  common  heron  (Ardea  cinerea) 
occurs  on  the  Jordan  and  its  lakes,  on  the 
Kishon,  and  on  the  seacoast  of  Palestine. 
Willi  it  are  found  also  the  purple  heron  {Ardea 
piirimreii)  and  several  egrets. 

He'sed  [pity,  mercy]. 

Father  of  one  of  Solomon's  purveyors  (1 
Kin.  iv.  10). 

Hesb'bon  [reason,  intelligence]. 

The  city  of  Sihoii,  the  Amorite  king,  but 
ajiparently  taken  originally  from  the  Moabites 
(Num.  xxi.  25-30,  34).  It  was  assigned  by 
Moses  to  the  Reubenites,  and  after  the  con- 
(juest  was  rebuilt  by  the  men  of  that  tribe 
(xxxii.  37;  Josh.  xiii.  17).  Rut  it  stood  on  the 
boundary  line  lietween  Reuben  and  Gad  ( Jo.sh. 
xiii.  26),  came  to  be  possessed  by  the  latter, 
and  was  assigned  as  a  town  of  Gad  to  the 
Levites  (.To.sh.  xxi.  39;  1  Chron.  vi.  81).  The 
Moabites  held  it  in  Isaiah's  and  Jeremiah's 
times  (Is.  xv.  4  ;  xvi.  8,  9 ;  Jer.  xlviii.  2,  33, 
34).  Later  still  it  was  in  the  possession  of 
Alexander  Janna^us  and  Herod  the  Great 
( Autici.  xiii.  1.5,  4  ;  xv.  8.  5).  It  is  still  known 
as  Hesbaii,  a  ruined  city  standing  on  an  iso- 
lated hill,  with  the  remains  of  a  wall,  an 
archway,  and  a  temjile.  The  sides  of  the  val- 
ley which  commences  just  west  of  the  hill 
are  honeycomlx'd  with  caves  and  sejiuh-hers. 
A  great  reservoir,  a  little  eastward  from  the 
ruins  of  Heshbon,  is  probably  one  of  the  pools 


which  were   outside   the  tovAm  walls   (Song 
vii.  4). 

Hesh'mon  [fatness,  fertile  soil]. 
A  town  in  the  extreme  south   of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  27). 

Heth.     See  Ohetii  and  Hittites. 

Heth'lon  [perhaps,  a  hiding  place]. 

A  jilace  on  the  northern  boundary  of  Pales- 
tine, as  prophesied  by  Ezekiel,  near  the  en- 
tering in  of  Hamath  (Ezek.  xlvii.  15 ;  xlviii. 
1 ;  cp.  Num.  xxxiv.  8).     Not  identified. 

Hez'e-ki  [my  strength  or  a  strong  support 

is  (God)]. 

A  Beujamite,  sou  of  Elpaal  (1  Chron.  viii. 

17). 

Hez-e-ki'ah,  in  A.  V.  once  Hizkiah  (Zeph. 
i.  1),  once  Hlzkijah  (Neh.  x.  17),  in  A.  V.  of 
N.  T.  Ezekias,  the  Greek  form  [strength  or 
a  strong  support  is  Jehovah  ;  or,  in  the  longer 
Hebrew  form  in  2  Chron.  xxviii.  27  ;  Hos.  i.  1, 
etc.,  Jehovah  doth  strengthen]. 

1.  Son  of  Ahaz,  king  of  Judah.  He  was 
associated  with  his  father  in  the  government 
in  728  B.  c.  From  the  fact  that  Ahaz  was  not 
buried  in  the  royal  sepulcher,  Neteler  has 
argued  that  he  had  been  smitten  with  some 
disease  which  was  regarded  as  a  divine  judg- 
ment on  his  sin.  Being  incapacitated  for  ac- 
tive participation  in  the  affairs  of  state,  Heze- 
kiah was  made  active  ruler.  Hezekiah  is 
said  to  have  begun  to  reign  at  the  age  of  25, 
but  the  number  seems  to  be  corrupt.  He  was 
a  devoted  servantof  Jehovah,  and  commenced 
his  reign  by  repairing  and  cleansing  the  tem- 
ple, reorganizing  its  religious  services  and  its 
officers,  and  celebrating  a  great  passover,  to 
which  he  invited  not  merelj'  the  two  tribes, 
but  the  ten  (2  Chron.  xxix.  1-xxx.  13).  He 
removed  the  high  places,  cast  down  the  images, 
and  broke  in  pieces  the  brazen  serpent  which 
Moses  had  made,  but  which  had  become  an 
object  of  idolatrous  worship.  He  gained  a 
victory  over  the  Philistines,  and  in  other 
ways  became  great  and  prosperous.  In  his 
fourth  regnal  year,  724  b.  c,  Shalmaneser 
commenced,  and  in  722  B.  c.  Sargon  com- 
lileted,  the  siege  of  Samaria,  carrying  the  ten 
tribes  into  captivity  (2  Kin.  xviii.  !),  10).  In 
714  B.  c,  according  to  the  method  of  reckon- 
ing already  employed  by  the  Hebrew  annalist, 
began  the  series  of  Assyrian  invasions  which 
formed  a  marked  feature  of  Hezekiah's  reign 
and  terminated  disastrously  for  Assyria.  The 
biblical  account  of  these  events  is  presented 
as  a  connected  nai-rative.  It  falls  into  three 
sections :  the  beginning  of  the  invasions  about 
714  (2  Kin.  xviii.  13  ;  Is.  xxxvi.  1 ;  ])robably  2 
Chron.  xxxii.  1-8  ;  cp.  invasion  of  Philistiaiu 
711,  Is.  XX.  1) ;  the  main  campaign  of  701,  in 
its  first  stage  (2  Kin.  xviii.  14-16),  and  in  its 
final  stage  (17-xix.  35  ;  2  Chron.  xxxii.  9-21 ; 
Is.  xxxvi.  2-xxxvii.  36)  ;  and  the  end  of  the 
troubler  in  681  (2  Kin.  xix.  36,  37 ;  Is.  xxxvii. 
37,  38).     Sargon  was  still  on  the  throne  of  . 


Hezekiah 


295 


Hezron 


Assyria  iu  714  ;  but  he  had  placed  his  son  Sen- 
nacherib in  high  military  position  before  that 
date,  and  Sennacherib  may  have  led  the 
troops  of  his  father  which  iu  720  or  715  and 
the  beginning  of  714,  probably  at  the  latter 
date,  "subjugated  Judah  "  according  to  the 
Assyrian  account,  when  the  main  army  of 
Assyria  was  waging  war  to  the  north  and  east 
of  Assyria.  Apparently  immediately  after 
the  beginning  of  these  invasions,  in  714, 
Hezekiah  was  sick,  probably  from  a  carbun- 
cle, and  nigh  unto  death ;  but  was  granted  a 
new  lease  of  life  for  fifteen  years  (2  Kin.  xx. 
1-11 ;  Is.  xxxviii.).  To  inquire  into  the  sign 
which  Hezekiah  received  at  this  time  was 
the  ostensible  object  of  an  embassy  from 
Merodach-baladan,  king  of  Babylon.  The 
real  object  was  to  persuade  Judah's  king  to 
join  the  great  confederacy  which  was  being 
secretly  formed  against  the  Assyrian  power. 
Hezekiah  was  quite  elated  by  the  coming  of 
the  Babylonian  ambassadors,  and  displayed 
to  them  his  financial  resources ;  but  the 
prophet  Isaiah  warned  him  that  the  peo- 
ple of  Judah  would  be  carried  captive  to 
that  same  place  from  which  the  ambassa- 
dors had  come  (2  Kin.  xx.  12-19;  2  Chron. 
xxxii.  .31 ;  Is.  xxxix.  1-8).  Hezekiah  joined 
the  confederacy.  Sargon,  who  was  an  able 
general,  broke  iu  upon  the  allies  before  their 
plans  were  matured.  His  expedition  against 
Ashdod,  conducted  by  his  tartan  (Is.  xx.  1), 
took  place  in  711.  and  was  occasioned  by  the 
refusal  of  Philistia.  Judah,  Edom.  and  Moab 
to  pay  tribute.  In  710  he  dethroned  Mero- 
dach-baladan and  made  himself  king  of  Baby- 
lonia. In  705  Sargon  was  murdered,  and  his 
son  Sennacheribascended  the  Assyrian  throne. 
This  change  of  rulers  was  the  signal  for  new 
uprisings.  To  quell  revolt  in  the  west,  Sen- 
nacherib advanced  as  far  as  the  country  of 
the  Philistines  in  701,  conquering  Phoenicia 
on  the  way  and  receiving  envoys  from  Ash- 
dod. Amnion,  Moab,  and  Edom  suing  for 
peace.  Many  towns  still  held  out,  and  Sen- 
nacherib proceeded  against  Joppa,  Beth- 
dagon,  Ashkelon,  and  other  places.  Turning 
eastward,  he  captured  Lachish,  pitching  his 
camp  there,  and  receiving  tribute  from  the 
terrified  Hezekiah.  This  tribute  consisted 
of  thirty  talents  of  gold,  three  hundred,  or, 
according  to  the  Assyrian  scribe  who  perhaps 
computes  by  a  lighter  standard,  eight  hun- 
dred talents  of  silver.  Besides  this,  accord- 
ing to  the  Assyrian  report,  were  precious 
stones,  costly  woods,  articles  of  ivory,  daugh- 
ters of  Hezekiah,  women  of  the  palace,  and 
others.  To  obtain  the  precious  metals,  Heze- 
kiah stripped  the  doors  and  pillars  of  the 
temple  of  their  plating.  Xews,  however, 
reached  Sennacherib  while  still  at  Lachish 
of  an  alliance  between  the  Philistine  towns 
and  Egypt  and  Ethiopia  (2  Kin.  xviii.  21, 
24),  and,  unwilling  to  have  so  strong  a  for- 
tress as  Jerusalem  in  his  rear,  he  sent  a  de- 
tachment from  his  army  to  garrison  the  city. 
Hezekiah  had  heard  of  the  advance  of  the 


southern  army,  and  of  the  sturdy  resistance 
of  Ekron  to  the  As.syrians.  His  faith  iu 
Jehovah  also  revived  under  the  exhorta- 
tions of  Isiiiah,  and  he  refused  to  admit 
the  Assyrian  troops  into  the  city.  In  the 
meantime  the  Assyrian  king  had  broken 
camp  at  Lachish  and  fallen  back  on  Libnah 
(2  Kin.  xix.  J^).  Hearing  of  Hezekiahs  new 
attitude  of  defiance,  he  dispatched  messen- 
gers with  threatening  letters  to  him,  vowing 
future  vengeance;  and,  not  daring  to  meet 
the  Egj-ptians  and  Ethioi)ians  while  Ekron 
and  Jerusalem  were  iu  his  rear,  he  retreated 
to  Eltekeh.  There  the  battle  took  place.  The 
Egj-ptians  were  repulsed,  but  the  spoils  of 
victory  were  inconsiderable.  Sennacherib 
now  turned  his  attention  to  the  hostile  towns 
in  the  vicinity.  His  devastation  and  his  ad- 
vance toAvard  Jeru.salem  were  only  terminated 
by  the  sudden  plague  which  smote  his  army, 
whereby  in  one  night  185,000  of  his  warriors 
perished  (2  Kin.  xix.  35,  36).  See  Skxx.\- 
CHEEiB.  Besides  Isaiah,  Hosea  and  Micah 
were  contemporaries  of  Hezekiah  (Hos.  i.  1 ; 
Mic.  i.  1).  The  king  died  about  698,  leaving 
his  son  Manasseh  to  ascend  the  throne  (2  Kin. 
XX.  21 ;  2  Chron.  xxxii.  33). 

2.  An  ancestor  of  the  prophet  Zephaniah 
(Zeph.  i.  1  :  in  A.  V.  Hizkiah). 

3.  A  son  of  Neariah,  akin  to  the  roval  fam- 
ily of  Judah  (1  Chron.  iii.  23). 

4.  A  man  of  whose  descendants  through 
Ater  some  returned  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra 
ii.  16  ;  Neh.  vii.  21).  Probably  it  was  the  rep- 
resentative of  his  family  who  signed  the  cov- 
enant under  Nehemiah's  rule  (Neh.  x.  17 ;  in 
A.  Y.  Hizkijah). 

He'zi-on  [vision]. 

Father  of  Tabrimmon  and  grandfather  of 
Benhadad,  king  of  Syria  (1  Kin.  xv.  18), 

He'zir  [a  swine,  a  pig]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Aaron.  His  family  had 
grown  to  a  father's  house  in  the  time  of  David 
and  became  the  seventeenth  course  of  the 
priests  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  15). 

2.  A  chief  of  the  people  who  with  Nehemiah 
sealed  the  covenant  (Neh.  x.  20). 

Hez'rai  [enclosed]. 

A  Carmelite,  one  of  David's  mighty  men 
(2  Sam.  xxiii.  35).  In  1  Chron.  xi.  37  called 
Hezro,  a  difference  doubtless  due  to  an  an- 
cient scribe's  confusion  of  jod  and  vau.  See 
Vau. 

Hez'ro.     See  Hezr.\i. 

Hez'ron,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Esrom  (Mat.  1. 
3).  in  imitation  of  the  Greek  modification  of 
the  name  [shut  in,  surrounded]. 

1.  A  jdace  on  the  southern  boundary  line 
of  Judah,  not  far  from  Zin  and  Kadesh-barnea 
(Josh.  XV.  3) ;  perhaps  the  town  Hazor  (ver. 
23).  It  was  near  enough  Addar  to  be  coupled 
with  it  in  the  form  Hazar-addar  (Num.  xxxiv, 
4).  For  Kerioth-hezron  (Josh.  xv.  25,  R.  V.), 
see  Hazoe  2. 


Hiddai 


296 


Higli  Places 


2.  A  soil  of  Renl)cn,  aiul  founder  of  the 
Hczronite  fiimily  ((n-u.  xlvi.  9;  Ex.  vi.  14; 
Num.  xxvi.  (j ;  1  C'lirou.  v.  3). 

3.  Sou  of  Perez,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  and 
founder  of  a  tril)al  family  (Gen.  xlvi.  12; 
Num.  xxvi.  21  ;  Ruth  iv.  18;  1  Chrou.  ii.  5). 

Hid'dai  [Joyful]. 

A  uiau  froiu  the  brooks  of  Gaash.  He  was 
one  of  David'.s  heroes  (2  .Sam.  xxiii.  30).  Called 
in  1  Chrou.  xi.  32,  Ilurai. 

Hid'de-kel  [a  Persian  word  for  arrow  has 
been  lieanl  hi  the  name,  giving  rise  to  an  an- 
cient interpretation  "  swift  as  an  arrow."  The 
original  form  of  the  name  should  be  sought 
in  the  language  of  Babylonia.  I-digna  is  at- 
tested, and  Friedrich  Delitzsch  interprets  it 
as  meaning  "  river  with  high  banks,"  or  sim- 
ply "the  stream  "]. 

The  river  Tigris,  which  goeth  in  front  of 
Assyria  (Gen.  ii.  14.  R.  V. ;  Dan.  x.  4).  It  is 
still"  called  Hiddekel  by  a  large  portion  of  the 
people  living  near  its  banks.  Its  principal 
sources  in  central  Armenia  sp^-ing  from  the 
southern  slope  of  Anti-Taurus.  The  western 
flows  by  Diarbekr.winding  for  above  150  miles. 
The  two  eastern,  known  as  BitlisChaiandBoh- 
tan  Chai,  rise  south  of  lake  Van,  and  are  about 
100  miles  long.  After  the  junction  of  these 
streams  the  river  proceeds  nearly  east-south- 
east, through  the  Kurdistan  mountains,  grad- 
ually increased  liy  various  attlueuts,  especially 
the  greater  and  lesser  Zab  and  the  Diyalah 
from  the  eastern,  with  smaller  feeders  from 
the  western  side,  finally  joining  the  Euphra- 
tes. In  antiquity,  it  emptied  through  its 
own  luoiith  into  the  Persian  Gulf.  In  its 
course  it  passes  the  ruins  of  Nineveh,  which 
lie  on  the  left  or  eastern  bank,  nearly  op- 
posite Mosul  on  its  right  side.  Lower  down 
it  se])arates  Bagdad  into  two  portions;  and 
afterwards  iiasses  the  ruins.  fir.st  of  Ctesiphon, 
the  Parthian  capital,  and  then  those  of  Heleu- 
cia,  which,  under  the  Greek  dynasty,  became 
the  rival  of  Babylon.  The  whole  course  of 
the  Tigris  to  its  junction  with  the  Euphrates 
is  114()  miles,  only  a  little  more  than  half  the 
leugth  of  the  sister  stream. 

Hi'el  [i)robably,  God  loveth]. 

A  native  of  Bethel,  who,  in  Ahab's  reign, 
fortified  Jericho,  bringing  down  on  himself 
the  fulfillment  of  Joshua's  imprecation.  His 
eldest  son,  Abiram,  died  wIumi  the  founda- 
tion of  the  city  was  laid,  and  his  youngest 
son,  Segul),  when  the  gates  were  set  up  (1 
Kin.  xvi.  34  witli  Josii.  vi.  2f)). 

Hi-e-rap'o-lis  [sacred  city]. 

A  city  in  Asia  Minor,  in  the  valley  of  the 
Lycos  near  the  coufiuence  with  the  Meander. 
Not  far  distant  were  Colo.ssa;  and  Laodicea 
(Col.  iv.  13).  It  was  a  seat  of  worship  of  the 
Syrian  goddess  Atargatis,  and  was  celebrated 
for  its  warm  baths.  It  is  now  called  Pambuk- 
Kalah-si. 

Hig-ga'ion  [a  deep  sound  ;  meditation]. 

A  musical  term  occurring  in  Ps.  ix.  16.  The 
word  is  used  elsewhere  in  the  sense  of  solemn 


sound,  meditation  (Ps.  xix.  14  ;  xcii.  3  ;  Lam. 
iii.  63). 

High'  Pla-ces. 

Elevated  sjjots  selected  as  shrines  for  the 
worship  of  God  or  of  false  divinities,  or  the 
shrines  themselves.  The  Cauaanites  possessed 
them,  and  the  Israelites  were  directed  to  de- 
stroy them  when  they  gained  the  power  to 
do  so  by  entering  Canaan  (Num.  xxxiii.  52 ; 
Dent,  xxxiii.  29).  The  Moabites  also  had 
high  places  (Num.  xsi.  28;  Is.  xv.  2;  Jer. 
xlviii.  35).  Immorality  seems  to  have  been 
common  on  the  way  to  those  shrines  (Jer.  iii. 
2;  cp.  2  Chron.  xxi.  11).  Sometimes  high 
places  were  used  by  the  Israelites  for  the 
worship  of  Jehovah  ;  but  this  was  forbidden 
by  law,  which  insisted  upon  one  altar  for  all 
Israel.  The  purpose  of  this  law  was  to  foster 
the  national  spirit  and  guard  against  schism, 
to  prevent  the  people  from  worshiping  at 
idolatrous  shrines,  and  to  secure  the  support 
of  a  national  sanctuary  which  would  enable 
the  worship  of  Jehovah  to  be  conducted  on  a 
scale  of  magnificence  commensurate  with  his 
glory,  and  equal,  if  not  superior,  to  the  pomp 
displayed  at  the  heathen  temples.  They  were 
legitimate  only  during  the  time  that  the  na- 
tional sanctuary  had  temporarily  ceased,  dur- 
ing the  period  when  Jehovah  had  foi'sakea 
Shiloh  and  the  temple  was  not  vet  erected  (Ps. 
Ixxviii.  60,  61,  67-69;  1  Kin.  in.  2,  4).  Thej', 
or  at  least  sacrifices  elsewhere  than  at  Jerusa- 
lem, were  also  legitimate  in  the  northern 
kingdom  when  the  pious  were  precluded  from 
attendance  at  Jerusalem,  and  could  not  wor- 
ship Jehovah  at  all,  unless  according  to  the 
primitive  law  (1  Kin.  xviii.  30-32) ;  see  Altar. 
Solomon,  sinfully  complj-ing  with  the  wishes 
of  his  heathen  wives,  erected  high  places  in 
the  mount  of  Corruption  for  Ashtoreth,  Che- 
mosh,  and  Milcom  or  Molech  (2  Kin.  xxiii. 
13).  Jeroboam,  to  counteract  the  influence 
of  the  national  sanctuary  at  Jerusalem,  made 
a  house  of  high  places  at  Bethel  and  or- 
dained priests  (1  Kin.  xii.  31,  .32;  xiii.  33), 
purposing  the  adoration  of  Jehovah,  but  by 
idolatroiis  symbols  (xii.  28-33 ;  xiii.  2).  The.se 
places  were  denounced  by  the  prophets  (xiii. 
1,  2;  Hos.  X.  8).  Not  merely  at  Bethel,  but 
at  other  cities  in  Samaria,  did  .schismatic 
high  places  exist  (1  Kin.  xiii.  32 ;  2  Kin. 
xvii.  32;  2  Chron.  xxxiv.  3).  The  action  of 
Asa  and  Jehoshaphat  in  the  kingdom  of 
Judah  with  regard  to  high  places  was  in- 
effective (1  Kin.  XV.  14  with  2  Chron.  xiv.  3; 
XV.  17;  1  Kin.  xxii.  43  with  2  Chron.  xvii.  6). 
Jehoram,  .Tehoshaphat'sson,  made  high  i)laces 
in  the  mountains  of  .Judah  (2  Chron.  xxi.  11). 
So  did  Ahaz,  and  that  too  for  the  worship  of 
false  divinities,  where  he  sacrificed  and  burnt 
incense  (xxviii.  4.  25).  Hezekiah  broke  them 
down  (2  Kin.  xviii.  4,  22),  but  they  were  re- 
erected  by  Manasseh  (2  Chron.  xxxiii.  3),  and 
again  removed  by  Josiah  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  13). 
Th(^  high  places  were  denounced  by  th& 
prophets  (Ezek.  vi.  3). 


High  Priest 


297 


High  Priest 


High'  Priest. 

Tlif  siipic'uie  pontiff  aud  the  representa- 
tive of  the  nation  before  Jehovah.  Aaron 
was  appointed  to  tliis  ottice  after  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  covenant  at  Sinai  and  after 
the  erection  of  the  tabernacle  had  been  au- 
thorized (Ex.  xxvii.  "il ;  xxviii.).  The  refer- 
ence in  Ex.  xvi.  33,  34,  where  Moses  bids 
Aaron  lay  up  a  pot  of  manna  before  the  Lord, 
is  not  an  anticipation  of  this  call  ;  for  the 
command  was  probably  issued  by  Moses  at  a 
later  time,  at  least  it  was  obeyed  by  Aaron  at 
a  later  time,  and  is  recorded  here  because  the 
entire  story  of  the  manna  is  related  here 
(31-35).  The  first  hint  that  it  was  important 
for  the  sons  of  Aaron  to  be  admitted  to  the 
privilege  enjoyed  by  the  elders  of  Israel  was 
given  after  the  covenant  had  been  proclaimed 
(Ex.  xxiv.  1,  9).  The  distinction  accorded 
them,  however,  did  not  suggest  the  national 
priesthood  to  them.  Aaron  was  not  the  priest 
of  the  nation  at  this  time.  He  was  the  prophet 
of  Moses.  The  addition  of  his  sons  to  the 
commission  appointed  to  witness  a  manifesta- 
tion of  God's  glory  might  suggest  that  Aaron's 
present  office  was  to  be  inherited  by  his  sons. 
At  any  rate  it  foreshadowed  their  call  to 
future  work.  The  legal  head  of  the  house 
of  Aaron  held  the  office  of  high  priest ;  and 
the  succession  was  probably  determined  by 
primogeniture,  unless  legal  disabilities  inter- 
fered (Lev.  xxi.  16-23).  Political  considera- 
tions, also,  not  infrequently  played  a  part  in 
his  selection  (1  Kin.  ii.  26,  27,  35).  His  age 
when  he  might  assume  office  was  twenty,  ac- 
cording to  tradition.  Aristobulus,  however, 
officiated  when  he  was  seventeen  (Antiq.  xv. 
3,  3).  He  must  govern  his  conduct  by  special 
laws  (Lev.  xxi.  1-15).  His  duties  were  the 
oversight  of  the  sanctuary,  its  service,  and  its 
treasure  (2  Kin.  xii.  7  seq. ;  xxii.  4) ;  the  per- 
formance of  the  service  on  the  day  of  atone- 
ment, when  he  was  obliged  to  enter  the  holy 
of  holies,  and  the  consultation  of  God  by  Urim 
and  Thummim.  Besides  these  distinguishing 
duties,  he  was  qualified  to  discharge  any 
priestly  function  ;  and  it  was  customary  for 
him  to  ofler  the  sacrifices  on  Sabbaths,  new 
moons,  aud  annual  festivals  (War  v.  5,  7).  He 
presided  also  over  the  sanhedrin  when  relig- 
ious questions  were  before  that  l)ody  (Mat. 
xxvi.  57:  Acts  v.  21).  His  official  garments, 
besides  the  raiment  of  white  linen  which  he 
wore  in  common  with  other  priests  (q.  v.) 
were— 1.  Breastplate  :  square,  made  of  gold, 
and  blue,  purple,  scarlet,  and  fine  twisted 
linen,  set  with  four  rows  of  precious  stones, 
three  in  a  row,  each  inscribed  with  the  name 
of  a  tribe.  Within  the  breastplate  were  the 
Urim  and  Thummim  (q.  v.).  2.  Ephod  :  an  em- 
broidered vestment  of  the  same  rich  materials 
as  the  breastplate.  It  was  intended  for  the 
front  and  back  of  the  bodj-,  and  was  made  in 
two  parts  clasped  together  at  the  shoulder 
by  onyx  stones.  Each  stone  bore  the  names 
of  six  tribes.  The  ephod  carried  on  its  front 
the  breastplate,  and  was  bound   about  the 


waist  by  a  girdle  of  gold,  blue,  purple,  scarlet, 
and  fine  twisted  linen.  3.  Kobe  of  the  epiiod  : 
which  was  longer  than  the  ephod,  and  worn 


High  Priest. 
Drawn  from  the  biblical  description. 

underneath  it,  entirely  blue,  sleeveless,  and 
adorned  below  with  a  fringe  of  alternate  pome- 
granatesand  golden  bells ;  see  Bell.  4.  Miter : 
a  cap  or  turban,  made  of  linen  aud  surmounted, 
in  later  times  at  least,  by  another  of  blue, 
and  this  in  turn  by  a  triple  crown  of  gold. 
A  gold  iilate,  bearing  the  inscription  Holiness 
to  Jehovah,  was  fastened  to  the  front  by  a 
blue  ribbon  (Ex.  xxviii.  ;  Ecclus.  xlv.  8-13; 
Antiq.  iii.  7,  1-6  ;  cp.  1  Mac.  x.  20).  The  high 
priest  wore  this  official  garb  when  discharg- 
ing his  peculiar  duties,  except  that  on  the 
day  of  atonement  he  laid  it  aside  while  he 
entered  the  holy  of  holies  to  make  atonement 
for  the  priesthood  and  the  sanctuary.  The 
mode  of  consecration  is  described  in  Ex.  xxix. 
Among  other  ceremonies  the  sacred  oil  was 
poured  upon  his  head  (7 ;  Lev.  viii.  12 ;  Ps. 
cxxxiii.  2),  and  hence  by  way  of  distinction 
he  is  designated  the  anointed  priest  (Lev.  iv. 
3,  5,  16;  xxi.  10 ;  Num.  xxxv.  25).  The  com- 
mon priests  seem  to  have  been  consecrated  by 
having  the  oil  sprinkled  on  their  garments 
only  (Ex.  xxix.  21  ;  Lev.  viii.  .30) ;  but  rab- 
binical tradition  makes  the  diflTerencc  consist 
in  the  quantity  of  oil  used.  It  was  poured 
abundantly  on  the  head  of  the  high  priest 
and  sparingly  upon  the  heads  of  the  ordinary 
priests.  At  first  the  high-priesthood  was  for 
life,  but  Herod,  aud  afterwards  the  Romans, 
jealous  of  the  power  which  a  life  tenure  of 
the  office  gave  to  the  high  ])riest,  made  and 
unmade  the  pontifls  at  will.  Jesus  is  the 
High  Priest  of  our  profes.sinn,  of  whom  the 
Jewish  dignitarv  of  the  same  designation  was 
only  the  tvpe  (Heb.  iii.  1-3;  viii.  1-6;  ix.  24- 
28).  For  the  chief  priests  of  the  N.  T.,  see 
Priests,  end  of  the  article. 


High  Priest 


298 


High  Priest 


The  Line  of  the  High  Priests. 

I.  Prom  the  Estahliahment  of  the  Aaronic  Priesthood  to  the  Exile.— The  biblical  catalogues  are  two 
(1  Chron.  vi.  1-15;  Ezra  vii.  1-5),  each  of  which  omits  links  of  the  genealogy,  as  is  quite  usual  in 
Hebrew  genealogical  tables. 

Levi. 

I 


Gershon. 


Kohath. 


Merari. 


Amram. 


Izhar. 


I 
Hebron. 


Uzziel. 


Nadab. 


I 
Abihu. 


I 
Aaron. 

I 

I 

Eleazar. 

I 

Phinehas. 

I 

Abisbua. 

I 

Bukki. 


I  I 

Moses  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  13).        Miriam. 


Uzzi. 


Zerahiah. 


Meraioth. 


Ithamar. 


Eli,  succeeded  Abisliua  or  Uzzi  (Antiq.  viii.  1,3:  v. 
I  H,  5). 

I  I 
Hophni.            Pbinebas,  officiated  during  the  lifetime  of 
I  Ills  father,  who  by  reason  of  age 
resigned  the  office  to  him  (An- 
I  tiq.  V.  11.  2). 


Ark  in  the  countrj'  of  the  Philistines  seven 
niontlis  (1  Sam.  vi.  1);  then  in  Kirjath- 
jearim  twenty'years  (1  Sam.vii.2),  until 
tlie  second  battle  of  Ebenezer,  and  for 
years  afterwards,  until  David  removed  it. 

I 


Ahitub. 


Ichabod. 


Abijab,  in  Shiloh  wearing 
ephod  (1  Sam.  xiv. 
3,  18).  Ark  or  ephod 
(LXX. ;  cp.  ver.  19) 
taken  temporarily 
to  Gibeah. 


Abimelech  (i  Sam.  xxii.  9,  n,  i2). 

Priest  at  Nob,  showbread 
and  ephod  mentioned  (1 
Sam.  xxi.  1,  2,  4,  G,  9). 
Slain  with  85  others  (1 
Sam.  xxii.  11-18),  Nob 
put  to  tlie  sword  (1  Sam. 
xxii.  19). 


Aniariah. 

Ahitub. 

In  default  of  a  son  of  Abim- 
elech in  Saul's  reign  to  take 
charge  of  the  tabernacle,  the 
duty  devolved  upon  the  head 
(if  the  other  priestly  line. 

Zadok,  perhaps  1  Chron.  xii.  27,  28.  Abia!tbar,  escaped  and  fled  to  David  (1  Sam.  xxii. 

20)  ;  with  an  ephod  (xxxiii.  6,  9  ;  xsx.  7). 
Ark  removed  from  Kirjath-jearim  and  de- 
posited in  the  house  of  Obed-edoin  (2  Sam. 
vi.  1-11  ;  1  Chron.  xiii.  13,  14).  Transferred 
to  the  city  of  David  (2  Sam.  vi.  12  seq.). 
Zadok  and  Abiathar  tlie  priests  assist  (1 
Chron.  xv.  11,  12).  Ark  placed  in  a  tent 
and  an  altar  erected  (2  Sam.  vi.  12,  17 ;  cp. 
vii  2).  Zadok  and  Abimelech,  son  of  Abia- 
tliar,  are  named  as  the  priests  during  a  cer- 
tain period  of  David's  reign  (2  Sam.  viii.  17; 
1  Chron.  xviii.  16).  Tlie  date  is  uncertain; 
it  is  not  improbably  after  Absalom's  revolt. 
ZadOK,  and  the  Levites  bearing  the  ark, 

in  liis  flight  (2  Sam.  »v.  24  seq.).  Zadok  and 
Aliiathar  are  called  the  priests  (2  Sam.  xv. 
3.') ;  xvii.  1.5 ;  xix.  11  ;  xx.  25).  Their  sons 
who  serve  as  messengers  are  Ahiniaaz  and 
Jonathan  respectively  (2  Sam.  xv.  27,  36).  In 
tlie  attempt  to  debar  Solomon  from  tlie  suc- 
ce.ssion  and  advance  Adonijah, 
Zadok  is  loyal  to  David  (1  Kin.  i.  8).  Abiathar  favors  Adonijah  (1  Kin.  i.  7). 

Zadok  and  Abimelech,  son  of  Abiathar, 
superintend  the  division  of  the  priests  into 
courses  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  3,  6,  31).  They  do 
this  as  the  active  heads  of  their  respective 
fathers'  houses.  In  consequence  of  a  second 
conspiracy  in  favor  of  Adonijah,  made  after 
_    ,   ,    .  Solomon  had  ascended  the  tlirone, 

Zadok  u  put  into  the  room  of  Abiathar  (1  Kin.  ii.  26,  35). 


and  Abiathar  follow  David 


High  Priest  299  High  Priest 

By  the  depositiun  of  Aliiatliar,  the  house 
of  Kli  falls  (1  Kin.  ii.  27),  and 
Zadok  is  sole  high  priest. 
Abimaaz. 
Azariah. 

Amariah,  chief  priest  in  the  reign  of  Jehoshiiphat,  about  8S3  B,  c.  (2  Chron.  xix.  11). 
Jehoiada,  in  the  reigns  of  Athaliah  and  .loasli,  dying  in  the  reign  of  Joash  at  the  age  of  '30 

years  (-  Kin.  xi.  4-19;  xii.  2;  2  Chron.  xxii.  10  setj. ;  xxiv.  15). 
Zecbariall,  son  of  Jehoiada,  perhaps  high  priest,  slain  by  Joash  between  819  andSOoB.  c.  (2  Chron. 

xxiv.  20,  22). 

Johanan. 

Azariall,  who  officiated  in  the  temple  at  Jerusalem  about  750  b.  c,  in  the  reign  of  Uzziah  (1  Chron.  vi.  10; 
2  Chron.  xxvi.  17). 

Urijah,  about  732  b.  c,  in  the  reign  of  Aliaz  (2  Kiu.  xvi.  10). 

Azariah,  about  727  b.  c,  in  the  reign  of  Ilezekiah  (2  Chron.  xxxi.  10, 13). 
Amariah. 
Ahltub. 

MeraiOth  (l  Chron.  ix.  11 ;  Neh.  xi.  11). 

Zadok. 

Sliallxmi  or  MeshuUam  (l  Chron.  vi.  12;  ix.  11). 

Hilkiall,  in  the  eighteenth  year  of  the  reign  of  Josiah,  622  b.  c.  (1  Chron.  ix.  11 ;  2  Chrou.  xxxiv.  8,  9). 

Azariah. 

Seraiab. 

J'illOzadak,  who  was  carried  captive  to  Babylonia  by  Nebuchadnezzar  in  587  b.  c.  (1  Chron.  vi.  15). 
.Interval  of  fifty  years  during  the  exile. 

II.  Fi-om  the  Exile  to  the  Maccabxan  Priests. 

Jeshua,  sou  of  Jehozadak,  who  returned  from  captivity  with  Zerubbabel,  and  was  high  priest  from  at  least 

538  to  520  B.  c.  (Ezra  ii.  2 ;  iii.  2 ;  Neh.  xii.  10 ;  Zech.  i.  7  ;  iii.  1 ;  vi.  11). 
JOiaklm  (Neh.  xii.  10,  12),  in  the  days  of  [Arta]xerxes  (Antiq.  xi.  5,  1). 
Ellashib,  in  the  twentieth  year  of  Artaxerxes,  446  b.  c,  and  still  in  office  after  433  b.  c.  (Neh.  iii.  20;  xii.  10; 

xiii.  4,  6). 
Joiada. 
Jonathan  (Neh.  xii.  ll),  or  rather  Johanan  (22,  2.3),  in  Greek  John,  high  priest  in  the  reign  of  Artaxerxes 

[Mnemon]  (Antiq.  xi.  7,  1 ;  cp.  5,  4),  who  occupied  the  throne  from  4(l5  to  302  B.  c. 
Jaddua,  high  priest  when  Alexander  the  Great  visited  Jerusalem,  332  B.  c,  and  died  about  the  same  time  as 

Alexander,  323  B.  c.  (Neh.  xii.  11 ;  Antiq.  xi.  8,  4  and  5  and  7). 
Onlas,  in  Hebrew  perhaps  Coniah,  contemporary  of  Arius,  who  was  king  of  Sparta  from  about  309  to  205  b.  C. 

(1  Mac.  xii.  7,  20 ;  Antiq.  xi.  8,  7). 
Simon  the  Just,  son  of  Onias. 

Eleazar,  son  of  Unias  and  brother  of  Simon,  in  the  time  of  Ptolemv  Philadelphus,  who  reigned  from  285  to 

247  (Antiq.  xii.  2,  5). 
Manasseh,  uncle  of  Eleazar  (Antiq.  xii.  4,  1). 
Onias  II.,  son  of  Simon  the  Just,  in  the  time  of  Ptolemy  Euergetes,  who  reigned  from  247  to  222  (Antiq.  xii. 

4,1). 
Simon  II.,  son  of  Onias  II.  (.\utiq.  xii.  4,  10). 
Onias  III.,  son  of  .Simon  II.,  in  the  time  of  Seleucus  IV.,  called  Philopator,  who  reigned  from  187  to  175  B.  C. 

(2  Mac.  iii.;  Antiq.  xii.  4,  10). 
Joshua,  in  Creek  JeSUS,  son  of  Simon  II.,  who  assimied  the  name  JasOU,  induced  Antiochus  Epiphanes, 

who  reigned  from  175  to  164  B.  c,  to  depose  Onias  (2  Mac.  iv.  7,  20-35).     After 

holding  office  about  three  years,  .Tason  was  supplanted,  about  171  B.  c,  by 
Menelaus,  called  also  Onias,  son  of  Simon  II.  (Antiq.  xii.  5,  1 ;  xv.  3,  1).     According  to  2  Mac.  iv.  23,  he  was 

the  brother  of  Simon  the  Benjamite.     Menelaus  held  office  ten  years  (Antiq.  xii.  9, 

7  I,  and  was  put  to  death  in  the  time  of  Judas  Maccabanis  (2  Mac.  xiii.  3-8). 
Jakim,  with  the  Greek  name  of  Alcimus,  who  was  not  of  the  high-priestly  line,  although  of  the  stock  of 

Aaron,  put  in  office  bv  Demetrius,  161  B.  c,  and  retained  office  three  years  (I  Mac. 

vii.  .5-9,  12-25;  ix.  1,  "54-56 ;  Antiq.  xii.  9,  7;  xx.  10,  1). 
Vacancy  of  seven  years  (Antiq.  xx.  10,  1). 

III.  The  Maccabsean  P)iest-kings. 

Jonathan,  of  the  priestly  family  of  Joarib  (I  Mac.  iii.  1 ;  1  Chron.  xxiv.  7),  made  high  priest  in  152  b.  c.  by 
Alexander  Balas,  who  was  contending  for  the  Syrian  throne  (1  Mac.  x.  18-21),  and 
held  office  for  seven  years  in  round  numbers  (Antiq.  xx.  10,  1). 

Simon,  lu-^  bnither,  for  eight  years. 

John  Hyrcanus,  son  of  Simon,  for  thirty  years. 

AristOhulus,  -^"n  of  Hyrcanus,  for  one  year. 

Alexander  JannseUS,  son  of  Hyrcanus,  for  twenty-seven  years. 

Hyrcanus,  sun  of  Alexander,  fornine  years. 

AriStOhulUS,  sou  of  Alexander,  for  three  years  three  months. 

Hyrcanus,  a  second  time,  for  twenty-four  years,  from  63  B.  c. 

Antigonus,  son  of  Aristobulus,  for  three  years,  three  months,  until  Herod  the  Great  took  possession  of  Jeini- 
salem  in  37  B.  c.  (Antiq.  xiv.  16,  4;  xx.  10,  1). 

IV.  Prom  the  Accession  of  Herod  the  Great  until  Jerusalem  was  taken  by  Titus.— During  this  period  there 
were  twenty-eight  high  priests  (Antiq.  xx.  10, 1),  one  being  generally  removed  to  make  way  for  his 
successor. 

Appointed  by  Herod  the  Great,  king  from  37  to  4  B.  c. : 

Hananel,  in  Latinized  Greek  AnanelUS  (--Vntiq.  xv.  2,  4). 

Aristobulus,  grandson  of  Hyrcanus,  for  one  year,  about  35  B.  C.  (Antiq.  XV.  3,  1  and  3). 

Hananel,  a  second  time  (Antiq.  xv.  3,  3). 

Jesus,  son  of  Phabes  (Antiq.  xv.  9,  3). 


Hilen 


300 


Hinnom,  Valley  of 


Simon,  son  of  Hoothiis  (Aiitiq.  XT.  9,  3),  from  about  24  to  5  B.  C. 

Matthias,  son  of  TUeophilns  iiiid  son-in-law  of  Boethus  (Antiq.  xvii.  4,2). 

Joazar,  «""  of  Boethus  (.\nti(|   xvii.  0,  4;  i:!,  1). 
Appointed  l>v  Areliebuis,  who  ruled  from  4  B.  c.  to  A.  D.  C: 

Eleazar,  son  of  Hoetlms,  who  did  not  abide  long  in  office  (Autiq.  xvii.  li,  I). 

Jesus,  son  of  Sic  (.Vntiq.  xvii.  i:i,  I). 
Appointed  bv  Qiiiriiiius,  president  of  Syria:  ,    ,       „      .  „       ,   x  i,        *v    ^  u; 

Annas    oi-  Ananus,  b.h  of  Seth,  who  obtained  the  office  in  A.  D.  6  or  7,  Joazar,  whom  the  m\ilti- 
'  tilde  ha'd  niiidc  liiKh  priest,  being  put  di>\vn  (Autiq.  xviii.  2,  1 ;  cp.  1,  1). 

Appointed  hv  Valerius  liratus,  procurator  of  Judtea  a.  d.  14-25: 

Ismael,  -on  of  I'habi,  wlio  held  office  but  a  short  time  (Antiq.  xviii.  2,  2). 

Eleazar,  son  of  Annas,  for  one  year  (Antiq.  xviii.  2,  2). 

Simon,  si.n  of  Camitluis,  for  one  year  (Antiq.  xviii.  2,  2). 

Joseph  Caiaphas,  son-in-law  to  Annas,  fiom  about  a.  d.  18  to  30  (John  xviii.  13;  Antiq.  xviu.  4,  .^). 
Appointed  bv  VitoUius,  |>resident  of  Syria:  ,   .       ,„  •     ^   .  o  -v 

Jonathan,  son  of  Annas,  in  A.  P.  3(5  (Antiq.  xvju.  4,  2  and  3;  cp.  xix.  6,  4;  xx.  8,  n). 

TheophilUS.  son  of  Annas,  in  a.  d.  37  (Antiq.  xviii.    5,  3). 
Appointed  by  kintr  Herod  Agrippa  I.,  who  reigned  from  A.  D.  41  to  44 : 

Simon  Cantheras,  son  of  Boethus  (Antiq.  xix.  G,  2). 

Matthias,  s.>ii  ot  Annas  (Antiq.  xix.  ('.,  4). 

EliOnseUS,  son  of  Cantheras  (Autiq.  xix.  8,  1). 
Appointed  bv  llemd,  king  of  Chaleis.who  died  in  A.  D.  48: 

Joseph,  son  of  Cainydus  (Antiq.  XX.  1,  3). 

Ananias    son  of  Nedeb.vus  (Antiq.  xx,  5,  2),  sent  in  bonds  to  Rome  during  the  procuratorship  o» 
'        Cnnianr.s,  but  acquitted  and  still  in   office  in  A.  D.  57,  two  years  before  Felix  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Festus  (Acts  xxiii.  2;  xxiv.  1,  27). 
Appointed  by  king  Agrippa  II. :  ,,.,., 

Ismael,  son  or  riiabl  (Antiq.  XX.  8,  8),  about  A.  D.  59,  who  went  to  Rome  and  was  detained  there  as 
hostage  (XX.  8,  11). 

Joseph,  called  Cabl,  son  of  the  former  high  priest  Simon  (Antiq.  xx.  8,  U). 

Annas,  son  of  Annas,  for  three  months  in  A.  D.  62  (Antiq.  xx.  9,  1). 

Jesus,  son  of  Damnaeus  (Antiq.  xx.  9,  1). 

Jesus,  son  of  Gamaliel  (Antiq.  xx.  9,  4 ;  cp.  War  iv.  5,  2). 

Matthias,  son  of  Theopliilus,  appointed  about  A.  D.  64  (Antiq.  xx.  9,  7). 
Made  high  priest  by  the  people  during  the  war: 

Phanas,  or  Phanni^as,  sou  of  Samuel  (Antiq.  XX.  10;  War  iv.  3,  8). 


Hi'len.     See  Holon  1. 

Hil-ki'ah  [portion  of  Jehovah  (cp.  Job 
xxxi.  2),  or  Jehovah  is  the  portion  (cp.  Ps. 
xvi.  5)]. 

1.  A  Levite.  son  of  Amzi,  descended  from 
Merari  (1  Chron.  vi.  45.  46). 

2.  Another  Merarite  Levite,  son  of  Hosah 
(1  Chron.  xxvi.  11). 

3.  Father  of  Eliakim,  who  was  over  the 
household  in  Hezekiah's  reign  (2  Kin.  xviii. 
18,  26;  Is.  xxii.  20;  xxxvi.  :{). 

4.  A  priest,  father  of  Jeremiah  (Jer.  i.  1). 

5.  Father  of  Jeremiah's  contemporary  Gem- 
ariah  (Jer.  xxix.  3). 

6.  The  liigh  priest  contemporary  with  Jo- 
siah,  who  aided  the  kin*;  in  his  reformation 
of  religion,  and  found  the  book  of  the  law 
(2  Kin.  xxii.  4-14  ;  xxiii.  4  ;  1  Chron.  vi.  13; 
2  Chron.  xxxiv.  9-22).     See  JosiAil. 

7.  A  diief  of  the  priests  who  returned  from 
Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (\eh.  xii.  7).  In 
the  next  generation  a  father's  house  bore  this 
name  (ver.  21). 

8.  One  of  those  who  stood  by  Ezra  when 
he  read  the  Uxw  to  the  people  (Neh.  viii.  4). 

Hill. 

A  consi)icuous  natural  elevation  of  land. 
The  name  is  generally  ajiplied  to  a  natural 
eminence  smaller  than  a  mountain  and  larger 
than  a  mound  ;  but  the  terms  are  relative, 
the  same  height  being  sometimes  known  by 
both  names  (Is.  xxxi.  4),  or  called  a  moun- 
tain in  one  locality  and  a  hill  in  another 
(Kev.  xvii.  9).  Hill  is  chiefly  the  rendering 
of  the  Hebrew  Gih'ah  and  the  Greek  Bnunos. 
Not  infrequently  it  is  also  employed  in  the 


A.  v.,  and  much  less  frequently  in  the  R.  V. 
(Ps.  ii.  6;  iii.  4  ;  xv.  1  ;  xxiv.  3;  xlii.  6;  Mat. 
v.  14  ;  Luke  iv.  29),  to  translate  Hebrew  Har 
and  Greek  '  Oros,  which  are  usually  rendered 
mountain. 

Hil'lel  [he  hath  praised]. 

Father  of  Abdou  the  judge  (Judg.  xii.  13, 
15). 

Hin. 

A  Hebrew  liquid  measure,  containing  about 
one  gallon  and  three  pints,  V.  S.  wine  meas- 
ure (Ex.  xxix.  40 ;  Antiq.  iii.  8,  3).  See 
Measure. 

Hind. 

A  female  stag,  in  Hebrew  'Ayyalah  (Gen. 
xlix.  21 ;  Job  xxxix.  1  ;  Ps.  xviii.  33  ;  Prov.  V. 
19;  Song  ii.  7;  Jer.  xiv.  5).     See  Hart. 

Hinge. 

In  ancient  times  in  the  East  heavy  doors 
turned  on  pivots,  which  were  constructed  on 
the  upper  and  lower  corners  of  one  side  and 
inserted  in  sockets.  The  socket  is  probably 
more  especially  referred  to  in  1  Kin.  vii.  50. 
See  also  Prov.  xxvi.  14. 

Hin'nom,  Val'ley  of;  known  also  as  the 
valley  of  the  son  of  Hinnom  or  of  the  chil- 
dren of  Hinnom. 

A  valley  at  Jerusalem,  near  the  gate  of 
potsherds  (Jer.  xix.  2;  not  east  gate  as  in 
A.  v.).  The  boundary  between  Judah  and 
Benjamin  passed  from  En-rogel  by  the  val- 
ley of  the  son  of  Hinnom  to  the  southern 
side  of  Jerusalem,  and  thence  to  the  top  of 
the  mountain  which  faces  the  valley  of  Hin- 
nom from  the  west,  and  is  at  the  outermost 


Hippopotamus 


301 


History 


part  of  the  vale  of  Rephaim  (Josh.  xv.  8; 
xviii.  Ifi).  If  the  term  "  shoulder  of  the  Jebu- 
site  (the  same  is  Jerusalem)  "  includes  the 
hill  on  the  west  of  the  Tyrojxpon  valley,  and 
not  merely  the  temple  hill  ;  in  other  words, 
if  the  term  denotes  the  plateau  which  juts 
out  southward  between  the  great  encircling 
wadies.  and  which  was  not  only  crowned  by 
the  citadel  of  the  Jebusites,  but  also  occupied 
by  their  dwellings  without  the  walls  and  by 
their  fields,  then  the  description  in  the  Book 
of  Joshua  identifies  the  valley  of  Hinnom 
with  at  least  the  lower  part  of  the  valley 
which  bounds  Jerusalem  on  the  south,  and 
is  now  known  as  the  wady  er-Eababeh,  near 
its  junction  with  the  ravine  of  the  Kidron. 
At  the  high  place  of  Tophet,  in  the  valley  of 
Hinnom,  parents  made  their  children  pass 
through  the  fire  to  Molech.  Ahaz  and  Ma- 
nasseh  were  guilty  of  this  abomination  (2 
Chron.  xxviii.  3;  xxxiii.  6).  Jeremiah  fore- 
told that  God  would  visit  this  awful  wicked- 
ness with  sore  judgment,  and  would  cause 
such  a  destruction  of  the  people  that  the  val- 
ley would  become  known  as  the  valley  of 
slaughter  (vii.  31-34;  xix.  2,  G;  xxxii.  35). 
Josiah  defiled  the  high  place  to  render  it  un- 
fit for  even  idolatrous  rites,  and  thus  to  stop 
the  sacrifices  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  10).  From  the 
horrors  of  its  fires,  and  from  its  pollution  by 
Josiah,  perhaps  also  because  oflal  was  burnt 
there,  the  valley  became  a  type  of  sin  and 
woe,  and  the  name  Ge-hinnom,  corrupted  into 
Gehenna,  passed  into  use  as  a  designation  for 
the  place  of  eternal  punishment. 

Hip-po-pot'a-mus  [Greek  'ippopotamos, 
river  horse].     See  Behemoth. 

Hi'rah  [nobility]. 

An  Adullamite,  a  friend  of  Judah  (Gen. 
xxxviii.  1,  12). 

Hi'ram  ;  in  Chronicles  Hu'ram,  except  in 
the  Hebrew  text  of  2  Chron.  iv.  ll*";  ix.  10 
[probably  consecration] .  In  Hebrew  the  name 
is  also  written  Hirom  (1  Kin.  v.  10, 18  ;  vii.  40, 
E.  V.  margin). 

1.  A  king  of  Tyre.  According  to  the  cita- 
tion which  Josephus  makes  from  the  Phoeni- 
cian historian  Dios.  and  from  the  Tyrian  an- 
nals which  Menander  translated,  Hiram  suc- 
ceeded his  father  Abibaal,  reigned  thirty-four 
years,  and  died  at  the  age  of  53  (Antiq.  viii. 
5,  3  ;  con.  Apion.  i.  17,  18).  He  enlarged  the 
city  of  Tyre  by  constructing  an  embankment 
ou  the  eastern  side,  built  a  causeway  to  con- 
nect the  city  with  the  island  on  which  the 
temple  of  Jupiter  or  Baal-samem  stood,  dedi- 
cated a  golden  pillar  in  this  temple,  rebuilt 
old  sanctuaries,  roofing  them  with  cedars  cut 
on  Lebanon,  and  erected  temples  to  Hercules 
and  Astarte.  He  was  a  friend  of  both  David 
and  Solomon  (1  Kin.  v.  1 ;  2  Cliron.  ii.  3). 
Some  time  after  David  had  captured  the 
stronghold  of  Zion,  Hiram  sent  an  embassy 
to  him  ;  and,  when  David  desired  a  palace, 
Hiram  furnished  the  cedar  timber  and  the 
masons  and  carpenters  (2  Sam.  v.  11).     This 


was  evidently  before  the  birth  of  Solomon 
(2  Sam.  vii.  2,  12 ;  xi.  2).  When  Solomon  as- 
cended the  throne,  Hiram  sent  congratula- 
tions. For  a  consideration  he  furnislud  cedar 
and  fir  for  building  the  temple,  and  skilled 
workmen  to  assist  in  preparing  the  timber 
and  stone  (1  Kin.  v.  1-12;  2  Chron.  ii.  .3-l()). 
He  also  advanced  120  talents  of  gold  (1  Kin. 
ix.  14),  and  joined  Solomon  in  sending  to 
Ophir  for  the  precious  metal  (1  Kin.  ix.  2(j-28  ; 
2  Chron.  ix.  21).  In  partial  payment  for  his 
contributions,  he  was  oflered  twenty  towns  in 
Galilee,  which  however  he  refused  (1  Kin. 
ix.  10-12 ;  2 Chron.  viii.  1, 2) ;  see  C.\BrL.  The 
chronological  statements  of  Josephus  and  the 
Bible  have  never  been  reconciled.  Josephus' 
statement  tliat  the  temple  was  begun  in  Hi- 
ram's eleventh  year  (Antiq.  viii.  3,  1)  or 
twelfth  (con.  Apion.  i.  18)  need  not  receive 
serious  consideration  ;  for  it  is  probably  a 
calculation  of  his  own,  and  not  a  citation 
from  the  archives.  Either  the  thirty-four 
years  assigned  as  the  duration  of  Hiram's 
reign  or  the  text  of  1  Kin.  ix.  9-12  may  be 
corrupt.  The  passage  in  Kings  is  parallel  to 
2  Chron.  viii.  1,  and  this  latter  passage  does 
not  require  the  assunii)tion  that  Hiram  lived 
to  the  end  of  the  twenty  years  wherein  the 
temple  and  the  royal  palace  were  built. 

2.  An  artificer,  whose  father  was  a  Tyrian 
and  his  mother  a  widow  of  Naphtali  (1  Kin. 
vii.  13,  14),  but  by  birth  a  woman  of  Dan  (2 
Chron.  ii.  14).  He  executed  the  bronze  or 
copper  work  in  connection  with  Solomon's 
temple,  as  the  pillars,  the  laver,  the  basins, 
the  shovels  (1  Kin.  vii.  13-46;  2  Chron.  ii. 
13,  14).  The  title  father  (2  Chron.  ii.  13  ;  iv. 
16)  probably  denotes  a  master  workman  or  a 
counselor. 

History. 

Biblical  history  is  the  record  of  that  series 
of  events  which  form  the  basis  for  the  re- 
ligion of  the  Bible  (cp.  ISIark  x.  2-9;  Eom. 
XV.  4  ;  1  Cor.  x.  11).  It  may  be  divided  into 
four  periods :  1.  An  account  of  the  creation 
of  the  universe,  showing  God's  relation  to 
the  world,  and  introducing  human  history. 
2.  A  sketch  of  human  history,  showing  God's 
relation  to  the  human  race,  and  introducing 
the  history  of  the  chosen  people.  3.  The  his- 
tory of  the  chosen  people,  showing  God's 
dealing  with  them  and  the  preparation  for 
the  advent  of  Christ.  4.  The  history  of 
the  establishment  of  the  Christian  church, 
which  is  to  reach  all  nations.  Iiiter-biblical 
histt)ry  falls  between  sections  3  and  4. 

1 .  Ax  Account  of  the  Creation  of  the 
Universe,  showing  God's  relation  to  the 
world,  and  introducing  human  history  (Gen. 
i.  l-ii.3).  See  Cre.\tion  and  Sabbath.  The 
great  doctrine  is  that  God  is  the  creator  and 
lord  of  all  things.  It  denies  materialism  and 
atheism.  In  implying  that  God  is  personal 
and  omnipotent,  it  makes  reasonable  his  super- 
natural manifestation  in  human  history. 

2.  A  Sketch  of  Human  Hlstorv,  show- 


History 


302 


History 


ing  God's  relation  to  the  human  race  and  in- 
troducinfi  the  history  of  the  chosen  people 
(Gen.  ii.  4-xi.  2()).  The  events  of  this  period 
fell  almost  entirely  under  human  observa- 
tion, and  were  capable  of  transmission  by 
human  testimony.  The  period  is  divided 
into  two  parts  by  the  flood.  The  narrative 
is  symmetrical;  ten  generations  before  the 
flood,  from  Adam  to  Noah  inclusive,  and  ten 
generations  after  the  flood,  from  8hem  to 
Abraham  inclu.sivo  (v.  ;  xi.  10-26).  The  post- 
diluvian period  is  divided  into  two  parts  at 
Peleg,  in  whose  days  the  earth  was  divided. 
Fmm  Shem  to  Peleg  inclusive  are  five  gen- 
erations, and  from  Ken  to  Abraham  inclusive 
are  live.  In  the  antediluvian  period  are  de- 
feiiled  the  covenant  with  Adam,  its  failure 
through  man's  disobedience,  the  downward 
course  of  man  in  sin,  his  punishment  by  a 
flood,  and  the  deliverance  of  Noah.  In  the 
postdiluvian  period  are  related  the  new  and 
unconditioned  covenant  with  Noah,  the  new 
command  laid  upon  man,  the  increasing  popu- 
lation, the  growing  independence  of  men 
from  God,  their  punishment  by  confusion  of 
speech  and  dispersion.  The  genealogy  of  the 
Sethitic-Semitic  line  to  Abraham  is  recorded, 
and  at  the  same  time  its  common  origin  with 
the  other  families  of  the  earth  is  made  plain. 
The  locality  where  the  -recorded  events  oc- 
curred was  the  basin  of  the  Tigris  and  Eu- 
phrates rivers ;  at  least,  every  definite  geo- 
graphical reference  is  to  this  region  (ii.  14; 
viii.  4 ;  x.  10  ;  xi.  2,  28).  From  this  center 
the  people  spread  on  all  sides,  especially 
toward  the  west  and  southwest,  where  the 
course  of  migration  was  not  blocked  by  great 
mountains  (x.).  By  the  close  of  the  period 
the  inhabited  world,  so  far  as  it  was  within 
the  sphere  of  history,  extended  from  the  Cas- 
pian Sea,  the  mountains  of  Elam  and  the 
Persian  Gulf  on  the  east,  westward  to  the 
isles  of  Greece  and  the  opposite  shore  of 
Africa,  and  from  the  neighborhood  of  the 
Black  Sea  on  the  north  to  the  Arabian  Sea 
on  the  south.  The  length  of  the  period  from 
Adam  to  Abraham  was  at  the  lowest  calcula- 
tion 194(}  years,  but  it  may  have  been  much 
longer  ;  see  Chronology.  This  period,  longer 
than  the  time  that  has  elapsed  since  the 
birth  of  Christ,  was  remarkably  barren  in 
miracles,  in  the  scriptural  meaning  of  that 
word ;  see  Miracle.  With  the  personal  his- 
tory of  man  began  those  theophanies,  rare 
indeed  though  thej'  were  (Gen.  iii.  8  seq.), 
which  are  important  in  the  history  of  revela- 
tion. During  this  period  man  made  progress 
iu  civilization.  He  had  been  created  with 
capacity,  and  was  commanded  to  subdue  na- 
ture. He  advanced  from  the  unclothed  state, 
passing  beyond  rude  garments  of  leaves  and 
afterwards  of  skins  (ii.  25 ;  iii.  7, 21)  to  woven 
clothing ;  from  a  food  of  fruits  that  grew  of 
itself  to  food  obtained  by  agriculture  and 
herding  (i.  29;  iv.  2)  ;  from  uncertain  abodes 
to  movable  tents,  settled  habitations  (iv.  17, 
20),  and  large  cities  built  of  brick  (xi.  3,  4) ; 


from  the  family  to  the  tribe  and  the  king- 
dom (x.  10)  ;  from  no  implements  to  tools  of 
metal  and  instruments  of  music  (iv.  21,  22). 
In  this  period  also  simple  speech  became  di- 
versified dialects  and  languages  (x.  5  ;  xi.  1, 
6,  9).  Man  recognized  the  duty  of  walking 
before  God  in  holiness  of  life  (iii.  2,  3,  10 ;  iv. 
7  ;  V.  22 ;  vi.  9) ;  distinguished  between  clean 
and  unclean  animals  (vii.  2  ;  viii.  20) ;  erected 
altars  and  worshiped  God  by  bloody  and 
bloodless  offerings  (iv.  3,  4  ;  viii.  20) ;  and 
prayed  to  God  in  his  character  of  Jehovah 
(iv.  26).  Religion,  however,  suffered  deca- 
dence (vi.  2,  5),  and  idolatry  became  wide- 
spread (Josh.  xxiv.  2).  See  especially  Gen- 
esis, Eden,  Adam,  Satan,  Serpent,  Abel, 
Cain,  Enoch,  Flood,  Noah,  Babel. 

3.  The  History  of  the  Chosen  People, 
showing  God's  dealing  with  them,  and  the 
preparation  for  the  advent  of  Christ.  This 
period  difl'ers  from  the  preceding  iu  the  shift- 
ing of  the  central  locality  from  the  valley  of 
the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  to  Palestine.  Canaan 
becomes  the  center  of  the  history.  The  dura- 
tion of  the  period,  regarded  as  having  begun 
with  Abraham's  birth,  was  reckoned  by  Usher 
at  1996  years,  and  so  stands  on  the  margin  of 
many  editions  of  the  English  version.  There 
are  certainly  errors  iu  this  calculation ;  but 
whether  they  equalize  themselves,  or  whether 
the  total  length  should  be  several  centuries 
more  or  less,  cannot  be  determined  as  yet 
from  the  biblical  and  other  data.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  this  period,  and  on  several  occa- 
sions later,  besides  the  ordinary  ways  in 
which  God  reveals  himself  to  man  and  to  the 
prophets,  he  appeared  in  theophanies.  This 
period  also  embraces  three  of  the  four  great 
miracle  epochs ;  namely,  at  the  deliverance 
of  the  people  from  Egypt  and  their  establish- 
ment in  Canaan  under  Moses  and  Joshua, 
during  the  mortal  sti'uggle  between  the  wor- 
ship of  Jehovah  and  Baal  worship  in  the 
time  of  Elijah  and  Elisha,  and  during  the 
Babylonian  captivity.  These  miracle  epochs 
were  separated  from  each  other  by  centuries 
during  which  there  were,  with  extremely 
rare  exceptions,  no  miracles.  This  period 
may  conveniently  be  divided  into  sections 
according  to  the  progressive  stages  in  the 
outward  development  of  the  people  of  God. 

I.  An  independent  tribe  in  Canaan  under 
Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob.  The  patriarch 
was  the  priest  and  responsible  ruler  of  the 
tribe.  The  history  is  reviewed  in  the  arti- 
cles on  Abraham,  Dreams,  Visions,  The- 
ophany,  Melchizkdek,  Isaac,  Jacob. 

II.  A  folk  of  twelve  tribex  for  a  long  time  in 
Egyptian  bondage.  See  Egypt,  Joseph,  Pha- 
raoh, Miracle,  Exodus,  Marah,  Manna, 
Quail,  Rephidim. 

III.  A  nation,  constituted  at  Sinai,  and  inde- 
pendent. Led  to  Sinai  the  people  became  a 
nation  by  accepting  the  covenant  which  God 
proposed,  and  which  was  contained  in  ten 
commandments,  and  formed  the  constitution 
of  the  nation.     Jehovah  is  king,  who  hence- 


History 


303 


History 


forth  dwells  in  the  tabernacle  in  the  midst 
of  Lis  i)e()ple,  reveals  his  will  to  proi^het 
and  priest,  and  exercises  the  legislative,  ju- 
dicial, and  executive  offices  through  laws 
which  he  reveals,  judgments  which  he  pro- 
nounces, and  officials  whom  he  raises  up. 
The  nation  was 

III.  1.  ^1  brotherhood  of  twelve  tribes  under  a 
religious  coustitittio)!,  and  with  a  common  sanc- 
tuary [Ex.  xix.-l  Sam.  vii.).  The  high  priest 
was  the  chief  representative,  and  was  aided 
by  prophets  and  occasional  leaders,  like  Moses. 
See  Sinai,  Theocr.\cy,  Text  of  Meeting, 
Tabeknacle,  Leviticus,  Camp. 

Leaving  Sinai  the  Israelites  journeyed  to 
Kadesh.  On  account  of  their  lack  of  faith, 
they  were  turned  back  into  the  wilderness, 
where  they  sojourned  thirty-eight  years;  see 
Numbers,  Wilderness  of  the  Wander- 
ing, KoRAH.  At  length  they  encompassed 
the  land  of  Edom,  and  found  a  crossing  at 
the  head  of  the  Arnon  valley.  The  conquest 
of  the  country  east  of  the  Jordan  followed  ; 
see  SiHON,  Og.  The  camp  was  then  pitched 
in  the  Jordan  valley  ;  see  Shittim,  Balaam, 
Baal-peor.  Midian,  Deuteronomy.  On 
the  death  of  Moses,  the  Jordan  was  crossed 
and  Canaan  conquered  and  possessed  ;  see 
Joshua,  Canaan,  Shiloh.  After  the  set- 
tlement of  the  Israelites  in  Canaan,  Joshua 
died,  and  was  succeeded  at  intervals  by  other 
persons  of  ability  and  influence,  fifteen  in 
number,  who  led  the  people  against  their 
enemies  and  exercised  governmental  func- 
tions ;  see  Judges,  Samuel.  Unifying  forces 
were  at  work  during  the  times  of  the  judges, 
and  a  national  feeling  existed  and  sometimes 
manifested  its  strength ;  but  still  the  people 
too  often  allowed  natural  barriers  and  petty 
jealousies  and  local  interests  to  separate  them. 
There  are  bright  examples  of  godliness  and 
filial  piety,  but  along  with  these  is  the  specta- 
cle of  a  people  easily  .seduced  to  idolatry  ;  see 
Judges.  During  this  entire  period  the  weak- 
nesses and  defects  of  the  human  parties  to  the 
covenant  were  disclosed.  At  the  very  be- 
ginning of  the  period  lack  of  faith  in  God 
was  shown  at  Kadesh,  the  existence  of  tribal 
jealousy  was  manifested  in  the  rebellion  of 
Korah  and  his  companj'  against  the  high- 
priesthood  of  Aaron  and  the  political  su- 
premacy of  Moses,  and  the  readiness  of  the 
people  to  lapse  into  idolatry  became  apx>arent 
in  the  afiair  of  the  golden  calf,  and  in  their 
ensnarement  by  the  seductions  of  Baal-peor. 
The  great  political  blunders  of  the  period 
were  the  league  made  by  Joshua  with  the 
Gibeonites,  and  the  failure  of  Israel  to  oc- 
cupy Jerusalem.  These  defects  and  blunders 
were  of  far-reaching  consequence  in  the  his- 
tory of  Israel. 

III.  2.  A  monarchy  of  twelve  tribes.  The 
people  had  failed  to  fo.ster  the  centralizing 
influences  which  their  religion  designedly 
provided,  allowed  senseless  tribal  jealousies 
to  sunder  them,  and  accustomed  themselves 
to  turn  from  God  to  idols.     The  threatening 


attitude  of  neighboring  nations  made  them 
realize  the  need  of  organization,  a  strong 
government,  and  a  military  leader.  Samuel 
was  old.  They  turned  away  from  the  good 
provision  which  God  had  made,  but  which 
they  had  neglected,  and  demanded  an  earthly 
king.  By  the  side  of  the  high  priest  and  the 
proi)het  there  was  now  a  permanent  earthly 
ruler,  with  supreme  political  power,  instead 
of  the  judges  whom  God  was  wont  to  raise 
up.  Saul  was  the  first  king,  but  on  account 
of  his  overestimate  of  his  position,  his  fail- 
ure to  recognize  the  superior  functions  of  the 
high  priest  and  prophet,  he  was  denied  the 
privilege  of  founding  a  dynasty  ;  and  finally 
his  willful  transgression  of  God's  explicit 
command  led  to  the  rejection  of  him  from 
being  king,  to  the  withdrawal  of  God  and 
God's  prophet  from  him,  and  the  choice  of 
David ;  see  Samuel.  Books  of,  Saul,  David. 
Under  David  the  twelve  tribes  were  reunited 
after  seven  years  of  civil  war,  Jerusalem  was 
taken  from  the  Jebusites  and  made  the  po- 
litical and  religious  capital,  the  borders  of 
the  kingdom  were  extended  by  conquest  far 
to  the  northeast  of  Damascus,  and  the  ac- 
quired country  was  laid  under  tribute.  Depu- 
ties were  placed  in  Edom  also.  See  Jerusa- 
lem. David  was  succeeded  by  Solomon,  under 
whom  the  temple  was  erected,  Jerusalem 
greatly  embellished  and  its  fortifications  ex- 
tended, and  the  fame  of  Israel  enhanced. 
But  his  exactions  made  the  people  discon- 
tented, and  on  his  death  the  failure  of  his 
son  to  discern  the  gravity  of  the  situation 
incited  ten  tribes  to  revolt  from  the  house 
of  David.  See  Solomon,  Eehoboam,  Israel. 
III.  3.  ,-1  monarchy  consisting  chiefly  of  the 
tribe  of  Jiidah,  ten  tribes  having  revolted  and 
formed  a  rival  schismatic  apostate  kingdom. 
The  causes  which  led  to  this  revolt  were  long 
standing  and  many  ;  see  Israel.  The  king- 
dom of  Judah  possessed  the  greater  strength. 
It  had  material  strength  ;  the  stronger  natural 
position,  the  capital,  the  organized  govern- 
ment, and  the  worship  to  which  the  people 
were  accustomed.  It  had  moral  strength  ; 
the  consciousness  of  adhering  to  the  legiti- 
mate line  of  kings,  which  has  ever  been  a 
mighty  force  in  history,  the  true  religion 
with  its  elevating  influence,  the  sense  of  loy- 
alty to  Jehovah,  and  a  line  of  godlier  kings. 
It  had  the  providential  care  of  God,  who  was 
preserving  the  knowledge  and  worship  of 
himself  among  men,  and  was  preparing  the 
way  for  his  Messiah.  The  religious  history 
of  Judah  during  this  period  was  marked  by 
a  decline  in  the  days  of  Kehoboam  (1  Kin. 
xiv.  22),  and  again  in  the  daj's  of  his  son 
Abijam  (xv.  3),  and  yet  again  in  the  days  of 
Jehoram  and  Ahazia'h  (2  Kin.  viii.  27).  The 
cause  of  this  religious  declension  was  the  cor- 
ruption introduced  by  Solomon  and  intermar- 
riage with  idolaters.  Rehoboam's  mother  was 
an  Ammonitess,  for  whom  Solomon  had  built 
a  high  place  to  Milcom.  and  who  had  sacrificed 
to  this  abomination  of  her  people.     Jehoram 


History  304 

•was  son-in-law  of  Aha))  and  Jezebel.  Each 
of  these  periods  of  religious  decaj'  was  fol- 
lowed by  ref(jrination,  the  first  under  king 
Asa  and  the  second  under  .Tehoash,  but  Jeho- 
ash  himself  afterwards  turned  away  from  the 
Lord,  and  another  religious  revival  became 
necessary,  only  to  be  followed  by  the  domi- 
nance of  idolatry  later  under  the  pernicious 
intluence  of  Ahaz.  The  encroachments  of  the 
Assyrians  on  the  Hebrew  people  began  in  this 
period.  The  divided  nation,  largely  degen- 
erate in  religion,  was  not  in  condition  to  offer 
etfective  resistance  ;  and  by  slow  but  steady 
advance,  which  began  in  the  days  of  Ahab, 
the  Assyrians  pushed  their  conquest  until 
they  had  overthrown  the  northern  kingdom. 
See"  Israel,  Samaria,  Sargon. 

III.  4.  The  monarchy  of  Jiulah  sole  survivor. 
The  southern  kingdom  was  now  exposed  to 
the  attacks  of  the  Assyrians,  and  later  of 
their  successors,  the  Babylonians  ;  see  Heze- 
KiAH,  Sennacherib,  Manasseh,  Nebu- 
chadnezz.\r.  The  religious  condition  also 
of  the  people  was  not  good,  although  great 
prophets,  like  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  and  Micah 
were  laboring  to  advance  the  truth.  Its 
kings,  with  the  exception  of  Hezekiah  and 
Josiah,  did  not  render  true  and  steadfast 
allegiance  to  Jehovah,  and  the  people  were 
like-minded.  There  was  an  idolatrous  party 
in  the  state  which  had  been  triumphant  in 
the  reign  of  Ahaz.  Idolatry  was  deep-rooted 
among  the  people,  and  the  reforms  of  any 
king  affected  tlie  nation  only  su])erflcially. 
Foreign  idolatei's  were  also  in  the  land.  The 
nation  drifted  to  destruction.  The  army  of 
Nebuchadnezzar  visited  .Jerusalem  at  brief 
intervals  during  the  course  of  two  decades, 
several  deportations  of  Jews  to  Babylonia  took 
place,  and  the  city  was  taken  and  burned  in 
587  B.  c.  The  Hebrew  people  had  failed  to 
conserve  the  elements  of  national  strength, 
and  to  abide  under  the  shadow  of  the  Al- 
mighty, and  they  fell.     See  Judah. 

IV.  A  subject  people. — 1.  Judah  in  the  Baby- 
lonian exile.    See  Captivity. 

IV.  2.  Judah  171  Palestine.  In  the  first  year 
of  his  reign  over  Babylon,  5.38  b.  c,  Cyrus 
issued  an  edict  which  permitted  the  Jews  to 
return  to  Palestine  and  rebuild  the  temple. 
Forty-three  thousand  embraced  the  oppor- 
tunity and  returned  under  Zerubbabel.  This 
colony  was 

{a)  A  province  of  the  Persian  empire,  subor- 
dinated to  the  province  Beyond-the-river.  It  re- 
mained such  for  two  hundred  years.  Twice 
it  enjoyed  local  governors  of  its  own,  ap- 
pointed by  tiie  Persian  monarch  ;  see  Zerub- 
babel and  Nehemiah.  But  for  the  greater 
part  of  the  time  its  civil  affairs  were  subject 
to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Persian  satrap  be- 
yond the  river.  He  had  authority  to  ap- 
point a  dei)Uty  for  Judah,  and  to  call  on  the 
Jews  for  men  or  money.  But  the  local  ad- 
ministration was  left  to  the  high  priest,  and 
he  gradually  came  to  be  regarded  as  the  po- 
litical as  well  as  the  religious  head  of  the 


History 


nation.  Immediately  on  the  return  of  the 
exiles  from  Babylon  the  foundations  of  the 
temi)le  were  laid.  The  ■work  was  pushed  on 
under  the  exhortations  of  the  prophets  Hag- 
gai  and  Zechariah  despite  interruptions  and 
opposition,  and  the  building  was  completed  in 
515  b.  C.  The  walls  were  erected  under  the 
sujjervision  of  Nehemiah  by  authority  of 
Artaxerxes  in  445  B.  c. ;  see  Jerusalem. 
At  this  time  also  Ezra  the  priest  was  in  the 
city,  zealous  for  the  law  of  God,  and  success- 
fully laboring  for  the  purity  of  religion  ;  see 
Ezra  and  Canon.  About  365  b.  c.  there  was 
a  dispute  between  two  brothers  about  the 
high-priesthood,  which  ended  by  one  killing 
the  other  within  the  precincts  of  the  temple. 
In  connection  with  this  affair  Bagoses,  general 
of  the  army  of  Artaxerxes  Mnemon,  entered 
the  temple  (Antiq.  xi.  7,  1).  In  March  or 
April,  334  B.  c.  Alexander  of  Macedon  crossed 
the  Hellespont,  defeated  the  Persian  satraps, 
then  marched  on,  and  the  next  year  gained 
a  victory  over  the  Persian  monarch  Darius 
Codomannus  at  Issus,  a  defile  near  the  north- 
eastern angle  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  laid 
Syria  at  his  feet,  and  entered  Jerusalem. 
After  an  almost  uninterrupted  career  of  con- 
quest, extending  eastward  as  far  as  the  Pun- 
jab, Alexander  died  at  Babylon  in  June,  323 
b.  c.    See  Alexander. 

(b)  Judtea  subject  to  Egypt.  Ptolemy  Soter 
wrested  Palestine  from  Syria,  to  which  it  had 
fallen  after  Alexander's  death,  in  320  b.  c, 
and  the  Ptolemies  retained  it,  except  for  oc- 
casional brief  periods,  until  198  B.  c,  when 
the  cruelty  of  Ptolemy  Philopator  drove  the 
Jews  to  seek  the  protection  of  Antiochus  the 
Great ;  see  Ptolemy.  During  these  122  years 
the  Jews  were  governed  by  their  high  jiriest 
subject  to  the  king  of  Egypt.  At  this  time  the 
Hebrew  Scriptures  were  translated  into  Greek 
at  Alexandria  in  Egypt.     See  Versions. 

(c)  Jndsea  subject  to  Syria.  Antiochus  the 
Great  wrested  Palestine  from  Egypt  in  198 
B.  c.  by  his  victory  over  Ptolemy  Philopator 
at  Paneas.  The  Syrians  not  only  supported 
the  Grecian  party  among  the  Jews  which  at- 
tempted to  hellenize  the  nation,  but  they  also 
endeavored  by  force  to  impose  idolatry  upon 
the  Jews.  The  sacrilegious  tyranny  of  the 
Syrians  became  intolerable  to  the  pious  por- 
tion of  the  nation,  and  led  to  the  Maccabseau 
revolt  in  16G  B.  c.  See  Gymnasium,  Jason, 
Antiochus. 

A  period  of  independence  under  the  Mac- 
caba?n  priest-kings  followed  ;  see  Maccabees. 
It  lasted  from  KiO  B.  c.  until  Pompey  took  Je- 
rusalem in  63  B.  c. ;  but  the  Maccabees  were 
allowed  to  hold  the  throne  until  40  B.  c,  when 
Herod  the  Great  was  appointed  king  of  Judsea 
by  the  Eoman  senate.  He  began  his  actual 
reign  by  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  in  37  B.  c. 
During  this  period  the  Pharisees  and  Saddu- 
cees  became  recognized  parties,  exerting  great 
political  and  religious  influence.  See  Phari- 
sees. Sapducees,  Coitncil. 

(d)  I'nder  the  Romans.     During  this  period 


History 


305 


Hittites 


the  affairs  of  Judaea  were  administered  by 
appointees  of  the  Romans  ;  first  by  Herod  the 
Great,  then  by  Archelaus,  and  afterwards 
by  procurators,  except  from  A.  D.  41-44,  when 
Herod  Agrippa  I.  reigned  as  king ;  see  Judj^a, 
Herod,  Pkocvrator.  The  maladministra- 
tion of  these  officials  exasperated  the  people 
and  drove  them  to  revolt.  Obstinate  war 
raged  from  A.  n.  W!  until  the  fall  of  Jerusa- 
lem in  A.  D.  70.  The  remnant  of  the  Jewish 
people  who  remained  in  Palestine  were  de- 
nied access  to  their  capital,  and  had  no  longer 
national  existence.  While  the  Jews  .still  con- 
stituted a  nation  under  the  Romans,  in  the 
days  of  Herod  the  king,  Jesus  of  Nazareth 
was  born  and  a  new  period  of  biblical  his- 
tory began. 

4.  The  History  of  the  Establishment 
OF  THE  Christian  Church,  which  is  to  reach 
all  nations. — I.  Christ's  preparation  for  the  es- 
tablishment of  his  Church,  by  example,  teach- 
ing, and  redemption.  See  Jesus,  Gospel, 
Apostles. 

II.  The  Church  among  the  Jews.  The  church 
was  founded  by  the  risen  Christ.  Ten  days 
later,  at  Pentecost,  the  promised  Spirit  was 
given,  and  the  church's  work  was  initiated 
by  Peter's  sermon,  increase  of  believers,  and 
baptism ;  see  Pentecost,  Holy  Spirit, 
Tongues,  Baptism,  Church.  During  the 
next  few  years,  six  perhaps,  the  church  ex- 
perienced the  difficulties  incident  to  the  im- 
perfections of  believers  and  to  persecution ; 
but  it  grew  steadily  in  purity  and  numbers. 
See  An.\.nias,  Deacons,  Stephen.  The  per- 
secution which  arose  on  the  death  of  Stephen 
scattered  the  brethren  abroad,  and  the  evan- 
gelization of  the  Jews  in  Palestine  and  Syria 
began.  The  gospel  was  carried  to  Samaria 
and  to  the  cities  on  the  seacoast  from  Gaza  to 
Csesarea.  See  Philip.  For  the  purpose  of 
persecuting  the  believers  who  were  now  found 
in  the  Jewish  colony  in  Damascus,  Saul  went 
thither,  and  was  converted,  and  was  told  that 
he  was  to  be  a  teacher  of  the  gentiles.  The 
vision  of  Peter  at  Jop])a,  and  its  complement 
in  the  conversion  of  Cornelius  and  his  bap- 
tism with  the  Holy  Spirit,  opened  the  eyes 
of  the  church  to  the  truth,  already  theoreti- 
cally known,  that  the  Holy  Spirit  is  for  all 
believers,  Jew  and  gentile.  See  Cornelius. 
At  Antioch  Jewish  believers  from  the  West, 
who  had  been  driven  from  Jerusalem  by  the 
persecution  which  had  arisen  on  the  death 
of  Stephen,  began  to  preach  Jesus  to  the 
Greeks  also  (Acts  xi.  20,  R.  V.),  and  now  the 
followers  of  Jesus  began  to  be  called  Chris- 
tians, no  longer  being  identified  with  the 
Jews.  The  church  was  now  ready  to  under- 
take the  evangelization  of  the  gentiles;  the 
truth  of  the  equality  of  all  believers  was 
known,  a  man  had  been  raised  up  to  work 
among  the  gentiles,  and  the  first  beginnings 
had  been  made. 

III.  The  Church  among  Jews  anrl  gentiles.  Paul 
and  Barnabas,  called  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  be- 
gan the  evangelization  of  Jews  and  gentiles  in 

20 


Asia  Minor.  The  question  about  the  obliga- 
tions of  gentile  converts  arose.  The  council 
at  Jerusalem  took  a  firm  stand  for  Christian 
liberty,  refused  to  impose  circumcision  and 
the  observance  of  the  Mosaic  law  upon  gen- 
tile converts,  and  only  insisted  upon  certain 
moral  duties  and  certain  matters  of  expe- 
diency which  it  was  neces.sary  to  enijihasize 
on  account  of  the  state  of  ])ublic  oi)inion. 
The  rights  of  gentile  Christians  were  now 
.secure.  On  a  second  missionary  journey, 
Paul,  under  the  direction  of  the  Spirit,  came 
to  Troa,  asnd  was  called  by  a  vision  to  extend 
his  labors  to  Europe,  and  the  evangelization 
of  Europe  from  Philippi  to  Rome  ensued.  See 
Paul,  John,  Peter. 

Hit'tites. 

A  people,  known  also  as  children  of  Heth, 
and  connected  by  blood  or  conquest  with 
Canaan  (Gen.  x.  15;  xxiii.  'S).  For  centuries 
they  occupied  the  region  extending  from 
northern  Palestine  to  the  Euphrates,  and 
numbered  Kadesh  on  the  Orontes,  Hamath 
and  Carchemish  among  their  important  cities 
(Josh.  i.  4 ;  1  Kin.  x.  29).  As  early  as  the 
time  of  Abraham,  bodies  of  them  had  taken 
up  their  abode  in  Canaan  proper,  and  appar- 
ently had  adopted  the  language  of  Canaan. 
Abraham  met  with  them  at  Hebron,  and  it 
was  from  a  Hittite  that  he  purchased  the  cave 
of  Machpelah  (Gen.  xxiii.  1-20;  xxv.  9).  Esau 
married  two  Hittite  wives  (xxvi.  34, 35 ;  xxxvi. 
2).  The  spies  sent  out  by  Moses  found  the 
Hittites  occupying  the  mountains  (Num.  xiii. 
29).  They  took  part  in  the  war  against  the  in- 
vading Hebrews  under  Joshua  (Josh.  ix.  1,  2). 
They  were  also  among  the  tribes  which  aided 
Jabin,  king  of  Hazor,  in  the  great  battle  in 
which  he  was  so  signally  defeated  by  Joshua 
at  the  waters  of  Merom  (xi.  3).  The  man  who 
betraved  Luz,  or  Bethel,  built  a  second  Luz 
in  the  land  of  the  Hittites  (Judg.  i.  26).  After 
the  conquest  of  Canaan  by  Joshua,  Hittites 
still  remained  in  the  country,  intermarriages 
taking  place  between  them  and  the  Israelites 
(iii.  5, 6).  One  of  David's  followers  was  Ahim- 
elech  the  Hittite  (1  Sam.  xxvi.  6).  Uriah, 
against  whom  David  sinned  so  deeply,  was 
of  the  same  race  (2  Sam.  xi.  3,  17,  21).  In  the 
reign  of  Solomon  the  Hittites  and  other  tribes 
who  remained  in  the  land  had  levied  on  them 
a  tribute  of  bond-service  (1  Kin.  ix.  20,  21 ;  2 
Chron.  viii.  7,  8).  Hittite  women  were  in 
Solomon's  harem  (1  Kin.  xi.  1).  The  Hit- 
tites were  the  Kheta,  or  Khita,  of  the  Egyp- 
tian monuments,  the  Hatti  of  the  Assyrian 
inscriptions,  and  the  Keteioi  of  Homer  (Odys- 
sey xi.  521).  From  Egyptian  and  Assyrian 
sources  and  Hittite  remains  we  leam  that 
when  the  power  of  the  Hittites  was  at  its 
height,  their  sway  or  their  influence  was  para- 
mount from  the  Archipelago  to  the  Euphrates, 
their  northern  or  northeastern  capital  being 
Carchemish,  on  that  river,  and  their  southern 
or  southwestern  one  Kadesh,  on  the  Orontes. 
For  five  hundred  years  they  carried  on  a  strug- 


Hivites 


306 


Hoham 


gle,  with  intervals  of  peace,  with  the  Egyp- 
tians, tifihting  great  battles  witli  Thothmes 
III.,  in  tlie  sixteenth  ccntnry  k.  t\,  and  with 
Seti  I.  and  Hamses  XL  The  siege  of  Kadesh 
by  the  latter  Egyptian  monarch  was  cele- 
brated in  au  epic  by  the  poet  Pentaiir.  For 
four  hundred  years,  beginning  1100  B.  C,  they 
carried  on  a  contest  with  the  Assyrians,  gen- 
erally holding  their  own  against  that  great 
power,  till,  in  717  B.  C,  Sargon,  the  Assyrian 
king,  cai)tured  Carchemish,  and  terminated 
their  eni]>irc.  Sculptures,  doubtless  Hittite, 
with  hieroglyphics  not  yet  satisfactorily  read, 
have  been  found  at  Carchemish,  at  Haraath, 
and  throughout  a  great  part  of  Asia  Minor. 
The  Hittites  were  a  sturdy  race  of  men.  They 
are  generally  represented  as  beardless.  They 
wore  pointed  hats  and  loose  tunics.  Their 
shoes  were  tilted  up  at  the  tips,  and  fastened 
by  a  large  bandage  round  the  foot  and  ankle. 
They  are  like  the  shoes  still  worn  by  the 
peasantry  of  Asia  Minor,  and  are  the  best 
preservative  for  the  feet  when  the  country 
is  covered  with  snow.  The  Hittites  also  wore 
long  gloves,  covering  the  forearm,  with  one 
compartment  for  the  thumb  and  another  for 
the  four  fingers.  These  are  believed  to  be  a 
survival  of  the  time  when  the  Hittites  lived 
among  the  snowclad  range  of  Taurus  and  the 
Armenian  mountains. 

Hi'vites. 

One  of  the  races  of  Canaan  before  the  con- 
quest of  the  country  by  the  Hebrews  (Gen. 
X.  17 ;  Ex.  iii.  17  ;  Josh.  ix.  1).  They  scattered 
into  several  communities.  A  body  of  them 
dwelt  at  Shechem  in  the  time  of  Jacob  (Gen. 
xxxiii.  18  with  xxxiv.  2),  and  their  descend- 
ants still  had  influence  in  the  city  several 
generations  after  the  conquest  (Judg.  ix.  28). 
A  body  of  them  also  dwelt  in  Gibeon  and  its 
vicinity.  They  obtained  a  treaty  of  peace  from 
Josliua  by  stratagem,  but  on  their  deceit  being 
discovered,  they  were  made  hewers  of  wood 
and  drawers  of  water  (.Tosh.  ix.).  They  had 
also  an  extensive  settlement,  probably  their 
principal  one,  at  the  foot  of  Tjebanon,  from 
mount  Hcrmon  to  the  entering  in  of  Hamath 
(Josh.  xi.  3;  Judg.  iii.  3).  In  these  northern 
mountain  regions  they  had  villages  of  their 
own  as  late  as  the  time  of  David  (2  Sam.  xxiv. 
7).  Those  of  Palestine  proper  were,  with  the 
other  Canaanites  who  remained  in  the  land, 
required  to  render  bond-service  to  Solomon 
in  connection  with  his  extensive  building 
o]KTati()ns  (1  Kin.  ix.  20-22). 

Hiz-ki'ah.    See  Hezekiah  2. 

Hiz-ki'jah.     See  Hezekiah  4. 

Ho'bab  [lover]. 

The  father-in-law  of  Moses,  according  to 
the  traditional  vowel  points  of  the  Hebrew 
text  (Judg.  iv.  11).  Hut  the  father-in-law  of 
Moses  was  Reuel,  or,  to  call  him  by  what  ap- 
pears to  have  been  his  honorary  title,  Jethro, 
his  excellency.  Hobab  is  definitely  stated  to 
have  been  the  son  of  Reuel  (Num.  x.  29),  and 
if  the  traditional  vocalization  is  ignored,  and 


regard  paid  to  the  Hebrew  text  only,  the 
Hebrew  words  may  equally  well  be  translated 
"  Hobab  the  brother-in-law  of  Moses"  (Judg. 
i.  IH;  iv.  11,  R.  v.).  Moses'  father-in-law 
Reuel,  or  Jethro,  visited  Moses  in  the  camp 
at  Rephidim  and  returned  to  his  own  land 
(Ex.  xviii.  1,  5,  27).  A  year  later,  when  the 
Israelites  were  about  to  advance  from  Sinai, 
Moses  urged  Hobab,  the  son  of  Reuel,  to  ac- 
company them  and  aid  them  with  his  knowl- 
edge of  the  desert.  Hobab  finally  consented 
(Num.  X.  29  ;  Judg.  i.  16  ;  iv.  11).  After  the 
conquest  of  Canaan,  his  family  settled  in 
Judah,  south  of  Arad,  and  were  still  there  ♦ 
in  the  time  of  Saul  and  David  (Judg.  i.  16; 
1  Sam.  XV.  6 ;  xxvii.  10  ;  xxx.  29).  Hobab  be- 
longed to  the  Kenites  (Judg.  i.  16 ;  iv.  11),  a 
family  of  the  Midiauites. 

Ho'bali. 

A  town  on  the  left,  that  is  to  the  north,  of 
Damascus.  Hobah  was  the  extreme  limit  to 
which  Abraham  pursued  the  defeated  eastern 
kings  (Gen.  xiv.  15).  Wetzsteiu  mentions  a 
place  of  this  name  between  Tadmor  and 
Homs. 

Hod  [majesty]. 

An  Asherite,  son  of  Zophah  (1  Chron.  vii. 
37). 

Hod-a-vi'ah,  in  A.  V.  once  Ho-da'iah  (1 
Chron.  iii.  24)  [Jehovah  is  his  praise,  or  h© 
hath  praised  Jehovah]. 

1.  A  son  of  Elioenai,  descended  through 
Shecaniah  from  David  (1  Chron.  iii.  24). 

2.  One  of  the  heads  of  the  half-tribe  of  Ma- 
nasseh  east  of  the  Jordan  (1  Chron.  v.  24). 

3.  A  Benjamite  (1  Chron.  ix.  7). 

4.  A  Levite,  founder  of  a  family,  some 
members  of  which  returned  from  Babylon 
(Ezra  ii.  40).  He  is  called  Judah  (iii.  9),  vir- 
tually a  synonymous  name,  and  through  a 
slight  corruption  of  the  Hebrew  text,  Hode- 
vah,  or,  as  traditionally  read,  Hodeiah  (Neh. 
vii.  43  and  R.  V.  margin). 

Ho-de'iah.    See  Hodaviah  4. 
Ho'desh  [new  moon]. 
A  wife  of  Shaharaim  (1  Chron.  viii.  9). 
Ho-de'vah.     See  Hodaviah  4. 

Ho-di'ah,  in  A.  V.  of  Nehcniiah  Ho-di'jah. 
[splendor  of  Jehovah]. 

1.  A  man  who  was  reckoned  as  belonging 
to  the  tribe  of  Judah,  perhajis  because  of  his 
marriage  with  the  sister  of  Naham  (1  Chron. 
iv.  19,  R.  v.).  A.  V.  does  not  give  a  correct 
rendering  of  the  Hebrew  text. 

2.  One  of  the  Levites  employed  by  Ezra  to 
explain  the  law  to  the  people  (Neh.  viii.  7), 
and  to  assist  on  the  day  of  penitence  and 
prayer  (ix.  5).  He  was  proV>ably  one  of  the 
two  Levite  Hodiahs  who  sealed  the  covenant 
(x.  10  or  1.3). 

Hog'lah  [a  partridge]. 

A  daughter  of  Zelophehad  (Num.  xxvi.  33). 

Ho 'ham. 

A   king  of  Hebron,  who  entered   into  a 


Holm  Tree 


307 


Honey 


league  against  Joshua,  and  was  defeated,  cap- 
tured, and  executed  (Josh.  x.  1-27). 

Holm  Tree. 

Tlie  evergreen  oak  (Qnercus  ilex),  the  ren- 
dering of  the  Hebrew  Tirzah,  hard  tree,  in 
the  only  iiassage  where  it  occurs  (Is.  xliv.  14 ; 
in  A.  V.  cypress).  The  two  Greek  translators, 
Aquila  and  Theodotiou,  render  it  by  wild 
oak,  and  the  Vulgate  by  ilex. 

Ho'lon  [probably  sandy]. 

1.  A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  51),  given,  with  its  suburbs,  to  the 
priests  (xxi.  15).  Called  also  Hilen  (1  Chron. 
vi.  58).     Not  identified. 

2.  A  Moabite  town  (Jer.  xlviii.  21),  perhaps 
Horon. 

Ho'ly. 

The  ordinary  Hebrew  word  for  holy  is 
Kadosh,  separated.  It  is  represented  in  the 
N.  T.  by  the  Greek  word  'Agios.  It  is  used 
for  what  is  set  apart  from  a  common  to  a 
sacred  use,  as  the  utensils  and  ministers  of 
the  sanctuary,  and  certain  days  (Ex.  xx.  8; 
XXX.  31 ;  xxxi.  10  ;  Lev.  xxi.  7  ;  Num.  v.  17  ; 
Neb.  viii.  9  ;  Zech.  xiv.  21)  ;  for  what  is  sep- 
arated from  ceremonial  defilement  (Ex.  xxii. 
31 ;  Lev.  xx.  26)  or  immorality  (2  Cor.  vii. 
1 ;  1  Thes.  iv.  7),  including  false  worship  and 
heathen  practices  (Lev.  xx.  6,  7;  xxi.  6).  In 
a  larger  sense  God  is  holy,  for  he  is  separated 
from  all  other  beings  by  his  infinite  perfec- 
tions, by  his  being,  wisdom,  power,  holiness, 
justice,  goodness,  and  truth,  the  glory  of 
which  fills  the  earth  (Is.  vi.  3).  Even  holy 
angels  ascribe  holiness  to  him  (Is.  vi.  3 ;  Eev. 
iv.  8  ;  xvi.  5). 

Ho-ly  Ghost'. 

The  Spirit  of  God,  the  Holy  Spirit.  The 
word  spirit  now  more  correctly  expresses  the 
idea  than  does  the  term  ghost,  which  has  nar- 
rowed its  meaning,  and  commonly  denotes  a 
disembodied  spirit  wandering  on  earth.  The 
name  Holv  Spirit  is  used  three  times  only  in 
the  O.  T.  (Ps.  li.  11 ;  Is.  Ixiii.  10, 11),  but  there 
are  numerous  references  to  his  work.  The 
Spirit  of  God  is  the  divine  principle  of  ac- 
tivity everywhere  at  work  in  the  world,  ex- 
ecuting the  will  of  God.  The  Spirit  is  sent 
forth  bv  God  (Ps.  civ.  29,  30)  and  given  by 
God  (Num.  xi.  29;  Is.  xlii.  1.  5).  The  Spirit 
brooded  over  chaotic  matter  in  the  beginning 
and  is  everywhere  present  (Gen.  i.  2;  Ps. 
cxxxix.  7),  and  is  thus  immanent  and  the 
energy  in  cosmical  processes  (Job.  xxvi.  13 ; 
Is.  lix.  19) :  is  the  source  of  physical,  intel- 
lectual, and  moral  life  (Gen.  vi.  3 ;  Job  xxxii. 
8 ;  xxxiii.  4  ;  xxxiv.  14  ;  Ps.  xxvii.  3  :  civ.  30 ; 
cp.  Is.  xlii.  5) ;  is  able  to  produce  supernatural 
effects  (1  Kin.  xviii.  12:  2  Kin.  ii.  16).  He 
abides  with  the  people  of  God  (Is.  Ixiii.  11; 
Hag.  ii.  5),  and  bestows  varied  powers  for  the 
work  of  the  kingdom,  strength  (Judg.  iii.  10; 
vi.  34:  xi.  29;  xiii.  25:  xiv.  6,  19;  xv.  14;  1 
Sam.  xi.  6;  xvi.  13;  1  Chron.  xii.  18),  skill 
(Ex.  xxxi.  3),  wisdom  (Num.  xi.  17,  25; 
xxvii.  18),  in  short,  everything  needful  for 


the  work  of  the  kingdom  (Is.  xi.  2;  Zech. 
iv.  6).  He  instructed  the  peojjle  of  God  (Neh. 
ix.  20)  by  insjiiring  the  prophets  (Num.  xxiv. 
2  ;  1  Sam.  x.  6  ;  Hos.  ix.  7  ;  Mic.  iii.  8  ;  Zech. 
vii.  12).  He  works  upon  the  heart  of  the 
individual  child  of  God.  It  was  foretold  that 
this  work  would  be  especially  powerful  and 
widespread  in  the  Messianic  period,  when  the 
Spirit  shall  be  poured  out  on  the  people  of 
God  (Is.  xliv.  3),  will  give  to  them  a  new 
heart  and  a  new  spirit  (Ezek.  xxxvi.  26), 
produce  sorrow  for  sin  (Zech.  xii.  10)  ;  yea, 
be  poured  out  on  all  flesh  (Joel  ii.  28).  The 
Spirit  is  grieved  when  men  resist  his  holy 
work  (Is.  Ixiii.  10;  cp.  Ps.  cvi;  33).  The  N. 
T.  treats  of  Messianic  times  and  the  disj>en- 
sation  of  the  Spirit,  and  it  follows  that  in  the 
N.  T.  the  Spirit  is  mentioned  much  more  fre- 
quently than  in  the  O.  T.  All  the  attributes 
of  the  Spirit  revealed  in  the  0.  T.  are  dis- 
closed in  the  N.  T.  in  exercise.  The  doctrine 
of  the  Spirit  advances  beyond  the  teach- 
ing of  the  O.  T.  chiefly  in  becoming  more 
definite  in  respect  to  his  personality.  Though 
the  word  spirit  is  neuter  in  Greek  and  femi- 
nine in  Hebrew,  yet  the  Spirit  is  sometimes 
called  who,  not  which  (Eph.  i.  13  :  cp.  cau- 
tiously John  xvi.  13).  The  Spirit  further 
speaks  in  the  first  person,  using  the  pronouns 
I  and  me  (Acts  x.  19,  20 ;  xiii.  2)  ;  is  associated 
with  the  Father  and  the  Son  in  the  baptismal 
formula  and  the  apostolic  benediction  (Mat. 
xxviii.  19;  2  Cor.  xiii.  14):  can  be  grieved 
(Eph.  iv.  30;  cp.  Eom.  viii.  26).  Especially 
memorable  acts  of  the  Spirit  at  the  beginning 
of  the  Christian  dispensation  are  the  mirac- 
ulous conception  of  Jesus  by  the  Holy  Ghost 
(Mat.  i.  18-20) ;  the  descent  of  the  Spirit  u])on 
Jesus  at  his  baptism,  in  the  form  of  a  dove 
visible  to  him  and  to  John  the  Bapti.st  (Mat. 
iii.  16  ;  Mark  i.  10  ;  John  i.  32),  and  the  effu- 
sion of  the  Holy  Ghost  in  the  likeness  of 
tongues  of  fire  on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  and 
the  accompanying  gift  of  languages  (Acts  ii. 
4).    Sec  God,  Inspiration,  Pentecost. 

Ho'ly  Place.    See  Tabern.\cle.  Temple. 

Ho-ly  Spir'it.     See  Holy  Ghost. 

Ho'mam  [possibly  destroyer]. 

Son  of  Lotan,  and  grandson  of  Seir  (1 
Chron.  i.  39).  The  name  ajipears  in  Gen. 
xxxvi.  22  as  Hemam.  The  difference  in  He- 
brew is  trifling,  and  is  doubtless  due  to  a  mis- 
reading. The  latter  name  has  jod  where  the 
former  has  van  (q.  v.). 

Ho'mer  [a  heap]. 

A  measure  for  dry  substances  and  licjuids. 
It  contained  ten  baths  or  ephahs  (Ezek.  xiv. 
11,  14)  and  one  hundred  omers  (Ex.  xvi.  36). 
It  held  about  thirty-six  pecks,  U.  S.  measure. 
See  Ephah,  Measure. 

Hon'ey. 

A  sweet,  thick  fluid  collected  by  bees  from 
flowers  and  fruit  and  deposited  in  the  cells 
of  a  comb  (Judg.  xiv.  8  ;  Ps.  xix.  10) ;  much 
esteemed  as  an  article  of  food  (Gen.  xliii.  11  ; 
2  Sam.  xvii.  29),  and  eaten  as  found  in  the 


Hook 


308 


Hor 


comb  or  as  prepared  in  various  ways  (Ex. 
xvi.  :U  ;  1  Sam.  xiv.  26).  Wild  honey  was  de- 
posited l)y  bees  in  rocks,  trees,  and  other 
places  (Dent,  xxxii.  13;  Judg.  xiv.  8;  1  Sam. 
xiv.  25:  Mat.  iii.  4).  Because  it  acts  like  a 
leaven,  producing  fermentation,  honey  might 
nut  be  used  in  oUeriugs  made  by  tire  unto 
the  Lord  (Lev.  ii.  11).  An  artificial  honey 
or  svrup  was  prepared  from  dates  (War  iv. 

Canaan  was  described  as  flowing  with  milk 
and  honey  (Ex.  iii.  b,  17). 

Hook. 

The  Hebrews  and  contemporary  peojiles 
used  hooks  of  various  kinds  : 

1.  Curtains  were  hung  by  means  of  hooks, 
those  employed  about  the  taberuacle  being 
made  of  gold  and  silver  (Ex.  xxvi.  32,  37; 
xxvii.  10). 

2.  By  means  of  flesh  hooks  meat  was  lifted 
from  tlie  pot  (Ex.  xxvii.  3;  1  Sam.  ii.  13,  14), 
ami  on  firmly  flxed  hooks  slain  animals  were 
hung  up  (Ezek.  xl.  43,  but  the  meaning  of 
the  word  rendered  hook  in  this  passage  is 
disputed). 

3.  Hooks  resembling  thorns,  and  sometimes 
called  so  in  Hebrew  (Amos  iv.  2),  were  used 
in  fishing  (Job  xli.  1 ;  Hab.  i.  15).  See  Fish- 
ing. 


5.  Pruning  hooks  were  used  by  vinedress- 
ers (Is.  ii.  4  ;  xviii.  5). 

Hoph'ni  [pertaining  to  the  fist]. 

A  sou  of  Eli.  He  and  his  brother  Phinehas 
discharged  the  priest's  oflice  in  the  old  age 
of  Eli,  but  showed  themselves  unworthy  of 
the  sacred  office  by  .scandalous  behavior.  Eli 
mildly  remonstrated  when  summary  proceed- 
ings were  required  ;  and,  in  consequence,  the 
divine  j  udgment  was  pronounced  against  him 
and  his  house.  When  it  was  resolved  that 
the  ark  of  God  should  be  taken  to  the  battle- 
field, Hophni  and  Phinehas,  who  as  officiating 
priests  were  its  custodians,  accompanied  it, 
and  were  both  slain  in  the  disastrous  battle 
which  followed  (1  Sam.  ii.  22-iv.  22). 

Hor  [mountain]. 

1.  A  mountain  on  the  border  of  the  Edomite 
country,  where  Aaron  died  and  was  buried 
(Num.  XX.  22-29 ;  xxxiii.  37-39,  41  ;  Deut. 
xxxii.  50).  Josephus  says  that  it  was  one  of 
the  mountains  surrounding  Petra  (Antiq.  iv. 
4,  7).  Tradition  has  .settled  on  Jebel  Harun, 
meaning  Aaron's  mountain,  a  great  two-top- 
ped eminence  about  4800  feet  high,  on  the 
eastern  side  of  the  Arabah,  nearly  midway 
between  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Dead 
Sea  and  the  northern  end  of  the  gulf  of 
Akaba.     It  is  the  highest  and  wildest  of  the 


Mount  Ilor  of  Tradition. 


4.  A  large  hook  was  thrust  through  the 
mouth  of  a  fish  or  other  a(iuatic  animal,  and 
attacheil  by  a  cord  to  a  stake,  when  it  was  de- 
sired to  keep  it  alive  (.Job  xli.  2;  Ezek.  xxix. 
4).  A  similar  hook  was  used  for  leading  about 
lions  and  other  beast.s  (2  Kin.  xix.  28 ;  Ezek. 
xix.  4,  in  A.  V.  chains;  cp.  xxxviii.  4),  and 
for  a  like  purpose  were  inserted  in  the  lips 
of  captives  (2  Chron.  xxxiii.  11,  K.  V.  mar- 
gin).    See  illustration  under  Blindnkss. 


whole  Edomite  range  of  mountains.  It  is 
close  to  Petra  in  the  west,  but  the  ruined  city 
is  not  visible  from  its  summit.  On  its  sum- 
mit stands  a  tomb,  nominally  that  of  Aaron  ; 
but  the  upper  part  of  it,  at  least,  is  only  a 
modern  Mohammedan  mosque.  The  tradi- 
tion, however,  is  open  to  serious  question.  It 
appears  to  rest  on  the  false  identification  of 
Kadesh  with  Petra.  Jebel  Harfin  is  in  the 
midst  of  Edom,  and  not  on  its  border,  as  was 


Horam 


309 


Horn 


Hor.  If  Edom  extended  to  the  gulf  of  Aka- 
ba  (Dent.  ii.  a),  the  Israelites  could  not  reach 
tlie  traditional  mountain  without  crossing 
Edoni,  which  they  were  forbidden  to  do. 
Jebel  Madara,  about  15  miles  northeast  of 
Kadesh,  has  been  suggested,  and  satisfies  the 
conditions.  Still,  if  Madara  is  really  writ- 
ten in  Arabic  with  the  letter  dal  (Seetzen),  it 
is  doubtful  whether  the  name  echoes  Moserah 
(Num.  xxxiii.  37  with  Deut.  x.  (i). 

2.  A  mountain  on  the  northern  boundary 
of  Palestine,  between  the  Mediterranean  Sea 
and  the  entering  in  of  Hamath  (Num.  xxxiv. 
7,  S).  It  was  jjrobably  a  prominent  peak  of 
Lebanon. 

Ho'ram  [elevation]. 

A  king  of  Gezer,  defeated  and  slain  by 
Joshua  (Josh.  x.  33). 

Ho'reto  [dry,  desert]. 

The  mount  of  God  in  the  peninsula  of 
Sinai  (Ex.  iii.  1 ;  xviii.  5),  where  the  law  was 
given  to  Israel  (Deut.  iv.  10-1.5 ;  v.  2 ;  1  Kin. 
viii.  9  ;  xix.  8).  The  names  Horeb  and  Sinai 
are  used  almost  interchangeably.  This  phe- 
nomenon has  been  variouslj'  explained.  It 
has  been  held  that  the  two  terms  did  not 
denote  exactly  the  same  thing.  Horeb  has 
been  regarded  as  the  name  of  the  I'ange,  and 
Sinai  as  a  prominent  peak  (Hengstenberg, 
Eobiuson) ;  or  Horeb  is  thought  of  as  a  lower 
part  or  peak  of  mount  Sinai  (Gesenius) ;  or 
Horeb  was  the  northern  and  lower  portion 
of  the  range,  while  Sinai  was  the  southern 
portion,  especially  its  highest  point.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  two  terms  have  been  held  to 
denote  the  same  object.  Ewald  believed  Sinai 
to  be  the  older  name  of  the  mountain  after- 
wards called  Horeb  (cp.  Judg.  v.  5). 

Ho'rem  [enclosed,  sacred]. 

A  fenced  city  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  xix.  38). 
Not  identified.  There  is  no  reason  to  think 
of  Hura  or  Kurah,  3i  miles  west  by  north  of 
Yarun,  nor  of  Harah,  6i  miles  north  by  east 
of  Yarun. 

Ho'resh  [a  dense  wood  or  thicket]. 

A  locality,  probably  at  the  time  overgrown 
w'ith  bush,  where  David  lurked  (1  Sam.  xxiii. 
16,  E.  V.  margin).  In  the  text  the  word  is 
rendered  wood. 

Hor-hag-gid'gad,  in  A.  V.  Hor-hagidgad 
[mountain  or  cavern  of  Gidgad,  (.  e.  perhaps, 
thunder]. 

An  encampment  of  the  Israelites  in  the 
wilderness  (Num.  xxxiii.  32).  The  same  as 
Gudgodah  (Deut.  x.  6,  7 ;  cp.  Num.  xxxiii. 
31-33).  Site  unknown.  It  must  not  be  iden- 
tified with  wady  Ghudaghid,  for  the  names 
are  entirely  different  in  etymology. 

Ho'ri  [cave-dweller]. 

1.  A  Horite  tribe  descended  from  Lotan, 
and  called  by  the  general  name  of  the  stock 
to  which  it  belonged  (Gen.  xxxvi.  22). 

2.  Father  of  Shaphat  the  spy  (Num.  xiii.  5). 
Ho'rite,  in  A.  Y.  of  Deut.  Ho'rims. 
Cave-dwellers,    the    aborigines    of   mount 


Seir,  and  hence  called  the  children  of  Seir 
(Gen.  xxxvi.  20).  They  were  defeated  by 
Chedorlaonier  and  his  allies  (Gen.  xiv.  6). 
They  were  governed  l)y  chieftains  (xxxvi.  29, 
30).  They  were  subsequenllj-  destroj-ed  by 
the  posterity  of  Esau  (Deut.  ii.  12,  22). 

Hor'mali  [a  devoted  place,  destruction]. 

1.  A  region  to  the  south  of  Canaan,  in  Seir, 
north  of  both  Kadesh  and  mount  Hor.  When 
the  Israelites  after  their  loss  of  faith  jiresumed 
to  advance  from  Kadesh  toward  Canaan,  the 
Amalekites  and  Canaanites  came  down,  smote 
them,  and  drove  them  as  far  as  "  the  desola- 
tion," as  the  district  was  called  from  its  dev- 
astation some  thirty-eight  years  later  (Num. 
xiv.  45;  Deut.  i.  44).  On  the  second  depar- 
ture of  the  Israelites  from  Kadesh,  after  the 
lapse  of  these  thirty-eight  years,  while  they 
were  encamped  at  mount  Hor,  the  Canaanites 
under  the  king  of  Arad  again  attacked  them 
and  made  some  captives.  Israel  vowed  their 
destruction  if  Jehovah  would  aid,  devastated 
their  cities,  and  called  the  wasted  region 
Hormah,  desolation  (Num.  xxi.  1-3). 

2.  The  town  Zephath,  called  Hormah  after 
its  devotion.  It  was  situated  in  the  south 
country,  toward  the  border  of  Edom,  near 
Ziklag,  and  was  allotted  to  Judah,  but  was 
afterwards  transferred  to  Simeon  (Josh.  xv. 
30 ;  xix.  4).  After  tlie  death  of  Joshua,  Ju- 
dah assisted  Simeon  to  take  the  town.  It 
was  inhabited  by  Canaanites;  and  had  either 
escaped  destruction  when  the  region  was  first 
devastated  in  fulfillment  of  the  vow  (Num. 
xxi.  2),  or  it  had  been  rebuilt  by  fugitives 
who  returned.  At  any  rate,  it  was  still  in- 
cluded in  the  old  vow ;  and  it  was  now  de- 
voted to  destruction.' man  and  beast  were 
slain,  and  the  town  was  henceforth  called 
Hormah  (Judg.  i.  17).  Joshua  had  already 
defeated  its  king  (called  proleptically  king 
of  Hormah),  who,  it  may  be  judged,  was  ab- 
sent from  his  city,  assisting  men  of  his  own 
race  at  Hebron  at  the  time  of  his  defeat,  as 
the  king  of  Jerusalem  and  the  king  of  Gezer 
were  away  from  their  cities  when  Joshua 
smote  them  (Josh.  xii.  14  ;  cp.  x.  10,  33).  After 
the  town  had  been  devoted,  it  was  inhabited 
by  Simeonites  (1  Chron.  iv.  30).  It  was  hos- 
pitable to  David  when  he  lived  as  an  outcast, 
and  to  his  friends  there  David  sent  of  the 
spoils  of  Ziklag  (1  Sam.  xxx.  30). 

Horn. 

Part  of  Palestine,  especially  its  southern 
portion,  being  a  pastoral  country,  the  Israel- 
ites were  exceedingly  familiar  with  the  horns 
of  animals.  In  early  times  they  converted 
them  into  trumpets  (Josh.  vi.  13),  or  into 
flasks  for  such  substances  as  oil  (1  Sam.  xvi. 
1,13;  1  Kin.  i.  39).  When  (iod  exalts  the 
horn  of  an  individual,  the  meaning  is  that 
he  confers  great  power  and  prosperity  (1  Sam. 
ii.  10:  Ps.  Ixxxix.  24)  ;  but  when  one  exalts 
or  lifts  up  the  horn,  it  means  that  he  indulges 
in  arrogance  and  insolence  (Ps.  Ixxv.  4,  5). 
Horn  denotes  political  power,  the  image  being 


Hornet 


310 


Hosea 


dniwu  from  bulls  which  push  with  their  horns 
(Ps.  cxxsii.  17;  Jer.  xlviii.  2.")),  ami  in  pro- 
phetic language  signifies  a  kingdom  (Dan. 
vii.  8,  11,  -21;  Zech.  i.  18,  19)  or  kings  (Rev. 
xvii.  12,  Ki). 

Horns  of  the  altar  were  projections  resem- 
bling horns  placed  at  the  corners  of  the  altar 
of  burnt  ottering  (War  v.  5,  G).  They  were 
smeared  with  the  blood  of  the  sacrifice  (Ex. 
xxix.  12;  Lev.  iv.  7),  and  the  bodies  of  the 
victims  offered  in  sacrifice  appear  to  have 
been  bound  to  them  (Ps.  cxviii.  27),  and 
oHenders  clung  to  them  for  safetj'  from  pun- 
ish iiieut  (1  Kin.  ii.  28). 

Horn  was  also  used  to  denote  a  peak  (Is.  v. 
1,  II.  v.  margin).  The  horns  of  Hattin  are 
the  traditional  mount  of  Beatitudes. 

Hor'net. 

Till-  renderiag  of  the  Hebrew  word  Sir'ah, 
according  to  the  ancient  versions.  The  hornet 
{Ve^pa  crabro)  is  of  the  same  genus  as  the 
was]),  but  larger  and  more  formidable.  Either 
the  common  hornet  or  a  closely  allied  species 
is  common  iu  Palestine.  Hornets  were  to  be 
sent  to  drive  out  the  Cauaanite  nations  be- 
fore the  Israelites  (Ex.  xxiii.  28:  Deut.  vii. 
20 :  ,Tosh.  xxiv.  12;  Wisd.  xii.  8).  It  is  doubt- 
ful whetiier  hornet  is  here  used  in  a  literal 
or  a  figurative  sense.  In  fuvor  of  the  former 
it  may  be  alleged  that  ^lian  relates  that  the 
Phaselites  were  driven  from  their  territory 
by  hornets,  and  in  favor  of  the  latter  that  we 
have  no  detailed  account  of  the  Cauaanites 
being  thus  expelled.  If  used  figuratively, 
the  sting  of  the  hornet  would  stand  for  the 
terror  produced  in  Canaanite  minds  by  the 
approach  of  the  irresistible  Israelite  armies. 

Hor-o-na'im  [two  caverns  or  ravines]. 

A  Moaliite  city  at  the  foot  of  a  declivity, 
and  apparently  not  far  from  Zoar  (Is.  xv.  5 ; 
Jer.  xlviii.  3,  5,  31 ;  Moabite  Stone  31 ).  Doubt- 
less the  town  Oronie  which  Alexander  Jan- 
najus  took  from  the  Arabians,  and  his  sou 
Hyrcanus  i-estored  to  Aretas  (Antiq.  xiii.  15, 
4:  xiv.  1.4).     Situation  unknown. 

Hor'o-nite. 

A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Horonaim  or, 
more  probably,  of  Beth-horon  (Neh.  ii.  10, 19). 

Horse. 

The  horse  was  early  subdued  by  man.  Men- 
tion is  made  of  its  rider  in  the  time  of  Jacob 
(Gen.  xlix.  17).  Mountainous  Palestine  was 
not  well  adapted  for  its  use,  and  in  early 
times  it  was  priiu'i])ally  eni])loyed  in  the 
iiiaritiine  i)lain  and  in  the  valley  of  Jezreel. 
There  were  many  horses  in  Egypt  (xlvii.  17; 
Ex.  ix.  3).  When  the  exodus  took  place 
Pharaoh's  pursuing  army  was  equipped  with 
chariots  and  horses  (xiv.  9;  xv.  19i.  They 
existed  also  in  the  force  of  the  uortlicrn  Ca- 
naanites  led  by  Sisera,  Jabin's  commauder- 
jn  chief  (Judg.  iv.  15;  v.  22).  In  Deut.  xvii. 
It),  the  king  who  was  to  be  elected  when 
monarchy  was  estaldished  among  the  Israel- 
ites was  forl)idden  to  multiply  horses,  not- 
withstanding whicli  prohibition  Solomon  im- 


ported them  in  great  numbers  from  Egypt, 
paying  for  each  animal  150  shekels  of  silver 
(a  little  more  than  .$97).  He  afterwards  ex- 
ported them  to  the  kings  of  the  Hittites  and 
those  of  the  Syrians  (1  Kin.  x.  28,  29 ;  2 
Chrou.  i.  l(j,  17;  ix.  28).  Horses  afterwards 
became  common  in  Israel  and  Judah  (2  Kin. 
ix.  18;  Is.  ii.  7),  and  were  used  in  battle  (1 
Kin.  xxii.  4  ;  2  Kin.  iii.  7;  ix.  33).  Foreign 
kings  rode  on  horseback  (Esth.  vi.  8),  while 
it  was  considered  lowly  in  a  sovereign  to  sit 
upon  an  ass  (Zech.  ix.  9),  and  accorded  with 
the  simple  manners  of  the  early  Hebrew 
patriarchs,  judges,  and  kings  (Gen.  xxii.  3; 
Judg.  X.  4;  xii.  14;  1  Kin.  i.  33).  Horses 
were  sometimes  dedicated  to  the  sun  (2  Kin. 
xxiii.  11).  They  are  frequently  mentioned 
in  the  prophecies  of  Zechariah  (Zech.  i.  8  ;  vi. 
2,  3  ;  X.  5  ;  xiv.  20),  and  in  the  book  of  Reve- 
lation (Rev.  vi.  2,  4,  5,  8;  xix.  11,  etc.). 

Horseleech. 

A  large  leecli  (Hiemopsis  sanguisuga),  com- 
mon iu  Palestine.  The  leech  was  known  to 
the  Hebrews  by  the  name  '"Inl-ah,  to  the  Ara- 
maeans '"luka,  to  the  Arabs  'alakat,  from  its 
adhering  to  the  flesh  (Prov.  xxx.  15).  It  is 
noted  for  its  insatiable  appetite  for  blood.  In 
the  proverb  it  is  used  figuratively.  Its  two 
insatiable  daughters  are  perhaps  named  in  the 
first  line  of  ver.  16.  The  margin  of  the  R.  V. 
substitutes  vampire.  The  blood-sucking  vam- 
pires (Desmodidw),  which  are  confined  to  the 
warmer  i)arts  of  South  America,  are  not 
meant ;  but  certain  female  specters,  which 
are  superstitiously  believed  to  haunt  graves 
and  suck  human  blood.  The  ground  for  this 
interpretation  is  that  iu  Arabic  'aulak  is  the 
name  of  a  demon,  and  'aluk  is  equivalent  to 
ghoul. 

Ho'sah  [fleeing  for  refuge]. 

1.  A  porter  in  the  time  of  David  (1  Chron. 
xvi.  38;  xxvi.  10). 

2.  A  frontier  village  of  Asher,  not  far  from 
Tyre,  and  apparently  south  of  that  city  (Josh, 
xix.  29).  Not  identified.  Conder  suggests  the 
ruin 'Ezziyat  el-Foka,  about  7  miles  south  by 
east  of  Tyre,  and  2^  inland  from  the  Medi- 
terranean. The  names,  however,  are  quite 
dissimilar. 

Ho-san'na  [save,  we  pray]. 

A  short  jirayer  to  Jehovah  for  deliverance, 
taken  from  Ps.  cxviii.  25.  It  was  an  acclama- 
tion of  the  people  when  they  marched  around 
the  altar  at  the  feast  of  tabernacles,  and  most 
of  the  prayers  used  at  that  festival  began  with 
it.  It  was  taken  up  by  the  multitude  of  the 
di.sciples  at  the  triumphal  entry  of  Jesus  into 
Jerusalem,  when  they  hailed  him  as  the  son 
of  David  (Mat.  xxi.  9,  15;  with  Ps.  cxviii. 
25,  2(3). 

Ho-se'a,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Osee,  in  imita- 
tion of  the  Greek  form  [save].  Identically 
the  same  word  as  Oshea  or  Hoshea  (Num. 
xiii.  8,  16),  the  first  name  of  Joshua,  and  as 
Hoshea,  king  of  Israel  (2  Kin.  xv.  30). 

A  prophet,   son   of    Beeri,   whose   predic- 


Hosea 


311 


Hoshea 


tions  were  uttered  in  the  reigns  of  Uzziah, 
Jotham.  Ahaz.  and  Hezekiah.  kings  of  Ju- 
dah.  and  Jeroboam  II.,  king  of  Israel  (Hos. 
i.  1 1,  a  period  of  some  thirty  odd  years. 
He  was  a  contemporary  of  Isaiah,  who  proph- 
esied in  the  reigns  of  the  same  kings  of 
Judah  :  but  he  began  his  prophetic  activity 
in  the  reign  of  Jeroboam,  doubtless  some 
years  before  Isaiah,  and  he  ceased  much 
earlier  than  did  Isaiah.  He  was  a  prophet 
of  the  northern  kingdom,  while  Isaiah  la- 
bored in  Judah.  Hosea  was  also  a  contem- 
porary of  Amos  in  the  northern  kingdom, 
and  of  Micah  who  prophesied  in  Judah.  Hosea 
denied  the  right  of  the  northern  kiugdom  to 
maintain  a  separate  existence  from  Judah 
(iii.  5  :  viii.  4  :  cp.  i.  1 1.  Regarding  his  mar- 
riage with  an  unchaste  woman,  opinion  has 
been  divided  from  ancient  times.  It  was  in- 
tended to  be  symbolical  of  Jehovah's  relation 
to  his  erring  people,  but  was  it  itself  an  alle- 
gory or  a  fact  ?  It  is  argued  that  it  was  alle- 
gorical and  not  real,  because — 1.  It  is  impos- 
sible that  God  would  have  commanded  a 
prophet  to  enter  into  such  a  revolting  alli- 
ance, and  one  which  was  apt  to  lessen  his 
influence  with  the  better  part  of  the  people. 
2.  The  law  of  Moses  forbade  a  priest  to  marry 
an  unchaste  woman  tLev.  xxi.  7) ;  and  as  the 
prophets  were  also  a  sacred  class,  although 
not  bound  by  the  strict  priestly  laws.  God 
would  scarcely  direct  them  to  enter  into  wed- 
lock with  the  unclean.  3.  The  action  of  the 
first  chapter,  if  real,  would  require  years 
for  its  performance,  involving  not  only  the 
prophets  marriage,  but  also  the  birth  of  sev- 
eral children  :  and  the  symbolic  lesson  would 
be  lost.  On  the  other  hand,  the  command 
recorded  in  i.  2  is  regarded  as  directing  the 
prophet  to  "take  a  wife  of  adulteries,"  a 
woman  whom  Hosea  had  married,  but  who 
had  proved  unfaithful  to  her  marriage  vows 
and  been  divorced.  By  God's  direction,  the 
prophet  took  her  back  from  her  life  of  shame 
and  restored  her  to  her  former  position  ;  and 
thus  typified  God's  readiness  to  restore  apos- 
tate, idolatrous,  sinful  Israel  to  favor. 

The  book  of  Hosea  is  the  first  of  the  minor 
prophets,  not  only  in  the  order  of  arrange- 
ment, but  probably  also  in  the  order  of  time. 
It  consists  of  two  portions,  chapters  i.-iii.  and 
iv.-xiv.,  written  at  different  periods  of  the 
prophet's  life.  The  first  chapter  belongs  to 
the  reign  of  Jeroboam,  before  the  destruction 
of  the  house  of  Jehu  (i.  4).  The  first  three 
chapters  furnish  the  key  to  the  whole  book, 
in  which  the  unfaithfulness  of  Israel  to  Je- 
hovah during  the  entire  national  history  is 
pressed  home  on  the  conscience  (iv.  i.-v.  7; 
vi.  4-vii.  16 :  viii.-xi.),  the  necessity  of  chas- 
tisement is  shown,  and  the  unquenchable  love 
of  Jehovah  for  his  erring  people  is  earnestly 
taught  (vi.  1-3;  xii.-xiv.).  The  contents  of 
the  book  do  not  consist  of  clearly  defined 
discourses,  but  appear  to  be  a  summary  of 
the  prophet's  teaching,  which  he  drew  up  and 
committed  to  writing  toward  the  close  of  his 


life ;  and  yet,  contrary  to  the  older  belief,  a 
chronological  arrangement  may  possibly  be 
discerned  in  the  light  of  the  details  of  an- 
cient history  which  until  recently  were  un- 
known. 

Ho-sha'iah  [Jehovah  hath  saved]. 

1.  Father  of  Jezaniah  and  Azariah  fJer. 
xlii.  1 :  xUii.  2i. 

2.  A  man.  doubtless  a  prince  of  Judah.  who 
walked  immediately  behind  the  chorus  of 
those  who  gave  thanks  in  the  procession  at 
the  dedication  of  the  second  temple  (Xeh. 
xii.  32). 

Hosh'a-ma  [probably.  Jehovah  hath  heard]. 
One  of  the  family  or  descendants  of  king 
Jeconiah  d  Chron.  iii.  IS). 

Ho-she'a,  in  A.  V.  of  Num.  xiii.  8,  16 
Oshea  [save], 

1.  The  earlier  name  of  Joshua,  the  son  of 
Xuu,  which  was  changed  by  Moses  into 
Joshua  (Num.  xiii.  S.  16 1. 

2.  Son  of  Azaziah  and  prince  of  Ephraim 
in  David's  reign  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  20). 

3.  A  son  of  Elah.  With  the  connivance 
of  Tiglath-pileser.  king  of  Assyria,  he  con- 
spired against  Pekah.  king  of  Israel,  slew 
him,  and  ascended  the  throne  (2  Kin.  xv. 
30).  His  reign  lasted  about  nine  years,  from 
about  730  to  722  b.  c.  He  did  evil  in  the 
sight  of  Jehovah,  but  still  was  better  than 
the  average  of  the  preceding  kings.  Shal- 
maneser.  king  of  Assyria,  made  an  expedi- 
tion against  him.  which  he  could  not  repel 
by  force.  He  therefore  consented  to  become 
tributary  to  the  invader,  and  sent  him  pres- 
ents ixvii.  3i.  But  he  soon  sought  an  alliance 
with  Egypt  and  revolted  from  Assyria  (4). 
Of  course  the  yoke  was  galling,  and  as  the 
powerful  kingdom  of  Egypt  looked  with  con- 
siderable jealousy  on  the  approach  of  the  As- 
syrians to  its  frontiers,  it  was  quite  natural 
that  Hoshea  should  secretly  ask  assistance 
from  Egypt.  Trusting  that  it  would  be  forth- 
coming, he  withheld  the  annual  tribute.  Shal- 
maneser again  invaded  the  Israelite  territory, 
took  Hoshea  captive,  and  laid  siege  to  .Samaria. 
See  Shalmaxesek.  The  city  was  reduced  to 
great  straits,  but  it  held  out  three  years.  At 
the  end  of  the  three  years  Shalmaneser  was 
killed  or  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  Sargon, 
who  claims  the  honor  of  capturing  the  city. 
He  carried  the  leading  inhabitants  into  cap- 
tivity, and  placed  them  in  Halah  and  in 
Habor.  by  the  river  of  Gozan.  and  in  the 
cities  of  the  Medes  (.5,  6).  This  event  is 
known  as  the  captivity  of  the  ten  tribe*  It 
was  not  any  special  wickedness  on  the  part 
of  Hoshea  that  brought  it  on.  The  cup  of 
Israel's  iniquity  had  been  filling  for  centuries, 
and  Hoshea's  iniquities  only  added  the  last 
drop  which  made  the  cup  full  to  overflowing 
(7-23).    See  Samakia,  Sargox,  Isbael. 

4.  One  of  those  who  sealed  the  covenant 
(Neh.  X.  23). 

5.  The  Hebrew  name  of  the  prophet  Hosea. 
See  Hosea. 


Host 


312 


House 


Host. 

A  imiltitude,  especially  when  organized ; 
au  iiriny  (Ueu.  xxi.  22  ;  Jiulg.  iv.  2)  or  the 
division  of  an  army  (Ex.  vii.  4,  in  A.  V.  ar- 
mies ;  xii.  41  ;  Num.  ii.  3,  in  A.  V.  armies;  1 
Kin.  ii.  .">)  ;  the  angels,  constituting  a  heav- 
enly ho.st  (1  Kin.  xxii.  19;  Ps.  cxlviii.  2; 
Luke  ii.  13);  and  the  stars  (Deut.  iv.  19;  2 
Kin.  xxiii.  5).  The  Semites  comprehended 
heaven  and  all  its  forces  and  beings,  heaven 
and  all  that  is  therein,  in  the  phrase  host  of 
heaven  ;  and  in  the  i)hrase  host  of  the  earth, 
they  included  the  earth  and  all  that  is  there- 
in, the  forces  of  nature  like  wind,  lightning, 
heat  and  cold,  and  things  animate  and  inani- 
mate (({en.  ii.  1  ;  Ps.  xxxiii.  6  ;  and  see  Anshar 
and  Kisliar  in  (,'keation). 

The  title  Lord  of  hosts  has  sometimes  been 
explained  as  meaning  that  Jehovah  is  the 
God  of  the  armies  of  Israel.  In  proof  David's 
words  to  Goliath  are  cited  :  "  Thou  comest  to 
me  with  a  sword  and  with  a  si)ear,  but  I 
come  to  thee  in  the  name  of  the  Lord  of 
hosts,  the  God  of  the  armies  of  Israel  "  (1  Sam. 
xvii.  45).  The  prophet  Isaiah  is  also  quoted, 
who  says:  "The  Lord  of  hosts  shall  come 
down  to  fight  upon  mount  Zion  "  (Is.  xxxi. 
4).  But  this  is  too  narrow  a  generalization. 
Jehovah  did  fight  for  his  people  ;  he  was  in- 
deed "  the  Lord  strong  and  mighty,  the  Lord 
mighty  in  battle."  But  the  Lord  of  hosts  was 
more  than  the  war  God  of  Israel.  The  Greek 
translators  grasped  the  true  meaning  of  the 
title,  and  rendered  it  Pantokrator,  the  Al- 
mighty. The  word  hosts  which  is  used  in  the 
title  refers  to  the  armies  of  the  universe.  The 
designation  pictures  the  universe,  in  its 
spiritual  and  material  aspects,  as  forming  a 
vast  army,  in  numerous  divisions,  of  various 
kinds  of  troops,  in  orderly  array  under  the 
command  of  Jehovah.  One  division  con.sists 
of  the  angels.  It  was  the  Lord,  the  God  of 
hosts,  who  appeared  to  Jacob  at  Bethel  when 
he  beheld  the  ladder  and  the  angels  of  God 
ascending  and  descending  (Gen.  xxviii.  12, 
13;  Hos.  xii.  4,  5).  "Who  in  the  skies  can 
be  compared  unto  the  Lord?  Who  among 
the  sons  of  the  mighty  is  like  unto  the  Lord, 
a  God  very  terrible  in  the  council  of  the  holy 
ones,  aTid  to  be  feared  above  all  them  that  are 
round  about  him  ?  O  Lord  God  of  ho.sts,  who 
is  a  mighty  one  like  unto  thee,  O  Jehovah?" 
(P.s.  Ixxxix.  6-8  ;  cp.  R.  V.).  Another  ho.st  con- 
sists of  the  stars,  in  their  beautiful  order  and 
wonderful  array.  Jehovah  is  their  command- 
er. Isaiah  bids  those  who  would  know  God 
to  go  forth,  and  lift  up  their  eyes  on  high  and 
see.  "Who  hath  created  these  ?"  lie  asks.  He 
wliobriiigethout  [into  tlu  livid  like  a  general] 
their  host  by  number,  he  who  calleth  them  all 
by  name,  and  upon  them  laveth  commands 
(Is.  xl.  26;  xlv.  12).  Yet  another  host  con- 
sists of  all  the  forces  of  nature ;  they  stand 
at  the  bidding  of  Jehovah,  worshiping  and 
serving  him  (Neh.  ix.  6;  P.s.  ciii.  21).  The 
Lord  of  hosts  sendeth  sword,  famine,  and 
pestilence  (Jer.  xxix.  17).    "  The  Lord,  which 


giveth  the  sun  for  a  light  by  day  and  the 
ordinances  of  the  moon  and  of  the  stars  for 
a  light  by  night,  which  stirreth  up  the  sea 
that  the  waves  thereof  roar,  the  Lord  of  hosts 
is  his  name"  (Jer.  xxxi.  35,  R.  V.).  The 
Greeks,  looking  at  the  heavens  above  them, 
and  at  the  earth  around  them,  called  what 
they  saw  cosmos,  the  beauty  of  harmony. 
The  Romans,  discovering  the  same  harmo- 
nious relations  and  movements,  named  the 
entirety  of  creation  a  univei'se,  combined  as 
one.  To  the  poetic  imagination  of  the  He- 
brews, with  their  knowledge  of  the  omnijio- 
tent  reigning  God,  the  regularity  and  order 
everywhere  apparent  suggested  an  army  in 
vast,  numerous,  and  varied  divisions,  acting 
under  the  command  of  one  will.  The  Lord 
of  hosts,  he  is  the  king  who  alone  commands. 

Ho'tham  [seal,  signet  ring]. 

1.  An  Asherite.  son  of  Heber,  family  of 
Beriah  (1  Chron.  vii.  32). 

2.  An  Aroerite,  two  of  whose  sons  were 
among  David's  mighty  men  (1  Chron.  xi.  44). 
The  mi.sprint  of  Hothan  for  Hotham  in  A.  V. 
has  been  corrected  in  R.  V. 

Ho'than    See  Hotham  2. 

Ho'thir. 

A  sou  of  Heman,  David's  seer  and  singer 
(1  Chron.  xxv.  4). 

Hour.     See  Day  and  Night. 

House. 

In  Palestine  and  other  parts  of  the  East 
the  houses  of  the  common  people,  constitut- 
ing more  than  three-fourths  of  the  whole, 
have  only  one  story,  and  sometimes  only  one 
room.     The  interior  is  frequently  divided 


14^" 


Eastern  House,  showing  Outer  Staircase. 

into  two  portions,  one  several  feet  higher 
than  the  other.  The  door  from  the  outside 
leads  into  the  lower  portion,  which  is  occu- 
pied by  the  cattle.  Troughs  for  their  feed  are 
arranged  along  the  side  of  the  platform  where 
the  family  dwell.  This  higher  floor  is  reached 


House 


313 


Hunter 


by  a  short  flight  of  steps.  Sometimes  there 
is'  a  loft  above  the  stable  for  guests.  These 
several  apartmeuts  are  uot  walled  off  from 
each  other.  The  walls  of  the  house  are  ofteu 
of  mud  or  sun-dried  brick,  even  when,  as  in 
Palestine,  stoue  is  procurable  (cp.  Job  xsiv. 
16  ;  Ezek.  xiii.  10-lG).  The  roofs  are  made 
of  branches  of  trees,  canes,  palm  leaves,  etc., 
covered  with  a  thick  stratum  of  earth.  Ma- 
terials so  flimsy  cannot  long  resist  the  heavy 
rains  which  at  certain  seasons  fall  in  warm 
countries.  There  would  be  no  difliculty  in 
temporarily  creating  an  aperture  in  the 
flimsy  roof,  and  letting  down  a  man  on  a 
bed,  as  was  done  at  Capernaum  in  the  case 
of  the  paralytic  healed  by  our  Lord  (Mark  ii. 
1-12  ;  Luke  v.  18-26) ;  only  a  shower  of  dust 
would  descend. 

The  houses  of  the  better  class  are  generally 
built,  as  of  old,  in  a  quadrangle,  around  a 
central  courtyard,  which  in  certain  cases 
may  contain  a  fountain,  or  even  a  well  (2 
Sam.  xvii.  18).  The  upper  chamber  is  an 
important  room  in  the  second  story,  some- 


17;  Mark  xiii.  15).  The  windows  are  gen- 
erally narrow,  and  mostly  open  into  the 
courtyard  instead  of  facing  the  street. 

The  Arabs  call  the  lower  story  the  winter 
house  or  simply  the  house,  and  the  u))per  one 
the  summer  house.  Or  if  both  are  on  the 
same  floor,  the  summer  house  is  the  outer 
and  the  winter  house  the  inner  room  or  rooms 
(Jer.  xxxvi.  22;  Amos  iii.  1.5). 

Huk'kok  [hewn  in,  decreed]. 

A  town  on  the  boundary  line  of  Naphtali 
(Josh.  xix.  34).  Yakuk,  about  6  miles  west 
by  north  of  Tell  Hum,  is  too  far  north. 

Hu'kok.     See  Helkath. 

Hul  [circle,  circuit]. 

The  second  son  of  Aram  (Gen.  x.  23;  1 
Chron.  i.  17).  Huleh,  the  region  immediately 
north  of  the  waters  of  Merom,  may  possibly 
preserve  the  name. 

Hul'dah  [weasel]. 

A  projihetess,  who  lived  in  the  second 
quarter  of  Jerusalem  (2  Kin.  xxii.  14,  E.  V.), 
She  was  the  wife  of  Sballum,  keeper  of  the 


Court  of  a  House  m  Damascus. 


times  constituting  all  there  is  of  a  second 
story,  being  built  above  the  general  level  of 
the  roof  (Judg.  iii.  20,  E.  Y.  margin  ;  1  Kin. 
xvii.  19  ;  2  Kin.  iv.  10  ;  Mark  xiv.  15  ;  Acts  i. 
13  ;  ix.  37).  The  roofs  of  all  houses  are  flat. 
They  are  generally,  and  should  always  be,  sur- 
rounded by  battlements  (Deut.  xxii.  8).  They 
are  well  adapted  for  storing  and  drying  agri- 
cultural produce  (Josh.  ii.  6),  for  walking  to 
and  fro  (2  Sam.  xi.  2),  for  conversation  (1  Sam. 
ix.  25,  26),  for  idolatrous  worship  (2  Kin.  xxiii. 
12),  or  for  religious  meditation  and  prayer 
(Acts  X.  9).  There  is  a  staircase  outside  the 
house,  by  which  the  roof  can  be  reached 
without  entering  the  building  (cp.  Mat.  xxiv. 


wardrobe,  and  was  held  in  the  highest  es- 
teem. She  lived  during  the  reign  of  Josiah, 
and  prophesied  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem, 
but  added  that  on  account  of  his  piety  toward 
Jehovah,  the  king  should  die  before  the  com- 
ing of  the  catastrophe  (2  Kin.  xxii.  12-20 ;  2 
Chron.  xxxiv.  20-28). 

Hunt'er  and  Hunt'ing. 

Hunting  was  a  favorite  pastime  of  ancient 
kings  (Gen.  x.  9).  The  Babylonian  and  As- 
syrian monarchs  delighted  in  it,  and  were 
proud  of  their  achievements,  recording  their 
succe-ss  in  inscriptions,  and  depicting  their 
deeds  in  sculpture  to  adorn  the  walls  of  their 


Humtah 


314 


Husk 


palaces.  In  Palestine  jramc  existed  during 
the  entire  biblieal  period  in  certain  localities, 
as  in  the  wilderness  of  Judah,  the  thickets 
of  liie  Jordan,  tlie  more  notable  forests,  and 
the  south  country  (Gen.  xxv.  27;  Antiq.  xvi. 
10,  :J).  Many  of  the  animals  recognized  as 
clean  and  fit  for  food  were  wild,  and  could 
only  be  obtained  by  hunting.  When  the  ani- 
mal" was  slain,  its  blood  was  poured  out  upon 
tlie  earth  and  not  eaten  (Deut.  xii.  15,  16,  22). 
Hunting  was  practiced  in  order  to  extermi- 
nate noxious  beasts  (Ex.  xxiii.  29 ;  1  Kin.  xiii. 
21),  to  secure  food  (Gen.  xxvii.  3;  Ecclus. 
xxxvi.  19),  and  as  sport  (War  i.  21,  13).  People 
hunted  alone  or  in  companies  (Jer.  xvi.  16), 
on  foot  or  on  horseback  (War  i.  21,  13),  and 
on  the  great  ])lains  in  chariots.  The  hunter 
used  bow  and  arrows  (Is.  vii.  24)  and  the 
spear  (Antiq.  xvi.  10,  3).  Decoys  were  em- 
ployed (Jer.  V.  26,  27),  and  nets  and  traps 
(Job  xviii.  10;  Ecclus.  xxvii.  20)  and  pits  (2 
Sam.  xxiii.  20;  Ezek.  xix.  4,  8).  Babylonians, 
Assyrians,  and  Persians  kept  dogs  trained  for 
the  chase. 

Hum'tah  [place  of  lizards  or,  perhaps,  for- 
tress] . 

A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  54).     Site  unknown. 

Hu'pham. 

A  son  or  remoter  descendant  of  Benjamin, 
and  founder  of  a  tribal  family  (Num.  xxvi. 
39).  Called  Huppim  (Gen.  xlvi.  21;  cp.  1 
Chron.  vii.  12,  15),  and  perhaps  Huram  (1 
Chron.  viii.  5).  Huram  would  seem  to  be  de- 
scended from  Bela  or  Gera.  Huppim  is  not 
registered  with  either  Bela,  Becher,  or  Jediael 
in  1  Chron.  vii.  12,  unless  he  is  descended 
from  Bela  through  Ir  or  Iri  (ver.  7). 

Hup'pah  [a  covering]. 

A  descendant  of  Aaron.  His  family  be- 
came the  thirteenth  course  of  the  priests  (1 
Chron.  xxiv.  13). 

Hup'pim.     See  Hupham. 

Hur  [whiteness,  splendor]. 

1.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Hezron, 
house  of  Caleb  (1  Chron.  ii.  18, 19).  He  was  the 
grandfather  of  Bezaleel  (20;  Ex.  xxxi.  1,  2). 
With  Aaron,  he  supported  the  arms  of  Moses 
during  the  light  with  the  Amalekites  (Ex. 
xvii.  10-12).  He  was  associated  with  Aaron 
in  the  government  of  the  Israelites  while 
Moses  was  absent  in  mount  Sinai  (xxiv.  14). 
Josci)hus,  writing  many  centuries  after  the 
event,  calls  Hur  the  husband  of  Miriam, 
Moses'  sister  (Antiq.  iii.  2,  4).  The  O.  T.  is 
silent  on  the  subject. 

2.  One  of  five  kings  of  Midian  slain  by 
Moses  (Num.  xxxi.  H  ;  Josh.  xiii.  21). 

3.  Father  of  Solomon's  purveyor  in  mount 
Ei)hraim  (1  Kin.  iv.  8). 

4.  Father  of  a  certain  Rcphaiah  (Neh. 
iii.  9). 

Hu'rai  [perhaps,  a  linen  weaver]. 

One  of  David's  mighty  men  from  the  brooks 
of  (}aash  (1  Chron.  xi.  32).  Called  Hiddai  in 
2  Sam.  xxiii.  30. 


Hu'ram  [noble,  ingenuous]. 

1.  A  king  of  Tyre  (2  Chron.  ii.  3).  See 
Hiram. 

2.  A  Tyrian  artificer  (2  Chron.  iv.  11,  16). 
See  Hiram. 

3.  A  Benjamite,  perhaps  a  son  of  Bela  (1 
Chron.  viii.  5).     See  Hupham. 

Hu'ri  [perhaps,  a  linen  weaver]. 

A  (iadite  (1  Chron.  v.  l^J). 

Hu'shah  [haste,  emotion]. 

A  town  of  Judah,  to  judge  from  1  Chron. 
iv.  4,  aud  xxvii.  11. 

Hu'shai  [hasty,  hastening]. 

An  Archite,  one  of  David's  two  leading 
counselors.  He  remained  faithful  to  his 
sovereign  during  Absalom's  rebellion,  and 
eflfectually  defeated  the  counsel  of  Ahithophel 
(2  Sam.  XV.  32-37;  xvii.  5-16).  See  Ahith- 
ophel. 

Hu'sham  [haste,  passion]. 

A  man  of  the  laud  of  the  Temanites,  who 
succeeded  Jobab  as  king  of  Edom  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  34,  35;  1  Chron.  i.  45,  46). 

Hu'shath-ite. 

An  inhabitant  of  Hushah  (2  Sam.  xxi.  18 ; 
xxiii.  27). 

Hu'sMm  [not  impossibly,  opulent,  rich  in 
children]. 

1.  The  son  of  Dan  (Gen.  xlvi.  23).  Called 
in  Num.  xxvi.  42  Shuham.  The  difference 
is  due  to  a  transposition  of  the  consonants. 

2.  A  Benjamite  family,  sons  of  Aher  (1 
Chron.  vii.  12). 

3.  One  of  the  three  wives  of  the  Benjamite 
Shaharaim  (1  Chron.  viii.  8,  11). 

Husk. 

A  kind  of  food  eaten  by  swine,  and  which 
the  prodigal  son,  when  in  poverty  and  de- 


Pod  and  Branch  of  Carob  Tree. 

serted  by  his  fair-weather  friends,  was  glad 
to  share  (Luke  xv.  16).  It  is  the  pod  of  the 
carob  tree  {Ccratonia  siliqna),  and  is  also  called 


Huz 


315 


Hyssop 


locust  beau  and  St.  John's  bread.  The  tree 
is  a  handsome  evergreen,  attaining  a  height 
of  30  feet,  thornless,  and  with  leaves  like  the 
ash.  The  legumesare  borne  in  great  profusion, 
and  are  often  a  foot  long.  When  green  they 
are  used  for  cattle  and  swine  and  in  times  of 
great  famine  are  eaten  by  people.  A  syrup  is 
made  of  the  pulp  of  the  pods. 

Huz.     See  Uz. 

Huz'zab. 

Apjiarently  a  poetic  term  for  Nineveh  (Nah. 
ii.  7).  The  Targum  understands  it  to  mean 
the  queen.  But  in  the  margin  of  the  A.  V. 
it  is  rendered  "  that  which  was  established  " 
or  "  there  was  a  stand  made,"  and  in  that  of 
the  R.  V.  '•  and  it  is  decreed."  Both  of  these 
renderings  make  Huzzab  simply  a  part  of 
the  Hebrew  verb  yasab,  to  place  or  estab- 
lish. 

Hy'a-cinth,  or  in  modified  form  Ja'cinth. 

1.  The  name  of  a  color  (Rev.  ix.  17). 

2.  A  precious  stone,  constituting  the  elev- 
enth foundation  of  the  New  Jerusalem  (Rev. 
xxi.  20).  It  is  supposed  to  be  the  .sapphire  (R. 
y.  margin).  In  modern  usage  the  name  is 
given  to  the  mineral  zircon. 

Hy-e'na. 

An  animal  which  feeds  on  offal,  but  is 
often  driven  from  it  by  the  dogs  (Ecclus. 
xiii.  18).  The  striped  hyena  {Hysena  striata) 
is  common  in  every  part  of  Palestine,  living 
in  caves  and  tombs,  coming  forth  after  dark 
to  rifle  graves  or  otherwise  seek  after  prey. 
The  valley  of  Zeboim  in  1  Sam.  xiii.  18 
means  the  valley  of  hyenas. 

Hy-me-nae'us  [pertaining  to  Hymen,  the 
god  of  marriage]. 

One  who  made  shipwreck  of  his  faith, 
blasphemed,  and  was  excommunicated  by 
Paul  (1  Tim.  i.  20).  He  declared  that  the 
resurrection  was  already  past.  Philetus  was 
associated  with  him  in  this  error  (2  Tim.  ii. 
17,  18). 

Hymn. 

A  spiritual  meditation  designed,  or  at  least 
suitable,  for  singing  or  chanting  in  the  wor- 
ship of  God.  The  Book  of  Rsalms  is  the 
earliest  hymn  book  in  existence.  Other  mag- 
nificent Hebrew  religious  odes  are  the  songs 
of  Moses  (Ex.  xv.  1-19;  Dent,  xxxii.  1-43), 
Deborah  (Judg.  v.),  Hannah  (1  Sam.  ii.  1-10), 
Mary  (Lukei.  46-55),  and  Zacharias  (68-79). 
The  last  two  are  known  as  the  Magnificat 
and  the  Benedictus  respectively,  from  the 
first  word  of  the  Latin  translation.  The 
Hebrew  psalms  were  often  sung  to  the  ac- 
companiment of  music  (2  Chron.  xxix.  27, 
28:  cp.  R.  Y.  of  1  Chron.  xvi.  42).  In  the 
N.  T.  three  terms  are  used  for  Christian 
songs  :  psalms,  hymns,  and  spiritual  songs  or 
odes  (Eph.  v.  19  ;  Col.  iii.  16).  Josephus  uses 
two  of  these  words,  namely  hymns  and  odes, 
in  reference  to  the  psalms  of  David  (Antiq. 
vii.  12,  3).  The  hymn  which  Christ  and  his 
disciples  sang  after  supper  on  the  night  of 


the  betrayal  (Mat.  xxvi.  30)  was  doubtless 
part  of  Ps.  cxv.-cxviii.,  which  were  sung  by 
the  Jews  on  the  niglit  of  the  passover  after 
supper.  The  early  Christians  sang  hymns  in 
public  worship  and  privately  as  a  means  of 
worshiping  God  aiul  of  edification  and  com- 
fort (Acts  xvi.  25  ;  1  Cor.  xiv.  26  ;  Ejih.  v. 
19;  Col.  iii.  16).  Fragments  of  early  Chris- 
tian hymns,  known  as  such  from  the  meter 
in  the  Greek  text,  are  preserved  in  1  Tim. 
iii.  16  ;  Eph.  v.  14  ;  cp.  Rev.  xv.  3,  4.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  second  century,  in  the  reign 
of  Trajan,  the  Christians  of  Bithynia  were 
reported  by  Pliny  as  singing  songs  to  Christ 
as  God  (Epis.  x.  96). 

Hys'sop. 

A  plant  of  Egypt  and  Palestine  (Ex.  xii. 
22),  in  Hebrew  'Ezoh.  in  Greek  'Ussdjws, 
which  springs  out  of  walls,  and  was  of  so 
small  a  size  that  it  stood  at  one  end  of  the 
scale  of  magnitude  which  had  the  cedar  of 
Lebanon  at  the  other  (1  Kin.  iv.  33).  It  was 
aromatic,  and  was  largely  used,  under  the 
law,  often  in  bunches,  with  cedar  wood  and 
wool,  for  ceremonial  purification  (Lev.  xiv. 
4,  6,  49,  51,  52;  Xum.  xix.  6,  18;  Ps.  Ii.  7; 
Heb.  ix.  19).  A  sponge  filled  with  vinegar 
was  put  upon  hyssop  and  raised  to  the  lips 
of  Jesus  when  he  was  on  the  cross  (John 
xix.   29).     The    common    hyssop    (Hyssopus 


Common  Hyssop. 

officinalis)  is  a  sweet-smelling  plant,  belong- 
ing to  the  order  Labiatw,  or  Mints.  It  is  a 
small  bushy  herb  which  grows  to  a  height  of 
12  or  13  inches,  and  has  small,  hairy,  lance- 
olate leaves.  But  Tristram  states  that  its 
area  is  the  south  of  Europe,  the  Danubian 
province,  and  Siberia.  Moreover,  the  state- 
ment of  two  of  the  evangelists  (Mat.  xxvii. 
48  ;  Mark  xv.  36)  that  the  sponge  of  vinegar 
offered  to  Jesus  was  put  upon  kalamos,  a  reed 


Ibhar 


316 


Iddo 


which  the  common  hyssop  does  not  produce, 
has  led  sonic  interin-ctcrs  to  think  that  a  dif- 
ferent plant  from  the  common  hyssop  is  in- 
tended, perliaps  the  caper  phmt  (Cappaiis 
spinosa),  sometimes  called  by  the  Arabs  'amf. 
It  is  common  in  Palestine  and  the  adjacent 
regions,  grows  out  of  walls,  and  could  fur- 
nish a  reedy  stem  three  or  four  feet  long,  to 
which  a  si)()nge  might  be  affixed.  Rabbinical 
tradition  identifies  the  Hebrew  'ezoh  with  the 
Arabic  m'tar,  commonly  held  to  be  Origanum, 
marjory.  This  plant  is  common  in  Palestine, 
growing  on  walls  and  rocks.  Its  thick,  hairy 
leaves  and  hairy  l)ranches  can  be  made  into 
a  bunch,  and  would  hold  liquids  for  sprink- 
ling. It  is  a  small  herb,  however,  and  could 
not  furnish  a  rod  ;  but  the  bunch  of  hyssop 
used  in  sprinkling  was  attached,  it  is  argued, 
to  a  rod  of  cedar,  and  such  a  sprinkler  was 
seized  as  the  most  available  means  at  hand 
of  reaching  the  sponge  to  the  lips  of  the 
crucified  Jesus. 


I. 


Ib'liar  [(God)  doth  choose]. 

One  of  king  David's  sons  born  at  Jerusalem 
(2  Sam.  V.  15;  1  Chron.  xiv.  5). 

I'bis. 

A  bird  (Lev.  xi.  19,  E.  V.  margin),  allied 
to  the  herons  and  storks.  It  was  formerly 
venerated  by  the  Egyptians.     See  Heron. 

Ib'le-am  [the  people  faileth]. 

One  of  the  cities  within  the  territory  of 
Issachar  which  belonged  to  the  tribe  of 
Manasseh.  The  Manassites,  however,  did 
not  drive  out  the  Canaanite  inhabitants 
(Josh.  xvii.  11,  12  ;  Judg.  i.  27).  It  was  near 
Ibleamthat  Ahaziah,  kiugof  Judah,  wasmor- 
tally  wounded  by  the  followers  of  Jehu  (2  Kin. 
ix.  27).  It  is  generally  identified  with  the 
town  Bileam,  which  belonged  to  Manasseh, 
but  was  assigned  to  the  Levites  (1  Chron.  vi. 
70)  ;  perhaps  Bel'amch,  a  ruin  and  well  one 
mile  south  of  Jenin  (cp.  Judith  iv.  4;  vii.  3). 

Ib-ne'iali  [Jehovah  doth  build]. 

A  Benjamite,  son  of  Jeroham  and  head  of 
a  father's  house  (1  Chron.  ix.  8). 

Ib-ni'jah  [Jehovah  doth  build]. 

A  Benjamite,  father  of  Keuel  (1  Chron. 
ix.  8). 

Ib'ri  [a  Hebrew]. 

A  son  of  Jaaziah  (1  Chron.  xsiv.  27). 

Ib'sam,  in  A.  V.  Jibsam  [fragrant]. 

A  man  of  Issachar,  family  of  Tola  (1  Chron. 
vii.  2). 

Ib'zan  [active]. 

A  judge  who  ruled  over  Israel,  or  part  of 
it,  for  seven  years.  He  was  a  native  of  Beth- 
lehem, apparently  that  in  Zebulun,  was  bur- 
ied in  his  native  place,  and  was  succeeded  by 
a  Zebulunite.  He  had  thirty  sons  and  thirty 
daughters,  doubtless  by  a  plurality  of  wives 
(Judg.  xii.  8-10). 


Ich'a-bod  [the  glory  is  not]. 

Sun  of  Phinehas  and  grandson  of  Eli.  The 
name  commemorated  the  fact  that  the  glory 
had  departed  from  Israel,  for  the  ark  of  God 
was  taken  (1  Sam.  iv.  19-22). 

I-co'ni-uin. 

A  city  of  Asia  Minor,  which  is  described  by 
Xenophon  as  the  last  city  in  Phrygia  to  one 
traveling  eastward  (Anabasis  i.  2,  19).  Un- 
der the  Eoman  and  the  Greek  empires  Iconium 
was  considered  the  capital  of  Lycaonia.  It 
was  situated  in  a  fertile  plain.  Barnabas  and 
Paul  visited  it  on  the  first  missionary  journej-- 
both  going  and  returning  (Acts  xiii.  51,  52 ; 
xiv.  1-6,  19-22 ;  cp.  xvi.  2  ;  2  Tim.  iii.  11). 
It  has  had  an  unbroken  history  and  the  same 
name  until  the  present  time,  being  now 
known  as  Koniah.  It  is  the  capital  of  the 
pashalic  of  Karamau  ;  and  is  a  large  city 
surrounded  by  a  wall  built  of  the  materials 
derived  from  older  structures. 

Id'a-lah. 

A  border  town  of  Zebulun  (Josh.  xix.  15). 
Site  unknown. 

Id'bash  [perhaps  honey-sweet]. 

A  man  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  iv.  3). 

Id'do,  I.  [hap,  happy]. 

The  chief  at  Casiphia  through  whom  Ezra, 
when  conducting  a  company  of  exiles  from 
Babylonia  to  Jerusalem,  obtained  the  con- 
tingent, which  was  lacking,  of  Levites  and 
Nethinim  for  the  service  of  the  temple  (Ezra 
viii.  17-20). 

Id'do,  II.   [loving,  affectionate]. 

1.  Son  of  Zechariah,  and  a  chief  in  David's 
reign  of  the  half-tribe  of  Manasseh  east  of 
the  Jordan  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  21). 

2.  A  man  induced  by  Ezra  to  put  away  his 
foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  43).  In  A.  V.  the  name 
is  written  Jadau,  a  mongrel  word  arising 
from  the  translators'  pronouncing  the  conso- 
nants of  the  text  with  the  vowels  of  the  mar- 
gin. The  real  alternative  to  Iddo  is  Jaddai, 
as  in  the  margin  of  R.  V. 

Id'do,  III.  [decked,  adorned]. 

1.  A  Levite,  a  descendant  of  Gershom  (1 
Chron.  vi.  21).  Apparently  called  Adaiah 
synonymously  (41). 

2.  Father  of  Ahinadab,  Solomon's  purveyor 
at  Mahanaim  (1  Kin.  iv.  14). 

3.  A  seer  who  wrote  a  book  of  visions  con- 
cerning Jeroboam  and  in  which  events  of 
Solomon's  reign  were  related  (2  Chron.  ix. 
29),  a  book  on  genealogies,  in  which  deeds  of 
Rehoboam  were  recorded  (xii.  15),  and  a  his- 
tory which  treated  of  king  Abijah's  acts  (xiii. 
22). 

4.  Grandfather  of  the  prophet  Zechariah 
(Zech.  i.  1,7;  cp.  Ezra  v.  1  ;  vi.  14).  He  is 
not  unreasonably  believed  to  be  identical 
with  Iddo,  a  chief  of  the  priests  who  re- 
turned with  Zerubbabel  to  Jerusalem  and 
whose  name  is  that  of  a  father's  house  in  the 
next  generation.  Tlie  head  of  thishouse  at  the 
time  mentioned  is  a  priest  named  Zechariah 


Idol 


317 


Igal 


(Neh.  xii.  4,  16).  The  difference  in  spelling 
the  name  Idilo  in  these  two  verses  of  Nehe- 
niiah  in  the  Hebrew  is  merely  the  difference 
between  jod  and  vau  (q.  v.). 

I'dol  [a  mental  or  material  image]. 

An  image,  a  sculpture,  or  other  represen- 
tation of  any  person  or  being,  intended  as  an 
object  of  worship,  or  as  the  embodiment  and 
efficient  presence  of  a  deity  (Ex.  xx.  4,  5, 
23  ;  Judg.  xvii.  3  ;  1  Sam.  v.  3,  4  ;  Eom.  i. 
23).  They  were  made  of  silver,  of  gold  (Ps. 
cxv.  4  :  cxxxv.  15),  of  wood,  or  other  material 
(Is.  xliv.  13-17).  When  metallic,  they  were 
fashioned  by  running  melted  metal  into  a 
mold,  in  which  case  they  M'cre  called  mol- 
ten images;  or  they  consisted  of  plates  of 
metal  over  a  wooden  frame  or  over  a  molten 
body,  and  were  termed  graven  images.  When 
of  wood  or  stone,  they  were  made  by  graving 
tools  or  other  instruments,  and  were  also  called 
graven  images.  The  process  of  manufacture 
is  described  in  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah  (Is.  xl. 
19,  20;  xliv.  9-20;  Jer.  x.  9).  Some  were 
small,  especially  those  designed  as  house- 
hold gods  or  teraphim  (Gen.  xxxi.  34  ;  xxxv. 
1-4)  ;  some  were  as  large  as  a  human  being 
(1  Sam.  xix.  16)  ;  some,  such  as  that  erected 
by  Nebuchadnezzar  in  the  plain  of  Dura,  were 
colossal  (Dan.  iii.  1).  Various  epithets  are 
applied  to  idols,  which  express  the  com- 
mingled loathing  and  contempt  with  which 
they  were  regarded  by  the  enlightened  serv- 
ant of  Jehovah.  One  of  the  most  notable 
is  vanity. 

I-dol'a-try. 

Iihjlatry  was  practiced  at  a  comparatively 
early  period  of  man's  history.  The  immedi- 
ate ancestors  of  Abraham  worshiped  other 
gods  (Josh.  xxiv.  2),  in  addition  to  Jehovah, 
it  may  be  believed,  and  doubtless  by  means 
of  idols.  Laban  had  images,  which  Eachel 
was  too  justly  accused  of  stealing  (Gen.  xxxi. 
30,  32-35).  The  Egyptians  made  figures  of 
the  gods  to  serve  as  objects  of  worship,  and 
in  the  innermost  sanctuary  of  their  temples 
lay  the  symbol  of  a  god  and  a  sacred  animal 
(Herod,  ii.  63, 13b).  The  Cauaanite  nations  had 
idols,  which  the  Israelites,  on  succeeding  to 
the  land,  were  ordered  to  destroy  (Ex.  xxiii. 
24j;  xxxiv.  13  ;  Lev.  xix.  4  ;  Num.  xxxiii.  52  ; 
Deut.  vii.  5  ;  xxix.  17).  The  second  com- 
mandment was  directed  against  idolatry  (Ex. 
XX.  4,  5;  Deut.  v.  8,  9),  forbidding  man  to 
bow  down  to  images,  sculptures,  statues,  and 
pictures.  And  the  teachers  of  Israel  followed 
up  this  injunction  by  pointing  out  and  ridi- 
culing the  impotency  of  idols  (Ps.  cxv. ;  Is. 
ii.  8,  18,  20,  21;  xl.  19,  20;  xliv.  9-20;  Jer. 
X.  3-5).  Their  helplessness  was  discovered 
when  the  ark  of  the  Lord  was  in  the  temple 
of  Dagon  (1  Sam.  v.  3-5).  The  apocryiihal 
book  of  Bel  and  the  Dragon  treats  of  the  de- 
ceitful practices  of  the  priests  in  the  idol 
temples.  Of  the  nations  with  whom  the 
Israelites  were  brought  into  contact  during 
Scripture  times,  all  but  the  Persians  were  idol- 


aters ;  and  the  divinities  whom  their  images 
represented  were  other  gods  than  Jehovah. 
When  the  Israelites  borrowed  idolatrous 
practices  from  the  neighboring  nations,  two 
well-marked  stages  were  traceable  in  the 
progress  of  error.  At  first  they  attempted  to 
worship  Jehovah  l)y  means  of  images  ;  see 
Jekoboam.  Then  they  entirely  departed 
from  Jehovah,  and  the  idols  they  made  were 
designed  to  represent  other  divinities  ;  see 
Baal.  In  N.  T.  times  directions  had  to  be 
given  as  to  the  precautions  which  church 
members  who  lived  in  heathen  comnuinilies 
were  required  to  take  to  avoid  compromising 
themselves  with  idolatry.  The  council  of 
Jerusalem  enjoined  that  they  should  abstain 
from  meats  oflered  to  idols  (Acts  xv.  29). 
Paul  gave  the  same  injunction,  but  explained 
that  in  the  case  of  those  who  had  no  faith  in 
idols,  abstinence  was  designed  to  avoid  cast- 
ing a  stumbling-block  in  the  path  of  the 
weaker  brethren  (1  Cor.  viii.  4-13).  If  re- 
ceiving hospitality  at  any  house,  and  meat 
which  might  pos.sibly  have  been  offered  to  an 
idol  was  set  on  the  table,  the  Christian  guest 
was  not  required  to  ask  any  questions  for  con- 
science' sake  ;  but  if  he  was  expressly  told 
that  the  food  had  been  offered  to  an  idol, 
then  he  was  to  abstain.  The  same  rule  was 
to  be  carried  out  with  regard  to  food  pur- 
chased for  the  household  in  the  ordinary 
market  (x.  18-33).  About  a.  d.  300  images 
were  introduced  into  some  Christian  churches 
for  instruction  and  ornament  only.  In  736 
the  eastern  emperor  Leo  issued  edicts  against 
them.  In  780  the  empress  Irene  introduced 
image  worship  into  the  eastern  church,  and 
in  787  the  second  council  of  Nice  gave  them 
ecclesiastical  sanction. 

Id-u-mse'a,  in  A.  V.  of  O.  T.  and  Apocry- 
pha Idumea  [pertaining  to  Edom]. 

The  name  used  by  Greeks  and  Eomans  in 
slightly  different  si)elling,  for  the  country  of 
Edom  (Mark  iii.  8 ;  and  in  A.  V.  only,  Is. 
xxxiv.  5, 6  ;  Ezek.  xxxv.  15  ;  xxxvi.  5).  After 
the  fall  of  Jerusalem,  in  587  B.  c,  the  Edom- 
ites  began  to  press  northward  (Ezek.  xxxvi. 
5).  They  themselves  were  driven  from  Petra 
westward  by  the  Nabathfeans  about  300  B.  C, 
and  before  the  middle  of  the  second  century 
B.  c.  they  were  occupying,  not  only  southern 
Judah,  l)utalso  Hebron  and  the  country  to  its 
north  as  far  as  Bethzur  (1  Mac.  iv.  29 ;  v.  65). 
Judas  Maccabreus  warred  against  them  suc- 
cessfully ;  and  John  Hyrcanus,  about  126 
B.  c,  completely  subjugated  them  and  placed 
them  under  a  Jewish  governor  (Antiq.  xiii. 
9,1). 

I-e'zer.     See  Abiezek. 

I-e'zer-ite.     See  Abiezerite. 

I'gal,  in  A.  V.  once  Igeal  (1  Chron.  iii.  22) 
[he  will  vindicate]. 

1.  The  spy  sent  forth  by  the  tribe  of  Issa- 
char  to  search  out  the  land  of  Canaan  (Num. 
xiii.  7). 

2.  One  of  David's  mighty  men,  the  son  of 


Igdaliah 


518 


Immanuel 


Nathan  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  36).  He  occupies  the 
same  position  in  the  catalogue  as  does  Joel 
in  1  Cliron.  xi.  38,  and  it  is  natural  to  identify 
the  two.  But  the  relation  of  the  two  lists  at 
this  point  is  ditljcult  to  determine;  and  as 
Igal  and  Joel  are  differently  described,  they 
may  be  different  persons,  nephew  and  uncle. 

3.  A  son  of  Shemaiah,  a  de.-.ceudant  of  king 
Jeconiah  (1  C'hron.  iii.  22). 

Ig-da-li'ah  [great  is  Jehovah]. 

Father  of  the  prophet  Hauan  (Jer.  xxxv.  4). 

I'ge-al.     See  Igal. 

I'im  [ruins]. 

1.  A  town  east  of  the  Jordan  (Num.  xxxiii. 
45).     See  Iye-ab.\rim. 

2.  A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XY.  29).     Site  unknown. 

I-je-ab'a-rim.     See  Iye-abarim. 

I'jon  [a  ruin]. 

A  fortified  city  of  Naphtali,  one  of  those 
captured  by  Benhadad,  king  of  Syria,  at  the 
instigation  of  Asa  (1  Kin.  xv.  20;  2  Chron. 
xvi.  4).  Its  inhabitants  were  subsequently 
carried  into  captivity  by  Tiglath-pileser  (2 
Kin.  XV.  29).  Eobinson  located  it,  probably 
correctly,  on  Tell  Dibbin,  a  hill  110  feet  high, 
on  the  eastern  border  of  Merj  'Ayun,  meadow 
of  springs,  which  seems  to  preserve  a  trace 
of  the  old  name.  The  site  is  about  8  miles 
north-northwest  of  Bauias. 

Ik'kesh  [perverse]. 

Father  of  David's  captain  and  mighty  man 
Ira  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  26 ;  1  Chron.  xi.  28). 

I'lai  [supreme]. 

One  of  David's  mighty  men  (1  Chron.  si. 
29),  called  Zalmon  in  2  Sam.  xxiii.  28. 

Il-lyr'i-cum. 

A  country  bounded  on  the  north  by  Pan- 
nonia,  on  the  south  by  Epirus,  on  the  east  by 
Macedonia,  and,  when  it  included  Dalmatia, 
on  the  west  by  the  Adriatic  Sea.  It  is  trav- 
ersed from  northwest  to  southeast  by  the 
Noric,  Carnic,  and  Julian  Alps,  constituting 
the  most  easterly  portion  of  the  great  Al- 
pine chain.  Along  the  coast  are  excellent 
harbors  and  numerous  islands.  The  Illyrian 
race  inhabiting  the  region  were  wild  moun- 
taineers, who  were  a  thorn  in  the  side  of 
their  neighbors,  the  Macedonians ;  and,  when 
they  descended  to  the  seacoast,  they  so  prac- 
ticed piracy  as  to  bring  them  into  collision 
with  the  Romans,  who,  in  229  B.  c,  began  to 
conquer  them,  and  finally  made  IlljTicum, 
or  lUyria,  a  province  of  the  empire.  The 
apostle  Paul  preached  the  gospel  from  Jeru- 
sjilem  and  round  al)out  even  to  Illyricum 
(Rom.  XV.  19).  Iti  the  later  years  of  the  Ro- 
man empire  the  name  Illyricum  gained  a 
nuich  wider  meaning.  A  great  part  of  Illyr- 
icum in  the  more  limited  sense  constitutes 
Bosnia,  Herzegovina,  and  Montenegro. 

Im'age.    See  Idol. 

Im'la  or  Imlah  [he,  /.  r.  God,  doth  fill]. 

Father  of  the  iintphet  Micaiah  (1  Kin.  xxii. 
8,  9  ;  2  Chron.  xviii.  7,  8). 


Im-man'u-el,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Emmanuel, 
the  Greek  pronunciation  [God  with  us]. 

A  son  whom  "  the  maiden  "  should  bear  (Is. 
vii.  14,  R.  V.  margin).  Before  the  son  is  born, 
or  at  the  time  of  his  birth,  historical  events  will 
justify  naming  him  "  God  with  us ;"  before  he 
attains  to  years  of  moral  determination,  the 
land  of  northern  Israel  and  Damascus  will  be 
forsaken  of  its  kings,  and  unexampled  punish- 
ment will  be  inflicted  on  Judah  (ver.  16,  17) ; 
and  during  the  years  of  his  moral  maturity, 
he  shall  eat  the  products  of  a  land  that  has 
been  w;isted  by  the  nations  (ver.  15,  18  seq.). 
Isaiali  had  in  mind  that  worthy  Son  of  David 
about  whom  prophecy  had  begun  to  cluster : 
for  1.  He  foretells  the  birth  of  a  son,  not  sim- 
ply of  a  child.  2.  He  utters  this  prophecy  to 
the  house  of  David  in  view  of  God's  rejec- 
tion of  the  faithless  successor  of  David  who 
then  occupied  the  throne.  3.  On  the  natural 
interpretation  of  viii.  8,  which  observes  the 
previous  use  of  Immanuel  as  the  name  of 
the  son,  does  justice  to  the  pronoun  of  th© 
second  person  in  the  clause  preceding  Im- 
manuel, and  affords  an  easy  transition  to  the 
succeeding  verse,  Immanuel  is  a  person  ;  and 
if  so,  he  is  a  native  of  Judah,  and  sufficiently 
great  to  be  singled  out  as  a  representative, 
for  Judah  is  spoken  of  as  the  land  of  Im- 
manuel ;  and  he  is  a  powerful  personage,  for 
because  of  him  the  rage  of  the  nations  is 
vain  (ver.  9  seq.).  4.  The  Messiah  is  definitely 
before  the  prophet's  mind  in  ix.  6,  7  and  xi. 
1  ;  and  violence  is  required  to  separate  these 
prophecies  from  that  of  chap.  vii.  The  Mes- 
sianic hope  was  awake  at  this  period  of  his- 
tory. 5.  The  use  of  the  article  with  maiden 
is  adequately  explained.  Isaiah  uses  it  to 
designate  the  young  woman,  unknown  by 
name,  yet  definite,  who  is  to  be  the  mother 
of  Messiah  (cp.  Mic.  v.  3).  6.  Looking  back, 
this  meaning  seems  to  have  been  the  mind 
of  the  Spirit  (Mat.  i.  22,  23). 

The  prophet  is,  therefore,  thinking  of 
David's  son,  who  might  appear  at  any  time. 
But  he  is  not  predicting  the  birth  of  Heze- 
kiah  and  expecting  him  to  be  the  Messiah ; 
for  1.  Hezekiah  was  already  born.  This 
prophecy  was  delivered  in  734  B.  c,  and 
Hezekiah  was  on  the  throne,  a  vigorous 
ruler  in  727  b.  c.  2.  After  the  lapse 
of  a  year  and  when  Hezekiah  was  a  youth, 
the  prophet  still  continues  to  look  forward 
to  the  future  for  the  going  forth  of  the 
shoot  out  of  the  root  of  Jesse.  3.  Heze- 
kiah did  not  eat  curds  and  honey;  the  pro- 
cesses which  issued  in  the  spoliation  and  sub- 
jection of  the  land  had  only  begun  in  Heze- 
kiah's  time.  If  ver.  18-25  of  Is.  vii.  are  in- 
cluded in  the  prophecy,  the  fly  of  Egypt  did 
not  come  upon  Judah  in  Hezekiah's  day. 
Even  ver.  17  presents  a  picture  which  belongs 
to  the  remoter  future  ;  days  such  as  had  not 
been  wfere  not  brought  upon  Ahaz  and  his 
people,  only  the  beginning  of  the  process 
which  resulted  in  the  predicted  calamity  was 
seen. 


Immanuel 


319 


Imnah 


Imiuauuel  was  a  sifin.  But  Ahaz  did  uot 
live  until  auy  child  born  that  year  reached 
the  a^je  of  moral  selt'-deterniination,  for 
Ahaz  died  before  the  fall  of  Samaria  in  722. 
He  did  not  live  to  see  the  land  forsaken  (16). 
Immanuel  was  not  a  sign  to  compel  faith  in 
Ahaz,  but  one  that  called  for  faith.  Like 
many  other  signs  of  the  O.  T.,  it  called  for 
present  faith  and  occurred  only  when  the 
prophecy  was  fulfilled  (Ex.  iii.  12). 

The  birth,  infancy,  and  youth  of  Messiah 
are  described  as  actually  jiassing  before  the 
prophet's  sight;  but  the  prophet  himself  did 
uot  understand  that  the  Jlessiah  was  neces- 
sarily to  be  born  immediately,  for  when  the 
Messiah  did  uot  appear  within  a  year,  Isaiah 
shows  no  signs  of  disappointment,  loses  no 
faith  in  the  prophetic  revelation,  continues 
his  activity,  makes  still  greater  disclosures  re- 
garding Immanuel,  and  enjoys  the  continued 
confidence  of  his  fellow  countrymen.  Isaiah 
would  inquire  what  and  what  manner  of  time 
the  Spirit  which  was  in  him  did  signify. 

The  promise  of  immediate  deliverance 
from  the  advancing  enemy  (Is.  vii.  3-11)  is 
confirmed  by  an  appeal  to  an  event  which 
might  occur  sooner  or  later.  But  whether 
occurring  at  once  or  long  subsecjuently,  it  is 
confirmatory,  because  it  implies  the  deliver- 
ance promised  to  Ahaz.  The  assurance, 
already  given  by  God  (2  Sam.  vii.  11-17), 
that  the  Messiah  should  be  born  of  the  royal 
family  of  David  was  a  sign  to  the  house  of 
David,  including  Ahaz,  that  the  purpose  of 
Eezin  and  Pekah  to  destroy  the  kingdom  and 
place  a  new  king  over  the  people  should  not 
stand  (Is.  vii.  13,  14).  And  the  remoter  the 
sign,  that  is  the  remoter  the  birth  of  Messiah, 
the  stronger  was  the  guarantee  of  the  long 
continuance  of  the  royal  family  of  Judah. 

The  birth  and  infancy  of  Immanuel  meas- 
ure the  progress  of  the  predicted  events.  "  I 
see  his  birth,  who  is  God's  guarantee  of  the 
continued  existence  and  deliverance  of 
Judah,  as  though  it  is  already  at  hand.  I  do 
uot  know  the  times  and  the  seasons,  but  it  is 
revealed  to  me  as  a  sign  to  you,  and  as  though 
about  to  occur.  As  such  it  contains  a  meas- 
ure of  time  for  the  immediate  future.  Be- 
fore the  child  comes  to  the  years  when  one 
choo.ses  between  right  and  wrong,  the  north- 
ern laud  shall  be  forsaken.  At  the  time  of 
life  when  one's  moral  faculties  have  matured, 
he,  the  scion  of  the  royal  house  of  Judah, 
will  dwell  in  a  wasted  land."  Any  child  would 
serve  for  measuring  the  time  ;  but  the  child 
chosen  is  Messiah  because  the  prophecy  of 
deliverance  rested  upon  the  promises  which 
centered  in  the  Messiah. 

Now  let  us  measure  the  period.  1.  Before 
Christ  attained  the  age  when  man's  moral 
faculties  are  mature  the  northern  kingdom 
was  desolate.  In  fact  before  a  child,  born  in 
the  year  of  this  meeting  between  Isaiah  and 
Ahaz,  could  have  reached  moral  maturity  the 
land  of  the  north  was  desolate.  The  meet- 
ing is  known  to  have  taken  place  iu  734  B.  c. 


lu  722  Damascus  and  the  district  governed 
by  it  had  been  ravaged  by  the  Assyrians,  the 
two  and  a  half  tribes  of  Israel  east  of  the 
Jordan  had  Ijcen  carried  off,  Samaria  had 
fallen  and  a  large  body  of  its  inhabitants  had 
been  deported.  Ahaz  saw  the  beginnings  of 
this,  but  died  before  its  accomplishment.  The 
house  of  David  saw  the  complete  fulfillment. 
The  process  thus  begun  continued.  In  65 
years  Ephraim  had  ceased  to  be  a  people.  At 
Christ's  appearance,  this  was  still  true.  The 
ten  tribes  uo  longer  existed  as  a  nation,  and 
no  longer  occupied  the  land  of  their  fathers. 
2.  At  a  time  when  a  child's  moral  facuitii'S 
w'ould  be  mature,  Ahaz  himself  had  gone  to 
Damascus,  had  done  homage  to  the  As.syriaQ 
king,  and  had  acknowledged  that  Judah  was 
a  tributary  state  to  Assyria.  The  land  itself 
was  not  actually  devastated,  but  it  had  bowed 
itself  down  to  the  foreign  yoke.  From  this 
time  onward,  with  the  exception  of  short  iu-  . 
tervals,  it  was  in  a  sense  sulyect  to  the  domi- 
nant world-power,  and  it  was  looked  upon  by 
the  great  empire  of  each  period  as  a  depen- 
dency, aud  whenever  Judah  claimed  inde- 
pendence it  was  visited  sooner  or  later  by 
the  imperial  power  which  claimed  sov- 
ereignty and  was  punished  and  wasted.  Its 
nationality  was  not  blotted  out  aud  the 
royal  family  was  uot  destroyed  nor  over- 
looked ;  but  Judah  was,  generally  speaking, 
a  dependency.  When  Christ  actually  ap- 
peared, Judah  was  still  acknowledging  a  for- 
eign sovereign.  In  other  words,  all  the  pro- 
cesses foretold  by  Isaiah  began  in  the  life- 
time of  Ahaz,  and  their  results  were  iu  full 
force  when  the  Messiah  actually  appeared. 

Im'mer  [talkative]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Aaron.  His  family  had 
become  a  father's  house  in  the  time  of  David, 
and  was  made  the  sixteenth  course  of  priests 
(1  Chron.  xxiv.  1,  6,  14).  The  ruler  of  the 
house  of  God  iu  the  days  of  Jeremiah,  aud 
an  antagonist  of  the  prophet,  apparently  be- 
longed to  this  house  (Jer.  xx.  1),  and  doubt- 
less they  were  members  of  this  family  who  re- 
turned from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra 
ii.  37 ;  Neh.  xi.  13).  Two  priests  of  this  house 
were  among  those  who  about  a  century  after 
the  return  were  guilty  of  marrying  foreign 
wives  (Ezra  x.  20).  A  little  later  another  son 
of  Immer  took  part  iu  the  honorable  work 
of  rebuilding  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  (Neh. 
iii.  29). 

2.  A  person  or  a  place  in  Babylonia  whence 
exiles  returned.  He  or  they  failed,  however, 
to  prove  their  genealogy  (Ezra  ii.  59 ;  Neh. 
vii.  61). 

probably  God,    doth   re- 


Im'na  [he,  i. 
strain]. 

An   Asherite.   : 
vii.  35). 

Im'nab,  in  A. 
Jlmnah  (Gen.  xlvi.  17 
allotteth]. 

1.  Son  of  Asher  and  founder  of  a  tribal 


son  of  Helem   (1  Chron. 

V.  once  Jimna  and   once 
Num.  xxvi.  44)  [he 


Imrah 


320 


Inspiration 


family  (Num.  xxvi.  44 ;  1  Chron.  vii.  30 ;  Gen. 
xlvi.  17). 

2.  A  Levite,  father  of  Kore,  in  Hezekiah's 
reign  (2  Chron.  xxxi.  14). 

Im'rah  [stubborn,  refractory]. 

An  Asherite,  son  of  Zophah  (1  Chron.  vii. 
36). 

Im'ri  [eloquent]. 

1.  A  man  of  Judah,  son  of  Bani,  and  a  de- 
scendant of  Perez  (1  Chron.  ix.  4). 

2.  Father  of  that  Zaccur,  who  rebuilt  part 
of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  after  the  captivity 
(Neh.  iii.  2). 

In'cense. 

Fragrant  substances  designed  to  be  burnt, 
especially  in  religious  worship.  Sweet  in- 
cense was  largely  used  as  an  clement  in  the 
Israelite  ritual  (Ex.  xxv.  6 ;  xxxv.  8,  28 ; 
xxxvii.  29).  The  ingredients  were  stacte  or 
opobalsamum,  onycha,  galbanum,  and  jiure 
frankincense  in  equal  proportions,  tempered 
with  salt.  It  was  not  allowed  to  be  made  for 
ordinary  purposes  (Ex.  xxx.  34-38;  Lev.  x. 
1-7).  An  altar  of  incense  was  fashioned  of 
acacia  wood  overlaid  with  pure  gold,  and  was 
placed  in  the  holy  place,  j  ust  outside  the  veil 
which  concealed  the  holy  of  holies ;  and  each 
morning,  when  the  high  priest  dressed  the 
lamps,  he  burned  incense  on  it  (Ex.  xxx.  1-9  ; 
Luke  i.  10) ;  .see  Altae.  Once  a  year  on  the 
great  day  of  atonement,  he  brought  the  in- 
cense within  the  veil,  and,  burning  it  on  a 
fire  in  a  censer  in  the  most  holy  place,  envel- 
oped the  mercy  seat  in  a  cloud  of  the  odorifer- 
ous smoke  which  it  sent  forth  (Lev.  xvi.  12, 
1.'}).  When  the  altar  was  dedicated,  each  of 
the  princes  brought  a  gift  of  incense  carried 
in  a  spoon  (Num.  vii.  14,  20,  etc.).  Where  so 
many  animal  sacrifices  were  offered  as  there 
were  in  the  courts,  both  of  the  tabernacle 
and  the  temple,  the  smell  of  blood  must  have 
polluted  the  atmosphere,  and  the  burning  of 
incense  exerted  a  good  sanitary  influence. 
But  it  had  also  a  symbolic  reference.  It 
availed  to  make  atonement  (Num.  xvi.  46, 
47),  for  it  was  typical  of  the  intercession  of 
the  appointed  high  priest.  The  psalmist  re- 
quested that  his  prayer  might  be  set  forth 
before  Jehovah  as  incense  (Ps.  cxli.  2)  ;  the 
worshipers  prayed  outside  the  temple  while 
Zacharias  offered  incense  within  its  walls 
(Luke  i.  10) ;  and  in  an  apocalyptic  vision  an 
angel  liurnt  incense  on  the  golden  altar,  the 
smoke  ascending  with  the  prayers  of  saints 
(Rev.  viii.  'i-5).  The  worshipers  of  false  di- 
vinities, no  less  than  those  who  adored  the 
true  God,  burnt  incense  (2  Chron.  xxxiv.  25; 
Jer.  xlviii.  .35). 

In'di-a  [in  Hebrew  7/o(?»,  through  Persian 
Iliilliu,  iVoni  Hindu,  the  river  Indus]. 

A  district  on  the  lower  Indus,  conquered 
by  Darius  the  Great  and  incorporated  with 
the  Persian  empire  (Herod,  iii.  94  ;  iv.  44  ; 
Persei)olis  inscri]>tion).  It  formed  the  eastern 
limit  of  the  Persian  emjiire  (Esth.  i.  1  ;  viii. 
9;  cp.  Herod,  iv.  40).     Alexander  the  Great 


crossed  the  Indus  on  his  career  of  conquest. 
The  occurrence  of  the  name  in  1  Mac.  viii. 
8  is  suspicious.  Luther  substituted  Ionia.  At 
any  rate  Judas  Maccabseus  was  misinformed 
if  he  was  told  that  the  Romans  had  taken 
India  from  Antiochus. 

In'gatb-er-ing,  Feast  of.  See  Taber- 
nacles, Feast  of. 

In-her'it-ance.    See  Heie. 

Ink'horn. 

A  horn  or  anything  similar  for  holding 
ink.  It  was  carried  at  the  side  (Ezek.  ix.  2). 
The  inkhorn  is  still  in  use  in  the  East.  It 
consists  of  a  case  of  wood,  horn,  or  metal, 
with  a  head  at  one  end  for  holding  the  ink, 
and  a  long  shaft  in  which  the  reeds  for 
writing  are  kept.  The  case  is  worn  stuck  in 
the  girdle. 

Inn. 

An  oriental  inn  bears  little  resemblance  to 
an  occidental  hotel.  The  inn  was  not  so  nec- 
essary in  primitive  times.  Travelers  readily 
found  reception  in  the  houses  of  the  hospita- 
ble (Ex.  ii.  20 ;  Judg.  xix.  15-21 ;  2  Kin.  iv. 
8  ;  Acts  xxviii.  7;  Heb.  xiii.  2).  The  public 
inn  was  a  mere  place  of  shelter  for  man  and 
beast.  Like  the  modern  khans,  it  was  prob- 
ably a  large,  quadrangular  court,  with  a  well 
in  the  center  and  around  the  sides  rooms  for 
travelers,  chambers  for  goods,  and  stalls  for 
cattle.  The  rooms  were  destitute  of  furni- 
ture. The  traveler  spread  his  mat  on  the 
floor,  if  he  had  one  to  spread  ;  if  not,  then 
his  shawl-like  mantle  sufficed  for  mattress 
and  covering.  He  also  provided  food  for 
himself  and  fodder  for  his  cattle.  Free  lodg- 
ing places  of  this  sort  were  erected  by  liberal 
wealthy  men  for  the  benefit  of  wayfarers 
(cp.  Jer.  xli.  17).  Rarely  was  there  a  host 
from  whom  food  could  be  purchased  (Luke 
X.  34,  35). 

In-spi-ra'tion. 

The  terms  inspiration  and  inspired  are 
u.sed  in  English  with  .great  latitude  of  mean- 
ing, and  this  latitude  is  reflected  to  some  ex- 
tent in  their  usage  in  the  English  Bible. 
They  occur,  however,  only  twice  in  the 
English  Bible,  and  in  both  cases  in  a  reli- 
gious sense  (Job  xxxii.  8;  2  Tim.  iii.  16). 
In  the  former  passage  the  word  is  used 
loosely  to  give  expression  to  the  broad  fact  that 
men  are  not  independent  of  God  as  intellec- 
tual beings,  but  that  for  small  and  great,  old 
and  young  alike,  it  is  "the  breath  [or  inspi- 
ration] of  the  Almighty  [that]  gi  veth  them  un- 
derstanding." In  the  latter  passage  the  word 
inspired  is  used  in  its  more  proper  and  spe- 
cific sense  as  a  direct  predicate  of  the  written 
Scriptures,  attirming  that  quality  of  divinity 
in  them  by  virtue  of  which  they  are  "  profita- 
ble "  for  the  great  ends  for  which  they  are 
given.  The  Scriptures  which  the  apostle 
had  particularly  in  mind  in  this  passage  were 
the  sacred  books  of  the  Jews,  what  we  call 
the  O.  T. ;  hut  the  affirmation  he  makes  will 


^i 


Inspiration 


321 


Ir-nahash 


■naturally  hold  good  of  all  writings  which 
riiihtly  share  the  high  title  of  Scripture  with 
tlieni.  The  quality  which  he  thus  makes 
the  fundamental  characteristic  of  Scripture 
is  expressed  in  the  original  Greek,  not  by 
the  simple  word  inspired,  but  by  a  com- 
pound word,  God-inspired,  possibly  of  his 
own  coinage,  by  which  the  divine  source 
of  the  inspiration  is  emphasized.  He  ad- 
duces this  fundamental  quality  of  Scrip- 
ture as  the  ground  on  which  the  unique 
value  of  the  Scriptures  rests:  "All  scrip- 
ture," he  says,  "is  given  by  inspiration  of 
God,  and  is  [therefore]  profitable,  etc."  (A. 
v.),  or,  ■' Every  Scripture,  [seeing  that  it  is] 
inspired  of  God,  is  also  profitable,  etc."  (R. 
v.).  Inspiration,  according  to  the  apostle, 
is,  therefore,  the  fundamental  quality  of 
the  written  Scriptures,  by  virtue  of  which 
they  are  the  word  of  God,  and  are  clothed 
with  all  the  characteristics  which  properly 
belong  to  the  word  of  God.  In  accordance 
with  the  teaching  of  this  classical  passage, 
Scripture  is  uniformly  recognized,  through- 
out the  N.  T.,  as  the  very  word  of  God,  and 
is  treated  as  possessing  all  the  qualities  which 
would  naturally  flow  from  its  divine  origin. 
Thus  it  is  currently  cited  by  the  exclusive 
titles  Scripture,  the  Scriptures,  the  Oracles 
of  God  (Rom.  iii.  2)  or  the  Living  Oracles 
(Acts  vii.  38,  R.  V.),  and  its  words  are 
ordinarily  adduced  by  the  authoritative 
formula,  "  It  is  written."  Its  divine  charac- 
ter is  explicitly  expressed  in  the  constant 
ascri])tion  of  the  words  cursorily  quoted  from 
it  to  God  as  their  author  (Acts  xiii.  34  ;  1  Cor. 
vi.  16  ;  Mat.  i.  22 ;  ii.  1.5 ;  Rom.  i.  2),  or  more 
specificallv  to  the  Holv  Spirit  (Heb.  iii.  7  ;  ix. 
8  ;  X.  15  ;  Actsi.  16  ;  iv.  25,  R.  V.  ;  xxviii.  25)  ; 
and  that,  even  when  they  are  not  ascribed  to 
God  in  the  original  passages,  but  are  spoken 
of  or  even  addressed  to  him,  and  can  be 
thought  his  only  because  they  are  part  of 
the  Scripture  text  (Acts  iv.  24,  25  ;  xiii.  34, 
35  ;  Mat.  xix.  5 ;  Heb.  i.  6,  7,  8,  10  ;  iv.  4,  7 ; 
vii.  21 ;  X.  30).  While  on  the  other  hand  the 
human  writers  of  Scripture  are  said  to  have 
spoken  "  in  "  the  Holy  Spirit  (Mark  xii.  36  ; 
Mat.  xxii.  43,  both  R.  V.),  and  are  treated  as 
merely  the  media  through  whom  God  the  Holy 
Ghost  speaks  (Mat.  i.  22  ;  ii.  15  ;  Acts  i.  16  ;  iv. 
25;  xxviii.  25;  Rom.  i.  2).  Accordingly,  the 
very  words  of  Scripture  are  accounted 
authoritative  and  "not  to  be  broken"  (Mat. 
xxii.  43;  John  x.  34,  35;  Gal.  iii.  16);  its 
prophecies  sure  (2  Pet.  i.  20  ;  John  xix.  36, 
37  ;  x.x.  9  ;  Acts  i.  16 ;  cp.  Ezra  i.  1  ;  Dan.  ix. 
2)  ;  and  its  whole  contents,  historical  as  well 
as  doctrinal  and  ethical,  not  only  entirely 
trustworthy,  but  designedly  framed  for  the 
spiritual  profit  of  all  ages  (2  Tim.  iii.  16 ; 
Rom.  XV.  4  ;  1  Gor.  x.  11 ;  Rom.  iv.  23  ;  ix. 
17  ;  1  Cor.  ix.  10 ;  Gal.  iii.  8.  22 ;  iv.  30  ;  1 
Pet.  ii.  6  ;  cp.  2  Chron.  xvii.  9 ;  Neh.  viii.  1). 
That  the  books  of  the  N.  T.  are  given  to  the 
church  as  equally  Scripture  with  tho.se  of  the 
O.  T.,  and  share  with  them  in  all  their  di- 
21 


vine  qualities,  is  shown  by  the  equal  claim 
to  authority  which  is  made  for  them  (1  Cor. 
vii.  40;  xiv.  37;  2  Thes.  iii.  4,  14;  Gal.  i. 
S) ;  the  similar  representation  of  their 
authors  as  the  organs  of  God  (1  Thes.  ii.  13; 
iv.  2  ;  1  Cor.  ii.  13,  16 ;  vii.  40)  ;  and  the  inclu- 
sion of  N.  T.  books  along  with  tho.se  of  the 
O.  T.  under  the  common  sacred  title  of 
Scripture  (2  Pet.  iii.  16  ;  1  Tim.  v.  18). 

B.  B.  W. 

In'stant  and  In'stant-ly. 

As  an  adjective  or  adverb,  in  the  obsolete 
sense  of  earnest  or  steadfast  (Luke  vii.  4; 
Acts  xxvi.  7 ;  Rom.  xii.  12,  A.  V. ;  2  Tim.  iv.  2.) 

I'ob,  in  A.  V.  Job.     See  Jashub. 

Iph-de'iah,  in  A.  V.  Iph-e-de'iah  [Jehovah 
doth  deliver]. 

A  Benjamite,  son  of  Shashak  (1  Chron. 
viii.  25). 

Iph'tah.  in  A.  V.  Jiphtah  [he  openeth  or 
setteth  free]. 

A  town  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  43).  Site  un- 
known. 

Iph'tah-el,  in  A.  V.  JipMhah-el  [God 
doth  open  or  set  free] . 

A  valley  on  the  boundary  line  between 
Zebulun  and  Asher  (Josh.  xix.  14,  27).  The 
name  is  perhaps  found  in  Jotopata,  the  mod- 
ern Tell  Jefat,  9  miles  north  by  west  of  Naz- 
areth. 

Ir.    See  Iri. 

I'ra  [watchful]. 

1.  A  Jairite  who  was  priest  or  chief  minis- 
ter to  David  (2  Sam.  xx.  26). 

2.  One  of  David's  mighty  men,  a  Tekoite, 
son  of  Ikkesh  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  26  ;  1  Chron, 
xi.  28). 

3.  An  Ithrite,  one  of  David's  mighty  men 
(2  Sam.  xxiii.  38  ;  1  Chron.  xi.  40). 

I'rad. 

A  descendant  of  Cain  (Gen.  iv.  18). 

I'ram  [perhaps,  pertaining  to  a  city,  or 
watchful] . 

A  chieftain  of  Edom  (Gen.  xxxvi.  43 ;  1 
Chron.  i.  54). 

I'ri  and  probably  Ir  [pertaining  to  a  city, 
or  watchful]. 

A  Benjamite,  familj'  of  Bela  (1  Chron.  vii. 
7,  12). 

I-ri'jah  [Jehovah  doth  see  or  provide]. 

Acai)tain  of  the  guard.  During  the  tem- 
porary departure  of  the  Chaldeans  from  the 
siege  of  Jerusalem,  he  arrested  Jeremiah, 
who  was  going  out  at  the  gate  of  Benjamin, 
on  the  charge  of  attempting  to  fall  away  to 
the  enemy  (Jer.  xxxvii.  13). 

Ir-na'bash  [city  of  Nahash  or  of  a  ser- 
pent]. 

A  town  of  which  a  man  of  Judah  was  the 
leading  citizen  (1  Chron.  iv.  12).  The  mar- 
gin renders  city  of  Nahash.  The  chronicler 
may  intend  the  town  of  Abigail's  father  (2 
Sam.  xvii.  25). 


Iron 


322 


Isaac 


I'ron,  I. 

A  metal,  in  Hebrew  Barzel,  in  Greek 
Sideros.  Tubal-cain,  of  the  race  of  Cain, 
worked  in  brass  and  iron  (Gen.  iv.  22).  As 
early  as  the  Mosaic  period,  there  were  axes 
and  other  instruments  of  iron  (Num.  xxxv. 
Ki ;  Dfiit.  xix.  o,  margin).  Og,  king  of 
Bashan,  had  a  bedstead  of  iron  (iii.  11).  In 
the  time  of  Joshua,  vessels  were  made  of  the 
metal  (Josh.  vi.  19,  24) ;  and  chariots  of  iron 
for  war  iiurposes  were  in  use  (Josh.  xvii.  16), 
continuing  through  the  period  of  the  judges, 
and  on  to  later  times  (Judg.  i.  19  ;  iv.  3,  13). 
Of  iron  were  made  armor  and  weapons,  as 
spearheads  and  breastplates  (1  Sam.  xvii.  7; 
Eev.  ix.  9)  ;  agricultural  implements,  as  har- 
rows and  threshing  instruments  (2  Sam.  xii. 
31 ;  Amos  i.  3) ;  builder's  tools  and  nails  (1 
Kin.  vi.  7;  1  Chron.  xxii.  3)  ;  graving  tools 
(Job  xix.  24  ;  Jer.  xvii.  1)  ;  barbed  irons  for 
fishing  (Job  xli.  7)  ;  gates,  bars,  fetters  (Ps. 
cv.  18;  cvii.  10,  16  ;  cxlix.  8  ;  Is.  xlv.  2  ;  Acts 
xii.  10)  ;  idols  (Dan.  v.  4).  Iron  was  imported 
from  Tarshish,  Greece,  and  the  north,  doubt- 
less from  the  vicinity  of  the  Black  Sea  (Jer. 
XV.  12  ;  Ezek.  xxvii.  12,  19).  It  was  obtain- 
able in  Palestine  (Deut.  viii.  9),  being  abun- 
dant on  the  Lebanon  mountains.  The  ore 
was  reduced  in  furnaces  (Deut.  iv.  20;  1  Kin. 
viii.  51)  which,  to  judge  from  those  in  use  in 
Lebanon,  were  built  of  stone,  about  ten  feet 
in  height  and  three  in  diameter.  Charcoal 
was  used  in  them,  and  the  fire  was  blown  by 
bellows  (Ezek.  xxii.  20;  cp.  Jer.  vi.  29).  The 
process  was  laborious  and  involved  enormous 
waste.     See  Smith. 

I'ron,  II.  [timidity,  reverence,  or  rather, 
possessing  a  view,  conspicuous]. 

A  fortified  city  of  Xaphtali  (Josh.  xix.  38) ; 
probably  the  present  village  of  Yarun,  10 
miles  west  from  the  waters  of  Merom. 

Ir'pe-el  [God  healeth]. 

A  town  of  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii.  27).  Con- 
der  thinks  it  probably  the  village  Rafat,  6V 
miles  north  by  west  of  Jerusalem,  the  an- 
cient and  modern  names  having  the  same 
meaning. 

Ir-she'mesh  [city  of  the  sun]. 
A  town  of  Dan  (Josh.  xix.  41),  probably  the 
same  as  Beth-shcmesh. 

I'ru  [pertaining  to  a  city,  or  watchful]. 
A  son  of  the  celebrated  Caleb  (1  Chron. 
iv.  15). 

I'saac  [he  laugheth,  or  laughing  one]. 

The  son  of  Abraham,  by  Sarah  his  wife,  born 
when  his  father  was  100  years  old  and  his  moth- 
er about  90  (Gen.  xxi.  .5;  cp.  xvii.  17).  When 
the  promise  was  made  to  Abraham  that  Sarah 
should  bear  him  a  son,  he  laughed  question- 
ingly  (xvii.  17-19).  Later  when  Sarah  heard 
the  promise  from  the  mouth  of  the  stranger 
stopping  at  the  camp,  she  laughed  incredu- 
lously (xviii.  9-lt>)  ;  and  when  the  child  was 
born  she  joyfully  confessed  that  God  had 
prepared  laughter  for  her  and  her  friends 


(xxi.  6).  To  commemorate  these  events  and 
the  faithfulness  of  God,  Abraham  called  the 
boy's  name  Isaac,  one  laugheth.  He  was  cir- 
cumcised on  the  eighth  day,  and  being  the 
child  of  promise  had  from  the  first  higher 
privileges  than  were  accorded  to  Ishmael, 
Abraham's  son  by  the  Egyptian  maid  Hagar 
(xxi.  1-12).  To  exhibit  and  develop  Abra- 
ham's faith,  God  commanded  him  to  oti'er 
Isaac  as  a  burnt  offering.  Isaac  was  then 
a  youth  (xxii.  H),  perhaps  25  years  old,  as 
Josephus  says  ;  but  he  filially  acquiesced  in 
the  purpose  of  his  father.  When  Abraham 
had  laid  him  upon  the  altar,  and  thus 
shown  his  readiness  to  give  all  that  he  pos- 
sessed to  God,  the  angel  of  the  Lord  for- 
bade the  sacrifice  and  accepted  a  ram  instead, 
thus  testifying  against  the  idolatrous  prac- 
tices of  the  Canaanites,  and  many  other  idol- 
atrous peoples,  and  teaching  to  all  men  that 
human  sacrifices  are  an  abomination  to  the 
Lord  (xxii.  1-18).  The  temperament  of  Isaac 
fitted  him  for  a  retired  and  contemplative, 
rather  than  an  active  life.  He  had,  moreover, 
an  affectionate  heart,  and  when  the  death 
of  his  mother  occurred  he  felt  it  deeply  and 
was  not  again  happy  till  Rebekah  was  brought 
from  Mesopotamia  to  be  his  wife  (xxiii.  1.  2; 
xxiv.  1-67).  He  was  then  about  40  years  old. 
Twenty  years  later  Rebekah  gave  birth  to 
twins,  Esau  and  Jacob.  Esau  was  the  elder 
and  the  favorite  of  Isaac ;  but  God  had  de- 
clared that  the  elder  should  serve  the  younger. 
Jacob  was  Rebekah's  favorite  (xxv.  19-28). 
The  conseq  uences  of  this  partiality  were  harm- 
ful to  all  the  parties  concerned.  When  Isaac 
was  about  137  years  old.  Rebekah  took  ad- 
vantage of  his  age  and  of  the  blindness  and 
the  bluntness  of  feeling  which  it  produced,  to 
pass  Jacob  oil'  for  Esau,  and  obtain  the  spe- 
cial blessing  which  the  father  had  intended 
for  his  favorite  son.  Then  Jacob  had  to  be 
sent  out  of  the  country,  to  escajie  the  threat- 
ened vengeance  of  the  brother  whom  he  had 
cheated  ;  and  as  he  was  away  twenty  years, 
Rebekah  apparently  never  saw  him  more 
(xxvii. -xxxiii.).  Isaac  had  grown  up  in  the 
south  country  ;  and  after  the  death  of  his 
mother  he  dwelt  there  for  a  long  time,  chiefly 
at  Beer-lahai-roi  (xxiv.  62  ;  xxv.  11)  and  Beer- 
sheba  (xxvi.  17-33  ;  xxviii.  10).  But  on  one 
occasion,  during  famine,  he  for  a  considerable 
time  sojourned  near  Gerar,  in  the  Philistine 
country,  where,  like  Abraham  on  a  siujilar 
occasion,  he  denied  his  wife  (xxvi.  1-33) ;  and 
he  was  residing  at  Mamre,  near  Hebron,  when 
Jacob  returned  from  Paddan-aram  (xxxv.  27). 
Isaac  had  inherited  the  wealth  of  Abraham 
(xxv.  .5).  He  died  at  the  age  of  180,  and  was 
buried  by  Esau  and  .Jacob  (xxxv.  28,  29)  in 
the  cave  of  Machpelah,  where  already  the 
mortal  remains  of  his  parents  and  of  his  wife 
had  been  laid  (xlix.  31).  The  N.  T.  alludes 
to  Isaac  as  a  child  of  promise  (Gal.  iv.  22,  23), 
and  instances  his  tent  life  and  his  blessing 
Esau  and  Jacob  as  evidences  of  his  faith 
(Heb.  xi.  9,  20). 


Isaiah 


323 


Isaiah 


I-sa'iali,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Esaias,  the  Greek 
moditicatiou  [Jehovah  hath  saved]. 

A  prophet  of  Judah  in  the  reitjns  of  Uzziah, 
Jotham,  Ahaz,  and  Hezekiah,  kings  of  Judah 
(Is.  i.  1  ;  cp.  vi.  1  ;  vii.  3 ;  xiv.  2b ;  xx.  1,  2 ; 
xxxvi.-xxxix.).  He  was  the  .son  of  Amoz, 
who  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  prophet 
Amos.  He  lived  in  Jerusalem,  and  prophesied 
concerning  Judah  and  Jerusalem  ;  his  jiroph- 
ecies  concerning  Samaria,  Damascus,  Philis- 
tia  and  other  nations  being  subordinate  to 
those  which  directly  concerned  Jerusalem, 
and  being  introduced  because  of  their  rela- 
tion to  Zion  and  the  people  of  God.  It  is  dis- 
puted whether  the  vision  which  he  saw  in 
the  year  that  king  Uzziah  died  (vi.)  marked 
his  call  to  the  prophetic  office,  or  was  in- 
tended to  deepen  his  spirituality.  Other 
prophets  experienced  .similar  renewed  quick- 
ening. Ezekiel's  inaugural  call  was  by  a 
vision ;  and  long  afterwards,  when  he  was 
a  distinguished  prophet,  his  call  to  the 
prophetic  office  was  confirmed,  and  he  was 
warned,  like  Isaiah,  of  the  indifference  with 
which  the  people  would  receive  his  message 
(Ezek.  xxxiii.  21-33).  Peter,  after  several 
years  of  service  as  a  disciple  of  Christ  and 
in  the  apostolic  office,  had  his  insight  into 
Christ's  teaching  deepened  and  was  intro- 
duced into  a  wider  work  by  a  vision  (Acts 
X.).  Paul,  long  after  he  had  been  called  to 
labor  among  the  gentiles,  was  summoned  by 
a  vision  to  work  in  a  new  field,  Europe 
(Acts  xvi.  9,  10).  So  God  may  have  pur- 
posed an  increase  and  a  deepening  of  the 
spiritual  life  of  Isaiah,  in  sending  him  this 
vision.  From  the  time  that  Isaiah  began 
his  prophetic  ministry,  he  was  the  adviser  of 
the  successive  kings,  conveying  them  mes- 
sages from  Jehovah  and,  in  some  cases  at 
least,  inducing  them  to  act  on  the  advice 
which  he  olfered.  In  734  B.  c,  when  Syria 
and  Israel  in  alliance  sought  to  capture  Jeru- 
salem, and  put  a  creature  of  their  own  upon 
the  throne,  he  declared  Jehovah's  purpose 
that  the  attempt  should  fail,  and  he  vainly 
endeavored  to  persuade  Ahaz  to  rely  on  Je- 
hovah and  not  put  confidence  in  heathen 
princes  (vii.).  At  this  time  Isaiah  was  a  mar- 
ried man  (viii.  3),  with  a  son  Shear-jashub  (vii. 
3).  A  second  son  was  afterwards  born  to  him, 
and  was  called  by  the  divine  direction  Maher- 
shalal-hash-baz,  which  means  spoil  speedeth, 
*  prey  hasteth,  both  names  enshrining  proph- 
ecies. Isaiah's  wife  is  called  a  prophetess 
(viii.  3),  probably  merely  as  being  the  wife 
of  a  prophet.  Though  the  extreme  peril  into 
which  Jerusalem  was  brought  in  Ahaz'  reign 
was  from  the  confederacy  between  Israel  and 
Syria,  the  more  permanent  danger  was  from 
another  quarter,  namely,  from  Assyria,  which 
was  anxious  to  possess  itself  of  Palestine,  to 
open  a  way  for  the  conquest  of  Egypt,  which 
was  its  great  rival.  Isaiah's  counsel  was  to 
avoid  entangling  alliances  with  any  of  the  gen- 
tile nations,  and  simply  to  trust  in  Jehovah 
(viii.  12,  etc.).     Ahaz  unwisely  rejected  this 


advice,  called  in  Tiglath-juleser,  king  of  As- 
syria, and  became  his  vassal  ^2  Kin.  xvi.  7, 
8,  10) ;  see  Tiglath-pileser.  Under  Heze- 
kiah the  prophet's  counsel  was  treated  with 
more  respect.  The  Assyrians  invaded  Judah 
in  Hezekiah's  fourteenth  year. about 714  B.C. 
(2  Kin.  xviii.  13  ;  Is.  xxxvi.  1).  Shortly  after- 
wards, in  the  same  year,  Hezekiah  fell  dan- 
gerou.sly  sick,  and  Isaiah  foretold  his  recovery 
(2  Kin.  XX.  1-11).  Then  followed  the  embassy 
of  Merodach-baladan,  712  or  711  B.  c.  (Is. 
xxxix.),  the  conquest  of  Ashdod  by  Sargon's 
army,  711  b.  c.  (xx.\  and  the  unsuccessful 
siege  of  Jerusalem  by  Sennacherib,  701  B.  C. 
(2  Kin.  xviii.  14).  During  the  last-named 
crisis,  Isaiah's  prophecies  and  encouraging 
words  were  important  factors  in  producing 
the  successful  resistance  to  the  besieging 
army.  Hezekiah  died  in  69!S  or  G97  B.  c. 
The  murder  of  Sennacherib  and  accession  of 
Esarhaddon,  which  occurred  in  681  and  660, 
are  recorded  (Is.  xxxvii.  38).  Doubtful  Jew- 
ish tradition  affirms  that  Isaiah  was  martyred 
by  Manasseh,  having  been  sawn  asunder, 
and  some  have  supposed  that  Heb.  xi.  37 
alludes  to  the  manner  of  his  death.  The  date 
involved  is  not  impossible,  for  Isaiah  may 
have  begun  his  ministry  after  740  B.  c,  proph- 
esied in  the  reigns  of  the  four  kings,  Uzziah, 
Jotham,  Ahaz,  and  Hezekiah.  survived  Heze- 
kiah, and  written  his  acts  first  and  last  (2 
Chron.  xxxii.  32),  heard  of  the  murder  of 
Sennacherib,  and  have  suffered  martyrdom  in 
or  after  the  eighteenth  year  of  Manasseh,  at 
the  age  of  not  more  than  80  years.  Isaiah 
wrote  a  history  of  the  reign  of  Uzziah  (2 
Chron.  xxvi.  22),  probably  using  records  and 
other  authoritative  sources  for  the  earlier 
part  of  the  reign. 

The  Book  of  the  Prophet  Isaiah  is  divisible 
as  follows:  I.  Introduction  (i.).  II.  A  proph- 
ecy against  Jerusalem  (ii.-iv.),  with  a  con- 
tinuation or  closely  related  prophecy  (v.). 
The  denunciation  culminates  in  iv.  with  the 
effect  of  the  judgment  and  a  picture  of  the 
glory  of  Messianic  times.  This  prophecy  may 
have  been  delivered  during  the  prosperous 
times  of  the  joint  reign  of  Uzziah  and  Jo- 
tham. III.  The  vision  of  chap,  vi.,  which, 
as  every  one  admits,  stands  in  close  relation 
to  the  Rook  of  Immanuel  (vii.-xii.).  IV. 
Ten  burdens  on  the  nations  (xiii.-xxiii.),  di- 
vided by  chap,  xx.,  which  is  of  international 
import,  into  two  series  of  five  burdens  each, 
and  culminating  in  judgment  upon  the  whole 
world  (xxiv. ).  V.  Historical  section  (xxxvi.- 
xxxix.),  describing  the  initiatory  operations 
of  the  Assyro-Babylonian  power  in  Judah, 
and  serving  as  an  introduction  to  the  Book 
of  Consolation,  which  was  offered  in  view  of 
the  sore  judgment  upon  Judah  (xl.-lxvi.).  It 
treats  of  the  relation  of  the  church  of  Israel 
to  Jehovah  (xl.-xlviii.),  the  relation  of  the 
church  to  the  nations  (xlix.-Ivii.),  the  abro- 
gation of  national  distinctions,  and  the  glo- 
rious future  of  the  church  (Iviii.-lxvi.).  The 
prominent  figure  in  these  chapters  is  the  serv- 


Isaiah 


324 


Isaiah 


ant  of  the  Lord.  The  view  most  widely  enter- 
tained by  modern  commentators  is  that  the 
servant  of  tlie  Lord  is  Israel,  the  eye  of  the 
prophet  being  fixed  sometimes  on  the  nation 
as  a  whole,  sometimes  on  the  godly  portion, 
sometimes  on  tiiat  perfect  representative  of 
Israel,  that  Israelite  indeed,  Christ.  Against 
other  views  there  may  be  urged  :  1.  The  serv- 
ant of  chap.  liii.  is  interpreted  by  the  Jewish 
Targums  as  Messiah.  2.  The  prophet  Zecha- 
riah  apparently  identifies  the  Branch,  a  fa- 
miliar designation  of  Messiah,  with  the  serv- 
ant whereby  the  iniquity  of  the  land  is  taken 
away  (Zech.  iii.  8-10;  cp.  Jer.  xxiii.  5-8).  3. 
The  description  of  the  snffering  servant  of 
chap.  liii.  actually  finds  its  counterpart  in 
Christ. 

The  genuineness  of  chapter  1.  was  called  in 
question  by  Koppe  in  1797.  Soon  afterwards 
Di'Jderlein  assigned  the  composition  of  the 
last  twenty-seven  chapters  to  the  time  of  the 
exile.  This  theory,  enlarged  to  include  xiii- 
xiv.  23  ;  xxi.  1-10  ;  xxiii. -xxvii.  ;  xxxiv.  ; 
XXXV.,  has  found  innumerable  advocates. 
The  arguments  advanced  in  its  support  are 
all  comprehended  in  three.  1.  The  language 
is  late  and  the  style  is  peculiar.  2.  The 
allusions  to  the  condition  of  Jews  and  gen- 
tiles reveal  the  time  of  the  exile.  3.  The 
statements  concerning  the  condition  of  the 
pcojile  agree  with  the  historical  facts,  but 
those  which  relate  to  the  future  have  fallen 
short  of  fulfillment. 

To  these  arguments  the  answer,  which 
must  unfortunately  be  stated  summarily,  is 
rendered  :  1.  There  has  not  been  shown  a 
single  word  of  known  late  date,  nor  a  single 
foreign  element  which  there  is  any  reason  to 
believe  was  not  current  in  Jeru.salem  in  the 
days  of  Isaiah.  Every  word,  phrase,  and 
form  is  found  in  earlier  Hebrew  literature  or 
may  be  explained  by  the  history  of  the  times. 
As  to  the  style  being  peculiar,  change  of 
style  is  consistent  with  unity  of  authorship. 
The  style  of  Shakespere  changed.  His  liter- 
ary activity  lasted  but  twenty-five  years,  yet 
four  distinct  periods  are  discernible  in  his 
plays,  marked  by  difl'erences  of  style.  The 
literary  activity  of  Isaiah  was  continued 
through  at  least  forty  years  and  perhaps 
sixty.  And  is  the  style  so  peculiar  after  all  ? 
Tho.se  wlio  deny  the  Isaianic  authorship  find 
it  incumlient  upon  them  to  explain  the  simi- 
larity of  style.  Augusti  accounts  for  the 
ascription  of  these  chapters  to  Isaiah  in  the 
first  instance  by  the  fact  that  "they  were 
composed  .so  entirely  in  the  spirit  and  man- 
ner of  Isaiah."  Gesenius  and  De  Wette 
ascribe  tlie  similarity  of  style  to  imitation  or 
the  work  of  a  conforming  hand.  Umbreit 
calls  the  unknown  author  of  the  chapters  in 
dispute,  "  Isaiah  risen  again  "  as  from  the 
dead.  2.  To  the  argument  that  the  allusions, 
which  are  made  in  the.se  chapters  to  the  con- 
dition of  Jews  and  gentiles,  reveal  the  time 
of  the  exile,  it  is  replied :  «.  The  prophets 
frequently  transport  themselves  to  the  future 


and  describe  what  they  are  predicting  as 
already  past ;  for  instance,  although  Zebulun 
and  Naphtali  had  been  ravaged  and  their  in- 
habitants carried  into  captivity,  the  acknowl- 
edged Isaiah  says  of  them :  "  The  people 
that  walked  in  darkness  have  seen  a  great 
light"  (ix.  2).  b.  The  explicit  references  to 
Babylon,  the  exile,  and  the  restoration  are 
few.  c.  The  acknowledged  Isaiah  and  his 
contemporary  prophets  were  already  living 
in  anticipation  of  the  Babylonian  exile. 
There  is  scarcely  an  event  connected  with 
the  exile,  to  which  the  author  refers,  but  was 
known  to  the  Israelites  in  the  time  of  Isaiah. 
The  prophets  of  the  time  predicted  the  de- 
struction of  Jerusalem  and  the  temple  (Amos 
ii.  5;  Micah  iii.  12;  Is.  iii.  8;  vi.  11),  the 
desolation  of  the  land  of  Judah  (Hos.  viii. 
14;  Amos  ix.  11,  14;  Is.  iii.  25,  26;  vi.  11, 
12  ;  xxxii.  13),  the  captivity  of  the  people  of 
Judah  (Is.  xi.  12;  cp.  Mic.  i.  14-16).  This 
captivity  was  to  be  in  Babj'lou  {Mic.  iv.  10 ; 
Is.  xi.  11  ;  xxxix.  6,  7).  There  should  be  a 
return  from  exile  (Joel  iii.  1  ;  Is.  xi.  11),  and 
Jerusalem  and  the  temple  should  be  rebuilt 
(Mic.  iv.  2 ;  although  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  had  been  foretold,  iii.  12  ;  cp.  Joel 
iii.  16,  17,  20).  d.  The  spiritual  condition  of 
the  people,  as  exhibited  in  these  chapters,  is 
that  of  the  time  of  Isaiah ;  idolatry  under 
every  green  tree  (Ivii.  5  and  i.  29;  2  Kin. 
xvi.  4)  and  among  the  oaks  (Ivii.  5  and  i.  29  ; 
Hos.  iv.  13)  and  in  gardens  (Ixv.  3 ;  Ixvi.  17 
and  i.  29) ;  the  slaying  of  children  in  the 
valleys  (Ivii.  5  and  2  Chron.  xxviii.  3; 
xxxiii.  6  ;  2  Kin.  xxiii.  10)  ;  ascending  a 
high  mountain  to  ofter  sacrifice  (Ivii.  7  and  2 
Chron.  xxviii.  4 ;  Hos.  iv.  13 ;  cp.  Ezek.  vi. 
13) ;  hypocrisy  (Iviii.  2-4  and  xxix.  13)  :  Sab- 
bath-breaking (Iviii.  13  and  Amos  viii.  5 ; 
Jer.  xvii.  19-27) ;  blood,shed  and  violence  (lix. 
3,  7  and  i.  15;  Mic.  vii.  2)  ;  falsehood,  injus- 
tice, and  oppression  (lix.  3,  4,  6,  7,  9  and  v. 
7.  23;  X.  1,  2;  Mic.  ii.  1,  2  ;  vii.  3)  ;  neglect 
of  the  temple  worship  (xliii.  23,  24  and  2 
Chron.  xxviii.  24  ;  xxix.  27 ;  2  Kin.  xv.  4  :  2 
Chron.  xxvii.  2 ;  2  Kin.  xv.  35 ;  2  Chron. 
xxxiii.  10).  Burning  incense  upon  bricks 
(Ixv.  3)  was  appropriate  to  a  worshij)  derived 
from  either  Egy])t,  Assyria,  or  Babylonia, 
and  was  practiced  in  Jerusalem  before  the 
exile  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  12  ;  Jer.  xix.  13).  Swine's 
fiesh  was  offered  and  eaten  (Ixv.  4)  by  the 
Egyptians  on  the  festival  of  Selene  and  Dio- 
nysus (Herod,  ii.  47,  48)  and  commonly 
enough  by  the  Babylonians.  3.  To  the  argu- 
ment that  the  statements  concerning  the 
condition  of  the  people  agree  with  the  his- 
torical facts,  whereas  those  which  relate  to 
the  future  have  fallen  far  short  of  fulfill- 
ment, it  is  replied  that  the  assertion  applies 
with  equal  force  to  the  acknowledged  writings 
of  the  prophet  Isaiah.  He  foretold  the  de- 
struction of  the  cities,  the  utter  desolation 
of  the  land,  and  the  removal  of  the  inhabi- 
tants far  hence  (vi.  11,  12).  This  was  ful- 
filled to  the  letter.     But  he  prophesied  also 


Iscah 


325 


Ishma 


the  flocking  of  the  gentiles  to  the  standard 
of  Jesse's  son,  the  return  of  the  ea])tive  peo- 
ple of  tiod  from  all  parts  of  the  world,  the 
drying  up  of  rivers  which  were  obstacles  in 
the  coui'se  of  the  march,  a  highway  from 
Assyria  for  the  remnant  of  the  jieople,  the 
wolf  dwelling  in  peace  with  the  lamb  (xi.  6- 
8,  10-12,  If),  IG).  Tliese  are  the  same  pre- 
dictions as  those  which  in  the  latter  portion 
of  the  book  are  pointed  to  as  the  extravagant 
utterances  of  an  enthusiast  and  as  having 
fallen  short  of  fulfillment.  The  acknowl- 
edged Isaiah,  living  two  centuries  before  the 
fall  of  Babylon  and  the  hopes  which  that 
event  are  supposed  to  have  awakened,  wrote 
in  precisely  the  same  manner  as  the  author 
of  the  last  section. 

The  real  ground  on  which  the  denial  of 
the  genuineness  of  the  last  twenty-seven 
chaptei's  rests  is  the  mention  of  Cyrus  by 
name  (xliv.  2S;  xlv.  1).  So  also  Josiah  was 
foretold  by  name  (1  Kin.  xiii.  2).  If  pre- 
dictive prophecy  is  possible,  if  it  was  ever 
uttered  by  holy  men  taught  by  the  Holy 
Ghost,  then  these  words  could  have  been 
penned  by  Isaiah.  Otherwise  they  were  not 
uttered  until  nearly  two  hundred  years  after 
Isaiah.  The  church  has  always  believed  in 
predictive  prophecy  and  in  the  inspiration  of 
Isaiah. 

Is'cah  [perhaps,  discerning  or  expectant]. 

A  daughter  of  Haran  and  sister  of  Milcah 
(Gen.  xi.  29),  and  consequently  sister  of  Lot 
(27).  Iscah  has  been  regarded  as  another 
name  of  Sarai  (Antiq.  i.  (i,  5;  Targum  Jona- 
than) ;  but  in  that  case  Sarai  would  have 
been  Abraham's  niece  and  not  his  half-sister 
(Gen.  XX.  12). 

Is-car'i-ot  [probably,  man  of  Kerioth], 

A  designation  of  Judas  the  traitor  (Mat.  x. 
4  ;  Luke  vi.  16),  which  belonged  to  his  father 
Simon  before  him  (John  vi.  71,  R.  V.).  It 
was  used  to  distinguish  him  from  the  other 
apostle  called  Judas  (Luke  vi.  16  ;  Acts  i.  13, 
16).  It  seems  to  mean  that  Judas  was  a 
native  of  Kerioth  in  the  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  25).  In  the  codex  Bezse  the  word 
is  written  apo  Kaiuotou  everywhere  in  the 
Fourth  Gospel,  and  is  so  written  in  John  vi.  71 
in  the  codex  Sinaiticus.  Accordingly  Judas  was 
a  Judpean  ;  and  perhaps  he  was  the  only  apos- 
tle from  Judjea,  and  the  rest  were  Galilseans. 

Ish'bali  [he  praiseth  or  praising  one]. 

A  man  of  Judah,  ancestor  or  head  of  the 
inhabitants  of  Eshtemoa  (1  Chron.  iv.  17). 

Ish'bak  [perhaps,  he  leaveth  or  relinquish- 
ing one]. 

A  son  of  Abraham  by  Keturah  (Gen.  xxv. 
2),  founder  of  an  Arab  tribe. 

Ish-bi-be'nob  [mv  dwelling  place  is  on  a 
height]. 

A  Philistine  giant  who  was  on  the  point  of 
killing  David,  but  was  himself  slain  by 
Abishai  (2  Sam.   xxi.  16,   17). 

Ish-bo'sheth  [man  of  shame]. 

One    of   Saul's    younger  sons,    originally 


called  Eshbaal,  the  Lord's  man,  which  was 
changed  to  Ish-bosheth,  man  of  sluniie,  cither 
during  his  lifetime  when  the  glory  of  his 
house  dei)arte(l,  or  in  later  times  when  the 
name  Baal  fell  into  disrepute  through  its 
idolatrous  associations  (2  Sam.  ii.  8  with  1 
Chron.  viii.  33;  is.  39).  He  was  not  ]>rescnt 
at  the  battle  of  (lilboa  ;  or,  if  present,  he  es- 
caped the  slaughter  on  that  disastrous  day. 
When,  on  the  death  of  Saul,  David  obtained 
the  sovereignty  over  Judah,  the  other  eleven 
tribes  wei-e  unwilling  to  otter  liini  allegiance  ; 
and  when  Abner,  taking  Ish-bosheth  to 
Mahanaim,  proclaimed  him  king,  they  gave 
him  supi)ort,  as  considering  him  the  legiti- 
mate and  hereditary  successor  of  his  royal 
father.  He  was  then  aged  about  40,  and 
reigned  two  troubled  years  (2  Sam.  ii.  8-10). 
His  army  was  defeated  by  Joab  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Gibeon  (12-31).  In  other  battles 
his  followers  were  also  unsuccessful  (iii.  1). 
He  also  brought  a  serious  charge  against 
Abner,  who,  taking  offense,  transferred  his 
services  to  David.  With  the  aid  of  Abner, 
David  compelled  Ish-bosheth  to  deliver  up 
Michal,  the  wife  whom  David  had  obtained 
from  Saul  (6-21).  Ab)ier  was  presently  mur- 
dered at  Hebron,  and  when  Ish-bosheth  heard 
thereof,  he  lost  heart  (27;  iv.  1).  He  was 
soon  afterwards  treacherously  murdered,  and 
with  his  death  the  dynasty  of  Saul  came  to 
an  end.  The  severed  head  of  Ish-bosheth 
was  interred  in  the  tomb  of  Abner  at 
Hebron,  and  the  murderers,  who  had  boasted 
to  David  of  what  they  had  done,  were  by  his 
orders  compelled  to  su  flier  the  penalty  of 
their  crime  (iv.  5-12). 

Isti'liod,  in  A.  V.  Ishod  [man  of  splendor]. 
A  Manassite  whose  mother  was  Hammole- 
keth  (1  Chron.  vii.  18). 

Ish'i,  I.   [my  husband]. 

A  name  by  which  the  Israelites  call  Jeho- 
vah, when  they  return  to  their  allegiance.  It 
supersedes  the  synonymous  one  Baali,  my 
master,  because  the  word  Baal  had  come  into 
ill  repute  through  its  association  with  idol- 
atry (Hos.  ii.  16,  17). 

Ish'i,  II.  [saving,  salutary]. 

1.  A  man  of  Judah,  son  of  Ai)paim,  house 
of  Jerahmeel  (1  Chron.  ii.  31). 

2.  A  man  of  Judah,  father  of  Zoheth  (1 
Chron.  iv.  20). 

3.  A  Simeonite  whose  sons  led  a  band  which 
overcame  the  Amalekites  of  mount  Seir, 
and  seized  on  their  settlements  (1  Chron. 
iv.  42). 

4.  Head  of  a  father's  house  of  the  half- 
tribe  of  Manasseh  east  of  the  Jordan  (1 
Chron.  V.  24). 

I-sM'ah.     See  Isshiah. 

I-sM'jah.     See  Is.shijah. 

Ish'ma  [desolation  or,  perhaps,  distinction]. 
A  man  of  Judah,  descended  from  Hur  (1 
Chron.  iv.  3,  4). 


leliniael 


326 


Ishuah 


Isb'ma-el  [God  liearetli]. 

1.  Tlio  st.n  of  Abiahain  by  Hagar  the 
Egyptian  maid  ;  boru  wlien  Abraham  was 
eighty-six  years  old,  after  be  liad  been  ten 
full  years  iu  Canaan  (Gen.  xvi.  3,  15  ;  cp.  xii. 
4).  He  was  the  child  of  worldly  wisdom, 
not  of  faith  ;  he  was  born  of  parents  who,  iu 
the  face  of  God's  promise,  were  blinded  by 
seeming  impossil)iliti<'s,  and  soughtby  earthly  • 
means  to  enable  God  to  fiillill  his  engage- 
ments. When  the  rite  of  circumcision  was 
instituted  for  the  family  of  Abraham,  Ishmael, 
then  thirteen  years  of  age,  was  circumcised 
(xvii.  2.")i.  The  next  year  Isaac  was  born, 
when  his  mother  was  past  age,  the  child  of 
promise,  a  rebuke  to  unbelief  (xxi.  5).  At 
liis  weaning,  the  customary  feast  was  made, 
when  Ishmael  was  seen  to  be  mocking.  This 
was  tiic  first  occasion  iu  the  family  of  Abra- 
ham that  those  born  after  the  flesh  in  doubt 
of  (iod's  way  mocked  at  the  heirs  of  promise  ; 
and  Paul  seizes  upon  the  allegory  in  the  inci- 
dent (Gal.  iv.  2:^-31).  This  misbehavior  of 
Ishmael  led  to  the  expulsion  of  him  and  his 
motlier.  They  wandered  in  the  wilderness 
of  Beer-sheba  till  both  were  nearly  perishing 
Avith  thirst.  The  angel  of  the  Lord  directed 
Hagar  to  some  water  among  the  shrubs,  and 
the  life  of  herself  and  her  son  was  preserved. 
Ishmael  grew  up  in  the  wilderness  of  Parau, 
south  of  Canaan,  where  he  lived  by  his  how. 
Eventually  he  married  a  wife  from  Egypt, 
his  mother's  ancestral  home  (Gen.  xxi.  3-21). 
In  fulfillment  of  a  promise  made  by  God  to 
Abraham,  Ishmael  became  the  progenitor  of 
twelve  princes  (xvii.  20 ;  xxv.  12-16)  ;  see 
IsHMAELiTES.  He  had  also  a  daughter,  who 
was  married  to  Esau  (xxviii.  9  ;  xxxvi.  10). 
Ishmael  took  part  with  Isaac  in  hurying  their 
father  Abraham  (xxv.  9).  He  himself  died  at 
tlie  age  of  137  (xxv.  17). 

2.  A  descendant  of  Jonathan  (1  Chron.  viii. 
38;  ix.  41). 

3.  A  man  of  Judah,  father  of  the  high  ju- 
dicial functionary  Zebediah  (2  Chron.  xix.  11). 

4.  A  son  of  Jehohanan.  He  took  part  in 
the  successful  conspiracy  against  Athaliah 
(2  Chron.  xxiii.  1). 

5.  A  son  of  Nethaniah,  who  belonged  to 
the  seed  royal  of  Judah.  When  Nebuchad- 
nezzar departed  from  Palestine,  after  the  cap- 
ture of  Jerusalem,  he  left  behind  him  as  gov- 
ernor of  Judah  a  certain  Jew  called  Gedaliah, 
who  ))romised  protection  to  any  of  the  con- 
quered people  who  jilaced  themselves  under 
liis  rule.  Among  others  Ishmael  came,  but 
with  hostile  intent.  Instigated  by  the  king 
of  th(^  Anunonites,  he  assassinated  Gedaliah, 
massacring  at  the  same  time  the  people  with 
him.  After  further  murders  he  carried  off 
cai>tives,  including  the  king's  daughters,  and 
finally  attemiited  to  make  his  way  to  the  Am- 
monite country.  Johanan,  son  of  Kareah, 
and  others  went  forth  to  fight  M'ith  him. 
They  found  him  at  (iibeon.  His  captives 
turned  to  .lolKiiian,  liut  he  himself  succeeded 
in  escaping  with  eight  men  to  the  king  of 


Ammou.  who  had  instigated  his  crimes  (2 
Kin.  xxv.  25  ;  Jer.  xl.  7-l(i ;  xli.  1-lS). 

6.  A  son  of  Pashhur,  who  was  induced 
by  Ezra  to  put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra 
X.  22).  '     ■ 

Ish'ma-el-ite,  in  A.  Y.  often  Ishmeelite, 
an  orthography  true  to  the  Hebrew  word,  but 
English  literature  has  adopted  the  former 
spelling. 

A  descendant  of  Ishmael.  The  Ishmael- 
ites  had  Egyptian  blood,  as  well  as  the  blood 
of  Abraham,  in  their  veins.  Twelve  princes 
sprang  from  Ishmael  (Gen.  xvii.  20;  xxv.  12- 
16).  He  may  have  had  more  sons,  and  pos- 
sibly some  of  those  enumerated  were  grand- 
sons. Twelve  was  an  approved  number. 
Twelve  was  carefully  preserved  as  the  num- 
ber of  the  tribes  of  Israel,  and  twelve  was 
the  recognized  number  of  the  kings  of  the 
Hittites  in  their  confederacy.  The  Ishmael- 
ites  in  their  twelvefold  division  dwelt  in  set- 
tlements and  in  movable  camps  in  the  desert 
of  northern  Arabia,  in  the  region  included 
between  Havilah,  Egypt,  and  the  Euphrates 
(xxv.  18  ;  Antiq.  i.  12,  4).  Occasionally  one 
of  their  tribes  acquired  permanent  residence 
and  civilization,  as  the  Nabathseans ;  but  they 
mostly  possessed  the  character  of  their  an- 
cestor and  dwelt  like  the  untamable  ass  of 
the  desert  (Gen.  xvi.  12).  Like  Ishmael,  too, 
they  were  celebrated  for  their  skill  with  the 
bow  (Is.  xxi.  17).  To  Ishmaelites  traveling 
as  carriers  between  Gilead  and  Egypt,  or, 
more  definitely,  to  "certain  Midianites,  mer- 
chants," in  the  caravan,  Joseph  was  sold  by 
his  brethren  (Gen.  xxxvii.  25-28).  In  Ps. 
Ixxxiii.  6  they  are  mentioned  with  Edomites, 
Moabites,  and  Hagarenes. 

In  a  wider  sense,  the  nomadic  tribes  of 
northern  Arabia  generally ;  either  because 
the  Ishmaelites  were  the  chief  people  of  the 
desert,  and  their  name  came  to  be  used  as 
a  synonym  for  any  nomad  of  the  region,  or 
because  an  Ishmaelite  confederacy  had  been 
formed  which  included  tribes  of  other  blood 
(Judg.  viii.  24  ;  cp.  vii.  25  ;  viii.  22,  26 ;  Judith 
ii.  23).  All  the  Arabs,  after  the  example  of 
Mohammed,  claim  descent  from  Ishmael. 

Ish-ma'iah,  in  A.  V.  once  Ismaiah  (1  Chron. 
xii.  4)  [Jehovah  heareth]. 

1.  A  Gibeonite  who  joined  David  at  Ziklag 
(1  Chron.  xii.  4). 

2.  Son  of  Obadiah  and  head  in  David's 
reign  of  the  Zebulunites  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  19). 

Ish'me-el-ite.     See  Ishmaelite. 
Ish'me-rai  [probably,  Jehovah  keepeth]. 
A  Benjamite,sonof  Elpaal  (1  Chron.  viii.  18). 
I'shod.     See  Ishhod. 
Ish'pali,  in  A.  Y.  Ispah  [perhaps,  bald]. 
A  lien  jamite,  son  of  Beriah  (1  Chron.  viii.  16). 
Ish'pan. 

A  l'>enjamite.  son  of  Shashak  (1  Chron. 
viii.  22). 

Ish'tob  [men  of  Tob].     See  Tob. 
Ish'u-ah.    See  Ishvah. 


Ishuai 


327 


Israel 


Ish'u-ai  and  Ishm.     See  Ishvi. 

Ish'vali,  in  A.  V.  Ishuah  and  Isuaii  [per- 
haps, equality]. 

The  second  son  of  Asher  (Gen.  xlvi.  17;  1 
Clirou.  vii.  30).  He  probably  died  childless; 
or.  if  he  had  descendants,  they  did  not  con- 
stitute a  tribal  family  or  perpetuate  his  name 
(cp.  Num.  xxvi.  44). 

Ish'vi,  in  A.  V.  Ishuai,  Ishui,  Isui,  and 
Jesui  [jierhaps,  equal]. 

1.  The  third  son  of  Asher,  and  founder  of 
a  tribal  faniilviGeu.  xlvi.  17;  Num.  xxvi. 
44  ;  1  Chron.  vii.  30). 

2.  A  son  of  Saul  (1  Sam.  xiv.  49). 
Isle,  Is 'land. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  '/.meaning 
1.  Habitable  land,  as  opposed  to  water  (Is. 
xlii.  15).  '2.  An  island  in  the  ordinary  sense 
of  the  word  (Jer.  xlvii.  4).  3.  A  maritime 
■country,  even  when  constituting  part  of  a 
continent :  the  coast  land  of  Pale.stine  and 
Phoenicia  (Is.  xx.  6,  in  R.  V.  coast  land  ;  cp. 
xxiii.  2,  6).  and  the  coasts  and  islands  of  Asia 
Minor  and  Greece  (Gen.  x.  5).  4.  The  re- 
motest regions  of  the  earth  and  their  inhab- 
itants (Is.  sli.  5;  Zeph.  ii.  11).  This  employ- 
ment of  the  term  may  have  arisen:  (o)  By 
synecdoche,  the  isles  of  the  ^lediterranean 
being  remote  and  scarcely  known.  (6)  From 
the  current  belief  that  the  world  was  sur- 
rounded with  water,  so  that  the  most  distant 
region  was  the  coast  land  of  the  world-ocean. 

Is-ma-cM'ah  [Jehovah  supporteth]. 

An  overseer  connected  with  the  temple  in 
Hezekiah's  reign  (2  Chron.  xxxi.  13). 

Is-ma'iah.    See  Ishmaiah. 

Is'pah.     See  I.*hpah. 

Is'ra-el  [he  striveth  with  God,  or  God 
striveth]. 

1.  The  name  given  to  Jacob  when  he  was 
Teturning  from  Mesopotamia  and  just  about 
to  cross  the  brook  Jabbok,  where  he  expected 
to  meet  Esau  (Gen.  xxxii.  22-32)  ;  see  Jacob. 

2.  The  whole  body  of  the  descendants  of 
Jacob  at  any  one  time.  This  use  of  the  word 
began  in  his  own  lifetime  (Gen.  xxxiv.  7).  It 
was  common  during  the  wilderness  wander- 
ings (Ex.  xxxii.  4;  Deut.  iv.  1;  xxvii.  9), 
though  the  designation  children  of  Israel  was 
yet  more  frequent  both  during  this  and  the 
former  period.  Down  to  the  death  of  Saul, 
Israel  and  the  children  of  Israel,  when  used 
as  a  national  designation,  comprehended  the 
Hebrews  generally,  without  distinction  of 
tribes.  There  were,  however,  geographical 
and  other  causes  already  at  work  which 
tended  to  separate  Judah  from  the  rest  of 
Israel  ;  and  the  distinction  had  come  to  be 
recognized  before  the  actual  division  of  the 
people  into  two  kingdoms  took  place  (1  Sam. 
xi.  8  ;  xvii.  .52  ;  xviii.  16)  ;  see  Judah.  It  was 
used  also  under  the  united  monarchy  (1  Kin. 
xi.  42).  In  the  parallelism  of  Hebrew  poetry 
it  often  corresponds  in  the  second  line  of  the 
couplet  to  Jacob  in  the  first  (Num.  xxiii.  7, 


10,  21  :  xxiv.  5  ;  Ps.  xiv.  7).  After  the  exile 
the  reference  is  frequently  to  the  people  of 
the  various  tribes  who  returned  to  Jerusalem 
(Ezra  ix.  1  ;  x.  .5:  Neh.  ix.  2;  xi.  3). 

3.  The  tribes  which  acted  independently  of 
Judah.  Thesplitof  the  Hebrew  peojtle  into  two 
kingdoms  occurred  on  the  death  of  Saul.  The 
northern  and  eastern  tribes  recognized  Saul's 
son  Ish-bosheth  as  king,  and  the  tribe  of 
Judah  followed  David.  From  this  time  on- 
ward Israel  is  frequently  used  to  denote  the 
ten  tribes.  Ish-bosheth  reigned  two  years 
and  was  assassinated,  but  seven  years  elapsed 
before  the  breach  was  healed  and  David  was 
anointed  king  of  all  Israel  (2  Sam.  ii.  10,  11). 
The  jealousies,  however,  remained,  and  on 
the  death  of  Solomon  the  rupture  became 
final.  Ten  tribes  followed  Jerolioam  and  one 
clave  to  the  house  of  David.  The  ten  tribes 
which  were  rent  from  the  house  of  David 
were  Reuben,  Gad,  and  half  Manasseh  east 
of  the  Jordan,  and  west  of  the  river  half 
Manasseh,  Ephraim.  Issachar.  Zelnilun,  Naph- 
tali,  Asher,  Dan,  and  lastly  Benjamin,  which 
belonged  in  part  to  the  northern  kingdom, 
Bethel,  Gilgal,  and  Jericho,  chief  places  in 
the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  being  within  the 
bounds  of  the  northern  kingdom. 

The  cau.ses  which  led  to  the  schism  were : 
1.  The  isolation  of  Judah  caused  by  nature 
and  augmented  by  Jo.shua's  blunder.  2.  The 
ancient  jealousy  between  the  two  powerful 
tribes  of  Ephraim  and  Judah.  It  had  caused 
a  temporary  disruption  of  the  kingdom  after 
Saul's  deatli :  it  liroke  out  again  after  the  de- 
feat of  Absalom  because  Judah  was  the  first 
to  welcome  the  king  back  (2  Sam.  xix.  15, 
40-43).  It  had  been  freshly  provoked  by 
Solomon's  lavish  adornment  of  Jerusalem  on 
the  borders  of  Judah,  and  at  his  death  re- 
sulted in  permanent  separation.  3.  Discon- 
tent caused  by  the  excessive  luxury  of  the 
throne.  The  people  were  groaning  under  op- 
pressive burdens.  Solomon's  love  of  siden- 
dor  had  led  to  taxation  to  support  his  enor- 
mous household  and  maintain  his  display, 
and  to  enforcement  of  labor  to  carrv  out  his 
great  works  (1  Kin.  iv.  22.  23,  26  ;  v.  13-16). 
The  reasonable  request  of  the  people  for  re- 
lief was  perversely  refused  by  Rehoboani.  4. 
Idolatry,  fostered  by  foreign  marriages  (1  Kin. 
xi.  1-11 ).  A  subtle  corruption  spread  through 
all  ranks  owing  to  the  encouragement  given 
to  false  religions,  attachment  to  the  worship 
of  Jehovah  was  weakened,  and  one  great 
unifying  force  was  destroyed.  5.  The  folly 
of  Rehoboam  in  refusing  the  request  of  the 
people  for  relief  intensified  the  disintegrating 
forces  and  precii>itated  the  catastrophe  (1 
Kin.  xii.  3-.").  12-16). 

As  compared  with  .Tudah  in  respect  to 
strength  the  northern  kingdom  had  ten 
tribes,  twice  the  population,  and  nearly  three 
times  the  extent  of  territory.  But  it  was 
more  exposed  to  war  and  less  easy  of  defense 
than  Judah.  It  was  the  apostate  nation,  and 
defection  from  God  is  weakness  and  inevita- 


Israel 


328 


Issachar 


bly  undermines  the  stability  of  a  state.  It 
had  an  inferior  religion  with  its  lower  moral 
tone,  and  many  of  its  best  spirits  forsook  it ; 
the  priests  and  Levites  migrated  into  Judah 
(2  Chrou.  xi.  13.  14). 

The  capital  of  the  northern  kingdom  was 
at  Shechem  at  first.  It  was  soon  removed  to 
Tirzah,  and  then  Omri  founded  Samaria  and 
transferred  the  seat  of  government  to  the 
new  city  ( 1  Kin.  xii.  25 ;  xiv.  17 ;  xv.  21 ; 
xvi.  23,  24). 

Jeroboam,  the  first  king,  was  afraid  that 
if  his  people  visited  Jerusalem  for  wor- 
ship, they  would  be  won  over  to  their  old 
allegiance ;  he  therefore  established  two 
shrines,  one  at  Dan  in  the  extreme  north, 
and  the  other  at  Bethel,  in  the  south  of  the 
kingdom.  At  each  of  these  places  he  erected 
a  golden  calf,  which  he  designed  as  an  aid  to 
the  worship  of  Jehovah  ;  see  Calf.  Judg- 
ment was  threatened  against  him  and  his 
race  for  this  partial  apostasy,  and  after  his 
son,  Nadab,  had  reigned  two  years,  the 
dynasty  was  swept  away.  Nineteen  kings  in 
ail  sat  upon  the  throne.  See  Chronology. 
Their  united  reigns  covered  a  period  of  about 
210  years ;  seven  of  them  reigned  but  two 
years  or  less  ;  eight  wete  slain  or  committed 
suicide  and  the  throne  was  transferred  to 
another  family,  and  in  only  two  instances 
was  the  royal  power  held  by  as  many  as  four 
members  of  the  same  family  in  succession. 
None  of  the  kings  removed  the  calves  from 
Bethel  and  Dan  ;  indeed,  under  Ahab,  who 
was  influenced  by  his  wicked  heathen  wife, 
Jezebel,  the  apostasy  was  rendered  complete 
by  the  introduction  of  the  worship  of  Baal 
instead  of  Jehovah.  But  God  raised  up 
prophets  who  contended  steadfastly  for  the 
worship  of  Jehovah,  at  whatever  risk  to 
themselves.  The  most  notable  were  Elijah 
and  Elisha  (q.v.).  After  the  suppression  of 
Baal  worship,  other  prophets,  especially 
Hosea  and  Amos,  labored  for  the  reformation 
of  the  moral  life  of  the  nation. 

The  northern  Israelites  were  frequently  at 
war  with  Judah.  Indeed,  the  two  kingdoms 
were  in  hearty  alliance  only  while  the  house 
of  Omri  held  the  throne  of  Israel,  when  the 
royal  families  of  Israel  and  Judah  were 
united  by  intermarriage.  When  the  Syrian 
kindom  of  Damascus  rose  to  power  it  neces- 
sarily affected  the  politics  of  the  adjacent 
kingdom  of  Israel.  Often  the  two  were  at 
war.  They  united,  however,  in  making  com- 
mon cause  against  the  Assyrians  in  the  days 
of  Ahab  ;  and  120  years  later  they  were  again 
in  alliance,  their  common  object  being  the 
caiiture  of  Jerusalem.  It  was  this  danger 
that  led  Ahaz,  king  of  Judah,  terrified  for 
his  throne  and  life,  and  having  no  faitli  in 
Jehovah,  to  act  contrary  to  the  exhortations 
of  Isaiah  and  to  call  in  Tiglath-pileser,  king 
of  Assyria,  at  the  price  of  independence. 
Judah  became  tributary  to  A.ssyria,  and  its 
king  did  homage  to  the  Assyrian  monarch  at 
Damascus  (2  Kin.  xvi.  8-10).    Tiglath-pileser 


relieved  Judah  of  the  invaders,  ravaged 
northern  Israel,  struck  a  blow  at  the  Phi- 
listines, besieged  and  ultimately  captured 
Damascus  and  slew  Eezin,  deported  the  Is- 
raelites from  the  country  east  of  the  Jordan, 
connived  at  the  death  of  Pekah  or  actually 
ordered  it,  and  placed  Hoshea  on  the  throne 
about  730  B.  c.  Hoshea  rebelled  against  As- 
syria after  Tiglath-pileser's  death.  The 
Assyrian  armies  returned,  in  722  Samaria 
fell  and  a  large  number  of  the  inhabitants 
were  carried  off  to  Assyria.  See  Captivity 
and  Saegon.  The  place  of  the  deported  Is- 
raelites was  supplied  by  colonists  from  five 
districts  in  the  Assyrian  empire,  who,  ming- 
ling with  the  remaining  Israelite  population 
of  central  Palestine,  laid  the  foundations  of 
what  afterwards  became  the  Samaritan  nation. 
The  captivity  of  Israel  was  a  punishment 
because  the  people  had  sinned  against  the 
Lord  their  God  and  had  feared  other  gods, 
walking  in  the  statutes  of  the  nations  and 
of  the  kings  of  Israel  (2  Kin.  xvii.  7,  8). 
They  were  apostate.  They  had  broken  the 
covenant  (15;  cp.  Ex.  xx.-xxii.  ;  Hos.  vi. 
7  ;  viii.  1),  rejecting  the  statutes  of  the  Lord. 
Tlieir  apostasy  had  manifested  itself  in  two 
directions :  they  walked  in  the  statutes  of 
the  nations  whom  the  Lord  cast  out  {2  Kin. 
xvii.  8,  15,  17 ;  cp.  Hos.  ii.  13 ;  iv.  2,  11,  15 ; 
Amos  ii.  6-9),  and  they  walked  in  the  stat- 
utes of  the  kings  of  Israel,  especially  in  the 
matter  of  the  calf  worship  and  its  attendant 
ceremonies  and  ordinances,  and  in  the  gen- 
eral idolatry  that  followed  in  its  train  (2 
Kin.  xvii.  8,  16 ;  Hos.  viii.  4-6  ;  x.  5,  8  ;  xiii. 
2-4).  They  had  sinned  despite  the  fact  that 
the  Lord  had  testified  unto  them  by  prophets 
and  by  providences  (2  Kin.  xvii.  13  ;  Hos. 
xii.  10  ;  Amos  ii.  9-11 ;  iv.  6-13).  Their  sin 
issued  in  separation  and  degradation  and 
paved  the  way  for  puni.shment.  They  sepa- 
rated from  Judah,  and  thus  weakened  were 
overthrown.  Their  idolatry,  drunkenness, 
and  licentiousness  weakened  the  manhood  of 
the  nation,  deprived  it  of  sturdiness,  and 
made  its  soldiery  no  better  in  character  and 
moral  purpose  than  the  warriors  of  Egypt, 
Assyria,  and  Babylonia. 

Is'ra-el-ite. 

A  descendant  of  Israel,  ?'.  e.,  of  Jacob  (Ex. 
ix.  7)  ;  and  consequently,  by  implication,  the 
possessor  of  true  religious  knowledge,  a 
faithful  servant  of  Jehovah,  and  an  heir  of 
the  promises  (John  i.  47 ;  Rom.  ix.  4  ;  xi.  1 ; 
2  Cor.  xi.  22). 

Is'sa-char  [there  is  hire]. 

1.  The  ninth  son  of  Jacob,  the  fifth  by 
Leah  (Gen.  xxx.  17,  18;  xxxv.  23).  His  .sons 
were  Tola,  Phuvah  or  Pua,  Job  or  Jashub, 
and  Shimron  (xlvi.  13  ;  Num.  xxvi.  23,  24  ;  1 
Chron.  vii.  1).  With  them  he  went  down 
with  Jacob  into  Egypt  (Gen.  xlvi.  13;  Ex.  i. 
3).  Jacob,  shortly  before  death,  with  keen 
and  prophetic  insight  into  character,  de- 
scribed Issachar  and  his  children  as  a  strong 


Issachar 


329 


Ithamar 


ass,  couching  down  between  the  sheep  folds, 
who  submits  to  the  burdens  imposed  by  for- 
eign masters,  provided  they  permit  him  to 
remain  in  his  pleasant  land  (Gen.  xlix.  14, 15). 

The  de.scendants  of  Issachar  formed  a  tribe, 
consisting  of  five  great  tribal  families,  the 
posterity  of  his  five  sons  (Num.  xxvi.  23,24). 
Its  prince  in  the  early  period  of  the  wander- 
ings was  Nethaneel,  sou  of  Zuar  (Num.  i.  8; 
ii.  5  ;  vii.  18 ;  x.  1.^).  and  at  a  later  period 
Paltiel,  son  of  Azzan  (xxxiv.  26).  At  the 
first  census  in  the  wilderness  it  numbered 
54,400  fighting  men  (i.  28,  29) ;  at  the  second 
64,300  (xxvi.  25)  ;  while  in  David's  reign  it 
reached  87,000  (1  Chron.  vii.  5).  Igal,  son 
of  Joseph,  was  the  spy  from  the  tribe  (Num. 
xiii.  7).  The  men  of  Issachar  were  among 
those  who  stood  on  mount  Gerizim  to  bless 
the  people  (Deut.  xxvii.  12).  Moses,  in  pre- 
dicting the  future  of  the  tribes,  foretold  Is- 
sachar's  joyous  and  quiet  life  (xxxiii.  18). 
One  of  the  judges.  Tola,  belonged  to  the 
tribe  of  Issachar  (Judg.  x.  1)  ;  so  did  king 
Baasha  (1  Kin.  xv.  27).  The  princes  of  Is- 
sachar had  the  political  insight  to  discern 
the  fit  moment  for  turning  from  Saul's  fam- 
ily and  accepting  David  as  the  king  of  all 
Israel  (1  Chron.  xii.  32).  About  that  time 
Omri,  son  of  Michael,  was  head  of  the  tribe 
(xxvii.  18).  Many  men  of  Issachar,  although 
they  belonged  to  the  northern  kingdom,  at- 
tended Hezckiah's  passover  (2  Chron.  xxx. 
18).  In  the  apocalyptic  vision  12,000  of  the 
tribe  of  Issachar  were  sealed  (Rev.  vii.  7), 
this  being  the  normal  number. 

When  the  land  of  Canaan  was  distributed 
by  lot,  the  fourth  lot  taken  after  the  ark  was 
removed  to  Shiloli  came  forth  for  the  tribe 
of  Issachar.  Its  territory  was  bounded  on 
the  north  by  Zebulun  and  Naphtali,  on  the 
east  by  the  Jordan,  on  the  south  and  west  by 
Manasseh  and  probably  Asher.  Among  the 
places  through  or  near  which  its  boundary 
line  ran  were  Jezreel,  Shunem,  En-gannim, 
En-haddah.  mount  Tabor,  and  Beth-shemesh 
(Josh.  xix.  17-23).  though  towns  within  it  were 
held  by  Manasseh  (xvii.  10,  11)  and  others  by 
the  Gershonite  Levites  (xxi.  6,  28,  29 ;  1 
Chron.  vi.  62-72).  The  tribe  of  Issachar  oc- 
cupied the  greater  part  of  the  plain  of  Jezreel, 
or  Esdraelon,  constituting  the  low,  level,  and 
fertile  plain  of  the  Kishon.  The  character 
of  their  territory  combined  with  the  trilial 
traits  explains  why  the  people  of  Issachar, 
in  accordance  with  Jacob's  prophecy,  were  so 
ready  to  submit  to  servitude.  They  had 
much  to  lose,  and  lived  on  ground  well 
adapted  for  the  action  of  the  war  chariots  of 
their  enemies,  while  the  tribes  located  among 
the  mountains  could  not  so  readily  l)e  at- 
tacked in  this  manner.  That  the  peo]ile  of 
Issachar  were  not  exceptionally  cowardly  is 
plain  from  their  conduct  in  the  battle  with 
Sisera,  which  elicited  the  commendation  of 
Deborah  (Judg.  v.  15). 

2.  A  Levite,  appointed  doorkeeper  in  Da- 
vid's reign  (1  Chron.  xxvi.  5). 


Is-sWah,  in  A.  V.  once  Ishiall  (1  Chron. 
vii.  3)  and  twice  Jesiah  (1  Chron  xii.  6;  xxiii. 
20)  [Jehovah  lendeth  or  Jehovah  forgetteth 
(cp.  Jer.  xxiii.  39)]. 

1.  A  man  of  Issachar,  family  of  Tola  (1 
Chron.  vii.  3). 

2.  One  of  those  who  came  to  David  at  Zik- 
lag  (1  Chron.  xii.  6). 

3.  A  Levite,  descended  from  Moses,  and 
head  of  the  house  of  Kehabiah  (1  Chron. 
xxiv.  21 ;  cp.  xxiii.  14-17). 

4.  A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath,  house  of 
Uzziel  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  20;  xxiv.  25). 

Is-sM'jah,  in  A.  V.  Ishijah  [Jehovah  lend- 
eth or  forgetteth]. 

A  son  of  Harim,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  31). 

Is'sue. 

A  man's  disease,  probably  blennorrhea  or 
perhaps  gonorrhea  (Lev.  xv.  2-15;  cp.  War 
V.  5,  6  ;  vi.  9,  3).  An  issue  of  blood  is  a  fe- 
male complaint  (Lev.  xv.  25-30;  Mat.  ix.  20). 

Is'u-ab.     See  Ishvah. 

Is'u-i.     See  Ishvi. 

It'a-ly. 

A  geographical  name  which,  in  the  fifth 
century  B.  c,  meant  only  a  small  district  in 
the  extreme  south  of  what  is  now  called 
Italy  ;  but  which  gradually  extended  its  sig- 
nification, till  in  the  first  century  of  the  Chris- 
tian era  it  began  to  be  used  in  the  same  sense 
that  we  now  attach  to  the  word.  In  the  days 
of  the  apostles  Italy,  and,  indeed,  the  greater 
part  of  the  civilized  world,  was  ruled  from 
Eome(q.v.).  The  centurion  Cornelius  who  was 
instructed  to  send  for  Peter  belonged  to  the 
Italian  band,  that  is,  a  regiment  recruited  in 
Italy,  and  consisting  mainly  of  Italians  (Acts 
X.  1).  Aquila  and  Priscilla,  though  of  Jew- 
ish descent,  resided  for  a  time  in  Italy  (xviii. 
2).  Paul's  appeal  to  Cfesar  necessarily  in- 
volved his  sailing  into  Italy  (xxvii.  1,  6).  The 
ship  in  which  he  finally  reached  the  penin- 
sula, after  landing  at  Syracuse  in  Sicily, 
coasted  along  the  mainland  by  Rhegium  ta 
Puteoli  (xxviii.  13-16).  Tlie  salutation  in  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  "  They  of  Italy  salute 
you"  (Heb.  xiii.  24),  indicates  the  ])rogress 
of  Christianity,  not  only  in  Rome  itself,  but 
in  other  towns  of  the  country  (cp.  Acts  xxviii. 
14).  During  the  Roman  inij)erial  period,  the 
state  of  the  country  in  comparison  with  the 
capital  was  wretched. 

I'tbai.    See  Ittai. 

Ith'a-mar  [palm-coast]. 

The  youngest  son  of  Aaron  (Ex.  vi.  23;  1 
Chron.  Vi.  3;  xxiv.  1).  With  his  father  and 
his  three  elder  brothers  he  was  consecrated 
to  the  priestly  oflJce  (Ex.  xxviii.  1 ;  1  Chron. 
xxiv.  2).  Upon  him  devolved  the  duty  of 
enumerating  the  materials  gathered  for  the 
tabernacle  (Ex.  xxxviii.  21).  The  Gershonites 
and  the  Merarites  acted  under  his  superin- 
tendence (Num.  iv.  21-33).  He  founded  a 
priestly  family  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  4,  5,  6),  which 


Ithiel 


330 


Izhar 


contimiod  after  the  captivity  (Ezra  viii.  2). 
To  this  family  belonged  Eli  and  his  descend- 
ants, who  held  the  otUce  of  high  priest  for 
several  generations.     See  High  Prip;st. 

Ith'i-el  [God  is  with  iae,  or,  possibly,  there 
is  a  God]. 

1.  One  of  the  two  persons  to  whom  Agur 
addressed  his  prophecy  (Prov.  xxx.  1);  but 
see  li.  V.  margin  for  another  po.ssibility. 

•2.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Jesaiah  (Neh.  xi.  7). 

Ith'lah,  in  A.  V.  Jethlah  [a  hanging  or 
lofty  i)lace]. 

a'  town  of  Dan  (Jo.sh.  xix.  42).  Site  un- 
known. 

Ith'mah  [bereavement]. 

A  iMoal>ite,  one  of  the  valiant  men  of  Da- 
vid's army  (1  Chron.  xi.  46). 

Itb'naii  [perhaps,  perennial]. 

A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  23).     Situation  unknown. 

Ith'ra  [abundance,  excellence]. 

An  Israelite,  or  rather  Ishmaelite,  who  mar- 
ried Abigail,  David's  sister,  and  became  the 
father  of  Amasa  (2  Sam.  xvii.  25;  1  Kin.  ii. 
5,  32  ;  1  Chron.  ii.  17).  In  the  last  three  pas- 
sages he  is  called  Jether,  M'hich  is  the  Hebrew 
form  of  the  name. 

Ith'ran  [abundance,  excellence]. 

1.  A  Horite,  son  of  Dishon  (Gen.  xxxvi. 
2H;  1  Chron.  i.  41). 

2.  An  Asherite,  son  of  Zophah  (1  Chron. 
vii.  37) ;  apparently  the  same  as  Jether  (38). 

Ith 're-am  [alnmdance  of  people]. 

The  sixth  son  born  to  David  at  Hebron. 
His  mother  was  Eglah  (2  Sam.  iii.  5  ;  1  Chron. 
iii.  3). 

Ith'rite. 

A  family  who  dwelt  at  Kirjath-jearim  (1 
Chron.  ii.  53).  Two  of  David's  mighty  men 
were  Ithrites  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  38;  1  Chron. 
xi.  40). 

It-tah-ka'zin.     See  Eth-kazin. 
It'tai  [perhai)s,  plowman]. 

1.  A  son  of  Ribai,  from  Gibeah  of  Benja- 
min. He  was  one  of  David's  mighty  men 
(2  Sam.  xxiii.  29).  Called  in  1  Chron. "xi.  31, 
Ithai. 

2.  An  inhabitant  of  Gath,  the  commander 
of  600  men,  who  followed  David  from  that 
Philistine  city.  He  was  faithful  to  the  king 
through  all  vicissitudes,  and  led  a  third  part 
of  the  royal  army  in  the  battle  which  re- 
sulted in  the  death  of  Absalom  (2  Sam.  xv. 
18-22;  xviii.  2,  5). 

It-u-rse'a  [pertaining  to  Jetur]. 

A  region  occupied  by  a  peojile  called  Jetur, 
who  were  descended  from  Islimael  (Gen.  xxv. 
15  ;  1  Chron.  i.  31).  The  tribe  of  Jetur  was  at 
war  with  the  Israelitish  tribes  east  of  the 
Jordan  (v.  19).  In  Asmoui^an  times  Aristo- 
bulus  conquered  a  i)ortion  of  Itura-a,  and  an- 
nexing itto  Juda\'i,  c(mipelled  the  vanquished 
inhabitants  to  adopt  the  rite  of  circumcision 
(Antiq.  xiii.  11,  3j.     It  was  a  mountainous 


country,  including  part  of  Anti-Lebanon.  Its 
prince,  Ptolemy  Meunseus,  possessed  territory 
in  Ccelesyria,  with  Chalcis  as  stronghold,  and 
proved  a  bad  neighbor  to  Damascus  (Strabo 
xvi.  2,  18,  20;  Antiq.  xiii.  16,  3j.  In  66  B.  c. 
he  purchased  immunity  from  Pompey  (xiv. 
3,  2).  His  son  Lysanias  was  put  to  death  by 
Antony  (xv.  4,  1),  and  the  country  was 
farmed  to  Zenodorus  (xv.  10,  1 ;  for  Zeno- 
dorus'  domain  cp.  also  2  and  3).  Part  of 
Itursea  and  Trachonitis  constituted  the  tet- 
rarchy  of  Philip  (Luke  iii.  1).  Josephus 
enumerates  the  constituent  parts  of  Philip's 
tetrarchy  difi'erently,  and  he  is  not  careful 
always  to  enumerate  in  one  and  the  same 
way  (Antiq.  xvii.  8,  1 ;  11,  4,  where  part  of 
the  house  of  Zenodorus  is  included  ;  xviii.  4, 
6;  War  ii.  6,  3).  The  name  Itursea  or  Jetur 
is  radically  different  from  Jedur,  the  i)reseut 
designation  of  a  district  southwest  of  Da- 
mascus. 

I'vah.     See  Ivvah. 

I'vo-ry. 

A  substance  derived  from  the  tusk  of  the 
elephant,  hippopotamus,  walrus,  and  other 
animals.  In  Hebrew  it  is  called  She)i,  tooth, 
or  Shenhabhim,  a  compound  word  in  Avhich 
habbim  probably  denotes  some  animal.  It  is 
first  mentioned  in  the  Bible  as  having  been 
brought  from  abroad  by  Solomon's  ships  (1 
Kin.  X.  22  ;  2  Chron.  ix.  21).  It  seems  to 
have  come  from  India,  and  was  made  into  a 
throne  for  the  king  (1  Kin.  x.  18).  After- 
wards, when  luxury  had  established  itself  to 
a  larger  extent  in  Jerusalem,  beds  (Amos  vi. 
4).  and  even  houses  were  made  or  overlaid 
with  the  precious  material  (1  Kin.  xxii.  39  ; 
Amos  iii.  15  ;  Ps.  xlv.  8).  The  Tyrians  in- 
laid benches  for  rowers  with  it  (Ezek.  xxvii. 
6).  Ethiopia  also  supplied  ivory  to  the  an- 
cient world  (Herod,  iii.  97,  114). 

Iv'vah,  in  A.  V.  Ivah. 

A  city  which  the  representative  of  Seu- 
nacheril)  could  boast  that  the  Assyrians  had 
captured  (2  Kin.  xviii.  34;  xix.  13;  Is. 
xxxvii.  13).  It  is  doubtless  the  same  as 
Avva  (q.  v.). 

I-ye-ab'a-rim,  in  A.  V.  Ije-abarim  [ruins 
of  the  district  of  Abarim]. 

A  halting  xilace  of  the  Israelites  in  the 
wilderness,  on  the  border  of  Moab  (Num. 
xxi.  11  ;  xxxiii.  44).  In  ver.  45  the  place  is 
called  simply  lyim,  in  A.  V.  lim ;  because 
the  context  sufficiently  defined  the  locality 
to  be  in  Abarim. 

I'yim.     See  preceding  article. 

Iz'har,  I.,  in  A.  V.  once  Iz'e-har  (Num.  iii. 
19)  and  once  Jezoar  (1  Chron.  iv.  7)  [bright, 
oil,  especially  olive  oil]. 

A  Levite,  son  of  Kohath,  and  founder 
of  a  tribal  family  (Ex.  vi.  18,  19  ;  Num.  iii. 
19,  27;  1  Chron.  Vi.  18,  38).  From  him  de- 
scended the  rebel  Korah  (Num.  xvi.  1). 

Iz'har,  II.  [whiteness]. 

A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Hezron,  son 


Izliah 


331 


Jabbok 


of  Ashhur  il  Chrou.  iv.  5-7).    Another  read- 
ing is  Zobar. 

Iz-li'ali,  iu  A.  V.  Jezllah  [perhaps,  deliv- 
erdiice]. 

A  Benjamite,  sou  of  Elpaal  and  descended 
from  Shaharaim  (1  Chron.  viii.  18). 

Iz-ra-hi'ah  [Jehovah  doth  arise  (cp.  Is. 
Ix.  2)]. 

A  man  of  Issachar,  family  of  Tola,  and  son 
of  I'zzi  (1  Chron.  vii.  3). 

Iz'ra-hite. 

A  member  of  the  family,  or  an  inhabitant 
of  the  town,  of  Izrah  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  8), 
perhaps  the  same  as  Ezrahite. 

Iz'ri  [fashioning,  creative]. 

A  Levite.  son  of  Jeduthun,  and  head  of 
the  fourth  course  for  the  musical  service  of 
the  sanctuary  (1  Chron.  xxv.  11).  Called  in 
ver.  3  Zeri  (q.  v.). 

Iz-zi'ah,  iu  A.  V.  Jeziah  [perhaps,  Jehovah 
exulteth], 

A  son  of  Parosh.  He  was  induced  by 
Ezi-a  to  put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra 
X.  25). 


J. 


Ja'a-kan,  in  A.  V.  of  1  Chron.  i.  42  Jakan. 
Written  Akan  in  Gen.  xsxvi.  27  [Horite 
name  of  uncertain  meaning]. 

A  descendant  or  prominent  branch  of  the 
Horites  of  mount  Seir,  who  were  eventually 
dispossessed  bv  the  Edomites  (Gen.  xxxvi.  20, 
21,  27;  1  Chron.  i.  38.  42;  Deut.  ii.  12).  At 
the  time  of  the  exodus  sons  of  Jaakan  con- 
stituted a  tribe  which  occupied  a  district  on 
the  borders  of  Edom  near  mount  Hor,  where 
Aaron  died.  The  Israelites  encamped  at  cer- 
tain of  their  wells  (Deut.  x.  6;  Num.  xx.  21- 
23 ;  xxxiii.  31). 

Ja-a-ko'bah  [supplanting]. 

A  Simt-ouite  iirince  (1  Chron.  iv.  36). 

Ja'a-lah,  or  Jaala  [doe,  female  ibex]. 

The  founder  uf  a  family,  ranked  among 
the  children  of  Solomon's  servants  (Ezra  ii. 
56  ;  Xeh.  vii.  ')S). 

Ja'a-lam.     See  Jalam. 

Ja'a-nai,  in  E.  V.  Janai  [perhaps,  vora- 
cious or.  possibly,  Jehovah  answers]. 

A  Gadite  chief  (1  Chron.  v.  12). 

Ja'ar  [a  forest]. 

A  proper  name  occurring  in  the  margin  of 
Psalm  cxxxii.  6.  R.  V.  It  is  believed  to  be 
the  same  as  Kirjath-jearim. 

Ja-a-re-or'e-gim.    See  Jair  II. 

Ja-ar-e-shi'ah,  in  A.  V.  Jaresiah  [Jeho- 
vah doth  nourish  or  plant]. 

A  Benjamite,  son  of  Jeroham  (1  Chron. 
viii.  27'. 

Ja'a-sai  and  Ja'a-sau.    See  Jaasu. 


Ja-a'si-el,  in  A.  V.  once  Jasiel  (1  Chron. 
xi.  47)  [God  maketh]. 

1.  A  Mesobaite,  one  of  David's  mighty 
men  (1  Chron.  xi.  47). 

2.  A  son  of  Abner  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  21). 

Ja'a-su,  in  A.  V.  Jaasau,  in  R.  V.  margin 
Jaasai  [possibly,  Jehovah  maketh]. 

A  son  of  Bani.  He  was  induced  by  Ezra 
to  put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  37). 

Ja-az-a-ni'ah  [Jehovah  doth  hearken]. 

1.  Sou  of  a  Maacathite  (2  Kin.  xxv.  23). 
See  Jezaxi.\h. 

2.  A  Rechabite,  son  of  a  certain  Jeremiah, 
not  the  prophet  of  that  name  (Jer.  xxxv.  3). 

3.  A  son  of  Shaphan.  He  was  a  leader  of 
idolatry  in  Ezekiel's  time  (Ezek.  viii.  11). 

4.  A  son  of  Azzur  and  prince  of  Judah, 
■who  was  seen  by  Ezekiel  in  vision  (Ezek.  xi. 
1 ;  cp.  viii.  1,  3  ;  xi.  24). 

Ja'a-zer.     See  Jazer. 

Ja-a-zi'ah  [Jehovah  consoleth]. 

A  Levite,  registered  as  head  of  a  father's 
house  with  the  family  of  Merari  (1  Chron. 
xxiv.  26,  27),  and  perhaps  called  his  son  or 
descendant  (Beno).  No  hint  is  elsewhere 
given  of  Merari  having  a  third  son.  Can 
Jaaziah  represent  the  house  of  the  dead 
Eleazar  (28 ;  cp.  xxiii.  22),  or  is  the  passage 
26'',  27  an  interpolation  ? 

Ja-a'zi-el  or  Aziel  [God  consoleth]. 

A  Levite  of  the  second  rank,  one  of  the 
musicians  who  played  on  the  psaltery  at  the 
removal  of  the  ark  from  the  house  of  Obed- 
edom,  and  afterwards  as  a  regular  duty  in 
the  tent  at  Jerusalem  (1  Chron.  xv.  18,  20 ; 
and  probably  xvi.  5).  In  the  last  passage  the 
form  Jeiel  is  probably  a  copyist's  error. 

Ja'bal  [in  Hebrew  a  stream,  a  river]. 

Son  of  the  Cainite  Lamech,  by  his  wife 
Adah.  He  was  the  father  of  such  as  dwell 
in  tents  and  have  cattle  (Gen.  iv.  20). 

Jab'bok  [effusion]. 

An  eastern  tributary  of  the  Jordan.  Jacob 
forded  it  on  his  way  back  from  Mesopotamia 
(Gen.  xxxii.  22).  Rising  near  Rabbath  Am- 
mon,  it  flows  for  12  miles  from  that  town 
toward  the  northeast  and  then  sweeps  around 
toward  the  northwest.  After  holding  this 
course  for  about  15  miles  it  turns  westward, 
and  for  17  miles  flows  through  a  valley  which 
cleaves  mount  Gilead  in  twain.  On  emerging 
into  the  valley  of  the  Jordan  it  bends  toward 
the  southwest  and  enters  the  Jordan  at  a 
point  about  43  miles  south  of  the  sea  of 
Galilee  and  23  miles  north  of  the  Dead  Sea. 
The  lower  part  of  its  course  is  now  called  the 
wady  es-Zerka.  The  Jabbok  was  a  recog- 
nized frontier.  It  formed  the  western  boun- 
dary of  the  Ammonites,  and  separated  them 
from  the  Amorite  kingdom  of  Sihon  and 
later  from  the  tribe  of  Gad.  It  divided 
mount  Gilead  into  two  parts,  of  which  the 
southern  was  held  by  Sihon  before  the  Israel- 
ite conquest,  and  afterwards  was  assigned  to 


Jabesh 


332 


Jachin 


The  Biook  Jabbok. 

Gad,  while  the  northern  was  possessed  by 
Ojj  and  passed  from  him  to  the  half  tribe  of 
>Ianasseh  (Num.  xxi.  24;  Dent.  ii.  36,  37; 
iii.  1:2,  13,  16;  Josh.  xii.  2-6). 

Ja'besb  [dry]. 

1.  A  town.     See  Jabesh-gilead. 

2.  Father  of  king  Shallum  (2  Kin.  xv.  10). 

Ja-besh-gil'e-ad  [Jabesh  of  Gilcad]. 

A  town  oF  (jilead.  It  is  believed  to  have 
stood  at  ed-Deir,  9J  miles  southeast  and  in 
full  view  of  Beth-shean  on  the  other  side  of 
the  river.  It  is  on  a  brook,  wady  el-Yabis, 
which  seems  to  preserve  the  old  name  .Jabesh. 
In  the  great  war  waged  against  Benjamin  in 
the  days  of  the  judges  on  account  of  the 
matter  of  the  Levite  and  his  concubine,  none 
of  the  men  of  Jabesh-gilead  took  part.  For 
this  indifference  to  a  national  sin,  they  were 
condemned  to  utter  destruction.  Only  400 
nnniarried  girls  were  saved  alive  and  given 
for  wives  to  400  of  the  remaining  men  of 
Benjamin  (Judg.  xxi.  S-l.'j).  The  place 
was  soon  reoccupied.  Shortly  after  Saul 
had  l)een  chosen  king,  Nahash,  king  of  the 
Ammonites,  besieged  Jabesh-gilead.  The 
town  was  sore  pressed  ;  and  the  Ammonite 
king  doomed  every  man  to  the  loss  of  the 
right  eye  on  the  surrender  of  the  town.  This 
was  intended  as  an  insult  to  the  whole 
Israelite  nation.  Saul  raised  the  siege  by 
defeating  the  besi(>ging  army  (1  Sam.  xi.  1- 
11).  The  men  of  the  town  remembered  their 
deliverer  with  gratitude,  and  when,  after  the 
battle  of  (Jilboa,  liis  headless  body,  with 
those  of  his  sons,  was  fastened  to  the  wall 
of  Beth-shean.  they  crossed  the  .Jordan,  car- 
ried off  the  corpses,  burnt  them  and  buried 
the  bones  in  the  vicinity  of  Jabesh-gilead 
(xxxi.  11-13  ;  1  Chron.  x.  11,  12)  from  which 
they  were  ultimately  removed  to  the  sepul- 
cher  of  Kish  (2  Sam.   xxi.    12-14).     David 


sent  the   men   of  Jabesh   his  personal 
thanks  for  what  they  had  done  (ii.  4-7). 

Ja'bez  [he  makes  sorrow] . 

1.  A  man  of  Judah,  whose  mother 
gave  him  the  name  Jabez,  because  she 
bore  him  in  sorrow.  He  was  more  hon- 
orable than  his  brethren.  He  prayed 
that  God  would  enlarge  the  boundary 
of  his  possessions,  besides  keeping  him 
from  evil.  God  granted  his  request  (1 
Chron.  iv.  9,  10). 

2.  A  place,  doubtless  in  Judah,  where 
families  of  scribes  dwelt  (1  Ghron.  ii.  55). 

Ja'bin  [he  discerneth,  intelligent]. 

1.  A  Canaanite,  king  of  Hazor  in  Gal- 
ilee and  its  dependent  towns  and  the 
head  of  the  confederacy  of  northern  and 
central  kings  whom  Joshua  defeated  at 
the  waters  of  Merom.  After  the  battle 
the  Israelites  took  and  burned  Hazor  and 
slew  its  king  (Josh.  xi.  1-14). 

2.  Another  king  of  Canaan  who  reigned 
at  Hazor,  probably  a  lineal  descendant 
of  the  first  (Judg.  iv.  2).     He,  too,  had 

kings  fighting  under  him  (v.  19).  He  op- 
pressed the  Israelites  twenty  years ;  but  at 
length  his  commander-in-chief  Sisera  was  de- 
feated by  Barak  at  the  river  Kishon  and  afterr 
wards  murdered.  Jabin  continued  the  war, 
but  was  ultimately  destroyed  (iv.  2-24). 
Jab'ne-el  [God  doth  cause  to  be  built]. 

1.  A  town  on  the  northern  border  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  5,  11).  It  is  the  same  place  as  the 
Philistine  city  of  Jabneh,  the  wall  of  which 
was  broken  down  by  Uzziah  (2  Chron.  xxvi. 
6)  ;  and  it  was  known  later  as  Jamnia  (1  Mac. 
iv.  15 ;  v.  58 ;  2  Mac.  xii.  8,  9).  It  is  rei)resented 
by  the  village  of  Yebnah,  about  4  miles  in- 
land from  the  Mediterranean,  and  9  north- 
east by  north  of  Ashdod. 

2.  A  frontier  town  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  xix. 
33).  Conder  identifies  it  with  the  ruin 
Yemma,  about  7  miles  south  by  west  of 
Tiberias.  More  commonly  it  is  identified 
with  Jamnia  or  Jamnith,  a  village  of  upper 
Galilee,  built  on  a  rocky  height  and  fortified 
by  Josephus  (Life  37 ;'  War.  ii.  20,  6)  ;  and 
whose  site  is  sought  in  the  neighborhood  of 
the  plain  of  Huleh  and  Banias  (War  ii.  6,  3; 
but  text  is  uncertain). 

Jab'neh    [he    causes  to  be    built].     See 

J.\BXEEL. 

Ja'can,  in  A.  V.  Jachan  [troublous]. 
A    (iadite,    ]irobalily    head    of    a   father's 
liouse  (1  Chron.  v.  13). 
Ja'cMn  [he  doth  establish]. 

1.  A  son  of  Simeon,  and  founder  of  a 
tribal  family  (Gen.  xlvi.  10  ;  Ex.  vi.  15  ;  Num. 
xxvi.  12).  Called  Jarib  in  1  Chron.  iv.  24, 
which  is  doubtless  due  to  an  erroneous  read- 
ing of  the  text  by  a  copyist. 

2.  A  descendant  of  Aaron.  In  the  time  of 
David,  his  fiimily  was  made  the  twenty-first 
of  the  courses  into  which  the  .sacerdotal  body 
was  divided  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  17).     It  dwelt  at 


Jacinth 


333 


Jacob 


Jerusiilem,  according  to  the  probable  mean- 
ing of  ix.  10  ;  but  it  is  not  at  all  certain  that 
the  jn-iest  Jachin,  who  was  resident  at  Jeru- 
salem after  the  captivity,  was  of  this  family 
(Neh.  xi.  10). 

3.  The  right-hand  pillar  of  two  set  up  in 
the  porch  of  Solomon's  temple  (1  Kin.  vii.  15- 
22).     See  BoAZ. 

Ja'cinth.     See  Hyacinth. 

Jack'al. 

The  rendering  in  the  E.  V.  of  the  Hebrew 
plurals  Taniiim  and  Tannoth,  which  in  the 
A.  V.  are  regularly  translated  by  dragon 
(q.  v.).  The  creature  intended  is  a  mammal 
(Lam.  iv.  3,  in  A.  V.  sea  monsters)  and 
dwells  in  the  wilderness  (Is.  xxxv.  7  ;  xliii.  20) 
and  in  deserted  places  (xxxiv.  13,  14 ;  Jer. 
xlix.  33;  li.  37). 

The  jackal  (Canis  aureus)  is,  it  will  be  seen, 
placed  in  the  dog  genus  Canis.  It  differs 
from  the  dog  in  its  long  and  pointed  muzzle. 
The  name  aureus,  golden,  refers  to  the  color 
of  the  under  fur,  which  is  brownish  yellow, 
mottled  with  black,  gray,  and  brown  hairs. 
Its  length  is  about  thirty  inches,  and  its  height 
at  the  shoulder  seventeen.  It  hunts  in  packs, 
and  feeds  chiefly  on  carrion,  though  it  carries 
off  and  devours  children  when  opportunity 
arises.  It  has  been  called  the  lion's  provider, 
the  opinion  being  entertained  that  when  its 
voice  is  heard,  the  lion,  following  on,  tries  to 
claim  his  share  of  the  prey.  It  raises  the 
most  unearthly  yell  of  all  of  its  compeers. 
It  is  found  in  Africa  and  soufhern  Asia,  and 
is  diflused  throughout  Palestine,  especially 
frequenting  ruins.     See  also  Fox. 

Ja'cob  [he  supplantcth,  supplanter]. 

A  son  of  Isaac  and  Eebekah,  a  twin  with 
Esau,  but  born  a  short  time  after  him,  and 
therefore  considered  the  younger  brother 
(Gen.  XXV.  21-26).  He  was  born  when  his 
father  was  sixty  years  old  {26).  As  he  grew 
he  became  a  quiet,  inoffensive  man,  dwelling 
in  tents  (27).  He  was  his  mother's  favorite, 
while  the  father  preferred  Esau  (28).  As  Esau 
came  in  from  hunting,  faint  with  hunger, 
Jacob  chanced  to  have  pottage  of  lentils  ready 
boiled,  but  selfishly  forbore  to  relieve  his 
brother's  necessities  till  he  had  compelled 
him  first  to  surrender  tlie  privilege  of  his 
birthright  (29-34).  Positive  fraud  followed. 
When  I.saac  was  about  1.37  years  old  and 
nearly  blind,  Rebekah  induced  Jacob  to  dress 
himself  in  Esau's  raiment,  make  his  neck 
and  hands  artificially  hairy,  and  passing  him- 
self off  as  Esau,  obtain  from  Isaac,  who 
thought  himself  near  death,  the  blessing  be- 
longing to  the  birthright.  Esau  recalled  the 
first  wrong  when  this  second  one  was  perpe- 
trated, and  resolved  that  when  his  father 
died,  he  would  kill  his  brother  (xxvii.  1-41). 
Rebekah  heard  the  threat,  and  to  give  time 
for  Esau's  wrath  to  cool,  sent  Jacob  away  to 
her  relatives  in  Haran,  on  the  pretext  of 
seeking  a  wife.  While  on  this  journey  he 
liad  the  night  vision  in  w-hich  a  ladder  con- 


nected earth  and  heaven,  angels  ascended 
and  descended,  and  God  standing  above 
assured  him  of  the  covenant  blessing  (xxvii. 
42-4(i ;  xxviii.  1-22).  Jacob  sojourned  in 
Paddan-aram  twenty  years,  all  of  which  time 
he  was  in  Laban's  emjjloy,  serving  him  four- 
teen years  for  his  two  daughters,  Ix'ah  and 
Rachel,  and  six  for  a  payment  in  cattle.  Dur- 
ing this  period  in  Haran  there  were  born  to 
him  eleven  sons  :  by  Leah  six,  Reuben, 
Simeon,  Levi,  Judah,  Issachar,  and  Zebulun, 
besidesa  daughter,  Dinah ;  by  Bilhah,  Rachel's 
maid,  two,  Dan  and  Naplitali  ;  by  Zilpah, 
Leah's  maid,  two.  Gad  and  Asher  ;  and  by 
Rachel  one,  Joseph  (xxix.,  xxx.).  The  last 
was  born  when  Jacob  was  ninety  or  ninety- 
one  years  of  age  (cp.  xlvii.  9  with  xli.  46,  47, 
54  ;  xlv.  11).  Six  years  later,  perceiving  that 
Laban  and  his  sons,  envying  his  i>rosi)erity, 
were  turning  against  him,  he  became  alarmed. 
While  pasturing  his  flocks,  probably  three 
days  from  Haran  (xxx.  36 ;  xxxi.  22)  on  the 
Euphrates,  he  sent  for  his  wives  (xxxi.  4), 
crossed  the  river,  and  fled  with  his 
family  and  possessions  toward  Canaan 
(21).  Three  days  later  Laban  was  in- 
formed of  Jacob's  flight.  He  was  busy 
shearing  his  sheep ;  but  he  presently  gath- 
ered his  male  relatives,  stai'ted  in  pursuit  of 
the  fugitives,  and  after  a  week's  journey  by 
forced  marches  overtook  them  on  mount 
Gilead,  apparently  between  the  Yarmuk  and 
the  Jabbok,  scant300 miles  from  the  Euphra- 
tes, at  least  ten  days  after  Jacob's  depar- 
ture and  probably  longer,  for  Laban  wasbusj' 
shearing  sheep  when  he  received  information 
of  the  flight  and  was  unprepared  for  the 
journey.  God  shielded  Jacob  from  injury, 
and  a  reconciliation  and  a  treaty  of  amity 
between  the  alienated  parties  took  place. 
A  heap  of  stones  was  erected  and  a  covenant 
meal  eaten  to  establish  the  agreement  that 
neither  party  should  pass  that  point  to  at- 
tack the  other  (xxxi.).  Jacob  had  mani- 
festations of  the  divine  favor  at  JIahanaim 
and  on  the  Jabbok,  where  a  man  wrestled 
with  him  until  break  of  day,  showed  his 
superiority  to  Jacob  by  disabling  him  by  a 
touch,  and  before  dejiarting  blessed  him,  say- 
ing :  "Thy  name  shall  be  called  no  more 
Jacob,  but  Israel ;  for  thou  hast  striven  with 
God  and  with  men.  and  hast  prevailed." 
And  Jacob  called  the  name  of  that  place 
Peniel,  face  of  God,  for  he  said:  "I  have 
seen  God  face  to  face,  and  my  life  is  pre- 
served "  (xxxii,  22-32  ;  cp.  the  name  xxxiii. 
20  ;  Hosca  xii.  4).  This  event  proved  a  crisis 
in  the  life  of  Jacob.  Heretofore  he  had  been 
trusting  to  his  own  strength  and  shrewdness 
for  success.  He  now  learns  that  his  own 
strength  is  of  no  avail  in  wrestling  with 
God  and  that  he  must  resort  to  prayer  for 
the  blessing  which  he  cannot  do  without. 
Henceforth  the  record  of  his  worshiping  be- 
comes frequent.  Before  he  crossed  the  Jor- 
dan, he  met  Esau,  and  obtained  forgiveness 
for  the  wrongs  which  had  so  long  made  him 


Jacob 


334 


Jacob 


an  exile.  Then  the  brothers  parted,  Esau 
returiiiufi  to  mount  Seir  and  Jacob  going  to 
Canaan  (xxxiii.  1-lS).  Jacob  sojourned  in 
Canaan  at  Shechem,  where  he  bouglit  a  par- 
cel of  ground  from  the  chief  of  Shechem,  on 
which  he  pitched  his  camp  and  erected  an 
altar  (xxxiii.  18-20).  While  here  his  daugh- 
ter Dinah  was  illtreated  by  the  chief's  son. 
The  deed  was  avenged  by  two  of  Jacob's  sons, 
Simeon  and  Levi,  and  the  other  sons  joined 
in  spoiling  the  town.  Jacob  feared  the  con- 
sequences of  this  act;  but  since  his  sous  had 
ca[iturcd  the  place,  slain  the  males,  appro- 
priated the  wealth,  and  made  captive  the 
women  and  children,  he  recognized  the  con- 
quest of  the  town  and  the  consequent  owner- 
ship of  it  by  his  tribe  (xlviii.  22  ;  cp.  xxxvii. 
12).  From  Shechem  Jacob  removed  to  Bethel. 
There  Deborah  died  and  was  buried  (xxxv. 
6-8) ;  see  Deborah.  There  also,  where  God 
had  appeared  to  him  as  he  went  to  Paddan- 
aram,  God  appeared  to  him  again  when  he 
came  back  from  Paddan-aram  (xxxv.  9 ; 
xxviii.  10-22),  emphasizing  the  change  of 
name  (but,  of  course,  not  finding  it  necessary 
to  tell  why  the  new  name  had  been  given) 
and  confirming  the  blessing  of  the  Abrahamic 
covenant  to  him.  As  be  was  approaching 
Bethlehem  on  his  way  to  Hebron,  his  twelfth 
and  last  son,  Benjamin,  was  born,  and  his 
beloved  Rachel  died  (9-20).  At  length  Jacob 
came  to  his  father  Isaac  at  Mamre  (27). 
Isaac  died  ahout  twenty-three 
years  later,  and  was  buried  by 
Esau  and  Jacob  (28, 29).  Jacob 
seems  to  have  dwelt  at  Mamre 
during  the  next  thirty-three 
years ;  for  he  was  at  Hebron 
about  ten  years  after  his  re- 
turn (xxxvii.  14;  cp.  2),  and 
he  was  evidently  still  there 
when  he  was  summoned  to  go 
down  to  Egj'pt  (xlvi.  1).  Jacob 
was  130  years  old  when  he  went 
to  Egj'pt  (xlvii.  9),  and  he  lived 
there  seventeen  years.  He  gave 
a  special  blessing,  first  to  Jo- 
seph's children  and  then  to  his 
own,  after  which  he  died  at 
the  age  of  147  (xlvii.  28  ;  xlviii. : 
xlix. ).  His  body  was  embalm- 
ed, taken  to  Canaan  with  much 
pomp,  and  interred  in  the  cave 
of  Machpelah  (1.  1-14).  Jacob 
had  glaring  faults  of  character. 
For  his  sins  he  sufl'ered  se- 
verely, and  in  his  old  age  he 
was  sorely  chastened  by  the 
lo.ss  of  Joseph.  In  his  later 
life  lie  acknowledged,  at  least 
tacitly,  the  sinfulness  of  his 
earlier  career  and  his  failure 
to  walk  before  God,  and  he 
spoke  only  of  God's  grace  (xlviii.  15,  Ifi).  He 
was  animated  also  in  his  latter  days  by  un- 
wavering faith  in  God  (21  ;  Heb.  xi'.  21)'. 
The   Hebrew   nation,  as  descended  from 


Jacob,  is  often  called  in  Scripture  the  chil- 
dren of  Israel  (Ex.  xiv.  16,  29;  xv.  1,  etc.). 
The  prophets  often  use  Jacob  and  Israel  as 
parallel  names  in  their  poetic  couplets  (Deut. 


Outer  Openmg  of  Jacob's  Well. 

xliv.   1).     See 


Is. 


1,   22 


xxxiii.  10; 
Israel. 

Jacob's  well,  beside  or  on  the  edge  of  which 
Jesus  sat  when  conversing  with  the  woman 


Subterranean  Vault  over  Mouth  of  Jacob's  Well. 


of  Samaria,  was  at  Sychar,  near  to  the  parcel 
of  ground  that  Jacob  gave  to  his  son  Joseph. 
"  Jacob,"  the  woman  of  Samaria  said,  "  drank 
thereof  himself,  and  his  sons,  and  his  cattle" 


Jada 


335 


Jahaziel 


(John  iv.  5,  6.  12  :  cp.  Gen.  xxxiii.  18-20 ; 
xxxvii.  12).  A  tradition,  going  back  as  far 
as  the  time  of  tlie  Bordeaux  pilgrim  a.  d., 
333,  and  accepted  by  Jews,  Samaritans, 
Christians,  and  Mohammedans,  identities 
Jacob's  well  with  the  Bir  Ya'kub.  It  is 
situated  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  valley  be- 
tween mount  Ebal  on  the  north  and  mount 
(ieri/.im  on  the  south,  abt»ut  2  miles  east- 
southeast  from  Nablus,  the  modern  She- 
chem.  and  a  third  of  a  mile  south  from 
'Askar,  believed  by  many  to  be  Sychar. 
Maundrell,  generally  very  accurate,  made  its 
diameter  9  feet  and  its  depth  lu.j.  Dr.  John 
Wilson,  measuring  a  line  with  which  a  boy 
was  let  down  into  it  with  a  light  in  1843,  de- 
termined it  to  be  75  feet  deep.  Conder 
reported  its  depth  in  1875  as  75  feet.  It  is 
less  now  than  it  once  was,  owing  to  the  num- 
ber of  stones  thrown  into  it  by  visitors.  It 
is  lined  with  masonry  in  the  upper  part.  The 
lower  part  is  cut  through  soft  limestone. 
There  is  generally  little  water  in  it,  and  that 
which  is  there  is  not  easy  to  reach  (John  iv. 
11).  A  low  subterranean  vault,  20  feet  long 
from  east  to  west  and  10  broad,  probably  the 
crypt  of  a  Christian  church,  is  built  over  the 
well,  the  mouth  of  which  is  contracted  and 
covered  with  one  or  more  large  stones.  There 
is  a  tine  fountain  a  little  to  the  west,  and 
many  others  in  the  valley.  The  well,  how- 
ever, was  dug.  perhaps,  because  the  fountains 
were  appropriated.  It  is  in  the  vicinity  of 
what  from  the  fourth  century  has  been  pop- 
ularly considered  to  be  Joseph's  tomb. 

Ja'da  [wise]. 

A  son  of  Guam,  a  man  of  Judah,  family  of 
Hezron,  house  of  Jerahmeel  (1  Chron.  ii.  28, 
32). 

Ja'dau.     See  Iddo  II. 

Jad-du'a  [known]. 

1.  One  of  the  chiefs  of  the  people  who, 
with  Nehemiah,  sealed  the  covenant  (Neh.  x. 
21). 

2.  A  high  priest,  son  of  Jonathan  and  the 
fifth  in  descent  from  the  high  priest  Jeshua, 
who  returned  with  Zerubbabel  from  Babylon 
(Xeh.  xii.  11,  22).  He  was  probably  a  youth 
in  the  reign  of  Darius  Xothus,  and  sur- 
vived Darius  Codomannus,  the  Persian  sover- 
eign defeated  by  Alexander  the  Great  at 
Arbela  in  331  b.  c.     See  High  Priest. 

Ja'don  [he  ruleth.  judgeth,  or  abideth]. 

A  Meronothite,  who  repaired  part  of  the 
wall  of  Jerusalem  after  the  captivity  (Neh. 
iii.  7). 

Ja'el  [wild  goat,  ibex]. 

The  wife  of  Heber  the  Kenite  (Judg.  iv. 
17).  Sisera.  Jabin's  general,  trusting  to  the 
peace  subsisting  between  his  royal  master 
and  Heber,  fled  to  her  tent  after  he  was  de- 
feated by  Barak.  On  his  approach  .Tael  went 
out.  invited  him  to  enter,  and  gave  him  milk 
to  relieve  his  thirst.  But  as  he  lay  sleeping 
in  the  tent,  she  took  a  hammer  and  drove 
a  tent  pin   through   his  temples,  tixing  his 


head  to  the  ground.  When  the  victorious 
Barak  passed,  she  called  him  in  to  see  what 
she  had  done  (Judg.  iv.  11  22).  Deborah 
highly  commended  the  deed  of  Jael  (v.  24- 
27),  though  it  was  cruel  and  treacherous.  It 
reveals  a  rudeness  of  manners  and  a  hard- 
ness of  character  which  found  frequent  ex- 
emplification in  those  early  times. 

In  V.  tj  a  judge  named  Jael  may  be  referred 
to,  who  is  not  elscuhere  mentitmed.  A  simpler 
explanation  is  that  Deborah  means  that  al- 
though the  heroic  woman  Jael  was  then  liv- 
ing, yet  no  one  ventured  to  undertake  the 
deliverance  of  Israel  until  Deborah  arose. 

Ja'gur  [a  lodging,  an  inn]. 

A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  21).     Site  unknown. 

Jail. 

A  form  of  Jehovah  occurring  in  poetry 
(Ps.  Ixviii.  4  :  E.  V.  of  Ixxxix.  81.  In  various 
other  places  Jab,  or.  rather.  Yah  in  Hebrew 
is  rendered  Lord  in  the  A.  V.  and  E.  V. 

In  the  Hebrew  sometimes  Jah  and  Jehovah 
stand  together,  Jah  first  (Is.  xii.  2  and  xxvi. 
4,  margin  of  E.  V.). 

Ja'hath  [perhaps,  grasping;  cp.  Mahath]. 

1.  A  man  of  Judah.  family  of  Hezron,  de- 
scended through  Shobal  (1  Chron.  iv.  2 ;  cp. 
ii.  19,  50). 

2.  A  son  of  Libni,  a  Levite,  family  of  Ger- 
shom  (1  Chron.  vi.  20,  and  perhaps  43).  The 
reference  in  ver.  43  may  belong  to  the  suc- 
ceeding. 

3.  A  Levite,  family  of  Gershom  and  head 
of  a  subdivision  of  the  house  of  Shimei 
(1  Chron.  xxiii.  10). 

4.  A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath,  house  of 
Izhar  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  22). 

5.  A  Merarite  Levite,  an  overseer  of  the 
workmen  engaged  in  repairing  the  temple 
during  Josiah's  reign  (2  Chron.  xxxiv.  12). 

Ja'haz  and  Jahzah,  in  A.  V.  once  Jaliaza 
(Josh.  xiii.  18),  and  twice  Jahazah  (Josh. 
xxi.  36 ;  Jer.  xlviii.  21)  [a  place  trodden 
under  foot,  an  open  space]. 

A  place  in  the  plain  of  Moab  (Jer.  xlviii. 
21)  where  Sihon,  king  of  the  Amorites,  was 
defeated  by  the  Israelites  (Num.  xxi.  23; 
Dent.  ii.  32':  Judg.  xi.  20).  It  was  assigned 
to  the  Eeubenites  (Josh.  xiii.  18),  and  set 
apart  for  the  Merarite  Levites  (Josh.  xxi.  36;. 
1  Chron.  vi.  78).  It  was  taken  from  Israel 
bv  Mesha,  king  of  Moab  (Moabite  Stone,  18- 
26).  and  it  was  held  by  Moab  in  the  time  of 
Isaiah  and  Jeremiah  (Is.  xv.  4 ;  Jer.  xlviii. 
21,  34).     Its  site  is  unknown. 

Ja-ha-zi'ah.     See  Jahzexah. 

Ja-ha'zi-el  [God  seeth]. 

1.  A  Levite.  family  of  Kohath.  house  of 
Hebron  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  19). 

2.  One  of  the  Benjamite  warriors  who 
joined  David  at  Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  4). 

3.  A  priest  in  David's  reign  who  was  em- 
ployed to  sound  a  trumpet  in  the  sanctuary 
(1  Chron.  xvi.  6). 


Jahdai 


336 


Jambri 


4.  A  Levite,  son  of  Zechariah  of  the  Asaph 
family,  who  jji-opbesied  iu  the  time  of  Jehosh- 
apliat  ('2  Chron.  xx.  14). 

5.  Palher  of  a  chief  of  the  people  who  re- 
turned from  Babylon  (Ezra  viii.  5). 

Jah'dal  [i)erhaps,  he  directeth  or  direc- 
tive]. 

A  man  of  Judah,  enrolled  with  Caleb's 
posterity  (1  Chron  ii.  47). 

Jah'di-el  [God  maketh  glad] . 

A  leading  man  in  the  half  tribe  of  Manas- 
seh  east  of  the  Jordan  (1  Chron.  v.  24). 

Jab'do  [union]. 

A  Gadite,  son  of  Buz  (1  Chron.  v.  14). 

Jah'le-el  [God  doth  grievously  afflict], 

A  son  of  Zebulun,  and  founder  of  a  tribal 
faniily  (Gen.  xlvi.  14  ;  Num.  xxvi.  26). 

Jah'mai  [perhaps,  lusty]. 

.\  prince  of  Issachar,  of  the  familj'  of  Tola 
(1  Cliron.  vii.  2). 

Jah'zah.     See  Jah.\z. 

Jah'ze-el  and  Jahziel  [God  distributeth]. 

A  sou  of  Naphtali,  and  founder  of  a  tribal 
family  (Gen.  xlvi.  24:  Num.  xxvi.  48;  1 
Chron.  vii.  13). 

Jah-ze'iah,  in  A.  Y.  Jahaziah  [Jehovah 
seeth]. 

A  son  of  Tikvah  who  opposed  the  proposi- 
tion that  the  Jews  put  away  their  foreign 
wives  (Ezra  x.  15,  K.  V.). 

Jah'ze-rah  [may  he  lead  back]. 

A  priest  descended  from  Immer  (1  Chron. 
ix.  12). 

Jah'zi-el.     See  Jahzeel. 

Ja'ir,  I.  [he  enlighteneth]. 

1.  A  son  of  Segub  and  grandson  of  Hezron, 
of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  and  his.  wife,  who  was 
of  the  family  of  Machir,  of  the  tribe  of  Ma- 
nasseh  (1  Chron.  ii.  21, 22).  He  was  reckoned 
with  the  tribe  of  Manasseh  (v.  23 ;  Num. 
xx.sii.  41 ;  Deut.  iii.  14).  At  the  time  of  the 
coiiquest  by  the  Israelites  under  Moses  of  the 
country  east  of  the  Jordan,  he  took  villages 
in  the  Argob,  on  the  border  of  Bashau  and 
Gilead,  and  called  them  Havvoth-jair  (q.  v.). 

2.  A  Gileadite  who  judged  Israel  twenty- 
two  years,  succeeding  or  surviving  Tola  in 
othce.  Each  of  his  thirty  sons  had  an  ass  for 
riding  purpo.ses,  which  in  that  age  was  an 
indication  of  standing  in  the  community. 
They  also  had  thirty  cities,  called  Havvotii- 
jair.  He  may  have  belonged  to  the  family 
of  the  earlier  Jair  (cp.  perhaps  J.\irite),  and 
have  inherited  prerogatives  connected  with 
the  Havvoth-jair,  or  have  used  his  influence 
to  ])lace  his  sens  over  these  encampments 
(Judg.  X.  3-r,). 

3.  A  Benjamite,  Moi'decai's  father  (Esth. 
ii.  5). 

Ja'ir,  II.  [he  arouseth]. 

Father  of  Elhanan  (1  Chron.  xx.  5)  ;  called 
in  2  Sam.  xxi.  19,  Jaare-orcgim,  where  oregim 
has  gotten  into  the  text  by  error  from  the 
line  below. 


Ja'ir-ite. 

A  descendant  of  some  Jair  or  other,  whose 
name  was  written  as  is  that  of  Jair,  I.  (2  Sam. 
XX.  26). 

Ja-i'rus  [Greek  form  of  Jair]. 

One  of  the  rulers  of  the  synagogue  at 
Capernaum,  who  besought  Jesus  to  come  to- 
his  house  and  heal  his  little  daughter,  twelve 
years  of  age.  On  the  way  thither  thej-  were 
informed  that  the  child  was  dead.  Jesus, 
not  heeding  the  word  spoken,  said,  "  Fear 
not,  only  believe."  Entering  the  house  and 
finding  it  full  of  noisy  professional  mourners, 
he  rebuked  them,  saying :  "  The  damsel  is 
not  dead,  but  sleepeth."  He  used  the  word 
as  he  did  afterwards  iu  the  case  of  Lazarus 
(John  xi.  11-14),  but  the  mourners  laughed 
him  to  scorn.  However,  taking  the  three 
disciples,  Peter,  James,  and  John,  and  the 
parents,  he  entered  the  chamber  where  the 
corpse  was  laid  out,  took  the  child  by  the 
hand,  and  said  in  the  language  of  the  people, 
T4itha'  kiimi ;  Maid,  arise.  And  the  maid 
arose.  He  commanded  that  something  should 
be  given  her  to  eat,  and  enjoined  the  parents 
not  to  tell  what  had  taken  place.  Such  a 
miracle  could  not,  however,  be  concealed, 
and  it  was  soon  everywhere  blazoned  abroad 
(Mat.  ix.  18-26 ;  Mark  v.  22-43 ;  Luke  viii. 
41-56). 

Ja'kan.    See  Jaakan. 

Ja'keh  [pious]. 

The  father  of  that  Agur  whose  words  are 
recorded  in  Prov.  xxx.  In  the  Hebrew  Bible 
his  name  is  followed  by  the  words  Ham- 
massa',  translated  in  the  A.  V.  the  prophecy, 
and  in  the  E.  V.  the  oracle.  The  margin 
of  the  R.  V.  translates  the  title  Jakeh  of 
Massa,  and  refers  to  Gen.  xxv.  14,  where 
Massa  figures  as  a  son  of  Ishmael. 

Ja'kim  [he  raises  up]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Aaron.  His  family 
grew  to  a  father's  house  and  was  made  the 
twelfth  of  the  twenty-four  cour.ses  into 
which  David  divided  the  priests  (1  Chron. 
xxiv.  12). 

2.  A  Benjamite  (1  Chron.  viii.  19). 
Ja'lam,  in  A.  V.  Jaalam  [perhaps,  hidden 

or  pertaining  to  a  wild  goat]. 

A  son  of  Esau  by  his  wife  Oholibamah. 
He  became  a  chieftain  of  Edom  (Gen.  xxxvi. 
5,  18;  1  Chron.  i.  35). 

Ja'lon  [perhaps,  obstinate]. 

A  son  of  Ezrah,  registered  with  the  tribe 
of  Judah  (1  Chron.  iv.  17). 

Jam'bres  [])erhaps,  opposer]. 

One  of  two  Egyptian  magicians  who 
attempted  to  counterwork  Moses  (2  Tim.  iii. 
8).     See  Jannes. 

Jam'bri. 

Founder  of  a  familv  which  dweltat  ^ledeba 
(1  Mac.  ix.  36,  37  ;  Antiq.  xiii.  1,  2).  The  or- 
thography is  uncertain.  It  may  represent 
the  Hebrew  name  Omri  or  Imri ;  and  even 
Amorite  has  been  conjectured. 


James 


337 


James 


James  [a  form  of  the  name  Jacob]. 

1.  James  the  sou  of  Zebedee  (Mat.  iv.  21  ; 
X.  2  ;  Mark  i.  19  ;  iii.  17),  and  brother  of 
the  apostU'  Johu  (Mat.  xvii.  1 ;  Mark  iii.  17; 
V.  37  ;  Acts  xii.  2).  oue  of  the  earliest  dis- 
ciples (Mat.  iv.  21  :  Mark  i.  19,  29  ;  cp.  Johu 
1.40,  41)  aud  most  trusted  apostles  (Mat.  xvii. 
1  ;  Mark  v.  37  ;  ix.  2  ;  xiii.  3 ;  xiv.  33  ;  Luke 
viii.  51  ;  ix.  2t!)  of  our  Lord.  Of  his  birth- 
place or  early  home  we  are  told  uothing. 
His  occupation  as  a  fisherman  on  the  sea  of 
(.Talilee,  in  partnership  with  Peter  and 
Andrew  (Luke  v.  10),  might  seem  to  suggest 
a  contiguous  locality.  But  the  fishery  of  the 
sea  of  Galilee  was  expressly  kept  free  for 
every  Israelite,  aud  a  social  ditference  between 
the  sons  of  Zebedee  and  the  sous  of  Jonas 
may  be  implied  in  the  facts  that  the  foi'mer 
kept  hired  servants  (Mark  i.  20),  and  that 
John  at  least  was  known  to  the  high  priest 
(John  xviii.  Iti)  aud  may  have  had  a  house 
in  Jerusalem  (xix.  27).  His  father,  Zebedee, 
appears  only  once  in  the  pages  of  the  gospels 
{Mat.  iv.  21 ;  Mark  i.  19),  where  he  raises  no 
obstacle  to  his  sons'  following  Jesus.  From 
Mat.  xxvii.  oti,  compared  with  Mark  xv.  40 ; 
xvi.  1  and  with  John  xix.  25,  it  seems  rea- 
sonable to  infer  that  his  mother  was  named 
Salome  and  was  sister  to  the  mother  of  Jesus : 
in  which  case  James  would  be  a  near  kins- 
man of  Jesus,  and  like  him  of  Davidic  de- 
scent. His  name  occui-s  only  in  the  .synoptic 
gospels  and  the  book  of  The  Acts,  although  he 
is  alluded  to  twice  in  the  Gospel  of  John  (i.  40, 
41  ;  xxi.  2).  It  never  occurs  apart  from  that  of 
John,  which  it  ordinarily  precedes  (Mat.  iv. 
21  ;  X.  2  ;  xvii.  1 ;  Mark  "i.  19.  29 ;  iii.  17  ;  v. 
37 ;  ix.  2  ;  x.  3,5,  41 :  xiii.  3  ;  xiv.  33  ;  Luke 
v.  10;  vi.  14;  ix.  .54),  while  John  is  desig- 
nated as  the  brother  of  James  (Mat.  iv.  21 ; 
X.  2  :  xvii.  1  ;  Mark  i.  19 ;  iii.  17  ;  v.  37).  From 
this  it  has  been  inferred  that  he  was  the  older 
brother  ;  while  the  occasional  reverse  usage 
in  Luke  (viii.  51.  E.  V. ;  ix.  28)  and  Acts 
(i.  13,  R.  V.  ;  xii.  2  only)  is  supposed  to  arise 
from  John's  greater  prominence  in  the  apos- 
tolical circle.  Along  with  John,  he  received 
from  Hirist  the  surname  Boanerges  or  son 
of  thunder  (]Mark  iii.  17),  aud  along  with 
him  earned  his  ^Master's  rebuke  for  the  fierce- 
ness of  his  anger  against  the  Samaritan  vil- 
lage which  would  not  receive  Jesus  (Luke  ix. 
55),  and  the  indignation  of  his  fellow  apos- 
tles for  his  ambitious  self-seeking  (Mark  x. 
41).  After  the  crucifixion  we  find  him  with 
the  other  apostles  in  Galilee  (John  xxi.  2), 
and  in  Jerusalem  (Acts  i.  13),  and  his  record 
closes  with  his  death  by  the  sword  at  the 
hands  of  Herod  Agrippa  I.,  probably  a.  d. 
44  (xii.  2).  He  was  the  first  of  the  apostolic 
band  to  seal  his  testimony  with  his  blood. 

2.  James  the  son  of  Alpha?us  and  one  of 
the  apostles  of  our  Lord  (Mat.  x.  3 :  Mark 
iii.  18 ;  Luke  vi.  15  :  Acts  i.  13).  Nothing 
further  is  certainly  known  of  him.  It  is 
natural,  however,  as  it  has  been  usual,  to 
assume  that  the  James  of  Mat.  xxvii.  56 ; 

22 


Mark  xv.  40  ;  xvi.  1  ;  Luke  xxiv.  10  is  this 
James :  in  which  case  we  may  learn  that  he 
bore  the  surname  of '■  the  little"  (E.  V.,  "the 
less"),  possibly  with  reference  to  his  stature 
(Mark  xv.  40)  ;  that  his  mother  was  called 
Mary,  and  was  one  of  the  women  who 
accompanied  Christ ;  and  that  he  had  a 
brother  named  Joses.  Levi,  or  Matthew,  who, 
according  to  Mark  ii.  14,  was  son  of  Alphseus, 
may  be  another  brother  :  and  it  is  jiossible  to 
fill  in  the  ellipsis  of  Luke  vi.  l(j  ;  Acts  i.  13 
so  as  to  make  the  apostle  Judas  another 
brother.  It  is  possible  further  to  identify 
the  Mary  of  Clopas  of  John  xix.  25  with 
Mary  the  mother  of  James ;  and  it  is  then 
possible,  though  scarcely  natural,  to  read 
John  xix.  25  as  declaring  that  Mary  of  Clopas 
was  Jesus'  mother's  sister.  By  this  combina- 
tion, James,  the  son  of  Alphieus,  would  be 
made  out  to  be  the  cousin-germau  of  our 
Lord.  It  is  common,  on  this  assumption,  to 
take  still  another  step,  and,  on  the  ground 
of  the  similarity  between  the  names  of  the 
Lord's  brethren  and  those  of  the  sous  of 
Alphfeus,  so  obtained,  to  su])pose  that  this 
near  relative  of  our  Lord's  is  intended  by 
"James  the  Lord's  brother."  The  whole  con- 
struction is,  however,  very  insecure,  and  does 
not  seem  to  satisfy  the  biblical  facts. 

3.  James,  the  Lord's  brother  (Mat.  xiii.  55; 
Mark  vi.  3;  Gal.  i.  19),  and  the  head  of  the 
church  at  Jerusalem  in  the  apostolic  age 
(Acts  xii.  17  ;  xv.  13  ;  xxi.  18  ;  Gal.  i.  19  ;  ii. 
9.  12).  This  James  is  mentioned  by  name 
only  twice  in  the  gospels  (Mat.  xiii.  55  ;  Mark 
vi.  3),  but  the  outlines  of  his  life  maj^  be 
traced  by  means  of  the  notices  of  the  "breth- 
ren of  the  Lord,"  who  constituted  a  distinct 
class,  both  during  our  Lord's  life,  when  they 
did  not  believe  on  him  (John  vii.  5),  and  after 
his  resurrection,  when  they  are  found  among 
his  followers  (Acts  i.  14).  The  exact  relation- 
ship which  these  "  brethren  "  bore  to  our  Lord 
has  always  been  a  matter  of  dispute.  Some, 
identifying  them  with  the  sons  of  Alphwus, 
represent  them  as  his  cousins.  Others  think 
of  them  as  his  half-brothers,  children  of 
Joseph  by  a  former  marriage.  As  they 
always  appear  with  Mary,  living  and  jour- 
neying with  her  and  holding  just  such  rela- 
tions with  her  as  would  naturally  be  borne 
by  her  children  (JIat.  xii.  46,  47;  Luke  viii. 
19;  Johu  ii.  12),  there  is  no  reason  to  ques- 
tion the  natural  implication  that  they  were 
Jesus'  own  brothers.  As  James'  name  stands 
first  in  the  lists  (Mat.  xiii.  .55  ;  Mark  vi.  3),  it 
is  probable  that  he  was  the  oldest  of  our 
Lord's  brothers.  He  doubtless  shared  their 
unbelief  (.John  vii.  5),  and  doubtless  also  their 
natural  anxieties  in  his  behalf  (JIark  iii.  31, 
seq.).  When  or  how  the  change  was  wrought 
in  him  by  which  he  became  a  servant  of 
Christ  (Acts  i.  14  ;  Jas.  i.  1)  we  are  not  told  : 
possibly,  as  in  the  case  of  Paul,  his  conversion 
was  due  to  a  special  ajjpearance  of  the  risen 
'  Lord  (1  Cor.  xv.  7).  From  the  very  first  or- 
I   ganization    of    the    church    in    Jerusalem, 


James,  Epistle  of 


338 


James,  Epistle  of 


James  appears  as  its  head  (Acts  xii.  17 ;  xv. 
13  ;•  xxi.  18  ;  Gal.  i.  19  ;  ii.  9,  12).  As  early 
as  A.  D.  40,  when  Paul  first  visited  Jerusalem 
after  his  couversion,  James'  position  was 
such  that  Paul  felt  it  necessary  to  name  him 
along  with  Peter  as  having  been  seen  by  him 
(Gal.  i.  19).  The  reference  of  Acts  xii.  17 
(a.  d.  44),  where  James  is  clearly  the  official 
head  of  "the  brethren,"  as  well  as  that  of 
xxi.  18  (a.  d.  58),  where  he  seems  to  stand  at 
the  head  of  the  elders  of  the  church  (cp. 
XV.  6),  enable  us  to  estimate  wherein  his 
preeminence  consisted.  As  he  was  not  an 
apo.stle  (the  K.  V.  margin  gives  the  correct 
translation  of  Gal.  i.  19),  we  cannot  be  far 
wrong  in  assuming  that  he  was  the  head  of 
the  board  of  elders  of  the  church  at  Jerusalem  ; 
that  is,  what  we  should  call  the  "  pastor " 
of  that  church.  See  Elder.  As  such,  his 
name  stands  for  the  church  of  Jerusalem 
(Gal.  ii.  12),  of  which  he  was  the  natural 
representative  (Acts  xii.  17  ;  xv.  13  ;  xxi.  18) ; 
and  visitors  to  the  church  made  themselves 
known  in  the  first  instance  to  him  and  laid 
their  errand  before  him  (xii.  17;  xxi.  18; 
Gal.  i.  19  ;  ii.  9).  In  his  position,  James'  life- 
work  was  naturally  to  smooth  the  passage  of 
Jews  over  to  Christianity.  That  he  stood  on  the 
same  platform  of  faith  with  Paul  is  apparent 
not  only  from  Paul's  assertion  in  Gal.  ii.  9, 
but  also  from  .James'  remarks  recorded  in 
Acts  XV.  13  ;  xxi.  20.  But  on  both  occa- 
sions he  speaks  also  in  behalf  of  the  Jewish- 
Christian  conscience,  and  it  is  equally  appar- 
ent that,  as  Paul  became  as  all  men  to  all 
men  because  he  was  sent  to  all,  James  be- 
came as  a  Jew  to  Jews  because  he  was  sent 
to  Jews.  The  use  of  his  name  by  intense 
Judaizers  (Gal.  ii.  12,  and  the  later  Clemen- 
tine literature)  is  thus  explical)le,  as  also  the 
admiration  which  is  said  to  have  been  con- 
ceived for  him  by  the  Jews  themselves,  who 
are  reported  to  have  given  him  the  surname 
of  "the  just"  (Eusebius,  H.  E.  ii.  23).  After 
Acts  .xxi.  18  (a.  d.  58)  we  meet  no  further 
reference  to  .Tames  in  the  N.  T.  Secular  his- 
tory tells  us,  however,  that  he  was  martyred 
in  a  ])oi)uIar  outbreak  of  the  Jews  in  the  in- 
terregnum between  the  death  of  the  procura- 
tor Festus  and  the  appointment  of  his  suc- 
cessor, i.  €.,  A.  D.  62  (Antiq.  xx.  9,  1 ;  Euse- 
bius, H.  E.  ii.  23). 

4.  James,  the  father  or  brother  of  the  apos- 
tle Judas  (Luke  vi.  16  ;  Acts  i.  13).  Nothing 
further  is  known  of  him.  B.  B.  W. 

James,  E-pis'tle  of. 

This  letter  does  not  announce  itself  as  the 
production  of  an  apostle,  but  describes  its 
author  sim]»ly  as  James,  a  boTid-servant  of 
(rod  and  of  the  Lord  Jesiis  Christ  (i.  1,  R. 
V.  margin).  It  is  most  natural  to  think  of 
James,  the  Lord's  brother,  as  meant,  and 
all  the  characteristics  of  the  letter  agree 
with  this  attribution.  The  letter  bears  a  dis- 
tinct fiavor  of  i>rimitivenoss  :  the  Christian 
place  of  worship  is  still  spoken  of  as  a  syna- 


gogue (ii.  2)  ;  Christians  are  not  sharply 
discriminated  from  Jews  (i.  1)  ;  the  sins  re- 
buked and  errors  corrected  are  such  as  would 
naturally  spring  up  in  a  Jewish  soil;  while 
there  is  not  a  trace  of  the  controversies 
which  already  in  the  sixth  decade  of  the 
first  Christian  century  were  distracting  the 
whole  church.  It  is,  therefore,  usually  dated 
about  A.  D.  45,  and  considered  the  earliest  of 
the  N.  T.  writings.  It  is  addressed  to  the 
twelve  tribes  which  are  of  the  Dispersion  (i.  1, 
E.  v.),  that  is,  not  to  the  dispersed  Jews,  nor 
yet  to  the  whole  Christian  church,  consid- 
ered as  the  spiritual  Israel,  but,  probably,  to 
the  Christians  (ii.  1,  5,  7  ;  v.  7)  among  the 
Jewish  Dispersion,  as  the  Jews  dwelling  out- 
side the  Holy  Land  were  technically  called 
(John  vii.  35  ;  cp.  2  Mac.  i.  27).  The  object 
of  its  writing  was  to  reform  and  correct  those 
sins  and  errors  to  which  its  lately  Christian- 
ized Jewish  readers  continued  to  be  liable, 
and  to  encourage  them  in  the  sore  trials  to 
which  they  were  exposed. 

After  the  address  (i.  1),  James  first  consoles 
his  readers  in  their  tiials  and  exhorts  them 
to  steadfastness,  pointing  out  at  the  same 
time  the  source  of  the  temptation  to  apos- 
tasy (i.  2-21).  He  proceeds  then  to  warn 
them  against  mere  word-service,  explaining 
what  is  meant  by  true  faith  (i.  22-27),  what 
will  be  the  eflTect  of  true  faith  on  the  preva- 
lent sin  of  respect  of  persons  (ii.  1-13),  and 
how  a  true  faith  evinces  itself  (ii.  14-26). 
Exhortations  against  hasty  assumption  and 
misuse  of  the  functions  of  religious  teachers 
and  exposure  of  their  root  in  a  jealous  heart 
follow  (iii.  1-18)  ;  and  then  reproofs  of  con- 
tentiousness (iv.  1-12)  and  self-sufficiency 
(iv.  13-v.  6).  The  epistle  closes  w-ith  exhor- 
tations to  patience  in  suffering  (v.  7-12)  and 
to  prayer  as  the  sufficient  resource  of  the 
Christian  in  every  need  (13-18),  along  with  a 
final  declaration  of  the  joy  of  Christian  prop- 
agandism  (19-20). 

The  linguistic  and  rhetorical  character  of 
the  epistle  is  very  high.  It  is  written  in 
Greek  which  is  surpassed  in  purity  )\v  that 
of  no  N.  T.  writings  except  those  of  Luke, 
and  in  a  strikingly  elevated  and  picturesque 
style  resembling  that  of  the  Hebrew  pro])hets. 
It  contains  more  imagery  drawn  from  na- 
ture than  all  the  epistles  of  Paul,  in  this  re- 
calling the  manner  of  our  Lord's  synoptic 
speeches,  to  which  it  presents  numerous 
parallels.  The  tone  and  matter  of  its  teach- 
ing are  appropriate  to  its  early  date  and  the 
recent  emergence  of  its  readers  from  Juda- 
ism. The  section  on  faith  and  works  (ii.  14- 
26)  has  often  been  misapjirehended  as  a 
polemic  against  Paul's  doctrine  of  justifica- 
tion by  faitli.  or  at  least  as  a  corrective  of 
perversions  of  that  doctrine.  It  is  really  a 
rebuke  of  a-  prevalent  Jewish  notion — that 
mere  intellectual  assent  to  divine  teaching  is 
all  that  is  necessary  for  salvation.  James  as 
pointedly  as  Paul  makes  faith  the  instru- 
ment of  salvation   (ii.  22, 23),  and  Paul  as 


Jamin 


339 


Jarib 


firmly  as  James  insists  that  the  only  saviug 
faith  is  the  taith  that  works  (Gal.  v.  6). 

There  is  clear  evideuce  of  the  use  of  this 
epistle  by  the  church  from  the  very  earliest 
times.  Orifieii,  however,  writing  early  iu  the 
third  century,  is  the  tii'st  writer  to  quote  it 
exj)licitly  by  name:  and  there  was  a  period 
during  which  the  Latin  writers  seem  to  have 
used  it  little.  Luther,  not  fully  seeing  its 
harmony  with  Paul,  permitted  himself  to 
speak  unguardedly  about  it.  It  is  historically 
indicated  as  an  integral  portion  of  the  sacred 
canon.  B.  B.  w. 

Ja'min  [the  right  hand,  prosperity]. 

1.  A  son  of  Simeon  and  founder  ofia  tribal 
family  (Gen.  xlvi.  10  ;  Ex.  vi.  15;  Num.  xxvi. 
12). 

2.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Jerahmeel 
(1  Chron.  ii.  27). 

3.  One  of  the  Levites  who.  under  the  di- 
rection of  Ezra,  read  the  law  of  God  to  the 
people  and  caused  them  to  understand  it 
(Xeh.  viii.  7,  8). 

Jam'lech  [let  him  constitute  a  king]. 

A  Simeonite  prince  (1  Chron.  iv.  34). 

Jam'ni-a.     See  J.\bneel. 

Ja'nai.    See  Jaanai. 

Ja'nim,  in  A.  V.  Janum  [sleep]. 

A  village  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  53)  :  doubtless  to  the  west  or 
southwest  of  Hebron. 

Jan'na. 

The  father  of  Melchi  in  the  ancestry  of 
Christ  (Luke  iii.  24). 

Jan'nes. 

One  of  two  Egj-ptian  magicians  who  at- 
tempted to  counterwork  Hoses,  Jambres  being 
the  other  (2  Tim.  iii.  8).  The  reference  is  to 
the  occurrences  described  in  Ex.  vii.  11,  12, 
22;  viii.  7,  18,  19:  and  ix.  11,  where,  how- 
ever, the  names  of  the  magicians  are  not 
given  nor  tlieir  number.  They  were  known 
to  late  Jewish  tradition,  being  found  in  the 
Targum  of  the  pseudo-Jonathan.  The  Talmud 
mentions  Johana  and  INIamre.  Jambres  is 
believed  to  be  the  Greek  form  of  Jamreh, 
opposer.  Mamre,  from  the  same  root,  is  used 
in  the  Talmud  for  one  who  resists  the  de- 
cisions of  the  sanhedrin.  Jannes  is  perhaps 
a  corru]ition  of  Johanan  (cp.  Jannseus),  but 
in  sound  suggests  the  Hebrew  Yani',  he  hin- 
ders or  dissuades. 

Ja-no'ah,  and  Ja-no'hah  in  A.  V.  of  Joshua 
[rest,  quiet]. 

1.  A  town  of  Naphtali,  captured  by  Tig- 
lath-pileser  (2  Kin.  xv.  29).  Not  identified. 
Yanuh.  6i  miles  east  by  .south  of  Tyre,  is  not 
in  the  district  described. 

2.  A  town  on  the  boundary  line  of  Ephraim 
(■Tosh.  xvi.  6,  7).  It  has  been  fixed  at  Yaniin, 
7  miles  S.  E.  of  Shechem. 

Ja'num.     See  Janim. 

Ja'pheth  [beauty,  or  let  him  enlarge]. 

A  son  of  Noah,  and  doubtless  one  of  the 


two  elder  sons  (Gen.  x.  21  ;  c]>.  ix.  24),  born 
about  Noah's  five  hundredtli  year  (v.  32;  vi. 
10)  ;  see  Noah.     At  the  time  of  the  deluge 
he  was  married,  but  had  no  cliiklrcn  with 
him  in  the  ark  (vii.  7;    1   Pet.  iii.  20).     On 
1    the  occasion  of  Noah's  drunkenness,  Japheth 
!   acted  to  him   in  a  dutiful   manner,  and   in 
I    consequence  received  a  blessing,  the  essential 
part  of   which   was  that  he  should    receive 
j    large  territory  and  enjoy  free  action  and  that 
he  should  occupy  the  tents  of  Shem,  not  in 
the  sense  of  conquering  the  Semites,  hut  of 
dwelling  with   them  in  peace   and    sharing 
their  privileges  (Gen.  ix.  20-27).     "  The  lan- 
guage of  the  N.  T.  is  the  speech  of  Japheth 
!    entered  into  the  tents  of  Shem,  the  gospel  is 
j    the  proclamation  of  salvation  translated  out 
I    of  Semitic  into  Japhetic,  and  the  converted 
I    heathen  are  for  the  most  part  .lajihetic  peo))le 
I    dwelling  in  the  tents  of  Shem  "  (Delitzsch). 
i    Japheth  was  the    progenitor  of   the   people 
who  inliabited,  or  jjerhaps  in  some  cases  con- 
quered and  annexed,  Gomer,  Magog,  Madai, 
Javan,  Tubal.  Meshech,  and  Tiras  (Gen.  x.  2). 
Ja-phi'a  [shining,  gleaming], 

1.  A  king  of  Lachish,  defeated,  captured, 
and  executed  by  Joshua  (Josh.  x.  .3-27). 

2.  A  son  of  David,  born  at  Jerusalem 
(2  Sam.  V.  15). 

3.  A  border  town  of  Zebulun  (Josh.  xix. 
12).  It  is  by  many  identified  with  Yafa,  a 
little  less  than  2  miles  southwest  of  Nazareth. 

Japh'let  [may  he  deliver]. 

An  Asherite,  family  of  Heber  (1  Chron. 
vii.  32). 

Japh'le-tite,  in  A.  V.  Japhleti. 

The  descendants  of  a  certain  Jaiihlet,  a])par- 
ently  not  the  same  as  the  Asherite  of  that 
name.  Their  location  was  on  the  liorder  of 
Ephraim,  near  Beth-horon  (Josh.  xvi.  3). 

Ja'pho.     See  Joppa. 

Ja'rah  [honey]. 

A  descendant  of  king  Saul  (1  Chron.  ix. 
42).     Called  Jehoaddah  in  viii.  36. 

Ja'reb  [contentious  or  let  him  contend]. 

A  king  of  Assyria  whose  name  has  not 
been  identified  (Hos.  v.  13;  x.  6),  or  else 
Jareb  is  not  a  proper  name  at  all,  but  a  de- 
scriptive term,  and  the  Hebrew  is  to  be  ren- 
dered, as  on  the  margin  of  E.  Y.,  a  king  that 
should  contend. 

Ja'red,  in  A.  Y.  once  Jered  (1  Chron.  i.  2) 
[perhaps  descent]. 

Son  of  Mahalaleel  and  father  of  En(jch 
(Gen.  V.  16-20;  1  Chron.  i.  2;  Luke  iii.  37). 
See  Chronology. 

Jar-e-si'ah.    See  Jaareshiah. 

Jar'ha. 

An  Egyptian  servant  of  a  man  of  Judah 
called  Sheshan.  The  master  gave  his  daugh- 
ter in  marriage  to  Jarha  (1  Chron.  ii.  34,  35). 

Ja'rib  [an  adversary,  or  he  doth  contend]. 
1.  A  son  of  Simeon  (1  Chron.  iv.  24) ;  see 
Jachin. 


Jarmuth 


340 


Javan 


2.  A  chief  man  who  was  with  Ezra  the 
priest  at  the  river  of  Ahava  (Ezra  viii.  16). 

3.  A  priest  who  \vas  induced  to  put  away 
his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  18). 

Jar'niuth  [a  height]. 

1.  A  town  in  tlie  hjwlaud,  whose  king  was 
defeated,  captured,  aud  slaiu  by  Joshua  (Josh. 
X.  3-27;  xii.  11).  It  was  assigned  to  Judah 
(xv.  35),  and  was  inhabited  after  the  captivity 
(Xeh.  xi.  29).  Eusebius  identified  it  with  a 
village  known  in  his  day  as  Jermochos,  in 
Latin  Jerinucha,  10  Roman  miles  from  Eleu- 
theropolis  on  the  road  to  Jerusalem.  The 
site  is  marked  by  the  ruined  village  of 
Yarmuk. 

2.  A  town  of  Issachar,  assigned  to  the 
Gershonite  Levites  (Josli.  xxi.  28,  29).  It  is 
called  Ramoth  (1  Chron.  vi.  73)  and  Remeth 
(Josh.  xix.  21),  synonyms  of  Jarmuth.  Not 
identified.  The  village  of  er-Rameh,  5i 
miles  north  by  west  of  the  city  of  Samaria, 
does  not  lie  within  the  bounds  of  Issachar. 
Nothing  but  altitude  recommends  el-Mezar 
or  Wezar,  on  one  of  the  highest  points  of 
mount  Gilboa. 

Ja-ro'ah. 

A  Gadite,  descended  through  Buz  (1  Chron. 
V.  14j. 

Ja'shar,  in  A.  V.  Jasher  [righteous,  up- 
right]. 

The  Book  of  Jasliar  is  quoted  in  Josh.  x.  13  ; 
2  Sam.  i.  18 ;  and  in  Septuagint  of  1  Kin. 
viii.  53.  From  these  citations,  the  book  was 
evidently  a  collection  of  poems  which  were 
apparently  accompanied  by  introductory,  and 
perhaps  also  concluding,  explanatory  remarlvs 
in  prose.  It  resembled  in  this  respect  tiie 
psalms  with  prose  introductions,  such  as  Ps. 
xviii.  and  li.,  or  the  book  of  Job  witli  its 
prose  introduction  (i.-iii.  1)  and  conclusion 
(xlii.7-17).  In  1751  there  appeared  a  volume 
which  professed  to  be  an  English  translation 
of  the  Book  of  Jashar,  alleged  to  liave  been 
found,  but  the  production  was  an  impudent 
forgery. 

Ja'shen  [sleei)ing]. 

A  name  in  the  catalogue  of  David's  mighty 
men  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  .'J2)  occupying  the  place 
of  Hashem  in  1  Chron.  xi.  34.  Perhaps  the 
preceding  letters  Bni,  rendered  "sons  of"  in 
the  English  versions,  form  ])art  of  tlie  name; 
or  they  may  have  been  rejieated  from  the 
])receding  word,  Shaalbonite,  which  termi- 
nates with  them. 

Ja'slier.    See  Jashar. 

Ja-sho'be-am  [let  the  people  return  (to 
God)]. 

1.  A  man  of  the  family  of  Ilachmoni  and 
chief  of  Daviil's  mighty  tucm  (1  Chron.  xi. 
11).  He  is  reasonably  identified  with  the 
son  of  Zabdiel.  of  the  children  of  Perez,  and 
consequently  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  wlio  was 
made  military  captain  over  the  course  for  the 
first  month  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  2.  3).  Called  in 
2  Sam.  xxiii.  8  Josheb-basshebeth  (q.  v.). 


2.  A  Benjamite  who  joined  David  at  Ziklag. 
He  belonged  to  the  family  of  the  Korahites, 
probably  the  Levitical  family  of  that  name 
who  kept  the  doors  of  tlie  tabernacle  (1  Chron. 
xii.  1,  2,  6). 

Ja'shub  [he  returns]. 

1.  A  son  of  Issachar,  aud  founder  of  a 
tribal  family  (Num.  xxvi.  24;  1  Chron.  vii. 
1).  Called  Job  in  Gen.  xlvi.  13,  probably 
through  a  copyist's  omission  of  the  Hebrew 
letter  sh. 

2.  A  son  of  Bani  whom  Ezra  induced  to 
put  away  liis  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  29). 

Jash-u-toi-le'heni  [perhaps,  bread  returns]. 

Probably  a  man,  and  not  a  locality ;  a 
member  of  the  family  of  Shelah,  tribe  of 
Judah  (1  Chron.  iv.  22). 

Ja'si-el.     See  Jaasiel. 

Ja'son  [healing]. 

1.  One  of  the  two  envoys  sent  by  Judas 
Maccabseus  to  Rome  to  invoke  aid  against  the 
Syrians  (1  Mac.  viii.  17).  It  was  perhaps  his 
son  who  was  sent  to  renew  this  alliance 
(xii.  16). 

2.  A  high  priest,  son  of  Simon  II.,  who 
held  office  from  about  174-171  B.  c,  and  used 
his  influence  to  hellenize  the  Jews  (2  Mac.iv. 
7-26) ;  see  High  Peiest. 

3.  A  man  of  Cyrene  and  author  of  a  history 
of  the  Jewish  war  for  freedom,  175-160  B.  c. 
(2  Mac.  ii.  23) ;  see  Apocrypha  14. 

4.  A  Christian,  a  relative  of  Paul  (Rom. 
xvi.  21).  He  was  probably  the  Thessalonian 
Jason  in  wliose  house  Paul  and  Silas  lodged 
wliile  they  were  in  Thessalonica,  and  who 
had  to  stand  trial  for  liaving  given  them 
countenance  and  support  (Acts  xvii.  5-9). 

Jas'per. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Yashpeh  (cp. 
Arabic  Yasb)  and  the  Greek  laspis,  a  precious 
stone  (Ex.  xxviii.  20  ;  Ezek.  xxviii.  13  ;  Rev. 
iv.  3).  Jasper  is  a  variety  of  quartz,  of  a 
red,  brown,  yellow,  green,  or  gray  color,  and 
opaque.  Among  the  ancients  tlie  term  was 
of  broader  meaning.  It  included,  according 
to  Pliny,  a  transparent  or  translucent  green 
varietj'  (cp.  Rev.  xxi.  11),  and  hence  denoted 
a  kind  of  chalcedony  or  agate.  The  Septua- 
gint renders  the  Hebrew  word  by  onyx. 

Jath'ni-el  [God  bestoweth  gifts]. 

A  Korhite  doorkeeper,  son  of  Meshelemiah 
(1  Chron.  xxvi.  2). 

Jat'tir  [excellence]. 

A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah  as- 
signed to  the  priests  (Josh.  xv.  48;  xxi.  14; 
1  Sam.  XXX.  27;  1  Chron.  vi.  57).  Robinson 
identified  it  with  the  ruin  of  '  Attir,  on  a  hill 
about  13  miles  south-southwest  of  Hebron. 
The  two  names  are,  however,  radically  dif- 
ferent. 

Ja'van. 

1.  A  region  settled  by  descendants  of 
Japheth  (Gen.  x.  2).  The  name  corresponds 
etymologically  with  Ionia,  and  denotes  the 
Greeks;    see   Greece.      Javan   was  synon- 


Javelin 


341 


Jedaiah 


ynious  with  the  farthest  west,  where  Jeho- 
vah's fame  had  not  been  heard  (Is.  Isvi.  19). 

2.  A  town  or  people  of  Yemen  in  Arabia, 
whence  cassia  and  calamus  were  exported 
(Ezek.  xxvii.  W). 

Javelin. 

A  sHuilliT  kind  of  spear,  which  was  in- 
tended to  be  thrown  (Job  xli.  29),  was  borne 
suspended  between  the  shoulders  (1  Sam. 
xvii.  6),  and  could  be  stretched  out  in  the 
hand  (Josh.  viii.  18).  The  Hebrew  name  for 
it  was  kidon.  The  A.  V.  never  translates  this 
word  by  javelin,  but  renders  it  by  spear  in 
Josh.  viii.  18,  26  ;  Job  xli.  29  :  Jer.  vi.  23 ; 
by  lance  in  Jer.  1.  42  ;  and  by  shield  or  tar- 
get in  1  Sam.  xvii.  6,  45 ;  Job  xxxix.  23. 
Wherever  javelin  occurs  in  A.  V.  the  Re- 
visers have  properly  substituted  spear. 

Ja'zer,  in  A.  V.  twice  Jaazer  [helpful]. 

A  city  east  of  the  Jordan  in  Gilead  (2 
Sam.  xxiv.  5:  1  Chron.  xxvi.  31).  The 
Israelites  captured  it  and  drove  out  the 
Amorite  inhabitants  (Num.  xxi.  32).  It  stood 
in  a  region  well  fitted  for  pasturage  (xxxii. 
1,  3).  It  was  assigned  to  the  tribe  of  Gad 
(.Tosh.  xiii.  25),  who  rebuilt  the  city  (Num. 
xxxii.  34,  35 ;  2  Sam.  xxiv.  5)  ;  and  it  was 
appointed  to  the  Merarite  Levites  for  resi- 
dence (Josh.  xxi.  39  ;  1  Chron.  vi.  81).  It 
passed  into  Moabite  hands  (Is.  xvi.  8,  9  ;  Jer. 
xlviii.  32) ;  was  taken  by  Judas  Maccabeus 
from  the  Ammonites  (1  Mac.  v.  8).  Accord- 
ing to  Eusebius,  Jazer  was  situated  10  Roman 
miles  to  the  west  of  Rabbath  Ammon,  and 
15  from  Heshbon  :  and  a  considerable  tribu- 
tary of  the  Jordan  took  its  rise  near  the 
town.  Jerome  mentions  a  village  called 
Azor,  8  Roman  miles  to  the  west  of  Rabbath 
Ammon.  The.se  various  places  are  commonly 
identified  with  wady  Sir,  an  upper  branch 
of  wady  Kefren,  and  the  ruins  Sir  and 
Sar,  on  opposite  sides  of  the  valley.  The 
distance  from  Rabbath  Ammon  approxi- 
mately corresponds,  but  the  names  are  radi- 
cally different  from  .Jazer  and  Azor.  Beit 
Zer'ah,  about  11  miles  south  by  west  of  Rab- 
bath Ammon,  is  preferred  by  Conder,  but 
has  no  claims. 

Ja'ziz  [he  moves  about]. 

The  overseer  of  David's  flocks  (1  Chron. 
xxvii.  31). 

Je'a-rim  [forests]. 

A  mountain  crossed  by  the  boundary  line 
of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  10),  and  which,  to  judge 
from  its  connection  with  Chesalon  (q.  v.),  was 
at  that  point  2  miles  south  of  Kirjath- 
jearim. 

Je-ath'e-rai,  in  A.  V.  Jeaterai.  See 
Ethxi. 

Je-ber'e-cM'ah  [Jehovah  doth  bless]. 

Father  of  Isaiah's  contemporary  Zechariah 
(Is.  viii.  2). 

Je'bus  [a  place  trodden  under  foot  (as  a 
threshing-floor)]. 

The  name  borne  by  Jerusalem  while  the 


city  was  in  the  i)ossession  of  the  Jebusites 
(Josh.  XV.  y.3  ;  Judg.  xix.  10;  1  Chron.  xi.  4). 
The  area  included  within  Jebus  was,  of 
course,  small  comjiari'd  with  the  dimensions 
of  Jerusalem  in  the  time  of  Solomon.  Its 
citadel  was  the  stronghold  of  Zion  (2  Sam.  v. 
7;  1  Chrou,  xi.  5). 

Jeb'u-site,  in  A.  Y.  twice  Jebusi  (Josh, 
xviii.  1(),  28),  the  Hebrew  word  being  trans- 
literated instead  of  being  translated. 

A  tribe  of  Canaan  before  the  conquest  of 
the  country  by  the  Hebrews  (Gen.  x.  16;  xv. 
21;  Ex.  iii.  8).  At  the  date  of  the  exodus 
they  were  one  of  the  mountain  tribes  (Num. 
xiii.  29;  Josh.  xi.  3).  They  are  known  only 
as  dwelling  at  Jebus,  i.  e.  Jerusalem.  Their 
king  was  .slain  by  Joshua  (x.  23-26),  their 
territory  was  assigned  to  Benjamin  (xviii. 
28),  and  later  their  city  w'as  taken  by  the 
men  of  Judah,  on  the  border  of  which  tribe 
it  stood,  and  set  on  fire  (Judg.  i.  8  ;  Josh.  xv. 
8)  ;  but  the  Jebusites  either  never  lost  the 
citadel  (Antiq.  v.  2,  2),  or  recovered  the  city 
in  whole  or  in  part.  They  dwelt  with  the 
children  of  Judah  and  Benjamin  as  strangers 
(Josh.  XV.  63;  Judg.  i.  21:  xix.  11).  They 
still  held  the  stronghold  of  Zion  at  the  begin- 
ning of  David's  reign  (2  Sam.  v.  6,  7) ;  and 
even  after  he  had  captured  it  the  old  in- 
habitants were  not  wholly  expelled,  for 
Araunah,  who  had  a  threshing-floor  on  the 
site  afterwards  occupied  by  Solomon's  tem- 
ple, was  a  Jebusite  by  birth  (2  Sam.  xxiv.  16, 
18;  2  Chron.  iii.  1).  Solomon  subjected  the 
remnant  of  the  Jebusites  to  bond  service  (1 
Kin.  ix.  20). 

Jec-a-mi'ah.     See  Jekamiah. 

Jech-i-li'ah  and  Jech-o-li'ali.     See  Jeco- 

LIAH. 

Jech-o-ni'ah  and  Jech-o-ni'as.   See  Jeco- 

NIAH. 

Jec-o-li'ah  and  JecMliali,  in  A.  V.  once 
Jecholiah  (2  Kin.  xv.  2)  [Jehovah  has  pre- 
vailed]. 

The  mother  of  king  Uzziah  (2  Kin.  xv.  2  ; 
2  Chron.  xxvi.  3). 

Jec-0-ni'ah,  in  R.  Y.  of  N.  T.  Jechoniali, 
in  A.  Y.  of  N.  T.  Jechonias  [Jehovah  doth  es- 
tablish]. 

An  une.ssential  variant  of  the  name  of 
Jehoiachin,  king  of  Judah,  a  cognate  root  be- 
ing used  and  the  constituent  parts  transposed 
(1  Chron.  iii.  16,  etc.). 

Je-da'iah,  I.  [Jehovah  has  cast  or  shown]. 

1.  A  Simeonite  (1  Chron.  iv.  37). 

2.  A  son  of  Harumaph,  who  repaired  part 
of  the  wall  of  Jeru.salem  opposite  to  his  house 
(Neh.  iii.  10). 

Je-da'iali,  11.   [Jehovah  knoweth]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Aaron.  His  Aimily 
had  grown  to  a  father's  house  in  the  time 
of  David,  and  was  numbered  the  second 
course  when  David  distributed  the  priests 
into  divisions  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  1.  6.  7).  Jlera- 
bers  of  the  family  returned  from  Babylon 


Jediael 


342 


Jehoahaz 


(Ezra  ii.  36 ;  Neh.  vii.  39) ;  cp.  the  two  fol- 
lowing. 

2.  A  chief  of  the  priests  who  returned  from 
Babylon  with  Zenibbabel  (Neh.  xii.  6,  7).  In 
the  next  generation  a  father's  house  bore  this 
name  (ver.  19). 

3.  Another  chief  priest  with  the  same  his- 
tory (Neh.  xii.  7,  21). 

4.  One  of  those  who  came  from  the  cap- 
tivity bringing  gifts  for  the  temple  in  the 
day.s  of  the  high  priest  Joshua  (Zech.  vi. 
10,"  14). 

Je-di'a-el  [known  of  God]. 

1.  A  son  of  Benjamin,  and  founder  of  a 
family  (1  Chron.  vii.  6,  10,  11).  The  older  in- 
terpreters regarded  Jediael  as  another  name 
of  Ashbel  (Num.  xxvi.  38).  Perliaps  he  was 
a  later  chief. 

2.  A  Manassite  who  joined  David  atZiklag 
(1  Chron.  xii.  20). 

3.  One  of  David's  mighty  men,  a  son  of 
Shimri  (1  Chron.  xi.  45). 

4.  A  Korahite  doorkeeper  in  the  reign  of 
David  (1  Chron.  xxvi.  1,  2). 

Je-di'dah  [beloved]. 

Wife  of  Anion  and  mother  of  king  Josiah 
(2  Kin.  xxii.  1). 

Jed-i-di'ah  [beloved  of  Jehovah]. 

A  name  which  Nathan  the  prophet,  by  di- 
vine direction,  gave  to  Solomon  (2  Sam. 
xii.  25). 

Je-du'thun  [praising,  praise]. 

1.  A  Ijcvite,  one  of  the  three  chief  .singers 
or  rather  musicians  appointed  in  the  time  of 
David,  and  founder  of  an  official  musical 
family  (1  Chron.  xvi.  41  ;  xxv.  1,  6 ;  2  Chron. 
V.  12  ;  XXXV.  15  ;  Neh.  xi.  17).  He  or  his 
family  is  mentioned  in  the  title  of  three 
psalms  (xxxix.,  Ixii.,  Ixxvii.).  He  was  evi- 
dently known  earlier  as  Ethan  ;  see  Eth.VN  3. 

2.  Father  of  Obed-edom  the  doorkeeper 
and  apparently  of  the  family  of  Korah,  a 
division  of  the  Kohathites  (1  Chron.  xvi.  38; 
cp.  xxvi.  1,  4,  and  also  8,  12,  15).  Some  in- 
terpreters, however,  hold  him  to  be  Jeduthun, 
the  singer,  of  the  family  of  Merari. 

Je-e'zer.    See  Abiezer. 
Je-e'zer-ite.     See  Abiezrite. 

Je-gar-sa-ha-du'tha  [Aramaic,  heap  of 
witness], 

Laban's  designation  of  the  cairn  Galeed 
(Gen.  xxxi.  47) ;  see  G.\leed. 

Je-hal'le-lel,  in  A.  V.  Je-ha-le'le-el  and 
Jehalelel  (he  i)raiseth  God]. 

1.  A  man  registered  with  the  tribe  of  Judah 
and  founder  of  a  family  (1  Chron.  iv.  1(5). 

2.  A  Merarite  Levite  (2  Chron.  xxix.  12). 
Jeh-de'iali  [Jehovah  inspires  with  joy]. 

1.  A  Levite.  family  of  Kohath,  house  of 
Amram  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  20). 

2.  A  Meronothite  who  had  charge  of  David's 
asses  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  30). 

Je-hez'kel,  in  A.  V.  Je-hez'e-kel  [God 
doth  strengthen]. 


A  descendant  of  Aaron  whose  family  was 
made  the  twentieth  course  of  the  priests 
(1  Chron.  xxiv.  IG). 

Je-M'ah  [Jehovah  liveth]. 
A  doorkeeper  for  the  ark  in  David's  reign 
(1  Chron.  xv.24). 

Je-M'el  [God  liveth]. 

1.  A  Levite  of  the  second  degree,  who 
played  a  psaltery  at  the  removal  of  the  ark 
to  Jerusalem  and  afterwards  as  a  regular 
duty  in  its  tent  (1  Chron.  xv.  18,  20;  xvi.  5). 

2.  A  Levite,  family  of  Gershon  and  chief 
of  the  house  of  Laadan  in  David's  reign 
(1  Chron.  xxiii.8).  He  gave  rise  to  the  father's 
house  named  from  him  Jehieli  (xxvi.  21,  22). 

3.  A  son  of  Hachmoni  in  David's  reign 
(1  Chron.  xxvii.  32). 

4.  A  son  of  Jehoshaphat,  placed  by  his 
father  over  one  of  the  fenced  cities  of  Judah, 
but  slain  with  others  of  his  brothers  by 
Jehoram  (2  Chron.  xxi.  2-4). 

5.  A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath  and  house 
of  Heman  the  singer  (2  Chron.  xxix.  14,  in 
R.  V.  Jehuel).  He  aided  Hezekiah  in  his 
religious  reformation,  and  is  perhaps  the 
assistant  overseer  of  the  temple  revenues 
who  served  during  the  same  reign  (2  Chron. 
xxxi.  13). 

6.  A  ruler  of  the  temple  at  the  time  of 
Josiah's  religious  reformation  (2  Chron.  xxxv. 
8). 

7.  Father  of  Ezra's  contemporary  Obadiah 
(Ezra  viii.  9). 

8.  A  son  of  Elara  and  father  of  Ezra's 
contemporary  Shechaniah  (Ezra  x.  2).  He 
may  be  the  person  of  this  name  whom  Ezra 
induced  to  put  away  his  foreign  wife  (x.  26). 

9.  A  priest,  of  the  course  of  Harim,  in- 
duced by  Ezra  to  put  away  his  foreign  wife 
(X.  21). 

For  others  whose  name  is  thus  spelled  in 
A.  V.  see  Jeiel. 

Je-hi'e-li.     See  Jehiel  2. 

Je-hiz-ki'ah  [Jehovah  doth  strengthen]. 

A  son  of  Shallum,  and  one  of  the  heads  of 
the  Ephraimite  tribe  in  the  reign  of  Pekah. 
He  assisted  in  securing  the  release  of  the 
captives  from  Judah  (2  Chron.  xxviii.  12). 

Je-ho-ad'dah,  in  A.  Y.  Je-ho'a-dali  [Jeho- 
vah hath  adorned]. 

A  son  of  Ahaz,  and  a  descendant  of  Jona- 
than, Saul's  son  (1  Chron.  viii.  36).  Called 
in  ix.  42  Jarah. 

Je-ho-ad'dan,  in  R.  V.  of  Kings  Jehoaddin 
[perhaps.  Jehovah  hath  made  pleasant]. 

Mother  of  king  Amaziah.  She  was  from 
Jerusalem  (2  Kin.  xiv.  2 ;  2  Chron.  xxv.  1). 

Je-ho'a-liaz  [Jehovah  hath  laid  hold  of]. 

1.  A  variant  form  of  the  name  of  Ahaziah, 
youngest  son  of  Jehoram,  king  of  Judah 
(2  Chron.  xxi.  17  ;  cp.  xxii.  1),  the  constituent 
parts  of  the  name  being  transposed. 

2.  The  son  and  successor  of  Jehu  in  the 
kingdom  of  Israel.     He  began  to  reign   in 


Jehoasli 


343 


Jehoiada 


8'21  15.  c,  apparently  as  associate  of  his  father, 
ami  reigned  seventeen  years  (2  Kin.  x.  85; 
xiii.  1 ).  He  continued  the  calf  worship  estab- 
lished by  Jeroboam.  As  a  penalty  for  this 
apostasy,  the  Syrians,  first  under  Hazael  and 
then  under  Benhadad,  were  permitted  to 
carry  on  successful  hostilities  against  him, 
capturing  city  after  city,  till  at  length  he  had 
no  force  left  but  50  horsemen,  10  chariots, 
and  10.000  footmen.  In  distress  he  called  on 
Jehovah,  who  gave*  Israel  a  saviour.  This 
saviour  of  Israel  appeared  after  the  death  of 
Jehoahaz,  in  the  ]>ersous  of  his  two  successors 
Jehoash  and  Jeroboam.  The  former  recov- 
ered the  cities  which  the  Syrians  had  taken 
from  his  father,  and  the  latter  restored  the 
ancient  boundaries  of  Israel.  Probably  Je- 
hoash received  unintended  assistance  from 
the  king  of  Assyria,  who.,  attacking  the  Syr- 
ians in  the  rear,  compelled  them  to  desist  from 
the  invasion  of  the  Israelite  kingdom,  and 
return  to  defend  their  own  country.  Jehoa- 
haz was  succeeded  by  his  son  Jehoash  (2  Kin. 
xiii.  2-9,  22-25). 

3.  A  younger  son  of  Josiah,  who,  on  the 
death  of  Jo.siah,  was  placed  by  the  people  of 
Judah  on  his  father's  throne.  He  was  then 
twenty-three,  and  reigned  only  three  months, 
during  which  time  his  tendencies  were  evil 
rather  than  good.  He  was  deposed  and  taken 
in  chains  to  Riblah  by  Pharaoh -n echo,  king 
of  Egypt,  and  afterwards  carried  down  into 
Egypt.  Xecho,  as  victor  over  Josiah,  decided 
to  dispose  of  the  throne  of  Judah.  and  gave 
it  to  Jehoiakim,  Jehoahaz'  elder  brother 
(2  Kin.  xxiii.  30-.34  :  2  Chron.  xxxvi.  1-4). 
Jehoahaz  was  also  called  Shallum  (1  Chron. 
iii.  15;  Jer.  xxii.  10-12),  and  he  is  the  first 
of  the  lidu's  whelps  (Ezek.  xix.  1-9).  Al- 
though the  third  of  Josiah's  sons  in  point  of 
age  and  the  first  to  occupy  the  throne,  he  is 
enumerated  fourth  in  1  Chron.  iii.  15,  perhaps 
by  way  of  intentional  degradation. 

Je-ho'ash.     See  Joash  I. 

Je-ho-ha'nan  [Jehovah  is  gracious]. 

1.  A  Korahite  Levite,  who  had  the  sixth 
course  of  the  doorkeepers  in  David's  reign 
(1  Chron.  xxvi.  3'. 

2.  The  second  in  honor  of  Jehoshaphat's 
captains.  He  had  under  him  280,000  men 
(2  Chron.  xvil.  15). 

3.  Father  of  Jehoiada's  supporter,  Ishmael, 
in  the  revolt  against  Athaliah  (2  Chron. 
xxiii.  1). 

4.  A  priest,  head  of  the  father's  house  of 
Amariah.  He  lived  in  the  days  of  the  high 
priest  Joiakim  (Xeh.  xii.  13). 

5.  A  son  of  Eliashib  (Ezra  x.  6,  R.  Y.)    See 

JOH.\XAN  9. 

6.  A  son  of  Bebai.  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  28). 

7.  A  son  of  Tobiah  the  Ammonite  (Neh. 

Vi.  18,  R.   v.).      JOHANAX  10. 

8.  A  priest  who  officiated  at  the  dedication 
of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  bv  Nehemiah  (Neh. 
xii.  42). 


Je-hoi'a-cMn  [Jehovah  doth  establish]. 

The  son  and  succes.sor  of  Jehoiakim  in  the 
kingdom  of  Judah.  He  came  to  the  throne 
in  the  year  598  or  597  B.  c.  According  to  2 
Kin.  XX iv.  8,  he  was  then  eighteen  years  old ; 
according  to  2  Chron.  xxxvi.  9,  his  age  was 
eight.  The  discrepancy  exists  in  the  Septua- 
gint  Greek  as  well  as  in  the  Hebrew  text. 
One  or  other  of  the  numbers  is  corrupt, 
which  of  the  two  is  doubtful.  He  did  that 
which  was  evil  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord, 
according  to  all  that  his  father  had  done. 
But  his  reign  continued  only  three  months 
and  ten  days.  During  this  short  period  Ne- 
buchadnezzar, king  of  Babylon,  sent  his  gen- 
erals to  besiege  Jerusalem,  which  surrendered 
after  the  eighth  year  of  Nebuchadnezzar  had 
begun  (cp.  2  Kin.  xxiv.  12  ;  cp.  Jer.  Hi.  28) ;  see 
Chkonology.  Jehoiachin,  his  wives,  his 
mother,  the  palace  servants,  every  dignitary 
in  the  city  and  the  country,  with  all  the 
skillful  artisans,  were  carried  into  captivity 
(2  Kin.  xxiv.  8-16;  2  Chron.  xxxvi.  9,  10). 
For  a  long  period  he  seems  to  have  been  in 
actual  confinement ;  but  in  the  thirty-seventh 
year  of  his  exile,  562  15.  C,  Evil-merodach 
ascended  the  throne  of  Babylon,  released  him 
from  prison,  and  assigned  him  a  daily  allow- 
ance of,  or  for,  food  while  he  lived  (2  Kin. 
XXV.  27-30;  Jer.  Iii.  31-34).  Jeremiah,  who 
prophesied  during,  and  after,  the  brief  reign 
of  Jehoiachin,  frequently  mentions  him  un- 
der the  name  Jechoniah  or  Coniah. 

Je-hoi'a-da  [Jehovah  hath  known]. 

1.  The  father  of  that  Benaiah  who  held 
high  military  office  in  the  latter  part  of 
David's  and  in  Solomon's  reign  (2  Sam.  xxiii. 
22;  1  Kin.  iv.  4).  Jehoiada  was  a  priest 
(1  Chron.  xxvii.  5;  not  as  in  A.  V.  chief 
priest),  and  seems  to  have  been  the  leader  of 
the  Aaronites  who  brought  3700  men  to  David 
at  Ziklag  (xii.  27). 

2.  A  son  of  Benaiah,  second  to  Ahithophel 
in  David's  counsels  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  34). 
Most  commentators  believe  that  some  copyist 
accidentally  wrote  Jehoiada  son  of  Benaiah 
for  Benaiah  son  of  Jehoiada.  There  is  no 
reason,  however,  why  a  grandson  of  Jehoiada, 
bearing  the  same  name,  should  not  be  occu- 
pying a  position  of  influence  at  this  time. 

3.  A  high  priest  during  the  usurpation  of 
Athaliah.  His  wife  concealed  in  the  tem- 
ple the  young  prince  Joash,  the  only  surviv- 
ing direct  representative  of  the  royal  line  of 
David,  and  Jehoiada  jilanned  and  success- 
fully carried  out  the  revolt  which  led  to  the 
slaughter  of  Athaliah  and  the  proclamation 
of  Joash  as  king.  Jehoiada's  wife  was  the 
daughter  of  king  Joram  and  the  sister  of 
Ahaziah  ;  the  high  priest  was.  therefore,  the 
uncle  of  the  young  monarch  whom  he  be- 
friended and  placed  on  the  throne.  So  long 
as  he  lived  he  was  instrumental  in  keeping 
the  king  true  to  the  worship  of  Jehovah 
(2  Kin.  xi.  1-xii.  16;  2  Chron.  xxii.  10-xxiv. 
14).   He  died  at  the  age  of  130,  and,  in  recog- 


Jehoiakim 


344 


Jehoshaphat 


nition  of  his  eminent  services  to  church  and 
state,  he  was  buried  in  the  city  of  David 
among  the  kings  (15,  16).  After  his  death 
Joash  turned  from  the  Lord  and  ungratefully 
put  Jehoiada's  son  to  death  for  rebuking  the 
sins  of  the  people  (17-22). 

4.  A  priest  who  was  succeeded  in  Jere- 
miah's time  by  Zephaniah  in  the  office  of 
second  priest  and  overseer  of  the  temple 
(Jer.  xxix.  26;  cp.  Hi.  24). 

5.  A  son  of  Paseah,  who  repaired  a  gate  of 
Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  6;  in  E.  V.  Joiada). 

Je-boi'a-kim  [Jehovah  doth  establish]. 

A  son  of  king  Josiah  by  his  wife  Zebidah 
(2  Kin.  xxiii.  34,  36).  He  was  called  origi- 
nally Eliakim,  God  doth  establish.  On  the 
death  of  Josiah  the  people  placed  Jehoahaz, 
third  son  of  Josiah  in  age,  on  the  throne ; 
but  three  months  afterwards  Pharaoh-necho 
put  him  in  chains  and  carried  him  to  Egypt, 
and  made  his  elder  brother  Eliakim  king  in 
his  stead,  changing  his  name  to  Jehoiakim. 
He  began  to  reign  about  608  b.  c,  at  the  age 
of  twenty-five  years.  He  was  obliged  to 
collect  heavy  tribute  from  the  people  for 
Pharaoh.  He  departed  from  Jehovah,  whom 
his  father  had  so  faithfully  served,  and  went 
back  to  idolatry.  Jeremiah  wrote  a  roll 
threatening  the  divine  judgment  unless  re- 
pentance took  place  ;  but  Jehoiakim  treated 
the  matter  with  contempt,  and  after  listening 
to  three  or  four  leaves  of  the  roll  cut  it  up 
and  committed  it  to  the  flames  (Jer.  xxxvi.). 
Babylon  was  now  the  dominant  Asiatic  power. 
In  the  fourth  year  of  Jehoiakim's  reign,  Neb- 
uchadnezzar, son  of  the  Babylonian  king, 
defeated  Pharaoh-necho  at  Carchemish  and 
advanced,  probably  afterwards,  against  Jeru- 
salem, and  Jehoiakim  became  his  servant 
(2  Kin.  xxiv.  1;  Jer.  xlvi.  2;  Dan.  i.  1,  2; 
see  Chronology).  Three  years  later  he 
rashly  rebelled  against  Nebuchadnezzar. 
There  were  other  troubles  afflicting  the  king- 
dom. Syrians,  Moabites,  and  Ammonites 
made  predatory  incursions  into  its  territories, 
as  did  bands  of  Chaldeans,  whom  Nebuchad- 
nezzar probably  dispatched  on  learning  of 
the  revolt  (2  Kin.  xxiv.  2).  The  Babylonian 
king  himself,  or  his  armj^  eventually  entered 
Jerusalem  and  bound  the  Jewish  rebel  with 
chains  to  carry  him  to  Babylon  (2  Chron. 
xxxvi.  6).  He  was  carried  in  a  cage  with 
hooks  into  the  presence  of  the  king  of  Baby- 
lon, who  was  in  the  camp  at  Jerusalem  or 
perhaps  at  Riblah  (Ezek.  xix.  5-9).  The 
purpose  of  carrying  him  to  Babylon  was,  how- 
ever, abandoned.  He  died  or  was  murdered, 
and  his  body  had  the  burial  of  an  ass,  drawn 
and  cast  forth  beyond  the  gates  of  Jerusalem 
(Jer.  xxii.  19;  xxxvi.  30;  Antiq.  x.  6,  3). 
He  reigned  eleven  years  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Jehoiachin  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  36 ; 
xxiv.  6). 

Je-hol'a-rib  and  Joiarib,  the  forms  being 
interchangeable  in  Hebrew  [Jehovah  doth 
contend]. 


1.  A  descendant  of  Aaron.  His  family  had 
grown  to  a  father's  house  in  the  time  of 
David  and  was  numbered  the  first  course 
when  David  distributed  the  priests  into  di- 
visions (1  Chron.  xxiv.  1,  6,  7). 

2.  A  chief  of  the  priests  who  returned 
from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Neh.  xii.  6, 
7).  In  the  next  generation  a  father's  house 
bore  this  name  (19)  ;  see  Joiarib. 

3.  A  man  of  understanding  sent  by  Ezra  to 
obtain  Levites  and  Nethiuim  for  the  service 
of  the  temple  (Ezra  viii.  16)  ;  see  Joiarib. 

Je-hon'a-dab.     See  Jonadab. 

Je-hon'a-than,  variant  form  of  Jonathan, 
with  which  it  freely  interchanges  in  Hebrew 
[Jehovah  hath  given]. 

1.  An  official,  the  son  of  Uzziah,  who  was 
charged  with  the  oversight  of  the  treasures 
of  king  David  stored  in  various  places  out- 
side of  Jerusalem  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  25). 

2.  One  of  the  Levites  sent  by  Jehoshaphat 
to  teach  in  the  cities  of  Judah  (2  Chron. 
xvii.  8). 

3.  A  priest,  head  of  the  father's  house  of 
Shemaiah  in  the  days  of  the  high  priest 
Joiakim  (Neh.  xii.  18). 

Je-ho'ram  [Jehovah  is  high]. 

1.  Son  of  Ahab  and  king  of  Israel  (2  Kin. 
iii.  1) ;  see  Joram  3. 

2.  A  priest,  one  of  those  sent  by  Jehosh- 
aphat to  instruct  the  people  (2  Chron.  xvii.  8). 

3.  Son  of  Jehoshaphat  and  king  of  Judah 
(2  Kin.  viii.  16) ;  see  Joram  5. 

Je-ho-shab'e-ath.    See  Jehosheba. 

Je-hosh'a-phat,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Josa- 
phat  [Jehovah  hath  judged]. 

1.  Son  of  Ahiludand  recorder  under  David 
and  Solomon  (2  Sam.  viii.  16 ;  xx.  24  ;  1  Kin. 
iv.  3). 

2.  One  of  the  priests  appointed  to  blow  a 
trumpet  before  the  ark  when  it  was  being 
brought  up  from  the  house  of  Obed-edom  to 
the  city  of  David  (1  Chron.  xv.  24,  in  E.  V. 
Josliaphat). 

3.  Son  of  Paruah  and  Solomon's  purveyor 
in  the  tei'ritory  of  Issachar  (1  Kin.  iv.  17). 

4.  Son  and  successor  of  king  Asa  on  the 
throne  of  Judah.  He  appears  to  have  been 
associated  with  his  father  in  the  latter's  37th 
regnal  year,  the  11th  of  Omri  (1  Kin.  xvi. 
28,  29,  Septuagint),  and  to  have  become  sole 
king  on  the  death  of  his  father  five  years 
later,  about  871  B.  c.  (xxii.  41,  42).'  He 
reigned  twenty-five  years,  including  the 
time  that  he  was  associated  with  Asa.  He 
was  thirty-five  years  old  at  his  accession. 
His  mother  was  Azubah,  daughter  of  Shilhi 
(1  Kin.  xxii.  41,  42;  2  Chron.  xvii.  1).  He 
was  a  good  king.  He  worshiped  Jehovah, 
and  sought  not  unto  the  Baalim  (1  Kin. 
xxii.  43;  2  Chron.  xvii.  3),  although  the 
people  still  sacrificed  on  high  places  (1  Kin. 
xxii.  43).  Therefore  the  Lord  greatly  pro.s- 
pered  him.  In  the  third  year  of  his  reign, 
he  took  measures  for  instructing  his  people, 


Jehoshaphat 


345 


Jehovah 


seiidiug  princes  aud  Levites,  with  the  book 
of  the  law  in  their  hands,  to  teach  in  the 
cities  of  Jiulah  {2  Chrou.  xvii.  7-9).  The 
fear  of  the  Lord  fell  u]iou  the  neighboring 
kingdoms.  Philistines  aud  Arabians  paid 
tribute  (10.  11).  He  garrisoned  the  fenced 
cities  of  his  realm  (1"J-19).  He  terminated 
the  desultory  warfare  which  had  gone  on 
between  Israel  aud  Judah  siuce  the  time  of 
Kehoboam.  He  made  peace  with  Israel  and 
took  Athaliah.  daughter  of  Ahab,  as  a  wife 
for  his  sou  il  Kin.  xxii.  44;  2  Kin.  viii.  18, 
26).  When  he  found  that  Jehovah  was  thus 
blessing  him,  he  was  eucouraged  to  remove 
the  high  places  and  the  Asherim  out  of 
Judah  (2  C'hron.  xvii.  5,  6).  He  put  away 
also  the  remnant  of  the  sodomites  out  of  the 
land  11  Kin.  xxii.  46). 

About  853  B.  c.  he  went  on  a  visit  to  king 
Ahab,  aud  was  persuaded  to  join  him,  with 
the  army  of  Judah,  in  the  attempt  to  re-take 
Eamoth-gilead  from  the  Syrians.  Dressed  in 
the  royal  robes  of  Ahab,  he  went  into  battle. 
Ahab  was  mortallj'  wounded ;  Jehoshaphat, 
notwith.standing  his  exposure,  survived  (1 
Kin.  xxii.  l-3b  ;  2  Chron.  xviii.  1-34).  On 
his  return  home  he  was  reproved  by  the 
prophet  Jehu,  son  of  Hanani,  for  having 
fraternized  with  such  a  king  as  Ahab  (2 
Chron.  xix.  1,  2).  He  resumed  his  work  of 
reformation  in  church  and  state,  promoting 
the  worship  of  Jehovah,  and  appointing 
judges  in  the  walled  towns  of  Judah,  with  a 
supreme  court,  consisting  of  Levites,  priests, 
and  laymen  of  high  position,  in  Jerusalem 
(4-11).  After  this  reform  had  begun  a  great 
confederacy  of  Ammonites,  Moabites,  and 
Edomites  invaded  Judah  from  the  southeast, 
making  their  headquarters  at  En-gedi  on  the 
western  side  of  the  Dead  Sea.  Jehoshaphat 
claimed  the  promise  of  deliverance  which 
Solomon  had  asked  (2  Chron.  vi.  24-30  with 
XX.  9).  Jahaziel  prophesied  deliverance,  and 
Jehoshaphat  went  forth  with  thanksgiving 
and  placed  singers  before  the  army  to  praise 
the  Lord.  Success  was  achieved  without 
fighting.  Hostilities  broke  out  in  the  con- 
federate army,  the  Ammonites  aud  Moabites 
attacked  and  destroyed  the  Edomites,  and 
then  quarreling  among  themselves,  turned 
their  weapons  against  each  other  (xx.  1-30). 
After  this  event,  perhaps  in  late  autumn  dur- 
ing the  time  of  peace,  Jehoshaphat,  who  had 
been  building  ships  at  Ezion-geber,  asked 
Ahaziah.  king  of  Israel,  to  take  part  in  a 
mercantile  voyage.  The  prophet  Eliezer  re- 
buked him  for  joining  himself  with  Ahaziah, 
and  the  ships  were  wrecked.  Ahaziah  de- 
sired to  share  in  a  new  venture,  but  Jehosh- 
aphat refused  (2  Chron.  xx.  35-37;  1  Kin. 
xxii.  48,  49).  In  8.52  B.  c.  or  later,  Jehoram, 
king  of  Israel,  desired  to  render  Moab  again 
tributary  to  Israel,  and  asked  aid  of  his 
brother-in-law,  Jehoshaphat.  Jehoram  had 
exhibited  signs  of  godliness  by  a  considera- 
ble reformation  (2  Kin.  iii.  2),  and  Jehosha- 
phat consented  to  join  him.     The  expedition 


enjoyed  partial  success  (2  Kin.  iii.  4-27). 
Jelioshaphat  died  at  the  age  of  sixty,  about 
the  j'ear  850  b.  c,  and  was  buried  in  the  city 
of  David,  leaving  his  son  Jehoram  to  ascend 
the  throne  (1  Kin.  xxii.  50). 

5.  Son  of  Nimshi  and  father  of  Jehu,  king 
of  Israel  (2  Kin.  ix.  2,  14). 

Je-hosh'a-phat,  Val'ley  of. 

A  valley  where  all  nations  shall  be  gath- 
ered by  Jehovah  for  judgment  (Joel  iii.  2, 12). 
At  least  as  early  as  the  time  of  Eusebius,  in  the 
fourth  century  A.  D.,  the  valley  of  Jehosliaphat 
was  identified  with  the  valley  of  the  Kidron, 
so  that  now  Jews,  Eoman  Catholics,  and  Mo- 
hammedans fix  the  scene  of  the  last  judg- 
ment here.  This  identification  is  only  a  con- 
jecture, based  on  the  cited  passages  and 
Zech.  xiv.  So  far  as  evidence  goes,  no  valley 
actually  bore  this  name.  Joel  doubtless 
chose  this  designation,  which  means  "Jeho- 
vah hath  judged,"  as  symbolic  of  the  event. 

Je-hosh'e-ba  and  Jehoshabeath,  inter- 
changeable forms  in  Hebrew  [Jehovah  is  an 
oath]. 

Daughter  of  Jehoram,  king  of  Judah,  aud 
sister  of  Ahaziah.  On  the  murder  of 
Ahaziah,  when  his  mother  destroyed  the 
seed  royal,  Jehosheba  rescued  his  infant  son 
Joash  and  concealed  him  in  the  temple  until 
he  could  be  safely  proclaimed  king  (2  Kin. 
xi.  2  ;  2  Chron.  xxii.  11). 

Je-hosh'u-a  and  Jehoshuah.   See  Joshua. 

Je-ho'vah. 

The  common  European  pronunciation 
of  the  Hebrew  tetragram  Yhih,  one  of 
the  names  of  God  (Ex.  xvii.  15).  The 
original  name  was  occasionally  used  even 
by  so  late  a  writer  as  Nehemiah  (i.  5; 
V.  13;  viii.  1),  in  fact  a  form  of  it  con- 
stitutes the  latter  part  of  his  name.  But  it 
was  not  the  favorite  name  of  God  with  him. 
It  had  ceased  to  be  pronounced  when  the 
Septuagint  was  translated,  for  the  translators 
substituted  Lord.  The  N.  T.  writers  also  use 
Lord  in  its  place.  The  custom  grew  up  in 
reading  of  pronouncing  the  Hebrew  word 
'"donay,  Lord,  in  its  stead  or,  when  it  follows 
'"donay,  of  pronouncing ''/o/iim,  God  (Gen.  xv. 
2),  as  the  Englishman  pronounces  namely  in- 
stead of  viz.  When  the  vowel  i)oints  were 
added  to  the  Hebrew  consonantal  text,  the 
vowels  of  '"donay  and  "lohirn  were  given  to 
the  tetragram.  This  pointing  gave  rise  to  the 
European  pronunciation,  Jehovah.  The  sub- 
stitution of  the  word  Lord  by  the  later 
Hebrews  and  by  the  translators  of  the  Septu- 
agint led  to  the  like  substitution  in  the  Eng- 
lish version  (Gen.  ii.  4).  In  such  instances 
Lord  is  printed  in  small  capitals.  The  tetra- 
gram is  generally  believed  to  have  been  pro- 
nounced Jahweh,  Yahiveh,  because  the  divine 
name  Jah  (Ps.  Ixxxix.  8,  R.  V.)  and  the 
forms  Y'ho,  Yo  and  Yah,  Yahic,  which  occur 
constantlj- in  proper  names,  as  in  the  Hebrew 
of  Jehoshaphat,  Joshaphat,  Shephatiah,  can 
all  be  derived  from   Yahweh  in   accordance 


Jehovah-jireh 


346 


Jehu 


witli  the  laws  of  philology.  Yahireh  is  an 
archaic  form.  It  probably  represents  the 
Qal  imperfect  of  the  verb  haivah,  later  hayah, 
to  be  or  become.  If  this  is  so,  it  means  "  He 
who  in  the  absolute  sense  exists  and  who 
manifests  his  existence  and  his  character" 
(Ex.  iii.  13,  1")).  The  creator,  upholder,  and 
moral  stovernor  of  the  univer,se  is  'Hohim, 
God ;  the  covenant  God  of  Abraham,  Isaac, 
and  Jacob,  the  God  in  whom  lay  their 
present  strength  and  their  hojie  for  their  fu- 
ture existence,  is  'El  shadday,  God  almighty; 
but  the  (rod  of  revelation  and  grace,  dwell- 
ing with  his  ])eople.  guiding  and  delivering 
them,  and  receiving  their  worship  is  Jehovah. 

Whether  the  name  was  known  to  other 
peoples  before  it  attained  to  celebrity  through 
the  Hebrews  is  .still  a  question.  Men  began 
to  call  upon  the  name  of  Jehovah  in  the 
days  of  Enosh,  the  third  from  Adam  (Gen. 
iv.  26).  It  must  not  be  inferred,  however, 
that  they  necessarily  used  the  name  Jehovah. 
They  worshiped  the  God  of  revelation  and 
grace,  whatever  name  they  may  have  em- 
ployed to  denote  the  idea.  Its  first  occur- 
rence in  recorded  proper  names  is  in  Joche- 
bed,  an  ancestress  of  Moses  (see  also  1  Chron. 
ii.  8,  24).  It  can  scarcely  be  sought  in 
Moriah.  Evidence  of  its  use  in  proper  names 
is  thus  found  earlier  than  are  traces  of  the 
employment  of  Shadday  for  like  purpose 
(Num.  i.  6,  12).  In  the  generation  after  the 
exodus,  it  appears  in  Joshua  (Num.  xiii.  16). 
It  then  becomes  frequent  (1  Chron.  vi.6,  7,36). 

To  know  that  God  is  Jehovah  and  to  know 
the  name  of  Jehovah  do  not  denote  a  mere 
external  acquaintance  with  the  word  Jeho- 
vah, but  an  experience  of  God  manifesting 
himself  to  his  people  in  grace  and  love  (1 
Kin.  viii.  43  ;  Ps.  ix.  10  ;  xci.  14  ;  Is.  Iii.  6  ; 
Jer.  xvi.  21).  In  Ex.  vi.  2-8  God  promises 
that  the  children  of  Israel  shall  be  delivered 
from  bondage  and  have  an  experience  of  his 
gracious  intervention  and  love  such  as  their 
forefathers  had  not  known.  See  Pp:ntateuch. 

Je-ho-vah-ji'reh  [Jehovah  will  see  or  pro- 
vide]. 

The  name  given  by  Abraham  to  the  place 
where  God  provided  a  ram  to  be  ofiered  in 
sacrifice,  instead  of  Isaac  (Gen.  xxii.  14).  Ex- 
act site  unknown. 

Je-ho-vah-nis'si  [Jehovah  is  my  banner]. 

The  name  given  by  Moses  to  an  altar  built 
by  liiui  at  Ivcjihidim  to  commemorate  the 
victory  over  Amalek  (Ex.  xvii.  15,  16). 

Je-ho-vah-sha'lom  [Jehovah  is  peace]. 

An  altar  built  by  Gideon  in  Oi)hrah  to 
commemorate  the  visit  of  the  angel  of  the 
Eord.  who  called  him  to  deliver  Israel,  and, 
when  he  expected  to  die  because  he  had  seen 
the  heavenly  one.  said  to  him:  "Peace  be 
unto  thee ;  .  .  .  thou  shalt  not  die  "  (Judg.  vi. 
23,  24). 

Je-hoz'a-bad  [Jehovah  hath  endowed]. 
1.  A  Koraliite  porter,  son  of  Obed-edom  (1 
Chron.  xxvi.  4). 


2.  Son  of  a  Moabitess,  and  a  servant  of 
Joash  and  one  of  his  assassins  (2  Kin.  xii.  21 ; 
2  Chron.  xxiv.  26). 

3.  A  Benjamite,  a  high  military  captain 
under  king  Jehoshaphat  (2  Chron.  xvii.  18). 

Je-hoz'a-dak.    See  Jozadak. 

Je'bu  [probably,  Jehovah  is  He] . 

1.  A  Benjamite  of  Anathoth,  who  joined 
David  at  Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  3). 

2.  A  prophet,  son  of  Hanani.  He  denounced 
judgment  against  Baasha  and  his  house  for 
continuing  in  the  sin  of  Jeroboam  I.  (1  Kin. 
xvi.  1-4,  7).  He  reproved  Jehoshaphat  for 
helping  ungodly  Ahab  (2  Chron.  xix.  2),  and 
wrote  a  book  in  which  the  acts  of  Jehosha- 
phat were  narrated  (xx.  34). 

3.  The  founder  of  the  fourth  dynasty  of 
rulers  in  the  kingdom  of  Israel.  He  was  a 
son  of  Jehoshaphat  and  grandson  of  Nimshi. 
For  brevity's  sake  he  was  often  called  the 
son  of  Nimshi  (1  Kin.  xix.  16 ;  2  Kin.  ix.  2). 
Somewhat  earlier  than  854  b.  c.  he  was  a 
soldier  in  the  service  of  Ahab  (2  Kin.  ix.  25). 
When  the  cup  of  Ahab's  iniquity  had  been 
made  full  to  overflowing  by  the  deliberate 
murder  of  Jehovah's  servants  and  prophets 
and  the  establishment  of  the  worship  of  Baal 
in  the  northern  kingdom,  Elijah  received  a 
command  from  God  to  anoint  Jehu  king  over 
Israel  (1  Kin.  xix.  16, 17).  There  is  no  record 
that  Elijah  executed  the  divine  commission. 
Whether  he  did  or  not,  his  successor  Elisha 
sent  one  of  the  adherents  of  the  prophets  to 
carry  it  out.  He  proceeded  to  Eamoth- 
gilead,  which  the  Israelites  wei'e  besieging. 
He  found  Jehu  sitting  with  the  other  oflBcers, 
apparently  in  the  mess  tent,  but,  as  instructed, 
the  young  man  took  him  into  an  inner  room, 
anointed  him  king  over  Israel,  commissioned 
him  to  destroy  the  house  of  Ahab,  and  then 
precipitately  quitted  the  camp.  Jehu  told 
his  military  companions  what  had  occurred, 
and  they  resolved  to  support  him  in  asserting 
his  claim  to  the  kingdom.  The  reigning 
sovereign  was  Jehoram.  Ahab's  son,  who  had 
himself  been  a  little  before  in  the  camp,  but, 
having  been  wounded,  had  returned  to  Jez- 
reel  t^o  be  healed.  Thither  accordingly  the 
cons]iirators  went,  Jehu  leading  the  way. 
The  watcliman  on  the  tower  in  Jezreel  iden- 
tified him  when  yet  he  was  at  a  distance  by 
his  furious  driving.  Ahaziah.  king  of  Judah, 
was  visiting  Jehoram,  having  come  to  condole 
with  him  on  his  wound  :  and  the  two  kings, 
each  in  his  chariot,  went  out  to  meet  the  ad- 
vancing company.  The  parley  was  short, 
and  Jehoram  was  killed  by  an  arrow  sent  with 
great  force  from  Jehu's  bow.  and  his  body 
was  cast  into  the  plot  of  ground  which  hail 
once  been  Naboth's  vineyard.  Ahaziah, 
against  whom  there  was  no  quarrel,  except 
that  his  mother  was  Ahab's  daughter,  was 
similarly  disjiatched  by  Jehu's  order.  By 
his  command  also,  Jezebel,  the<|ueen-mother, 
Ahab's  heathen  queen  and  evil  genius,  was 
flung  from  a  window  and  killed  (2  Kin.  ix. 


Jehubbah 


347 


Jephthah 


1-37).  Then  the  piiardiaiis  of  Ahab's seventy 
sons  were  induced  to  inil  Ihem  to  death  and 
pile  up  their  heads  iu  two  heaps,  one  on 
each  side  of  the  chief  gate  of  Samaria.  It 
was  the  turn  next  of  Alaab's  great  men  and 
his  kinsfolk,  and  then  of  Ahaziah's  forty-two 
brothers.  All  was  concluded  by  luring  Baal's 
priests  into  the  temple  of  that  heathen  god 
whose  worshiper  Jehu  pretended  to  be,  and 
massacring  them.  Though  Jehu  executed 
the  judgment  pronounced  upon  the  house  of 
Ahab  and  slaughtered  the  j>riests  of  Baal,  he 
himself  took  uo  heed  to  walk  in  the  law  of 
God,  and  did  not  depart  from  the  schismatic 
calf  worship  (2  Kin.  x.  29,  31).  He  ascended 
the  throne  about  842  B.  c.  In  that  year,  ac- 
cording to  Assyrian  records,  he  paid  tribute 
to  Shalmaneser,  king  of  Assyria,  who  came 
into  tlie  neighborhood  to  wage  war  against 
Hazael.  He  reigned  twenty-eight  years  (3(5). 
About  821  B.  c,  on  account  of  advancing 
age  and  the  loss  of  bis  energy  and  military 
skill,  his  son  Jehoahaz  was  probably  associ- 
ated with  him.  But  the  change  did  not  pre- 
vent his  reign  from  closing  in  disaster. 
Hazael  cut  Israel  short  (2  Kin.  x.  32) ;  see 
■Chronology.  A  promise  had  been  given 
that  the  dynasty  of  Jehu  should  continue  for 
four  generations ;  and  it  did  so,  the  line  of 
descent  being  Jehoahaz,  Jehoash  or  Joash, 
Jeroboam  II.,  and  Zechariah  (2  Kin.  x.  30  ; 
XV.  8-12). 

4.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Jerahmeel 
(1  Chron.  ii.  38) 

5.  A  Simeonite  (1  Chron.  iv.  3.5). 

Je-hub'bah  [hidden]. 

An  Asherite,  familv  of  Beriah  (1  Chron. 
Tii.  .34). 

Je-hu'cal  and  Jucal,  interchangeable  He- 
brew forms  [he  is  able]. 

A  son  of  Shelemiah  and  prince  of  Judah. 
King  Zedekiah  sent  him  and  others  to  ask 
the  prayers  of  Jeremiah,  when  the  Baby- 
lonian siege  of  Jerusalem  was  imminent  ( Jer. 
xxxvii.  3).  Afterwardshe  wished  the  prophet 
to  be  put  to  death  on  the  ground  that  his 
prediction  of  the  capture  of  Jeru.salem  by 
the  Babylonians  discouraged  its  defenders 
(xxxviii.  1-6). 

Je'hud  [praise]. 

A  town  in  the  original  territory  of  Dan 
(Josh.  xix.  45).  Robinson  identified  it  with 
the  village  of  el-Yehudiyeh,  8  miles  east  by 
south  of  Jaffa.  His  view  has  been  generally 
accepted. 

Je-hu'di  [a  man  of  Judah,  a  Jew]. 

A  messenger  sent  by  king  Jehoiakim  to 
ask  Baruch  for  the  roll  written  by  Jeremiah. 
He  was  afterwards  employed  to  read  it, 
which  he  did,  till  the  king,  enraged  at  its 
contents,  cut  it  in  pieces  and  cast  it  into  the 
fire  (Jer.  xxxvi.  14,  21.  23). 

Je-hu-di'jah  [Jewess]. 
One  of  the  two  wives  of  Mered,  the  other 
being  Bithiah,  an  Egyptian  princess  (1  Chron. 


iv.  18,  A.  v.).  Jehudijah  is,  however,  not  a 
proper  name,  but  an  adjective  meaning 
Jewess:  and  it  has  the  definite  article.  She 
was  called  the  Jewess  to  distinguish  her  from 
the  Egyptian. 

Je'liush.     See  Jeush. 

Je-i'el,  in  A.  V.  twice  Jehiel  (1  Chron.  ix. 
35;  xi.  44)  [perhaps,  treasure  of  Ood]. 

1.  Father  of  the  inhabitants  of  Gibeon  and 
an  ancestor  of  king  Saul  (1  Chron.  ix.  35,  36, 
39) ;  see  Kish  2. 

2.  A  son  of  Hotham,  an  Aroerite,  in  the 
reign  of  David  (1  Chron.  xi.  44).  Perhaps 
he  was  the  Reubenite  chief  (v.  7,  8). 

3.  A  Levite  musician  (1  Chron.  xvi.  5,  first 
half);  see  Jaaziel. 

4.  A  Levite  of  the  second  degree,  w^howas 
a  doorkeeper  and  played  the  harp  at  the  re- 
moval of  the  ark  to  Jeruisalem  and  after- 
wards as  a  regular  duty  in  the  tent  at  Jeru- 
salem (1  Chron.  xv.  18,  21 ;  xvi.  5). 

5.  A  Levite  of  the  sons  of  Asaph  (2  Chron. 
XX.  14). 

6.  A  scribe  who  kept  a  record  of  the  num- 
ber of  soldiers  in  TJzziah's  army  (2  Chron. 
xxvi.  11). 

7.  A  Hebrew  who  was  induced  by  Ezra  to 
put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  43). 

For  others  whose  name  is  thus  spelled  in 
A.  v.,  see  Jeuel. 

Je-kab'ze-el.     See  Kabzeel. 

Jek-a-me'am  [he  doth  assemble  the  peo- 
ple]. 

A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath,  house  of 
Hebron  (1   Chron.  xxiii.  19  ;  xxiv.  23). 

Jek-a-mi'ah,  in  A.  V.  once  Jecamiali  (1 
Chron.  iii.  18)  [Jehovah  doth  gather]. 

1.  A  man  of  Judah,  descended  through 
Sheshau  from  Jerahmeel  (1  Chron.  ii.  41). 

2.  A  son  or  descendant  of  Jeconiah  (1 
Chron.  iii.   18). 

Je-ku'thi-el  [reverence  for  God]. 
A  man  of  Judah,  father  of  the  inhabitants 
of  Zanoah  (1  Chron.  iv.  18). 

Je-mi'mah,  in  A.  V.  Jemima  [a  pigeon,  a 
dove] . 

The  first  of  the  three  daughters  bom  to 
Job  after  his  great  trial  (Job  xlii.  14). 

Jem'u-el  [perhaps,  warmth  or  desire  of 
God]. 

A  .son  of  Simeon  (Gen.  xlvi.  10;  Ex.  vi. 
15).  In  Xum.  xxvi.  12;  1  Chron.  iv.  24  he 
is  called  Nerauel.   He  founded  a  tribal  family. 

Jeph'thah,  in  A.  Y.  of  N.  T.  Jeph'tha-e 

[he  doth  open  or  set  free]. 

A  Gileadite,  in  the  twofold  sense  of  having 
a  certain  man  called  Gilead  for  his  father 
and  the  country  of  Gilead  for  his  early  home. 
He  was  an  illegitimate  child,  and  his  broth- 
ers born  in  wedlock  expelled  him  from  the 
paternal  abode.  He  saw  injustice  in  the 
treatment  which  he  received,  and  years  later 
he  charged  the  elders  of  Gilead.  among  whom 
were  probably  his  brothers,  with  being  party 


Jephunneh 


348 


Jeremiah 


to  the  iniquity  and  animated  by  hatred.  He 
fled  to  the  land  of  Tob,  probably  in  the 
Hauran,  where  life  was  free  and  where  with 
trusty  weapon  abundant  food  was  to  be  had. 
There  he  made  a  name  for  himself  by  his 
prowess,  and  attracted  a  band  of  the  unem- 
I)loyed  around  him  as  their  chief.  He  must 
not  be  thought  of  as  a  lawless  freebooter,  how- 
ever, for  he  was  a  man  with  a  conscience.  He 
sought  sufficient  justification  before  under- 
taking an  enterprise,  he  feared  God  and 
taught  his  daughter  the  fear  of  God,  and  he 
won  her  entire  confidence  and  religious  re- 
spect. About  the  time  of  Jephtliah's  ex- 
pulsion, the  Ammonites  invaded  the  Israel- 
itish  territory  east  of  the  Jordan  and  held  it 
in  subjection  eighteen  years.  In  this  ex- 
tremity the  elders  of  Gilead,  who  had  driven 
Jephthah  away,  were  compelled  as  a  last 
resort  to  urge  the  fugitive  to  return  and  be- 
come their  chief  and  deliverer.  On  assuming 
headship  over  the  Gileadites,  Jephthah  in- 
formed the  neighboring  tribe  of  Ephraim  of 
the  distress  of  Gilead,  but  he  exhorted  them 
in  vain  to  come  to  the  help  of  their  brethren. 
He  ahso  demanded  of  the  king  of  the  Am- 
monites the  ground  of  his  hostility,  and  in 
reply  justified  Israel  for  taking  up  arms. ' 
While  yet  the  issue  of  the  war  was  doubtful, 
Jephthah  had  vowed  that  if  he  were  per- 
mitted to  achieve  victory,  he  would  offer  to 
God  as  a  burnt  offering  whatever  first  came 
to  him  out  of  his  house.  On  his  return  from 
the  defeat  of  the  Ammonites  what  first  came 
was  his  only  daughter,  and  who,  moreover, 
was  his  only  child.  He  was  greatly  troubled 
when  he  saw  her,  but  felt  himself  compelled, 
though  with  infinite  regret,  to  do  with  her 
according  to  his  vow.  The  probability  is 
that  he  sacrificed  her,  though  many  have 
thought  that  he  may  have  redeemed  her 
with  money  (Lev.  xxvii.  1-8)  and  doomed 
her  to  perpetual  celibacy.  The  Israelite 
women  were  accustomed  four  times  a  year  to 
mourn  her  sad  fate.  Hostilities  breaking 
out  between  him  and  the  Ei)hraimites,  who 
complained  that  he  had  slighted  them  in 
making  arrangements  for  his  Ammonite  cam- 
paign, he  answered  their  false  accusation  and 
defeated  them  in  battle.  He  was  apparently 
in  no  way  restrained  from  severity  against 
them  by  the  fact  that  they  were  his  brethren. 
Jephthah  judged  Israel  six  years  (Judg.  x.  6- 
xii.  7).  Jephthah  was  cited  by  Samuel  as 
one  proof  among  many  of  Jehovah's  faith- 
fulness to  his  promise  to  raise  up  a  deliverer 
for  Israel  in  time  of  need  (1  Sam.  xii.  11), 
and  he  is  cited  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
as  a  man  of  faith  (Heb.  xi.  32). 

Je-phun'neh  [it  will  be  prepared]. 

1.  Father  of  Caleb,  the  representative  spy 
from  the  tribe  of  Judah  (Num.  xiii.  6). 

2.  An  Asherite  (1  Chron.  vii.  38). 
Je'rah  [moon,  month]. 

An  Arabian   tribe  descended  from  Joktan 
(Gen.  X.  26  ;  1  Chron.  i.  20). 


Je-rah'me-el  [God  hath  compassion]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Judah  through  Perez 
and  Hezron  (1  Chron.  ii.  9 ;  cp.  4,  5).  Two 
wives  are  mentioned  and  a  numerous  progeny 
is  registered  (25-41). 

2.  Son  of  a  Levite  called  Kish,  not  Saul's 
father  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  29). 

3.  One  of  the  officers  sent  by  king  Jehoia- 
kim  to  arrest  Baruch  (Jer.  xxxvi.  26).  He 
was  probably  of  royal  blood  (R.  V.).  Bee 
Hammelech. 

Je'red  [descent]. 

1.  Son  of  Mahalaleel  (1  Chron.  i.  2,  A.  V.) ; 
see  Jared. 

2.  A  man  of  Judah  and  father  of  the  in- 
habitants of  Gedor  (1  Chron.  iv.  18). 

Jer'e-mai  [high]. 

A  Hebrew  who  was  induced  by  Ezra  to 
put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  33). 

Jer-e-mi'ah,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Jeremy  and 
Jeremias  (Mat.  ii.  17 ;  xvi.  14)  [Jehovah  doth 
establish]. 

1.  A  Benjamite  who  joined  David  at  Ziklag 
(1  Chron.  xii.  4). 

2  and  3.  Two  Gadites  who  joined  David  at 
Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  10, 13). 

4.  One  of  the  heads  of  the  half  tribe  of 
Manasseh  east  of  the  Jordan  (1  Chron.  v. 
24). 

5.  A  native  of  Libnah,  whose  daughter 
Hamutal  became  the  wife  of  king  Josiah  and 
the  mother  of  Jehoahaz  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  30, 
31). 

6.  Son  of  Habaziniah  and  father  of  Jaaz- 
aniah,  a  Rcchabite  (Jer.  xxxv.  3). 

7.  The  great  prophet,  a  son  of  Hilkiah,  a 
priest  of  Anathoth,  in  the  territory  of  Ben- 
jamin (Jer.  i.  1).  He  was  young  when  he 
received  the  divine  call  to  the  prophetic  office. 
He  was  sent  to  deliver  his  message  in  the  face 
of  all  those  who  might  be  opposed  to  its  re- 
ception, whether  princes,  priests,  or  people. 
He  was  to  be  like  a  defensed  city,  an  iron 
pillar,  and  walls  of  brass,  against  which  foes 
might  fight,  but  would  not  prevail.  As  a 
symbolic  ordination  ceremony,  the  Lord 
touched  his  mouth,  putting  within  it  words, 
and  setting  him  over  nations  and  kingdoms, 
on  the  one  hand,  to  root  out,  overthrow,  and 
destroy,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  to  plant 
and  to  build  (i.  4-10).  He  began  to  prophesy 
in  the  thirteenth  year  of  the  reign  of  Josiah, 
and  continued  to  do  so  till  the  capture  of 
Jerusalem,  in  the  fifth  month  of  the  eleventh 
year  of  Zedekiah's  reign.  Thus  his  public 
life  extended  through  the  last  eighteen  years 
of  Josiah's  reign,  the  three  months  during 
which  Jehoahaz  ruled,  the  eleven  years  of 
Jehoiakim,  the  three  months  of  Jehoiachin, 
and  the  eleven  years  and  five  months  of  Zede- 
kiah,  in  all  about  forty-one  years.  Nor  did 
he,  even  then,  cease  from  his  prophetic  func- 
tions (xliii.,  xliv.).  "  A  prophet  is  not  with- 
out honor,  save  in  his  own  country  and  in  his 
own  house."  The  men  of  Anathoth,  his  pa- 
ternal home,  threatened  to  kill  him  if  he  did 


Jeremiah 


349 


Jeremiali 


not  desist  from  prophesyiug.  He  persevered 
in  his  mission  desjiite  the  pei'secutiou,  but  he 
keenly  felt  this  opposition  to  the  work  of 
God  from  his  countrymcu.  the  chosen  people 
of  God,  and  he  cried  to  God  for  judgment 
(Jer.  xi.  18-21 ;  xii.  3).  The  hostility  to  the 
prophet,  which  began  at  Anathoth,  after  a 
time  became  general,  and  again  evoked  a 
cry  for  judgment  upon  his  opponents  (xviii. 
18-23  ;  cp.  also  xx.  12).  Once,  like  Job,  he 
cui-sed  the  day  of  his  birth  (xx.  14-18).  On 
another  occasion  he  exclaimed,  "'  Woe  is  me, 
my  mother,  that  thou  hast  borne  me  a  man 
of  strife  and  a  man  of  contention  to  the  whole 
earth  !  I  have  not  lent  on  usury,  neither 
have  men  lent  to  me  on  usury ;  yet  every 
one  of  them  doth  curse  me"  (xv.  10).  But 
divine  grace  enabled  him  to  remain  faithful 
to  his  duty  in  spite  of  oblo(|uy  and  persecu- 
tion. In  the  fourth  year  of  the  reign  of 
Jehoiakim,  Jeremiah  employed  Baruch  to 
take  a  projihetic  roll,  which  he,  apparently 
sufl'ering  his  first  imprisonment,  could  not 
personally  use,  and  read  it  in  the  ears  of  the 
people  who  came  to  the  temjile  on  occasion 
of  a  fast.  The  roll  ultimately  reached  the 
king  himself,  who,  after  reading  a  few  leaves 
or  columns,  cut  it  in  pieces  and  tlung  it  into 
the  fire  (xxxvi.  1-2G).  By  divine  direction 
the  prophet  at  once  prepared  a  second  roll 
like  the  first,  but  with  additions  (27-32).  A 
foe  of  bis,  the  priest  Pashhur,  son  of  Immer, 
chief  governor  of  the  temple,  put  him  in  the 
stocks,  from  which,  however,  he  was  released 
next  day  (xx.  1-3).  During  the  siege  of 
Jerusalem  the  Jewish  authorities  looked  at 
Jeremiah's  prophecies  of  the  success  of  Ne- 
buchadnezzar and  the  Chaldeans  and  the 
subsequent  captivity  of  Judah  from  the  po- 
litical or  military,  instead  of  from  the  re- 
ligious, point  of  view.  They  considered  that 
his  unfavorable  predictions  discouraged  the 
defenders  of  Jerusalem.  And  when  the 
Chaldean  army  temporarily  raised  the  siege 
to  meet  the  Egyptians,  and  Jeremiah  desired 
to  withdraw  from  the  place  before  their  re- 
turn, the  unfounded  charge  was  made  that 
he  was  going  over  to  the  Chaldeans,  and  he 
was  committed  to  i)rison  (xxxvii.  1-15).  King 
Zedekiah  released  him,  but  the  princes  soon 
afterwards  removed  him  to  a  dungeon,  and 
wished  that  he  should  be  put  to  death.  Zede- 
kiah, however,  who  secretly  favored  him, 
had  him  removed  to  the  court  of  the  prison. 
The  prophet  was  ther<^  when  Jerusalem  was 
taken  (xxxviii.).  The  Chaldeans  looked  upon 
him  as  their  friend,  and  Nebuzaradan,  cap- 
tain of  their  guard,  by  express  orders  from 
Nebuchadnezzar,  released  Jeremiah,  spoke 
kindly  to  him,  and  allowed  him  to  make  his 
residence  wherever  he  pleased.  He  elected 
to  live  under  the  rule  of  Gedaliah,  whom 
Nebuchadnezzar  had  made  governor  of  Judah 
(xxxix.  11-xl.  6).  On  the  murder  of  Geda- 
liah, he  strongly  dissuaded  the  Jews  who  had 
been  under  the  late  governor's  protection 
from  fleeing  to  Egypt.     It  was  in  vain  ;  they 


not  merely  went  thither  themselves,  but  they 
compelled  the  prophet  to  accompany  them 
on  their  journey  (xli.  1-xliii.  7).  He  deliv- 
ered his  last  predictions  at  Tahpanhes,  in 
Egypt  (xliii.  8-xliv.  30).  The  time  and 
manner  of  his  death  are  unknown.  Besides 
the  prophecies  to  which  his  name  is  attached, 
and  his  Lamentations,  he  may  have  written 
some  of  the  p.salms,  which  resemble  his  com- 
positions in  style. 

Jeremiah  committed  some  of  his  prophe- 
cies to  writiug  in  the  reign  of  Jehoiakim, 
but  the  roll  which  contained  them  was  de- 
stroyed by  the  king  (xxxvi.  1,  23).  When  re- 
written, large  additions  were  made  to  them 
(32).  The  present  book  is  evidently  a  con- 
tinuous composition,  prepared  at  the  close  of 
his  ministry ;  for  prophecies  of  different 
periods  are  placed  together  and  those  of  the 
same  period  are  often  dispersed.  The  book 
consists  of  an  introduction  narrating  the 
prophet's  call  (i.),  three  sections  of  prophecy 
(ii.-li.),  and  a  historical  ai)pendix,  added 
probably  by  a  later  writer  (lii.  ;  cp.  li.  64). 
The  three  prophetic  sections  are :  I.  Predic- 
tion of  the  approaching  judgment  of  Judah 
and  the  promise  of  restoration  from  exile 
(ii.-xxxiii.).  It  includes  a  general  denunci- 
ation of  Judah  (ii.-xx.),  denunciation  of  the 
civil  and  religious  rulers  (xxi.-xxiii.),  an  un- 
folding of  the  design  and  duration  of  the 
judgment  (xxiv.-xxix.),  and  prophecy  of  the 
blessings  which  will  follow  the  judgment 
(xxx.-xxxiii.).  II.  History  of  the  infliction 
of  the  judgment  (xxxiv.-xliv.),  including 
denunciations  of  the  corruption  which  pre- 
vailed immediately  before  the  destruction  of 
the  city  (xxxiv.-xxxviii.),  an  account  of  the 
destruction  of  the  city  (xxxix.),  and  of  the 
wretched  condition  of  the  remnant  (xl.-xiiv.). 
III.  Predictions  respecting  foreign  nations 
(xliv.-li.),  introduced  by  an  address  to 
Bai-uch  'xlv.). 

The  Messiah  is  spoken  of  in  xxiii.  5-8  ; 
XXX.  4-11 ;  xxxiii.  14-26 ;  and  Jehovah's 
sure  covenant  with  Israel  is  dwelt  upon  in 
xxxi.  31-40  ;  xxxii.  36-44  ;  xxxiii. 

The  text  of  the  Septuagint  difl'ers  consid- 
erably from  the  Hebrew :  chajiters  xlvi.-li. 
are  not  only  arranged  in  a  ditierent  order 
among  themselves,  but  the  entire  section  has 
been  inserted  after  xxv.  13  ;  chap,  xxxiii. 
14-26  has  been  dropped  ;  and  in  many  other 
places  the  Greek  version  presents  a  shorter 
text  than  the  Hebrew.  Disposed  chronolog- 
ically, so  far  as  they  bear  explicit  dates,  the 
prophecies  stand  thus : 

In    Josiah's   reign,  be- Ipt^jj^j^,  (.^aps.  i.-vi. 

tween  the    13th   and  V    ,       =  •., .  jjj  'g) 

ol.st  year J     ^  y.    .  -, 

In  .lehoahaz'  reign  of )  j^Qug 

3  months I  '^ 

In  .lehoiakim'.s  reign  of") 

11  years, in  the  begin-  VChap.  xxvi. 

niiig ) 

T    .,.     ,ii.  1  Chaps.   XXV.;    xxxvi.; 

In  the  4th  year   .   .    .  j-xlv.;  xlvi.  1-12. 

In  an  unnoted  year  .   .  Chap.  xxxv. 


Jeremotli 


350 


Jericho 


lu  Jehoiachin's  reign 
of  3  months     .... 

In  Zedukiah's  reign  of 
11  years,  in  the  be- 
ginning   

In  his  4th  year    . 

In  his  10th  year  . 

In  unnoted  years  .   . 

After  the  fall  of  Jerusa- 
lem       

\Yithout  explicit  date, 
but  not  always  with- 
out indications  of 
time 


1  Probably    chap.    xxii. 
/     20-30.  ■ 

Cliaps.  xxiv. ;  xlix  34- 

o<J. 

1  Chaps,  xxvii.  (cp.  ;'.,  12 

y    and    X  X  V  i  i  i.     1)  ; 

)      xxvni.;  li.  59-64. 

.  Chapt^.  xxxii. ;  xxxiii. 

1  Chap.s.     xxi. ;     xxix.  ; 

(     xxxiv.  ;        xxxvii. ; 

f     xxxviii. ;  xxxix.  15- 

J      18. 

I  Chaps,     xxxix.     1-14; 

(     xl.-xliv.  ;  lii. 

I  Chaps,  vii.-xx. ;  xxiii. ; 

XXX.  ;    xxxi.  :    xlv. ; 

xlvi.  lo-xlviii.;  xlix.- 

li.  58 ;  lii. 


8.  A  chief  of  the  priests,  who  returned 
■with  Zerubbabel  from  Babylon  (Neh.  xii.  1, 
7).  A  father's  house  bore  his  name  iu  the 
next  generation  (12). 

9.  A  priest,  doubtless  head  of  a  father's 
house,  who,  with  Nehemiah  and  others, 
sealed  the  covenant  to  keep  separate  from 
foreigners  and  observe  the  law  of  God  (Neh. 
X.  2). 

Jer'e-motli  and  Jerimoth  [probably 
heights] . 

1.  A  Benjamite,  family  of  Becher  (1  Chron. 
vii.  8). 

2.  A  Benjamite  (1  Chron.  viii.  14),  perhaps 
the  persou  called  Jeroham  (27). 

'.i.  A  Levite,  family  of  Merari,  house  of 
Mushi  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  23;  xxiv.  30). 

4.  A  descendant  of  Heman  and  head  of 
the  fifteenth  course  among  the  musicians  in 
David's  reign  (1  Chrou.  xxv.  4,  22). 

5.  A  son  of  Azriel  and  prince  of  the  tribe 
of  Naphtali  iu  David's  reign  (1  Chron.  xxvii. 
19). 

(j  and  7.  Two  descendants  of  Elam  who 
were  persuaded  by  Ezra  to  put  away  their 
foreign  wives  (Ezra  x.  2(i,  27). 

8.  A  son  of  Bani,  who  was  similarly  per- 
suaded (Ezra  X.  29,  in  A.  V.,  according  to  an- 
other reading,  Eamotli). 

For  persons  who  bear  the  name  Jerimoth 
only,  see  .Jerimoth. 

Jer'e-my.     See  Jkkemiah. 

Je-ri'ah,  once  Jerijah  [probably,  founded 
by  Jcliovah]. 

A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath,  house  of  He- 
bron (1  Chrou.  xxiii.  19  ;  xxiv.  23;  xxvi.  31). 

Jer'i-bai  [contentious]. 

A  son  of  Elnaam,  and  one  of  David's 
mighty  men  (1  Chron.  xi.  4(5). 

Jer'i-cho  [place  of  fragrance]. 

An  important  city  situated  in  the  valley 
of  the  Jordan  (Dent,  xxxiv.  1,3),  west  of  the 
river,  at  the  foot  of  the  ascent  to  the  moun- 
tainous table-land  of  Judah.  It  was  known 
as  the  city  of  i>alm  trees  (ibid. ;  Judg.  iii.  13). 
Perhaps  it  did  not  exist  in  patriarchal  times; 
for  it  is  not  mentioned,  although  other  cities 
of  the  plain  are  (Gen.  xiii.  10-12  ;  xiv.  2).  It 
is  first  alluded  to  when  the  Israelites  en- 


camped at  Shittim  on  the  other  side  of  the 
Jordan  (Num.  xxii.  1  ;  xxvi.  3).  When  the 
Israelites  were  about  to  cross  the  Jordan, 
Joshua  foresaw  that  Jericho,  being  a  strongly 
fortified  cit.y,  would  command  any  camp 
which  they  might  pitch  in  the  neighborhood 
and  would  bar  their  further  progress.  He 
accordingly  made  it  the  first  object  of  his 
attention,  and  sent  spies  to  examine  it  (Josh. 
ii.  1-24).  Having  led  the  Israelites  across 
the  river  and  formed  his  camp  near  the  city, 
by  divine  direction  he  ordered  the  men  of 
war  to  go  round  the  city  once  a  day  for  six 
days,  and  on  the  seventh  day,  headed  by  the 
priests  with  trumpets,  to  compass  the  city 
seven  times,  and  then  to  raise  a  shout.  They 
did  so.  At  the  shout,  the  walls  of  the  city 
fell  down,  allowing  the  assailants  to  enter. 
The  place  was  devoted  to  utter  destruction. 
Rahab,  who  had  protected  the  spies,  and  her 
father's  household  alone  were  spared.  Every 
other  human  being  was  slain  ;  so  also  were 
the  animals.  The  silver  and  tlie  gold,  with 
other  valuables,  were  put  into  the  treasury 
of  the  house  of  the  Lord.  It  was  for  secret- 
ing a  part  of  the  spoil  which  had  been  de- 
voted to  Jehovah  that  Achan  brought  on 
himself  his  dreadful  doom.  Finally,  Joshua 
pronounced  a  curse  upon  the  demolished  city, 
prophesying  that  if  anyone  ever  fortified  it 
he  should  lose  his  elder  sou  when  the  foun- 
dations were  being  laid,  and  the  younger  one 
when  the  gates  were  being  set  up  (Josh.  v. 
13-vii.  2,  16-26).  The  place  was  assigned  to 
Benjamin,  and  stood  on  the  boundary  between 
the  tribes  of  Ephraim  and  Benjamin  (xvi.  1, 
7;  xviii.  12,  21).  It  was  soon  rebuilt,  and  it 
was  occupied  as  a  royal  residence  by  Eglon, 
king  of  Moab,  when  he  oppressed  the  Israel- 
ites (Judg.  iii.  13).  David's  ambassadors  re- 
turning home  after  they  had  been  insulted 
by  Hanun,  remained  in  Jericho  until  their 
beards  grew  (2  Sam.  x.  5  ;  1  Chron.  xix. 
5).  In  Ahab's  reign  Hiel  the  Bethelite 
undertook  to  fortify  the  city,  but  lost  his 
two  sons  in  the  manner  predicted  by 
Joshua  (1  Kin.  xvi.  34).  During  Eli- 
jah's lifetime  there  was  a  school  of  the 
prophets  at  the  place  (2  Kin.  ii.  5).  Elijah, 
when  about  to  be  translated  to  heaven, 
passed  thi-ough  it  with  Elisha,  and  Elisha  re- 
turned to  it  after  finally  parting  with  Elijah 
(4, 15,  18).  The  captives  of  Judah,  taken  by 
the  Israelite  army  under  Pekah,  were  set 
free  in  the  city  of  Jericho  (2  Chron.  xxviii. 
15).  In  its  vicinity  Zedekiah  was  captured 
by  his  Baliylonian  pursuers  (2  Kin.  xxv.  5; 
Jer.  xxxix.  5;  lii.  8).  Three  liundred  and 
forty-five  of  its  former  inhabitants  and  their 
descendants  returned  from  captivity  with 
Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii.  34  ;  Neb.  vii.  36).  Some 
of  its  new  populace  helped  to  rebuild  the  wall 
of  Jerusalem  (iii.  2).  Bacchides,  the  Syrian 
general,  repaired  the  fortifications  of  Jericho 
during  the  Maccaba'an  period  (1  Mac.  ix.  50). 
In  the  early  years  of  Herod  the  Great  the 
Eomans  plundered  Jericho  (Antiq.  xiv.  15,  3). 


Jeriel 


351 


Jeroboam 


SubsequeuUy  Herod  restored  and  beautified 
it,  crectiusr  a  royal  palace  and,  on  the  hill 
behind  the  town,  a  citadel  which  he  named 
Cyprus  (xvi.  5,  2;  xvii.  13.  1  ;  War  i.  21.  4 
and  9).  There  was  also  a  circus  there  at  the 
time  of  Herod's  death  {Antiq.  xvii.  (i,  5 ; 
War  i.  xxxiii.  6-8).  It  was  on  the  way  down 
from  Jerusalem  to  Jericho  that  the  incident 
of  the  good  Samaritan  occurred  (Luke  x.  30), 
and  it  was  at  Jericho  itself  that  Jesus  re- 
stored sight  to  blind  Bartimseus  and  his  com- 
panion (Mat.  XX.  29;  Luke  xviii.  35).  It  was 
there  also  that  he  brought  salvation  to  Zac- 
chffius,  whose  home  was  in  Jericho  (xix.  1,  2). 
Jericho,  lying  more  than  a  thousand  feet 
below  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean,  had  a 
tropical  climate.  Palms,  balsams,  sycomores, 
and  henna  flourished  (Song  i.  14  ;  Luke  xix.  2, 
4;  War  iv.  8,  3).  The  rose  plant  of  Jericho 
was  proverbially  fine  ( Ecclus.  xxiv.  14).  The 
original  Jericho  probably  stood  near  the  spot 
where  the  copious  'Ain  es-Sultan,  apparently 
the  fountain  healed  by  Elisha,  bursts  from  a 
mound.  The  modern  village  of  'Eriha  (the 
Hebrew  y^riho  a  little  altered),  is  4i  miles 
west  of  the  Jordan,  and  li  southeast  of  the 
fountain.  It  is  a  small  and  miserable  place. 
Only  a  solitary  date  palm  remains,  but  fig  trees 
abound,  and  wherever  there  is  water  there  is 
abundant,  and  mostly  tropical,  vegetation. 

Je'ri-el  []nobably,  founded  by  God]. 
A  descendant  of  Tola,  of  the  tribe  of  Issa- 
char  (1  Chron.  vii.  2). 

Je-ri'jah.     See  Jeriah. 

Jer'i-moth  [probably,  heights]. 

1.  A  Benjamite,  family  of  Bela  (1  Chron. 
vii.  7). 

2.  A  Benjamite  who  joined  David  at  Zik- 
lag  (1  Chi-on.  xii.  5). 

3.  A  son  of  David.  His  daughter,  Maha- 
lath,  became  a  wife  of  Rehoboam  (2  Chron. 
xi.  18). 

4.  A  Levite,  an  over.seer  in  connection  with 
the  temple  in  Hezekiah's  reign  (2  Chron. 
xxxi.  13). 

For  others  whose  name  sometimes  appears 
as  Jeremoth.  see  Jeremoth. 

Je'ri-oth  [curtains]. 

One  of  Caleb's  wives  (1  Chron.  ii,  18). 

Jer-0-bo'am  [the  people  become  numer- 
ous]. 

1.  The  distinguished  Ephraimite  who 
founded  the  kingdom  of  the  ten  tribes.  His 
father's  name  was  Nebat,  belonging  to  the 
village  of  Zeredah  in  the  Jordan  valley ;  his 
mother's  name  was  Zeruah,  who  was  a 
widow  at  the  time  of  his  birth  (1  Kin.  xi. 
26).  As  he  grew  up  he  showed  himself  to  be 
a  man  of  energy  and  valor ;  and  when  king 
Solomon  repaired  Millo  and  the  city  of 
David,  he  appointed  the  young  Ephraimite 
over  all  the  house  of  Joseph  (27,  28).  One 
day  as  Jeroboam  was  walking  out  of  Jeru- 
salem he  met  a  prophet,  Ahijah  of  Shiloh, 
clad  in  a  new  garment,  which  he  rent  in 


twelve  pieces,  giving  ten  to  Jeroboam  as  aa 
indication  that  Jehovah  destined  him  to  be 
king  over  ten  out  of  the  twelve  tribes.  News 
of  the  transaction  somehow  reached  the  ears 
of  Solomon,  who  sought  to  kill  Jeroboam, 
but  he  escaped  to  Egy])t,  and  was  kindly  re- 
ceived by  Shishak,  its  king  (29-40).  When 
the  refugee  heard  that  Solomon  was  dead, 
and  that  an  assembly  of  the  tribes  was  to 
take  place  at  Shechem  to  make  his  son  Re- 
hoboam king,  he  returned  to  attend  the 
meeting,  and  did  so,  doubtless  with  the  sym- 
bolical action  and  projihecy  of  Ahijah  the 
Shilonite  vividly  recalled  to  his  memory.  He 
put  himself  forward  as  spokesman  of  the 
people,  and  urged  the  alleviation  of  their 
burdens.  Rehoboam  denied  the  petition,  re- 
turning a  foolish  and  exasperating  answer. 
Ten  tribes  thereupon  revolted  from  the 
house  of  David,  and,  feeling  themselves  in 
want  of  a  ruler,  elected  Jeroboam  king. 
The  prophecy  of  Ahijah  had  come  true  to 
the  letter  ;  yet  Jeroboam  resolved  to  depart 
from  the  counsel  by  which  it  had  been 
accompanied.  The  prophet  had  exhorted 
him  to  remain  true  to  Jehovah,  in  which 
case  the  crown  should  descend  permanejitly 
in  his  family  (37,  38).  But  worldly  policy 
tempted  him  in  another  direction.  He  was 
afraid  that  if  the  people  went  up  statedlj'  to 
Jerusalem  to  worship  they  would  be  won 
over  to  Rehoboam,  in  which  ca.se  he,  the 
rebel  leader,  would  be  put  to  death.  He 
therefore  established  a  center  of  worship  at 
each  of  the  two  extremities  of  his  kingdom, 
Dan  in  the  north  and  Bethel  in  the  south. 
In  defiance  of  the  commandment  which  for- 
bids the  adoration  of  God  by  means  of 
images,  he  set  up  a  golden  calf  in  each  of 
the  two  places  (xii.  26-30;  2  Chron.  xiii. 
8),  and  recommended  the  worship  as  not 
altogether  new  by  using  the  familiar  words 
of  Aaron  (Ex.  xxxii.  4).  It  would  seem  that 
he  still  desired  to  worship  Jehovah  under 
the  image  of  the  calf.  He  not  only  thus 
established  houses  of  high  places  which 
lacked  the  ark  and  the  shekinah,  but  he 
made  Israelites  who  were  not  of  the  tribe  of 
Levi  priests,  doubtless  because  the  lawful 
priests  and  other  Levites  refused  to  serve  in 
the  idolatrous  and  schismatic  worship  (1 
Kin.  xii.  31  ;  2  Chron.  xi.  13-15).  He  further 
decreed  that  the  harvest  festival,  which  was 
celebrated  in  Judah  on  the  fifteenth  day  of 
the  seventh  month,  should  be  observed  in 
the  northern  kingdom  on  the  fifteenth  day 
of  the  eighth  month  (1  Kin.  xii.  32,  .33). 
The  mass  of  the  people  conformed,  and 
the  successive  kings,  actuated  by  worldly 
policy,  so  uniformly  supported  the  calf 
worship,  unless  they  exchanged  it  for  the 
more  heinous  service  of  Baal,  that  as  one, 
and  another,  and  another  of  these  rulers 
reigned,  the  stereotyped  language  was  re- 
peated that  he  walked  in  the  way  of  Jero- 
boam, the  son  of  Nebat,  who  made  Israel  to 
sin  (1  Kin.  xv.  2G,  34  ;  xvi.  19,  31 ;  2  Kin. 


Jeroham 


352 


Jerusalem 


iii.  3 ;  x.  29  ;  xiii.  2,  11 ;  xiv.  24  ;  xv.  9,  18, 
24,  28).  The  idolatry  established  by  Jero- 
boam was  one  cause  which  led  to  the  carrying 
of  the  ten  tribes  into  captivity  to  Assyria  (2 
Kin.  xvii.  16) ;  for  it  kept  the  Hebrew  nation 
divided  in  twain  and  made  two  inferior  king- 
doms where  there  had  been  one  strong  united 
people ;  and,  as  it  was  a  degradation  of  the 
lofty  spiritual  worship  of  Jehovah,  it  resulted 
in  lowering  the  spiritual  tone  of  the  northern 
Israelites.  Jeroboam  was  rebuked  for  his 
apostasy,  first  by  an  unnamed  prophet  from 
Judah,  and  then  by  Ahijah,  the  Shilonite, 
who  had  promised  him  the  kingdom  ;  but  he 
continued  to  the  end  unrepentant  (1  Kin. 
xiii.  1-xiv.  IcS).  He  fortified  Shechem  and 
Penuel,  both  sacred  places.  The  former  he 
made  his  capital,  but  after  a  time  seems  to 
have  preferred  residing  at  the  beautiful  Tir- 
zah  (1  Kin.  xii.  25 ;  xiv.  17 ;  Song  vi.  4). 
There  was  a  desultory  warfare  between  Jero- 
boam and  Kehoboam  (1  Kin.  xv.  6),  and  a 
great  battle  was  fought  between  the  former 
king  and  Rehoboam's  son  and  successor, 
Abijam,  in  which  the  army  of  Israel  was  de- 
feated with  enormous  .slaughter,  and  Bethel, 
which  was  onlj^  10  miles  from  Jerusalem, 
temporarily  lost  to  Israel  (7;  2  Chron.  xiii. 
1-20).  Jeroboam  was  made  king  about  931 
B.  C,  and  reigned  twenty-two  years  (1  Kin. 
xiv.  20).  One  son  of  his  had  died  in  infancy 
(1-17)  ;  another,  Nadab,  ascended  the  throne 
(20). 

2.  The  son  of  Joash,  king  of  Israel,  and 
his  successor  on  the  throne  of  the  ten  tribes. 
He  was  of  the  dynasty  of  Jehu,  and  the 
third  in  descent  from  that  ruler.  He  became 
king  in  Samaria  about  the  year  790  B.  c,  and 
reigned  forty-one  years.  He  found  the  king- 
dom in  a  very  depressed  state,  but  raised  it 
again  to  prosperity,  capturing  Damascus,  the 
capital  of  the  Syrian  empire,  and  Hamath, 
one  of  the  Hittite  towns,  and  restoring  to 
Israel  the  country  from  Hamath  to  the 
Dead  Sea.  These  successes  had  been  predicted 
by  Jonah  (2  Kin.  xiv.  23-28 ;  cp.  Deut.  iii. 
17).  Amos  also  prophesied  in  Jeroboam  II. 's 
reign  (Amos  i.  1).  He  draws  a  melancholy 
picture  of  the  moral  and  religious  state  of 
Israel  at  the  time  (ii.  6-v.  27 ;  viii.  4-6, 
etc.),  for  which  he  predicts  judgment  from 
God  (vii.  1-9  ;  viii.  7-10).  For  these  prophe- 
cies a  complaint  was  made  against  him  to 
Jeroboam  by  Amaziah  the  priest  at  Bethel, 
but  it  does  not  .seem  to  have  brought  any 
penalty  on  tiie  prophet  (vii.  10-17).  Hosea 
also  began  his  i>ro])hetic  work  in  the  northern 
kingdom  during  the  lifetime  of  Jeroboam. 
The  first  three  chapters  pertain  to  that  jieriod. 
On  the  death  of  .Fcrohoam,  his  sou  Zechariah 
ascended  the  throne  (2  Kin.  xiv.  29). 

Je-ro'ham  [he  findeth  mercy]. 

1.  A  Levite,  an  ancestor  of  the  prophet 
Samuel  (1  Sam.  i.  1  ;  1  Cliron.  vi.  27,  34). 

2.  A  Benjamite,  whose  sons  were  chief  men 
and  dwelt  at  Jerusalem  (1  Chron.  viii.  27). 


See  Jekemoth  2.     He  may  be  identical  with 
the  following. 

3.  A  Benjamite.  father  of  Ibneiah  who 
dwelt  at  Jerusalem  (1  Clu'on.  ix.  8). 

4.  A  priest  of  the  house  of  Malchijah  (1 
Chron.  ix.  12  ;  Neh.  xi.  12). 

5.  A  Benjamite  of  Gedor,  whose  sons  joined 
David  at  Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  7). 

6.  Father  of  the  chief  of  the  tribe  of  Dan 
in  the  reign  of  David  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  22). 

7.  Father  of  one  of  the  captains  who  aided 
Jehoiada  in  putting  Joash  on  the  throne  of 
Judah  (2  Chron.  xxiii.  1). 

Je-rub'ba-al  and  Je-rub'be-sheth.  See 
Gideon. 

Jer'u-el  [probably,  founded  by  God]. 

A  wilderness  in  Judah,  adjacent  to  the 
cliS'  of  Ziz,  and  therefore  in  the  vicinity  of 
En-gedi  (2  Chron.  xx.  16).  Exact  situation 
unknown. 

Je-ru'sa-lem  [to  the  Hebrews  it  meant 
foundation  of  peace,  secure  haltitation]. 

The  sacred  city  and  well-known  capital  of 
Judah,  of  Judiea,  of  Palestine,  and  of  the 
Jews  throughout  the  world.  For  the  sake 
of  convenient  reference  and  clearness,  the 
subject  is  presented  under  certain  heads: 
I.  Name.  II.  The  city  in  itself:  1.  Site;  2. 
Water  supply  ;  3.  Artificial  defenses  ;  4.  Not- 
able buildings  in  the  time  of  Christ.  III. 
The  history  of  the  citv :  1.  The  Canaanite 
city;  2.  The  city  of  the  Hebrews;  3.  The 
city  since  Titus.     IV.  Modern  excavation. 

I.  The  name.  The  earliest  known  name  is 
Urusalim,  i.  e.  Jerusalem.  It  was  in  use  as 
early  as  the  sixteenth  century  before  Christ, 
long  before  the  conquest  of  Canaan  by  the 
Hebrews  under  Joshua,  being  found  in  letters 
from  its  subject  prince  to  Amenophis  IV., 
king  of  Egypt,  his  lord.  Salem,  of  which 
Melchizedek  was  king,  is  a  natural  abbrevia- 
tion of  Jerusalem  and  not  unlikely  denoted 
this  city.  The  place  is  mentioned  as  Jerusa- 
lem in  the  account  of  the  conquest  of  Canaan, 
but  in  that  narrative  it  is  also  referred  to  as 
.lebus ;  in  fact,  this  latter  name  is  frequent 
after  the  conquest  during  the  occupation  of 
the  city  by  the  Jebusites;  but  when  David 
captured  the  city  and  made  it  his  capital,  the 
old  name  of  Jerusalem,  or  abbreviated  Salem 
(Ps.  Ixxvi.  2),  became  once  more  the  sole 
designation.  The  pronunciation  of  the  final 
syllable  has  been  modified  by  the  later  Jews, 
so  that  it  resembles  a  dual  and  quite  appro- 
priately suggests  a  double  city. 

II.  1.  The  site.  Jerusalem  is  situated  on  a 
table-land  on  the  crest  of  the  central  ridge  of 
Palestine  and  at  one  of  its  highest  points. 
It  has  the  same  latitude  as  the  northern  end 
of  the  Dead  Sea.  The  portion  of  the  table- 
land occupied  by  the  city  is  isolated  from  the 
rest  of  the  plateau,  except  on  the  north.  On 
the  other  sides  it  is  encomjiassed  by  deep 
ravines.  This  jutting  jiromontory  is  itself 
cut  by  another  valley  which,  followed  up- 
ward  from   its  mouth  at  the  southeastern 


Jerusalem 


354 


Jemsalem 


corner  of  the  promontory  at  the  junction  of 
the  southern  and  eastern  ravines,  trends  like 
the  arc  of  a  circle  for  nearly  a  mile  north- 
ward, midway  sending  a  branch  from  its 
concave  side  due  west.  Such  at  least  was 
the  original  configuration  of  the  city's  site  ; 
but  in  the  course  of  centuries,  through  mu- 
nicijjal  improvements  and  the  devastation  of 
war,  heights  have  been  lowered  and  valleys 
filled.  As  a  result  of  these  ramifications, 
there  are  three  principal  hills, 
an  eastern,  a  southwestern, 
and  a  northwestern.  The  east- 
ern hill  is  a  ridge  extending 
for  somewhat  more  than  half 
a  mile  from  north  to  south, 
which  rises  to  a  height  of 
from  200  to  300  feet  above  its 
encompassing  valleys,  tapers 
to  a  blunt  point  at  its  south- 
ern extremity,  and  at  it^ 
northern  end  is  almost  m  ji- 
arated  (the  reference  is  to  tlie 
ancient  topography)  from  tin 
table-land,  of  which  it  1-5  a 
part,  by  a  branch  of  the  t.ist- 
ern  ravine.  This  ridge  attains 
a  general  altitude  of  2400  feet 
above  sea  level.  There  is  some 
evidence  that  a  slight  dejires- 
sion  or  valley,  about  100  fe(  t 
wide  and  in  places  40  fe(  t 
deep,  lay  athwart  it  tow  aid 
the  southern  end  from  th(>  so 
called  fountain  of  the  Yiittin 
northwesterly  to  the  T\  ro- 
poeon  valley.  The  southwest- 
ern hill  is  much  the  largest  of 
the  three.  In  form  it  is  ob- 
long, with  a  spur  thrown  out 
on  the  northeastern  corner 
toward  the  eastern  ridge.  It 
rises  abruptly  from  the  encir- 
cling valleys.  Its  broad  sum- 
mit begins  at  an  altitude  of 
about  2400  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea  and 
swells  150  feet  higher,  with  its  greatest  ele- 
vation on  the  west.  The  third  hill  is  rather 
a  projection  of  the  plateau  than  an  isolated 
mound.  It  lies  north  of  the  one  just  de- 
scribed. The  present  elevation  of  that  part 
included  in  the  ante-Christian  city  is  about 
2450  feet.  This  triad  of  hills,  with  the 
protecting  ravines,  afforded  a  strong  posi- 
tion for  a  city,  althougli  it  is  encircled  be- 
yond the  ravines  by  hills  which  tower  above 
it.  The  mountains  are  round  about  Jeru- 
salem. 

The  eastern  ravine  is  the  valley  of  the 
Kidron.  The  hill  to  the  east,  which  faces 
and  overlooks  the  hills  of  the  city,  is  the 
mount  of  Olives.  Tlic  long  ridge  which  runs 
north  and  south  is  the  temiilc  hill,  called  at 
least  in  that  portion  of  its  extent  where  the 
sanctuary  stood,  mount  Moriah.  Its  southern 
tapering  extremity  was  known  as  Ophel. 
The  pool  in  the  valley  at  its  extreme  southern 


point  is  Siloam,  and  a  pool  just  north  of  the 
temple  area  is  Bethesda. 

Which  height  was  mount  Zion  ?  This  ques- 
tion has  received  three  principal  answers:  1. 
Mount  Zion  was  the  southwestern  hill.  This 
view  has  prevailed  since  the  fourth  centuiy. 
(1)  Zion  was  the  city  of  David  (2  Sam.  v. 
7-9),  and  Josephus  says  that  the  upper  city, 
unquestionably  the  southwestern  hill,  was 
called  the  citadel   by   David   (War  v.  4,   1). 


Strangely  enough,  however,  Josephus  does 
not  explicitly  call  it  Zion.  (2)  Micah  distin- 
guishes Zion  from  the  temple  hill  (iv.  2).  (3) 
Too  much  building  is  spoken  of  in  Neh. 
iii.  for  Zion  to  be  part  of  the  temple  hill. 
(4)  The  sanctity  of  Zion  is  accounted  for  by 
the  fact  that  it  was  for  many  years  the  abid- 
ing place  of  the  ark,  and  was  celebrated  as 
such  by  David  (2  Sam.  vi.  12-18  ;  1  Kin.  viii. 
1-4 ;  Ps.  ii.  6).  The  name  Zion  thus  became 
the  title  for  Jerusalem  as  a  whole  in  its 
quality  as  a  holy  city  (Ps.  xlviii.  ;  Ixxxvii. ; 
cxxxiii.  3).  2.  Mount  Zion  was  the  northwest- 
ern hill  (Warren).  This  hill  is  identified  with 
that  quarter  of  the  city  called  by  Josephus 
the  Acra,  which  in  Greek  means  hilltop  or 
citadel.  It  is,  indeed,  styled  by  him  the 
lower  city,  for  so  it  was  in  his  day;  but 
originally  it  was  much  higher,  and  was  cut 
down  by  Simon  Maccabjeus  because  it  com- 
manded the  temple  (Antiq.  xiii.  6,  7).  It 
was  originally  a  suitable  site  for  the  Jebusite 


Jerusalem 


355 


Jerusalem 


fortress.  3.  Mount  Zioii  was  a  portion  of  the 
temple  hill.  The  main  arguments  for  this 
view  are  (1)  The  temple  hill  is  best  adapted 
by  nature  for  a  stronghold.  (2)  The  temple 
could  be  reached  by  going  from  the  fountain 
gate,  up  tlie  stairs  of  the  city  of  David,  and 
past  the  water  gate  (Neh.  -.,  _ 

xii.  37),  steps  which  may  be  _-• 

those  that  have  been  dis- 
covered ascending  the  ridge 
from  the  pool  at  the  south- 
ern end.  (3)  Zion  is  spoken 
of  as  holy  in  terms  such  as 
are  never  applied  to  .Jeru- 
salem, but  are  intelligible 
if  Zion  was  the  hill  on 
which  the  temple  stood. 
Zion  is  called  the  hill  of 
the  Lord,  the  holy  hill,  the 
dwelling  place  of  Jehovah 
(Ps.  ii.  6;  ix.  11;  xxiv.  3; 
cxxxii.  13).  (4)  In  the  First 
Book  of  the  Maccabees  Zion 
is  the  temple  hill  (i.  33-38). 
The  invariable  distinction 
of  the  city  of  David  from 
mount  Zion  and  the  sanc- 
tuary shows  that  the  terms 
had  undergone  a  change 
of  meaning  since  2  Sam. 
V.  7.  The  simplest  expla- 
nation is  that  mount  Zion 
was  part  of  the  temple  hill, 
and  by  synecdoche  often 
used  for  the  whole  of  it,  whereas  the  desig- 
nation city  of  David,  which  denoted  the  mu- 
nicipality of  Jerusalem  (2  Sam.  v.  7;  Antiq. 
vii.  3,  2),  was  extended,  with  the  growth  of 
population,  beyond  the  bounds  of  mount 
Zion  and  embraced  the  new  suburbs  on  the 


city  of  David  might  then  on  occasion  in- 
clude the  sanctuary  or  exclude  it.  The 
Syrians  erected  a  fortress  in  the  citj'  of  David, 
but  Judas  Maccabaeus  came  and  took  posses- 
sion of  the  sanctuary  on  mount  Zion  (1  Mac. 
i.  33seq.  ;  iv.  36seq.).   According  to  this  view, 


Fountain  of  the  Virgin. 

neighboring  hills,  around  which  the  protect- 
ing walls  of  the  city  were  cast.     The  term 


Cisterns  of  Jerusalem. 

the  stronghold  captured  by  David  occupied 
the  northern  part  of  the  ridge  on  which  the 
temple  was  afterwards  built  (Ferguson)  or, 
as  the  advocates  of  the  theory  are  coming  in 
increasing  numbers  to  believe,  the  southern 
part,  south  of  the  temple,  south  also  of  the 
transverse  ravine  (Klaiber,  Guthe,  Sayce). 

II.  2.  Water  supply.  Although  Jerusalem 
was  often  long  and  closely  besieged  and  suf- 
fered grievous  fannne  from  having  its  sup- 
plies of  food  cut  off,  there  is  no  record  of  the 
inhabitants  having  ever  lacked  water.  In 
fact,  it  was  the  besiegers  wlio  were  apt  to 
want  water,  not  the  besieged.  There  is  no 
spring  north  of  the  city,  and  none  is  known 
at  present  east,  west,  or  .south  which  was  not 
commanded  by  the  Avails,  except  En-rogel. 
A  living  fountain  to  supply  the  Mamilla  pool 
and  the  pool  of  the  Sultan  on  the  west  luis 
not  been  discovered.  The  southwestern  hill 
is  likewise  without  springs,  so  far  as  known, 
although  the  dragon's  well  may  have  been 
such  (Neh.  ii.  13).  But  the  temple  hill  is 
well  supplied  (Tacitus,  Hist.  v.  12).  The 
known  living  sources  and  their  reservoirs 
are  the  fountain  of  the  Virgin  on  the  eastern 
side,  with  abundant  water  which  was  con- 
ducted by  a  subterranean  channel  to  the  pool 
of  Siloam  (see  Gihox);  the  fountain  of 
Siloam  at  the  southern  end  of  the  hill,  where 
also  are  to  be  sought,  though  their  identifica- 
tion is  difficult,  the  king's  pool,  the  pool  that 
was  made,  and  .Solomon's  pool  (Neh.  ii.  14; 


Jerusalem 


356 


Jerusalem 


iii.  Ifi ;  War  v.  4,  1)  ;  on  the  western  side  of 
the  ridge,  directly  west  of  the  temple,  the 
so-called  healing  baths,  Hammam  esh-Shifa; 
and  just  north  of  the  ridge,  Bethesda. 

The  sjjrings  were  supplemented  by  cisterns. 
The  towers,  which  were  upon  the  city  walls, 
contained  immense  reservoirs  for  rain  water 
(War  V.  4,  3) ;  and  numerous  cisterns,  of 
which  not  a  few  still  exist,  were  found  in  all 
parts  of  the  city  (Tacitus,  Hist.  v.  12). 

Besides  the  supply  afibrded  by  the  springs 
and  cisterns  of  the  city,  water  was  also 
brought  from  a  distance.  The  Mamilla  pool 
west  of  the  city  is  probably  the  upper  pool 
in  the  fuller's  field  and,  as  the  name  denotes, 
the  serpent's  pool  (I.s.  vii.  3;  xxxvi.  2;  War 
V.  3,  2).  An  aqueduct  brought  the  water 
from  it  to  the  pool  of  the  patriarch  east  of 
the  Jafia  gate.  This  is  known  to  tradition 
as  the  pool  of  Hezekiah,  and  is  probably  the 
pool  Amygdiilon — i.  e.  pool  of  the  almond  or 
tower,  mentioned  by  Josephus  (War  v.  11,  4). 
From  it  a  subterranean  conduit  passes  east- 
ward. A  reservoir  was  also  constructed  at  a 
late  period  north  of  the  temple  area,  in 
ground  made  where  the  small  valley  diverged 
westward  from  the  Kidrbn.  It  was  fed  from 
the  west.  It  is  now  known  as  the  pool  of 
Israel,  and  is  probably  identical  with  the 
pool  Strouthios  (pool  of  the  sparrow  or  of 
soai)Wort,  which  was  used  for  cleansing  wool), 
"which  existed  when  Jerusalem  was  besieged 
by  Titus,  and  lay  in  front  of  the  tower  of 
Antonia  (War  v.  11,  4).  But  the  most  ex- 
tensive aqueduct  was  that  which  brought 
water  to  Jerusalem  from  beyond  Bethlehem  ; 
see  Etam.  It  is  believed  to  considerably 
antedate  the  Christian  era. 

II.  3.  Artificial  defenses.  Immediately  after 
capturing  Jerusalem,  David  took  measures  to 
enclose  the  city  with  a  wall.  The  old  Jebu- 
site  stronghold,  henceforth  called  the  city  of 
David,  already  existed.  David,  in  addition, 
fortified  the  city  round  about,  from  Millo 
even  round  about  (2  Sam.  v.  9 ;  1  Chron.  xi. 
8).  Solomon  built  Millo  and  the  wall  of  Je- 
rusalem, closing  up  the  gap  in  the  city  of 
David  (1  Kin.  ix.  15,  24;  xi.  27).  Succeed- 
ing kings  made  rc]iairs  and  additions,  until 
eventually  at  least  the  wall  passed  near  the 
present  Jaffa  gate  on  the  west  (2  Chron. 
xxvi.  f»),  approached  the  valley  of  Hinnom 
on  tlu^  south  (Jer.  xix.  2),  ran  near  the  pool 
of  Siloam  (2  Kin.  xxv.  4),  included  Ophel 
(2  C!liron.  xxvii.  3;  xxsiii.  14),  and  on  the 
north  enclosed  the  suburb  which  grew  up  on 
the  northwestern  hill  (2  Kin.  xiv.  13 ;  2 
Chron.  xxxiii.  14;  Jer.  xxxi.  38).  This  wall 
was  razed  to  the  ground  by  Nebuchadnezzar 
(2  Kin.  xxv.  10). 

Nehemiah  rebuilt  the  wall  out  of  the  old 
material  (Neh.  ii.  13-15;  iv.  2,  7;  vi.  1.5).  It 
began,  so  to  speak,  at  the  shoe])  gate  (iii.  1), 
which  was  near  the  pool  of  Bethesda  (John 
v.  2).  This  pool  has  been  discovered  beneath 
the  church  of  St.  Anne,  about  100  yards  from 
the  gate  now  called   St.   Stephen's,   and  on 


what  was  originally  the  northern  side  of  that 
branch  of  the  Kidron  valley  which  was  in- 
terposed between  the  temple  hill  and  the 
main  plateau.  The  sheep  gate  stood,  there- 
fore, in  this  branch  valley  or  on  the  slope  of 
the  plateau  to  the  north  or  northwest.  Near 
the  sheep  gate,  in  the  direction  away  from  the 
temple,  were  the  towers  of  Meah  and  Han- 
aneel  (Neh.  iii.  1 ;  xil.  39).  Then  came  the 
fish  gate,  in  the  new  or  second  quarter  of  the 
city  (iii.  3  ;  Zeph.  i.  10),  and  next  the  old  gate 
(Neh.  iii.  6  ;  xii.  39).  Some  distance  on  from 
the  latter  point  was  the  broad  wall  (iii.  8 ;  xii. 
38),  and  farther  on  the  tower  of  the  furnaces 
(iii.  11 ;  xii.  38).  To  this  there  succeeded  the 
valley  gate,  the  technical  designation  of  the 
valley  on  the  west  of  the  city  being  used  (iii. 
13  ;  cp.  ii.  13-15),  then  the  dung  gate  (iii.  14), 
then  the  gate  of  the  fountain,  the  wall  of 
the  pool  of  Siloam  by  the  king's  garden,  at 
the  southeastern  corner  of  the  city,  and  the 
stairs  that  go  down  from  the  city  of  David 
(15) ;  to  the  east  of  this  point  was  the  water 
gate  [of  the  temple?],  with  a  large  open 
place  before  it  (viii.  1-3;  xii.  37).  The  wall 
next  went  past  the  sepulchers  of  David,  the 
pool  that  was  made,  and  the  house  of  the 
niightj-  (iii.  16) ;  the  going  up  to  the  armory, 
at  the  turning  of  the  wall  (19) ;  the  house  of 
the  high  priest,  Eliashib  (20)  ;  then  various 
points  indicated  by  other  houses  unto  the 
turning  of  the  wall,  the  corner  (24) ;  the 
turning  of  the  wall  and  the  tower  which 
standeth  out  from  the  king's  upper  house, 
that  was  by  the  court  of  the  guard  (25). 
Now  the  Nethinim  dwelt  here  in  Ophel  from 
over  against  the  water  gate  [of  the  temple  ?] 
toward  the  east  and  this  tower  that  standeth 
out  (26 ;  cp.  xi.  21).  Then  a  i)iece  of  wall 
from  this  tower  to  the  wall  of  Ophel  (iii.  27). 
The  horse  gate  came  next,  above  which  the 
priests  resided  (28).  It  was  on  the  eastern 
side  of  the  city,  overlooking  the  Kidron 
valley  (Jer.  xxxi.  40).  Then  a  portion  of  the 
wall  over  against  the  house  of  [the  priest] 
Zadok,  then  a  section  repaired  by  the  keeper 
ofthe  east  gate  [of  the  temple,  pro])ably]  (Neh. 
iii.  29).  Presently  the  house  of  the  Nethinim  ; 
then  a  section  from  over  against  the  gate  of 
the  Miphkad  [which  was  probably  a  gate  of 
the  temple  at  the  place  where  the  sin  offer- 
ing -was  burned,  called  the  Miphkad,  cp. 
Ezek.  xliii.  21]  to  the  upi)er  chamber  of  the 
tower  (Neh.  iii.  31)  ;  and,  finally,  the  sheep 
gate,  which  was  the  starting  point  of  the  de- 
scription (.32). 

Two  important  gates  of  the  former  wall 
are  not  mentioned,  though  one  at  least  ex- 
isted at  this  time,  the  corner  gate  (2  Kin. 
xiv.  13;  2  Chron.  xxvi.  9  ;  cp.  Zech.  xiv.  10) 
and  the  gate  of  Ephraim  (Neh.  viii.  16 ;  xii. 
39).  The  corner  gate  appears  to  have  been 
the  extreme  northwestern  point  of  the  city 
(Jer.  xxxi.  38),  and  it  was  distant  400  cubits 
from  the  gate  of  Ephraim  (2  Kin.  xiv.  13). 
Through  this  latter  gate  the  road  to  Ephraim 
passed  ;  presumably,  therefore,  it  was  in  the 


w 


^'L 


f 


I 


Jerusalem 


357 


Jerusalem 


northern  wall  of  the  city,  and  if  so,  then 
east  of  tho  corner  gate.  It  was  certainly 
west  of  the  okl  gate  (Neh.  xii.  39).  Begin- 
ning with  the  sheep  gate  and  following  the 
northern  wall  westward,  the  order  of  gates 
and  towers  is  shee])  gate,  towers  of  Meah  and 
Hanancel,  fish  gate,  (dd  gate,  gate  of  Ephraim, 
corner  gate.  Whether  the  broad  wall  and 
tower  of  furnaces  were  beyond  the  corner 
gate  is  difficult  to  determine.  It  is  to  be  ob- 
served that  the  gates  of  the  corner  and  Eph- 
raim occur  in  that  part  of  the  wall  where  it 
is  recorded  that  "they  left  Jerusalem  "  (iii.  8, 
R.  V.  margin),  as  though  the  wall  required  no 
repairs  at  this  point. 

There  was  also  a  gate  of  Benjamin,  through 
which  the  road  to  Benjamin  passed  (Jer. 
xxxviii.  7;  Zech.  xiv.  10).  This  may  have 
been  but  another  name  for  the  gate  of  Eph- 
raim. After  the  fall  of  Samaria  and  the 
virtual  disappearance  of  Ephraim  from  geo- 
graphical parlance,  the  gate  of  Ephraim 
would  naturally  come  to  be  known  as  the 
gate  of  Benjamin,  and  when  the  walls  of  the 
city  were  rebuilt,  after  the  exile,  to  be  called 
indifferently  the  gate  of  Benjamin  or  of 
Ephraim  or.  eventually,  of  Damascus. 


they  might  be  able  to  stand  a  siege  (Ecclus. 
1.  1-4  ;  for  need,  cp.  Antiq.  xii.  1,  1).  In  Ki.S 
B.  c.  Antiochus  Epiphanes  had  the  walls  of 
Jerusalem  thrown  dowTi  and  a  fortress  with 
a  great  and  strong  wall  and  mighty  towers 
erected  in  the  city  of  David,  j)erlia]is  abroad 
designation  meaning  the  city  as  distinct  from 
the  temple  (1  Mac.  i.  ;J1,  .'Jo.  ;Ji)  ;  2  Mac.  v. 
24-26).  This  fortress  became  celebrated  as 
the  Acra.  It  overlooked  the  temple  (Antiq. 
xiii.  G,  7),  and  for  twenty-five  years  was  a 
menace  to  the  Jews.  About  two  years  after  the 
demolition  of  the  city  walls.  .Judas  Maccaba-us 
partly  restored  them,  strengthening  the  outer 
wall  of  the  temple ;  but  only  to  have  his 
work  undone  (1  Mac.  iv.  60;  vi.  18-27,  62). 
His  brother  and  successor,  Jonathan,  liow- 
ever,  renewed  the  work,  proposing  additional 
fortifications  and  rebuilding  and  repairing 
the  walls,  particularlv  around  the  tenqile 
hill  (1  Mac.  X.  10;  xii.' 36,  37;  Antiq.  xiii.  .'>, 
11).  His  brother  Simon  carried  the  work  to 
completion  (1  Mac.  xiii.  10;  xiv.  37;  Antiq. 
xiii.  6.  4).  Under  this  great  priest-king,  not 
only  were  the  walls  of  the  city  built,  but  the 
foreign  garrison  was  forced  in  the  year  142 
B.  c.  to  evacuate  the  Acra  (1  Mac.  xiii.  49-51). 


«?3 


Exterior  of  the  Damascus  Gate. 


During  the  interval  between  Nehemiah 
and  Christ  the  fortifications  of  Jerusalem 
suffered  many  vicissitudes.  About  150  years 
after  the  building  of  Nehemiah's  wall,  the 
high  priest,  Simon  the  Just,  found  it  neces- 
sary to  fortify  the  temple  and  the  city  so  that 


After  a  time  the  fortress  was  demolished  and 
the  hill  on  which  it  had  stood  was  graded 
down  so  as  to  be  lower  than  the  level  of  the 
temple  (1  Mac.  xiv.  .36  ;  xv.  28;  Antiq.  xiii. 
6,  7).  Simon  appears  also  to  have  tak(>n  up 
his  residence   in  the  fortress  Baris,  which 


Jerusalem 


358 


Jerusalem 


I)rotectcd  the  temple  on  the  north  (1  Mac. 
xiii.  52  ;  cp.  Neh.  ii.  8).  In  the  reign  of  John 
Hyreanus  a  portion  of  the  fortifications  of  the 
city  was  dismantled  hy  Antiochus  Sidetes, 
hut  the  ruin  seems  to  have  been  rejiaired  by 
John  (Autiq.  xiii.  8,  3  ;  1  Mac.  xvi.  23).  John 
al.so  remodeled  and  strengthened  the  fortress 
Baris  ( Antiq.  xviii.  4,  3  ;  ep.  xv.  11,  4).  Pom- 
I)C'y  found  the  defenses  of  Jerusalem  strong. 
On  finally  cai)turiug  the  city  in  G3  B.  c,  he 
demolished  the  walls  (Tacitus,  Hist.  v.  9; 
and  next  two  references).  C'sesar  allowed 
them  to  he  rc1)nilt  (Antiq.  xiv.  8,  5;  War  i. 
10,  :j  and  4).  On  the  north  they  consisted  of 
two  walls  which  Herod  and  his  Eoman  allies 
took  in  the  year  37  B.  c,  but  did  not  destroy 
(Antiq.  xiv.  16,  2  and  4  :  cp.  xv.  1,  2). 

At  the  time  of  Ciirist,  Jerusalem  had  the 
two  walls  aforementioned  on  the  north,  and 
shortly  afterwards  three.  Josephus  identi- 
fies the  first  and  innermost  wall  as  the  work 
of  David,  Solomon,  and  succeeding  kings. 
He  describes  it  by  reference  to  landmarks  of 
his  day  as  extending  from  the  tower  of  Hip- 


the  tower  of  Antonia,  formerly  called  Baris, 
north  of  the  temple  (War  v.  4,  2).  Herod 
AgrijJim  I.,  who  reigned  over  Judtea  from  A. 
D.  41  to  44.  undertook  a  third  wall  in  order 
to  include  within  the  city  limits  the  unpro- 
tected suburb  of  Bezetha,  which  had  grown 
up  outside  of  the  fortifications.  After  laying 
the  foundations,  however,  he  relinquished 
the  work  at  the  command  of  the  emperor  Clau- 
dius. It  was  finally  completed  by  the  Jews 
themselves.  It  began  at  the  tower  of  Hip- 
picus,  extended  northward  to  the  tower  of 
Psephinus,  at  the  northwest  corner  of  the  city 
(War  V.  3,  5;  4,  3)  ;  turned  eastward  and 
passed  on  to  the  women's  towers,  which 
stood  west  of  the  northern  highway  and  near 
the  monuments  of  Helena,  queen  of  Adiabene 
(v.  4,  2;  Antiq.  xx.  4,  3) :  included  the  tradi- 
tional site  of  the  camp  of  the  Assyrians  (War 
V.  7,  3)  ;  passed  the  caves  of  the  kings ;  bent 
southward  at  the  corner  tower,  near  the  monu- 
ment of  the  fuller  :  and  joined  the  old  wall  at 
the  valley  of  the  Kidron  (v.  4,  2).  The  cir- 
cumference of  the  walls  was  33  stadia,  a  little 


Castle  of  David,  with  Substructions  of  the  Tower  of  Hippicus. 


picus,  which  stood  immediately  south  of  the 
modern  Jafl'a  gate  at  the  northwest  corner  of 
the  old  city  wall,  eastward  to  the  west  clois- 
ter of  tlie  temple  :  and  from  the  tower  of 
jnp]ii(  lis  south  and  east  by  the  ]ntiA  of  Hiloam 
and  ()i)iiel  to  the  eastern  cloister  of  the  tem- 
])le  (War  v.  4,  2).  It  enclosed  the  south- 
western and  eastern  hills.  The  second  wall 
<'ncomi>assed  the  northern  and  principal  l)usi- 
ness  (luarter  of  the  city  (War  v.  4,  2:  for 
l)azaars  in  tliis  section,  8,  1  ;  i.  13,  2  :  Antiq. 
xiv.  13,  3).  It  began  at  the  gate  Gennath, 
tliat  is,  by  interpretation,  the  garden  gate, 
which  belonged  to  the  first  wall  and  stood 
•not  far  east  of  the  tower  of  Iliiqiicus  (War 
V.  4,  2  ;  3,  2  for  gardens) ;  and  terunnated  at 


less  than  4  miles  (v.  4,  3).  The  defenses  of 
the  city  were  augmented  by  the  fortress 
of  Antonia  at  the  temple,  and  by  the  palace 
of  Herod  with  its  adjacent  towers  on  the 
western  wall.  All  these  fortifications  Titus 
razed  to  the  ground  on  his  capture  of  the  city 
in  A.  I).  70.  He  left  only  the  grouj)  of  three 
towers,  Hii)iiicus,  Phasaelus,  and  Mariamne, 
and  so  much  of  the  wall  as  enclosed  the  city 
on  the  west  side.  He  spared  this  portion  of 
tlie  wall  in  order  that  it  might  aflord  protec- 
tion to  his  garrison,  and  the  towers  that  pos- 
terity might  see  what  kind  of  a  city  it  was 
whicli  Roman  vahn-  had  taken  (War  vii.  1,  1). 
II.  4.  yotnbic  hHil(liui!s  in  the  time  of  Chrint. 
Besides  the  walls  which  have  been  already 


Jerusalem 


359 


Jerusalem 


described,  there  were  many  structures  to 
awaken  contiicting  emotions  in  thcpiousand 
patriotic  Israelite.  Foremost  was  tlie  tem- 
ple. Adjoining  it  on  the  north,  within  its 
area  and  controlling  it,  was  the  fortress  of 
Antonia  occupied  by  a  Roman  garrison ; 
west  of  it  stood  the  council  house,  probably 
the  place  where  the  council  of  the  nation  or 
sanlu'drin  met:  a  little  more  to  the  westward, 

at  the  farther  end  of  the  bridge  which  sprang 

t 


l),and  in  the  hii)i)odrome  men  were  confined 
(xvii.  !),  5;  War  i.  33,  (i).  Other  buildings 
were  the  house  of  the  high  priest  (Mat.  xxvi. 
3  ;  Luke  xxii.  54  ;  War  ii.  17,  (J)  ;  the  house 
of  records,  near  the  temple  (War  ii.  17,  6; 
vi.  (5,  3)  ;  the  i)alace  of  the  proselyte  qiieea 
of  Adiabene,  Helena  (ibid.). 

III.  1.  The  city  of  the  Canaanites.  If  the 
Salem  of  ^Melchizedek  be  Jerusalem,  as  is 
probable,   the  city  first  emerges  in  history 


Remims  of  an  Ancient  Bridge  in  the  Western  Wall  of  the  Temple 

It  is  ne.ir  the  soutliwehtein  coiner,  measures  50  teet  in  width,  contains  stones  19  and  26  teet  in  length,  and  once 

spanned  the  Tyropoeon  valley.     It  is  known  as  Robinson's  Arch. 


from  the  western  cloister  of  the  temple  and 
spanned  the  Tyropoeon  valley,  lay  the  gym- 
nasium or  xystos,  an  object  of  abhorrence  on 
account  of  its  demoralizing  and  heathenizing 
influence  ;  above  it,  looking  down  into  it  and 
peering  across  the  valley  into  the  sanctuary, 
rose  the  palace  of  the  Asmonseans,  recalling 
the  heroic  achievements  of  the  Maccabees. 
Or  taking  a  wider  circuit,  to  the  north  of  the 
temple  beyond  the  fortress  of  Antonia  was 
the  pool  of  Bethesda  with  its  healing  waters; 
away  to  the  west,  at  the  opposite  side  of  the 
city  from  the  temple,  stood  the  magnificent 
palace  of  Herod  with  its  impregnable  towei-s, 
the  residence  of  the  procurators  when  in 
Jerusalem  ;  around  toward  the  south  was  the 
pool  of  Siloam,  and  not  too  far  from  it  were 
the  sepulchers  of  the  kings  (see  the  several 
articles).  In  this  neighborhood  may  best  be 
sought  the  very  large  amphitheater  erected 
by  Herod  the  Great  in  the  plain  (Antiq.  xv. 
8.  1).  It  was.  perhaps,  the  same  as  the  hip- 
podrome, which  lay  south  from  the  temple 
(War  ii.  3.  1),  for  chariot  races  as  well  as 
wild  beast  fights  and  gladiatorial  combats 
seem  to  have  taken  place  in  it  (Autiq.  xv.  8. 


in  the  days  of  Abraham,  when  it  already  had 
a  king  of  the  Semitic  race,  who  was  at  the 
same  time  priest  of  the  Most  High  God  (Gen. 
xiv.  18).  Manetho,  an  Egyptian  priest  and 
historian  of  the  third  century  before  Christ, 
transmits  a  tradition,  which  may  contain 
considerable  truth  and  which  chronologically 
belongs  here,  to  the  ctt'ect  that  the  nation  of 
the  shepherd  kings  to  the  number  of  240,000 
were  driven  out  of  Egypt  by  Thoummosis 
[or  Amosis,  i.  e.  Aahmes  (Eusebius,  Ohron. 
lo-17)],  and  fled  toward  Syria  ;  but  fearing 
the  Assyrians,  who  had  dominion  over  Asia, 
they  built  a  city  in  the  country  now  called 
Judaea  of  sufficient  size  to  contain  the  multi- 
tude and  named  it  Jerusalem  (con.  Apion. 
i.  14,  ITj).  This  expulsion  of  the  shepherds 
took  place,  according  to  Manetho,  several  cen- 
turies before  the  exodus  of  the  children  of 
Israel,  and  must  not  be  confounded  with 
the  later  event  (i.  26  seq.).  It  occurred  some- 
where about  1600  B.  c.  The  earliest  mention 
of  Jerusalem  in  a  document  of  which  the 
original  is  extant  is  about  1500  b.  c,  when 
it  still  has  a  Semite  as  its  governor,  but 
is  subject  to  Ameuophis  IV.,  king  of  Egj-pt. 


Jerusalem 


360 


Jerusalem 


This  was  before  the  exodus.  When  the 
Israelites  entered  Canaan,  Jerusalem  was 
ruled  by  a  king,  still  a  Semite,  and  occupied 
by  Amorites,  or  more  definitely  by  Jebusites. 
Joshua  defeated  its  king  and  his  allies  at 
Gibeon,  drove  them  down  the  pass  of  Beth- 
horon,  and  slew  them  in  the  lowland  (Josh. 
X.).  But  no  attempt  was  made  to  enter  the 
city.  The  Jebusites  still  dwelt  in  it.  It  was 
allotted  to  the  tribe  of  Benjamin  ;  but  as  it 
stood  on  the  border  of  Judah,  its  castle  com- 
manded a  portion  of  the  territory  of  two  tribes 
(Josh.  XV.  8  ;  xviii.  28).  In  the  war  which 
was  waged  by  the  several  tribes  against  the 
Canaanites  within  their  own  bounds  after 
the  death  of  Joshua,  Judah  fought  against 
Jerusalem,  took  it,  and  set  it  on  fire  (Judg. 
i.  8).  But  apparently  Judah  did  not  capture 
the  citadel.  Neither  did  Benjamin  (21). 
Hence,  when  the  city  was  rebuilt,  it  was  still 
under  the  shadow  of  the  Jebusite  stronghold 
and  its  inhabitants  were  Jebusites.  It  was  a 
city  of  foreigners  and  a  reproach  in  the 
midst  of  the  land  (Josh.  xv.  63  ;  Judg.  i.  21 ; 
xix.  11,  12).  Such  M^as  the  state  of  afiairs 
when  David  began  his  career.  When  he  had 
slain  Goliath,  he  returned  from  the  field  of 
battle  by  way  of  Jerusalem  and  brought  the 
head  of  the  Philistine  thither.  Possibly  ho 
erected  it  on  a  spear  in  view  of  the  city;  at 
any  rate  he  displayed  it  before  the  eyes  of 
the  Jebusites  (1  Sam.  xvii.  54).  It  was  a 
prophecy  to  this  stronghold  of  mocking  for- 
eigners of  what  awaited  them.  And  when 
he  became  king  of  all  Israel,  and  found  a 
united  and  enthusiastic  nation  obedient  to 
him,  and  the  jealousy  between  Judah  and 
Benjamin  allayed,  he  at  once  led  his  troops 
against  the  border  town,  and  in  face  of  the 
derision  of  the  inhabitants,  who  believed 
their  walls  to  be  impregnable,  gained  posses- 
sion (2  Sam.  V.6  set}.).  Henceforth  for  many 
centuries  Jerusalem  was  a  city  of  the  He- 
brews. 

III.  2.  The  citi/ of  the  Hebrewa.  David  made 
Jerusalem  the  caiiital  of  his  kingdom,  and 
took  measures  to  make  it  the  i-eligious  center 
also.  The  ark,  which  had  had  no  dwelling 
place  of  its  own  since  Jehovah  forsook  Shiloh, 
he  brought  to  Jerusalem  and  pitched  a  suit- 
able tent  for  it,  and  he  began  the  collection 
of  materials  for  a  temple.  The  city  shared 
in  the  prosperity  of  Solomon's  reign.  The 
walls  were  enlarged,  the  temple  was  erected 
on  a  scale  of  great  magnificence,  and  sur- 
rounded by  a  wall  which  gave  it  the  apjiear- 
ance  of  a  fortress,  and  a  royal  palace  was 
built  not  inferior  to  the  temple  in  splendor. 
In  the  next  reign,  however,  the  army  of 
Shishak,  king  of  Egypt,  entered  the  city  and 
robbed  the  temple  and  the  palace  of  their 
treasures  (1  Kin.  xiv.  25  seq.),  and  about 
eighty  years  later  bands  of  Philistines  and 
Arabs  gained  brief  admission  to  the  city  and 
carried  oil'  plunder  (2  Chron.  xxi.  17).  The 
population  was  in  the  meanwhile  increasing, 
quarters  of  the  city  began  to  be  distinguished 


(2  Kin.  XX.  4  ;  xxii.  14),  and  before  the  be- 
ginning of  the  eighth  century  a  suburb  on 
the  northwestern  hill  was  enclosed  by  an 
addition  to  the  city  wall.  This  part  of  the 
city  was  the  mercantile  district,  and  con- 
tinued to  be  such  after  the  exile  and  until 
the  destruction  of  the  city  by  Titus  (War  v. 
8, 1).  Here  were  the  sheep  and  the  fish  gates, 
and  the  quarter  was  skirted  by  the  valley  of 
the  cheesemongers.  In  the  reign  of  Amaziah 
a  portion  of  the  city  wall  was  broken  down, 
and  temple  and  palace  were  despoiled  of 
treasure  by  the  northern  Israelites  (2  Kin. 
xiv.  13,  14).  Uzziah  and  Jotham  repaired 
the  ruin,  strengthened  the  walls,  and  erected 
new  towers  for  defense  (2  Chron.  xxvi.  9 ; 
xxvii.  3).  But  they  had  perhaps  other  ruins 
to  care  for  than  those  wrought  by  war,  for  in 
Uzziah's  reign  the  city  was  visited  by  a 
memorable  earthquake  (Amos  i.  1  ;  Zecli. 
xiv.  5;  Antiq.  ix.  10,  4).  Under  Ahaz  the 
city  was  besieged,  but  not  taken,  by  the 
northern  Lsraelites  in  alliance  with  the  Syri- 
ans (2  Kin.  xvi.  5),  and  shortly  afterwards, 
by  reason  of  the  king's  inclination  to  heathen- 
ism, the  lamps  of  the  temple  were  allowed  to 
go  out,  the  offering  in  the  holy  place  ceased, 
and  the  temple  was  closed  (2  Kin.  xvi.  14 
seq. ;  2  Chron.  xxviii.  24 ;  xxix.  7).  Heze- 
kiah  reopened  the  temple  and  restored  the 
service,  but  he  was  obliged  to  empty  the 
royal  and  the  sacred  treasuries  and  to  strip 
the  plates  of  gold  from  the  temple  doors  in 
order  to  raise  a  sum  sufficient  to  purchase 
exemption  from  a  threatened  raid  by  the 
Assyrians ;  and  even  this  relief  was  but  tem- 
])orary,  for  eventuallj'  Assyrian  troops  stood 
before  the  walls  (2  Chron.  xxix.  3 ;  2  Kin. 
xviii.  15  seq.).  The  city  was,  however,  de- 
livered by  the  providential  outbreak  of  pes- 
tilence in  the  camp  of  the  enemy  (2  Kin. 
xix.  35).  When  Manasseh  returned  from 
captivity  he  built  walls  for  the  city  and 
strengthened  the  fortifications  (2  Chron. 
xxxiii.  14).  During  the  reigns  of  the  sons 
and  grandson  of  Josiah  the  city  experienced 
its  overwhelming  calamities.  Nebuchadnez- 
zar besieged  it  in  the  days  of  Jehoiakim,  en- 
tered it,  bound  but  eventually  released  the 
king,  and  carried  ott'  costly  vessels  from  the 
temple  and  a  number  of  nol)le  youth  (2  Kin. 
xxiv.  1 ;  2  Chron.  xxxvi.  6  ;  Dan.  i.  1).  Again 
he  came,  emptied  the  royal  and  the  sacred 
treasuries,  seized  the  remaining  vessels  of 
gold  and  silver  belonging  to  the  temple,  car- 
ried king  Jehoiiichin  a  prisoner  to  Babylon, 
and  deported  the  best  and  most  useful  citizens 
(2  Kin.  xxiv.  10  seq.).  Nine  years  later,  in 
the  reign  of  Zedekiah,  he  laid  siege  to  the 
city  for  the  third  time.  The  investment 
lasted  two  years.  The  misery  within  the 
walls  was  extreme.  Finally  a  breach  was 
made,  the  city  was  taken,  the  temple  and  the 
palaces  were  burnt,  the  wall  was  broken 
down,  and  the  remnant  of  the  population, 
save  the  poorest,  was  deported  (2  Kin.  xxv. ). 
The  city  lay  waste  for  fifty  years.     Zerub- 


Jerusalem 


361 


Jerusalem 


babel  and  50,000  followers  returucd  to  Jeru- 
salem iu  538  B.  c,  and  at  the  begiuuiiig  of 
the  uext  year  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
temple  (Ezra  ii.  64,  65 ;  iii.  8).  The  walls 
of  the  city  were  rebuilt  under  Xehemiah 
about  445  b.  c.  The  supreme  power  was  then 
in  the  hands  of  the  Persians,  from  whom  it 
passed,  under  Alexander  the  Great,  to  the 
Macedonian  Greeks.  The  city  was  taken  b3' 
Antiochus  the  Great  '203  B.  c,  retaken  by 
the  Egyptians  iu  199,  and  opened  its  gates 
again  to  Antiochus  coming  as  a  friend  iu  198. 
In  170  B.  c.  Antiochus  Epiphanes  took  Jeru- 
salem, subsequently  desecrating  the  temple  ; 
see  History.  But  the  ]\Iaccabees  arose  ;  and 
in  165  B.  c.  Judas  retook  the  city  and  puritied 
the  temple.  The  kings  of  the  Asmonsean 
race  built  near  the  temple  a  citadel  called 
Baris  or  the  tower  ;  see  Antonia,  Tower  of. 
Pompej^  captured  Jerusalem  63  B.  C,  breaking 
down  part  of  the  wall ;  Crassus  despoiled 
the  temple  in  54  B.  c.  and  the  Parthians 
plundered  the  cityiu  40  B.  c.  Jerusalem  was 
taken  again  in  37  B.  c.  by  Herod  the  Great, 
who  repaired  the  walls,  adorned  the  city 
with  various  edifices,  and  rebuilt  the  temple 
on  a  scale  of  magnificence  which  markedly 
contrasted  with  the  comparatively  humble 
character  of  Zerubbabel's  temple.  The  work 
began  20-19  B.  c,  and  was  not  quite  completed 
when  our  Lord  was  on  earth.  Herod  also 
strengthened  the  citadel  and  called  it  Antonia 
(q.  v.).  When  he  passed  away  there  were 
two  walls,  in  whole  or  in  part  encompassing 
Jerusalem,  against  one  in  Solomon's  time.  A 
third  wall  was  begun  by  Herod  Agrippa  (about 
A.  D.  42  or  43)  about  ten  years  after  the  cru- 
cifixion. In  70  B.  c.  the  Romans,  under  Titus, 
took  Jerusalem,  the  temple  and  nearly  all 


III.  3.  The  city  shtce  Titim.  Under  the  em- 
peror Hadrian  the  Komans  commenced  to  re- 
fortify  Jerusiilem  as  a  gentile  city,  and  liold 
it  against  its  former  inhabitants.  This  seems 
to  have  been  one  main  cause  of  the  Jewish 
revolt  under  Bar-cochcl)a  (about  A.  d.  132  to 
135).  On  its  suppression,  the  rebuilding  of 
the  city  was  resumed  and  completed.  The 
old  name  Jerusalem  Avas  discarded.  It  was 
called  Colonia  ^Elia  Capitoliua  :  Colonia  to 
denote  that  it  was  a  Roman  colony,  ^Elia  iu 
honor  of  Hadrian,  whose  prsenomen  was 
iElius,  and  Capitoliua  because  it  was  dedi- 
cated to  Jupiter  Capitolinus.  To  this  heathen 
deity  a  temple  was  dedicated  on  the  spot 
where  those  of  Solomon,  Zerubbabel,  and 
Herod  had  stood.  The  Jews  were  forbidden, 
on  pain  of  death,  to  enter  within  its  walls. 
The  Christians  were,  perhaps,  by  this  time 
sufficiently  distinguished  from  the  Jews  not 
to  come  under  the  prohibition.  The  name 
^Elia  continued  for  many  centuries.  The 
emperor  Coustantine  first  partially,  and  then 
comjyletely,  removed  the  prohibition  against 
the  Jews  entering  the  Holy  City.  In  326 
Helena,  his  mother,  caused  five  churches  to 
be  built  at  Bethlehem  and  on  the  mount  of 
Olives,  and  in  335  the  emperor  himself 
erected  the  first  church  of  the  Holy  Sei)ul- 
cher;  see  Sepulcher.  In  June,  613,  Jeru- 
salem was  taken  by  storm  by  the  Persians 
under  Cho.sroes  II.,  a  great  massacre  of  the 
Christian  inhabitants  following,  and  the 
church  of  the  Holy  Sepulcher  being  burnt 
down.  In  628,  on  the  death  of  Chosroes,  Je- 
rusalem was  retaken  by  the  Roman  emperor, 
Heraclius.  In  637  it  was  surrendered  on 
conditions  to  the  Saracens,  who  soon  after- 
wards reared  what  was  till  recently  called 


Roman  Medal  commemorating  the  Capture  of  Jerusalem. 


the  city  having  been  burnt  or  otherwise  de- 
stroyed during  the  siege.  He  broke  down 
all  the  walls,  with  the  exception  of  part  of 
the  western  one  and  three  towers.  Hippicus, 
Phasaelus,  and  Mariamne,  which  he  left  to 
show  posterity  the  nature  of  the  defenses  he 
had  succeeded  in  capturing  (War  vii.  1,  1). 


the  mosque  of  Omar,  but  now  more  accu- 
rately the  Dome  of  the  Rock,  upon,  or  very 
near,"  the  site  of  the  Jewish  temple.  During 
the  period  that  Jerusalem  was  ruled  by  the 
Saracens,  the  treatment  of  the  Christian  pil- 
grims who  visited  the  sacred  shrines  varied. 
Once  the  church  of  the  Holy  Sepulcher  was 


Jerusalem 


362 


Jeshimon 


set  on  fire  under  a  Fatiruite  ruler,  but  on  the 
wliule  there  was  toleration.  It  was  difJ'erent 
when  the  Saracens  were  displaced  by  the 
Turks  in  A.  D.  1077.  The  insults  and  oppres- 
sion ])racticed  by  the  semi-savages  who  had 
now  gained  power,  threw  all  middle  and 
central  Euro]>e  into  a  ferment,  and  brought 
on  the  crusades.  In  the  first  of  these  reli- 
gious expeditious  Jerusalem  was  taken  by 
storm  on  July  15,  1099,  and  a  Christian  king- 
dom established,  which  continued  eighty- 
eight  years.  During  the  Christian  occupa- 
tion many  fresh  sites  were  considered  to  have 
been  discovered,  the  buildings  connected  with 
the  Holy  Sepulcher  were  enlarged  and  made 
more  splendid,  and  other  edifices  erected  in 
the  city.  In  1187  it  had  to  be  surrendered 
to  Saladiu,  sultan  of  Egypt  and  Syria,  and 
with  the  exception  of  two  short  periods,  when 
the  Christians  again  possessed  it,  has  remained 
in  Mohammedan  hands.  Of  late  its  popula- 
tion has  largely  increased.  In  1863  it  was 
estimated  at  5000  Mohammedans,  3(306  Chris- 
tians, and  7100  Jews,  total  15,706  (Keith 
Johnston).  In  1892  Dr.  Selah  Merrill,  United 
States  consul  at  Jerusalem,  reported  to  his 
government  that  the  Jews  alone  amounted  to 
25,322.  In  this  year  also  a  railway  was  com- 
pleted from  Jatfa  to  Jerusalem. 

IV.  Modern  excavation.  "An  inscription  in 
Arabic  over  the  Yafa  [i.  e.  the  Jatfa]  gate," 
says  Prof.  Eobinson,  "as  well  as  others  in 
various  places,  records  that  the  present  walls 
of  Jerusalem  were  rebuilt  by  order  of  sultan 
Suleiman  in  a.  h.  [the  year  of  the  Hegira] 
948,  corresponding  to  A.  D.  1542.  They  appear 
to  occupy  very  nearly  the  site  of  the  former 
walls  of  the  middle  ages,  which  were  several 
times  thrown  down  and  rebuilt  during  the 
crusades,  a  slight  deviation  only  being  visi- 
ble around  the  northwest  corner,  on  both  the 
northern  and  western  sides.  The  materials 
were  probably  those  of  the  former  walls ;  and 
are  in  great  part  apparently  ancient"  [Bih. 
Res.  i.  384 ).  The  foundations  are  in  some  places 
built  of  very  large  stones,  which  may  have 
formed  part  of  the  ancient  walls.  It  may  be 
asked  also.  May  not  fragments  of  the  old  first, 
second,  and  third  walls  have  escajjcd  destruc- 
tion, even  in  places  where  they  did  not  coin- 
cide in  direction  with  the  present  city  walls? 
The  answer  must  be  in  the  aifirmative.  Prof. 
Eobinson,  in  1838,  found  near  the  Damascus 
gate  large  ancient  beveled  stones,  which  had 
apparently  never  been  disturbed  since  they 
were  first  put  in  position.  He  regarded  them 
as  i)robably  belonging  to  the  guardhouse  de- 
fending a  gate  which  existed  prior  to  the 
days  of  Herod  (Bib.  Res.  1.  463).  Robinson 
also  believed  that  he  and  Mr.  Whiting  found 
traces  of  the  northwestern  part  of  the  foun- 
dations of  Agri])]ia's  wall  (4(i5),  the  observa- 
tion having  been  confirmed  by  Hauauer  be- 
fore the  remains  were  covered  with  buildings 
(PideMine  ILrplor.  Fund  Quarterly  Statement, 
Oct.,  1892.  p.  295).  Sir  Charles  Warren,  under 
the  auspices  of   the   Palestine   Exi)loration 


Fund,  made  extensive  excavations  in  Jeru- 
salem from  Feb.,  1867,  till  April,  1870,  sink- 
ing shafts  through  the  dehrh,  which  at  one 
place  was  125  feet  deep,  covering  the  ancient 
city.  He  found  and  traced  for  a  considerable 
distance  the  wall  of  Ophel  (Wilson  and  Warren, 
Recovery  of  Jerusalem,  286-289).  Since  then 
Mr.  Henry  Maudsley,  C.  E.,  traced  the  course 
of  the  first  wall  by  relics  of  it  still  remaining 
on  mount  Zion  ( Twenty-one  Years,  59).  When, 
in  1885,  an  excavation  was  made  for  the  foun- 
dation of  the  Grand  New  Hotel,  a  little  north 
of  Hippicus,  a  portion  of  the  second  wall  was 
traced  for  about  120  feet.  The  work  of  ex- 
cavation is  still  continued  by  the  Exploration 
Fund,  with  Dr.  F.  J.  Bliss  as  director  of  the 
operations. 

Je-ru'sha  and  Jerushah  [po.ssession]. 

Wife  of  Uzziah,  kingof  Judah,  and  mother 
of  his  successor,  Jotham  (2  Kin.  xv.  33;  2 
Chron.  xxvii.  1). 

Je-sha'iah,  in  A.  V.  twice  Jesaiah  (1 
Chron.  iii.  21  ;  Neh.  xi.  7)  [Jehovah  is  opu- 
lent, or  Jehovah  hath  saved]. 

1.  A  son  of  Jeduthun,  and  a  musician  in 
the  reign  of  David  (1  Chron.  xxv.  3). 

2.  A  Levite,  son  of  Eehabiah  ;  he  also  was 
in  David's  reign  (1  Chron.  xxvi.  25). 

3.  A  son  of  Hananiah,  and  a  descendant 
of  Zerubbabel  (1  Chron  iii.  21). 

4.  A  son  of  Athaliah  and  head  of  the 
father's  house  of  Elam,  who,  with  seventy 
males,  returned  from  Babylon  with  Ezra 
(Ezra  viii.  7). 

5.  A  Merarite  Levite  who  returned  in  the 
same  comjjany  (Ezra  viii.  19). 

6.  A  Beujamite,  the  father  of  Ithiel  (Neh. 
xi.  7). 

Jesh'a-nah  [old]. 

A  city  in  the  hill  country  of  Ephraim, 
wrested  by  Abijah  from  the  northern  king- 
dom (2  Chron.  xiii.  19  ;  cp.  xv.  8).  It  is  be- 
lieved to  be  the  village  called  Isanas,  where 
Herod  the  Great  defeated  the  general  of  An- 
tigonns  (Antiq.  xiv.  15,  12).  Clermont- 
Ganneau  identified  it  with  the  modern  vil- 
lage of  'Ain  Sinia,  about  3  miles  N.  by  W.  of 
Bethel. 

Jesh-a-re'lah.     See  Ashaeelah. 

Je-sheb'e-alD  [father's  dwelling]. 
•     A  descendant  of  Aaron.     His  family  be- 
came the  fourteenth  course  of  the  priesthood 
(1  Chron.  xxiv.  13). 

Je'sher  [probity,  uprightness]. 
A  son  of  Caleb  (1  Chron.  ii.  18). 

Jesh'i-mon  [a  waste,  a  desert]. 

1.  A  wilderness  at  the  northeastern  end  of 
the  Dead  Sea,  not  far  from  Pisgah  and  Peor 
(Num.  xxi.  20;  xxiii.  28).  Beth-jeshimoth 
was  situated  in  it ;  see  Bkth-jeshimoth. 

2.  A  wilderness  to  the  north  of  the  hill 
Hachilali  and  of  Maon  (1  Sam.  xxiii.  19,  24; 
xxvi.  1,  3). 

It  is  probable  that  Jeshimon  in  these  pas- 


Jeshishai 


363 


Jesus 


sages  is  not  a  proper  name,  but  should  be 
rendered  desert,  as  in  E.  V. 

Je-sM'shai  [pertaining  to  an  old  man]. 

A  Gadite,  descended  from  Buz  (1  Chron. 
V.  14). 

Jesh-o-ha'iali  [perhaps,  Jehovah  doth 
huuiblu]. 

A  SiuK'onite  prince  (1  Cbrou.  iv.  36). 

Jesh'u-a,  in  A.  V.  once  Jeshuah  (1  Chron. 
xxiv.  11),  an  inconsistency  not  I'ouud  in  the 
original  edition  of  A.  V.  [a  late  form  of 
Joshua,  Jehovah  is  salvation]. 

1.  Joshua,  the  military  leader  in  the  wars 
of  Canaan  (Neh.  viii.  17). 

2.  A  descendant  of  Aaron.  His  family  had 
grown  to  a  father's  house  in  the  time  of 
David  and  was  made  the  ninth  of  the  twenty- 
four  courses  into  which  David  divided  the 
priests  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  1,  6,  11). 

3.  One  of  the  priests  in  Hezekiah's  reign 
who  had  to  do  with  the  receipt  and  distribu- 
tion of  the  freewill  oflerings  in  the  temple 
(2  Chron.  xxxi.  15). 

4.  A  high  priest  who  returned  with  Zerub- 
babel  from  Babylon  (Ezra  ii.  2  ;  Neh.  vii.  7). 
He  was  the  son  of  Jozadak.  He  built  the 
altar  of  burnt  offering,  and  encouraged  the 
workmen  and  the  people  generally  to  rebuild 
the  temple  (Ezra  iii.  2-9).  In  Zechariah's 
prophecies  he  is  called  Joshua,  and  stands  as 
the  priestly  representative  of  the  returned  ex- 
iles to  whom  divine  support  is  given  (Zech. 
iii.  1-10  ;  vi.  11-13). 

5.  A  man  of  the  house  of  Pahath-moab, 
some  of  whose  children  returned  with 
Zerubbabel  and  others  from  captivity  (Ezra 
ii.  6  ;  Neh.  vii.  11). 

6.  A  Levite,  head  of  a  Levitical  family, 
who,  with  members  of  the  family,  returned 
from  captivity  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii.  40  ; 
Neh.  vii.  43  ;  xii.  8).  He  actively  assisted 
Jeshua,  the  high  priest,  in  stirauiating  the 
workmen  and  people  to  rebuild  the  temple 
(Ezra  iii.  9).  The  representative  of  the 
house  bearing  his  name  affixed  his  seal  to  the 
covenant  (Neh.  x.  9).  From  the  last  passage, 
it  appears  that  Jeshua  was  the  son  of  Azaniah 
(9).  In  Neh.  xii.  24  the  word  ben,  the  son  of, 
after  Jeshua  is  probably  a  corruption  ;  per- 
haps a  corruption  of  Ba'ni  (cp.  ix.  4,5).  Not 
unlikely  it  was  this  Levite  .Jeshua  who  was 
the  father  of  the  ruler  of  Mizpah.  Ezer,  who 
repaired  a  portion  of  the  wall  (iii.  19). 

7.  A  Levite.  probably  of  the  aforemen- 
tioned family,  who  aided  Ezra  in  explaining 
the  law  to  the  people  (Neh.  viii.  7),  and  in 
preparing  them  for  a  more  heartfelt  worship 
of  Jehovah  fix.  4,  5). 

8.  A  village  of  southern  Judah  (Neh.  xi.  26). 
Jesh'u-run,   in  A.  Y.   once   Jesurun  (Is. 

xliv.  2)   [righteous  one]. 

A  name  of  endearment  used  in  poetry 
for  the  nation  of  Israel  with  reference  to  the 
moral  character  which  they  were  created  to 
exhibit  (Deut.  xxsii.  15;'xxxiii.  5,  26;  Is. 
xliv.  2). 


Je-si'ah.     See  Issni.\H. 

Je-sim'i-el  [God  setteth  up]. 

A  prince  of  the  tribe  of  Simeon  (1  Chron. 
iv.  36). 

Jes'se. 

Son  of  Obed,  family  of  Perez.  He  was 
descended  from  Nahshon,  chief  of  the  tribe 
of  Judah  in  the  days  of  Moses,  and  from 
Euth  the  Moabitess'(Euth  iv.  18-22).  He 
was  father  of  eight  sous,  the  youngest  of 
whom  was  David  (1  Sam.  xvii.  12-14).  To 
judge  from  1  Chron.  ii.  15,  one  of  them  died 
without  leaving  posterity  :  unless,  as  is  less 
probable,  Elihu  (xxvii.  18)  has  been  lost  from 
the  register.  Jesse  had  two  daughters,  but 
by  a  ditferent  wife  from  David's  mother  (ii. 
16  ;  cp.  2  Sam.  xvii.  25).  Jesse  lived  at  Beth- 
lehem, to  which  Samuel  was  sent  to  anoint  a 
king  from  among  his  sous.  After  seven  of 
them  had  been  passed  before  him  in  the 
order  of  their  birth,  David  w^as  called  from 
the  flock  which  he  was  tending,  and  on  his 
arrival  was  anointed  king  (1  Sam.  xvi.  1-13). 
When  Saul  lost  all  aflection  for  David,  he 
almost  uniformly  called  him  the  son  of  Jesse 
(xx.  31 ;  xxii.  7 ;  xxv.  10),  to  remind  every 
one  of  his  rival's  humble  origin,  all  the 
while  ignoring  the  fact  that  his  own  father, 
Kish,  was  no  more  a  king  than  Jesse  was. 
When  David  was  in  the  cave  of  Adullam,  he 
was  joined  by  his  father,  his  mother,  and  his 
brothers.  He  allowed  his  brothers  to  share 
the  danger  of  his  wanderings,  but  placed  his 
parents  under  the  protection  of  the  king  of 
Moab,  the  native  land  of  his  ancestress  Ruth, 
till  he  knew  what  God  had  in  store  for  him 
in  the  future  (xxii.  1-4).  It  is  uncertain 
when  Jesse  died.  When  the  ten  tribes  re- 
volted against  Eehoboam,  there  was  a  certain 
contemptuous  reference  after  the  manner  of 
Saul  to  the  son  of  Jesse  (2  Sam.  xx.  1  ;  1 
Kin.  xii.  16  ;  2  Chron.  x.  16).  The  relation- 
ship between  Jesse  and  David  made  the  for- 
mer obtain  mention  in  prophecy  (Is.  xi.  1,  10 ; 
cp.  Rom.  XV.  12). 

Jes'u-i.    See  Ishvi. 

Jes'u-run.     See  Jeshueun. 

Je'sus,  an  imitation  of  the  Greek  form  of 
Jeshua,  which  in  turn  is  a  late  form  of 
Jehoshua  or  Joshua  [Jehovah  is  salvation]. 

1.  Jo.shua,  the  militarv  leader  in  the  wars 
of  Canaan  (A.  V.  of  Acts'  vii.  45  ;  Heb.  iv.  8) ; 
see  Joshua. 

2.  An  ancestor  of  Christ,  who  lived  about 
four  hundred  vears  after  David  (Luke  iii. 
29).  The  A.  V."  following  a  different  Greek 
text,  calls  him  Jose. 

3.  In  the  Septuagint  the  name  occurs  sev- 
eral times  in  the  Apocrypha.  It  was  borne  by 
the  author  of  Ecclesiasticus,  and  twelve  per- 
sons with  this  name  are  mentioned  by  Jo- 
sephus  outside  of  bis  references  to  Joshua 
and  to  Christ.  It  was  a  common  name  among 
the  Jews  of  the  Greek-speaking  period. 

4.  A  Jewish  Cliristian,  also  called  Justus, 
associated  with  Paul  (Col.  iv.  11). 


Jesus  Christ 


364 


Jesus  Christ 


5.  The  name  of  oiu'  Lord.  See  Jesus 
Christ. 

Je'sus  Christ. 

Our  Lord  was  uamed  Jesus  in  accord- 
ance with  the  directions  of  the  angel  to 
Joseph  (Mat.  i.  21)  and  Mary  (Luke  i.  31). 
When  given  to  ordinary  chinlren  it  merely 
expressed,  if  anything,  the  parent's  faith  in 
God  as  the  saviour  of  his  people,  or  their  faith 
in  the  coming  salvation  of  Israel.  When 
given  to  Mary's  child  it  was  designed  to  ex- 
press the  special  otfice  he  would  fulfill: 
"  Thou  shalt  call  his  name  Jesus,  for  he  shall 
save  his  people  from  their  sins"  (Mat.  i.  21). 
Christ  is  from  the  Greek  Christos,  anointed, 
corresponding  to  the  Hebrew  Mashiah,  anoint- 
ed, Messiah.  Jesus  therefore  was  our  Lord's 
personal  name  and  Christ  was  his  title  (the 
Christ)  ;  though  the  latter  was  early  used  also 
as  a  proper  name,  as  it  is  by  us,  either  alone 
or  with  Jesus. 

It  is  the  object  of  the  following  article  to 
sketch  the  progress  of  our  Lord's  life  on 
earth,  so  as  to  place  its  principal  events  in 
their  probable  order  and  relation. 

Chronology.  The  exact  dates  of  the  birth, 
baptism,  and  death  of  Jesus  cannot  be  abso- 
lutelj'  demonstrated ;  but  most  scholars  now 
agree  within  narrow  limits.  Our  ordinary 
Christian  calendar  originated  with  Dionysius 
Exiguus,  a  Roman  abbot  who  died  a.  d.  556. 
He  first  .selected  the  year  of  the  incarnation 
as  that  before  and  after  which  dates  should 
be  reckoned.  He  fixed,  however,  on  the  year 
of  Eome,  754,  as  that  in  which  Christ  was  born, 
and  that  year  consequently  equals  A.  d.  1. 
But  the  statements  of  Josephus  make  it  clear 
that  Herod  the  Great,  who  died  shortly  after 
Jesus  was  born  (Mat.  ii.  19-22),  died  several 
years  before  the  year  of  Eome,  754.  His 
death  occurred  thirty-seven  years  after  he 
had  been  declared  king  by  the  Romans, 
which  was  in  A.  U.  C.  714.  This  might  be 
751  or  750,  according  to  whether  Josephus 
counted  fractions  of  a  year  as  whole  years  or 
not.  The  year  750  is,  however,  made  the 
more  probable  from  the  further  statement  of 
Jdsophus  that  shortly  before  Herod's  death 
he  put  to  death  two  Jewish  rabbis,  and  that 
on  the  night  of  their  execution  there  occurred 
an  eclipse  of  the  moon.  Astronomical  cal- 
culations show  that  in  750  there  was  a  partial 
lunar  eclipse  on  the  night  of  March  12  or  13  ; 
but  in  751  there  was  no  eclipse.  Josephus 
also  narrates  that  Herod  died  shortly  before 
the  passovcr,  which  began  in  750  on  April  12. 
We  may,  therefore,  w^ith  considerable  confi- 
dence date  Herod's  death  about  April  1,  in 
the  year  of  Rome  750.  which  was  4  B.  c. 
Before  that  date,  therefore,  we  must  yilace 
the  events  given  in  the  gos^iels  which  oc- 
curred between  the  birth  of  Jesus  and  the 
death  of  Herod,  for  which  a  period  of  two 
or  three  months  is  probably  re^iuired. 
Christ's  birth,  therefore,  is  to  be  ]ilaced  at  the 
close  of  5  B.  c.  or  beginning  of  4  B.  c.  The 
observance  of  December  25th  did  not  arise 


until  the  fourth  century,  so  that  it  has  no 
authority.  It  may,  however,  be  accepted  as 
an  approximation  to  the  truth,  and  then 
Christ's  birth  would  be  assigned  to  Decem- 
ber 25,  5  B.  c.  This  puts  it  five  years  earlier 
than  in  the  calendar  of  Dionysius,  who 
a.ssigned  it  to  December  25,  a.  d.  1.  The 
date  of  the  opening  of  our  Lord's  public 
ministry  is  to  be  obtained  principally  from 
Luke  iii.  23,  where  it  is  said  that  at  his  bap- 
tism he  was  about  thirty  years  of  age.  The 
expression  is  obviously  indefinite  ;  but,  as- 
suming that  he  was  born  December  25,  5  B.  C, 
he  would  be  thirty  on  December  25,  a.  d.  26. 
The  traditional  date  of  the  baptism  is  Janu- 
ary 6,  and  if  we  suppose  at  any  rate  that  it 
occurred  early  in  a.  d.  27,  Luke's  expression, 
"about  thirty  years  of  age,"  would  be  cor- 
rect. This  date  also  is  somewdiat  confirmed 
by  the  statement  of  the  Jews  (John  ii.  20), 
made  shortly  after  his  baptism,  "forty  and 
six  years  was  this  temple  in  building."  The 
rebuilding  of  the  temple  by  Herod  was  be- 
gun, as  might  be  shown,  in  20-19  B.  c.  ;  so  that 
the  forty-six  years,  supposing  them  to  have 
elapsed  when  the  remark  was  made,  would 
bring  us  again  to  a.  d. 27.  If,  finally,  "the  fif- 
teenth year  of  the  reign  of  Tiberius  "  (Luke 
iii.  l),when  John  the  Baptist  began  his  min- 
istry, be  reckoned,  as  it  properly  may  be,  from 
the  time  when  Tiberius  was  associated  with 
Augustus  in  the  empire  (A.  D.  11  to  12),  it 
coincides  with  A.  D.  26  and  further  agrees 
with  our  other  calculations.  It  is  true  that 
all  these  items  of  evidence  contain  in  them 
points  on  which  opinions  may  not  unreason- 
ably differ  ;  yet  the  dates  we  have  given  ap- 
pear to  be  the  most  probable  and  to  support 
one  another.  The  length  of  Christ's  minis- 
try and  consequently  the  year  of  his  death 
are  to  be  fixed  by  the  number  of  passovers 
which  John  notes  in  his  Gospel.  If  we  had 
only  the  synoptic  gospels  (see  Gospel),  we 
might  infer  that  his  ministry  was  onlj-  a  year 
in  length,  and  this  was  in  ancient  times  a  not 
uncommon  opinion.  But  John's  Gospel  speaks 
of  at  least  three  passovers  (ii.  13  ;  vi.  4  ;  xiii. 
1),  and  it  is  highly  probable  that  the  feast 
referred  to  in  John  v.  1  was  also  a  passover. 
If  so,  Christ's  ministry  included  four  pass- 
overs,  at  the  last  of  which  he  died  ;  and,  if 
he  was  baptized  early  in  a.  d.  27,  his  first 
jiassover  was  in  April  of  that  year,  and  he 
died  in  A.  d.  30,  when  the  passover  festival 
began  on  April  7.  Those  who  think  that 
John  V.  1  does  not  refer  to  a  passover  date 
Christ's  death  in  A.  D.  29.  We  thus  obtain 
as  the  probable  leading  dates  in  Christ's  life : 
birth,  December  25  (?),  5  B.  C.  ;  baptism  and 
beginning  of  his  ministrv,  January  (?),  A.  D. 
27';  death.  April  7,  A.  D.'30. 

PoUficnJ  conttifion  of  the  Jews.  When  Jesus 
was  born  Herod  the  Great,  an  able  but  cruel 
man,  was  king  of  the  Jews.  His  kingdom 
included  Samaria  and  Galilee  as  well  as 
Judiea.  He  was  an  Idumiean  by  descent, 
though  professing  the  Jewish  religion.     His 


Jesus  Christ 


365 


Jesus  Christ 


fatlier,  Antipater,  had  l)ecn  mado  governor 
of  Jiida?a  l)y  Julius  Cipsar,  and,  after  several 
changes  of  fortune,  Herod  had  been  declared 
king  of  the  Jews  )>y  the  Romans  in  40  B.  c. 
But,  while  an  independent  king  in  many 
ways,  Herod  ruled  by  the  favor  of  and  in  de- 
pendence on  the  Romans,  who  had  become 
the  practical  rulers  of  the  world.  On  his 
death,  4  B.  c,  his  kingdom  was  divided  among 
his  sous.  Archelaus  received  Judsea  and  Sa- 
maria. Herod  Antipas  received  Galilee  and 
Perpea.  Herod  Philip  received  the  territory 
northeastoftheseaof Galilee (Lukeiii.l).  But 
in  the  tenth  year  of  his  reign  Archelaus  wasde- 
posed  by  Augustus,  and  from  that  date  Judaea 
and  Samaria  were  ruled  by  Roman  governors, 
styled  procurators,  until  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem,  with  the  exception  of  the  years 
A.  D.  41-44,  when  Herod  Agrippa  I.  was 
invested  with  the  royal  power  (Acts  xii.  1). 
During  the  ministry  of  Christ,  therefore, 
Galilee  aud  Pera;a,  where  he  spent  most  of 
his  time,  were  under  the  rule  of  Herod 
Antipas  (Mat.  xiv.  3 ;  Mark  vi.  14 ;  Luke  iii. 
1,  19:  ix.  7;  xiii.  31;  xxiii.  8-1:2),  while 
Samaria  and  Judsea  were  ruled  directly  by 
the  Romans  through  their  governor,  who  at 
that  time  was  Pontius  Pilate.  The  rule  of 
the  Romans,  whether  direct  or  indirect,  irri- 
tated the  Jews  exceedingly,  and,  during 
Christ's  life,  the  land  was  in  an  almost  con- 
stant state  of  political  ferment.  While  the 
Romans  sought  to  give  the  nation  as  much 
self-government  as  possible,  so  that  their 
sanhedrin.  or  chief  court,  exercised  juris- 
diction in  a  very  large  number  of  cases;  and 
while  the  conquerors  granted  many  privileges 
to  the  Jews,  especially  in  respect  to  their  re- 
ligious observances,  yet  the  nation  fretted 
under  a  foreign  domination,  which  was  very 
positive,  when  it  wished  to  be  so,  and  which 
did  not  intend  ever  to  grant  them  their  old 
liberty.  The  Jewish  aristocracy,  however, 
including  most  of  the  Sadducees,  were  not 
unfriendly  to  the  Romans.  The  Pharisees, 
who  comprised  the  strictest  religionists,  were 
disposed  to  devote  themselves  to  the  conser- 
vation of  Judaism,  while  generally  avoiding 
jiolitical  complications.  We  read  also  of 
Herodians,  who  doubtless  favored  the  claims 
of  the  Herodiau  family  to  the  Jewish  throne, 
while  from  Josephus  we  learn  of  political 
patriots  who  successively  arose  in  tlie  vain 
endeavor  to  throw  off  the  Roman  yoke.  In 
such  a  condition  of  things,  one  who  claimed 
to  be  Messiah  would  easily  be  involved  in 
political  difficulties.  We  shall  see  that  Jesus 
carefully  and  successfully  avoided  these  in 
order  that  he  might  proclaim  the  true,  spir- 
itual kingdom  of  God. 

Eeli(iiou!i  eiiiKlitioii  of  the  Jews.  As  already 
implied,  this  was  largely  affected  by  the  state 
of  political  affairs.  So  far  as  the  official 
classes  were  concerned,  the  purely  religious 
hopes  of  the  Old  Testament  had  been  almost 
forgotten,  aud  even  among  the  peoi>le  the 
idea  of  an  earthly  kingdom  had  nearly  dis- 


placed that  of  a  sjiiritual  one.  We  meet  in 
the  gospels  with  two  leading  sects,  the  Phar- 
isees and  the  Sadducees.  The  former  were 
religious  and  had  the  greater  influence 
among  the  peo])le  ;  but  they  had  substituted 
theological  aud  ceremonial  tradition,  as  well 
as  casuistic  subtleties,  for  the  word  of  God, 
and  in  their  hands  the  religion  of  Moses  and 
the  i)rophets  had  become  a  narrow,  barren, 
and  uuspiritual  form.  The  Pharisees  natur- 
ally opposed  the  spiritual  and  unconventional 
religion  which  Jesus  taught,  and  especially 
his  appeal  from  tradition  to  Scripture.  The 
Sadducees,  on  the  other  hand,  were  the  aris- 
tocrats. They  included  the  high-priestly 
families.  They  were  infected  by  gentile 
culture,  rejected  the  Pharisaic  traditions, 
aud  were  more  interested  in  politics  than  in 
religion.  They  were  led  finally  to  oppose 
Jesus,  because  they  thought  that  his  success 
would  disturb  the  existing  political  relations 
(John  xi.  48).  Meanwhile  the  ceremonies  of 
God's  worship  were  carried  on  with  much 
magnificence  in  the  temple  at  Jerusalem,  the 
people  attended  with  fidelity  and  in  great 
numbers  the  religious  festivals,  aud  the  zeal 
of  the  nation  for  their  religious  privileges 
and  traditions  was  never  greater,  while  every 
now  and  then  some  outbreak  of  mingled 
patriotism  and  fanaticism  fanned  the  embers 
of  popular  hope  into  a  flame.  Yet  there 
were  .some  who  still  preserved  the  spirit  and 
faith  of  a  pure  religion.  They  were  found 
mainly,  though  not  wholly,  among  the  hum- 
ble classes.  In  them  the  expectation  of  a 
saviour  from  sin  had  not  died  out,  and  from 
the  bosom  of  one  of  the.se  pious  circles  did 
Jesus  himself  come.  The  Jewish  people, 
therefore,  in  Christ's  lifetime  were  still  a  re- 
ligious people.  They  knew  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, which  was  read  in  their  synagogues 
and  taught  to  their  children.  The  nation  was 
in  a  state  of  i-eligious  interest  as  well  as  of 
political  unrest.  These  facts  explain  to  us 
the  popular  excitement  caused  by  the  preach- 
ing of  John  the  Baptist  and  of  Jesus,  the 
opposition  of  the  ruling  classes  to  them  both, 
and  the  success  of  the  method  which  Jesus 
pursued  in  'preaching  his  gospel,  as  well  as 
the  fate  which  he  himself  saw  from  the  be- 
ginning to  be,  even  humanly  speaking,  in- 
evitable. 

Life  of  Jesus.  The  circumstances  of  the 
birth  of  Jesus,  as  recorded  in  the  gospels, 
were  in  accord  with  his  dignity  and  the  pre- 
dictions of  Messiah,  yet  such  also  as  to  har- 
monize with  the  lowly  appearance  which  the 
Saviour  was  to  make  on  earth.  As  Malachl 
(iii.  1;  also  iv.  5,  6)  had  prophesied  that  a 
herald,  in  the  spirit  and  power  of  Elijali, 
should  precede  the  Lord  when  he  should 
come  to  his  temple,  so  Luke  tells  us  first 
of  the  birth  of  John  the  Baptist,  the  herald 
of  the  Christ.  A  certain  pious  priest,  named 
Zacharias,  who  had  no  child  and  was  far  ad- 
vanced in  years,  was  discharging  his  duties 
at  the  temple.     He  was  chosen  by  lot,  as  the 


Jesus  Christ 


366 


Jesus  Christ 


custom  was,  to  offer  the  incense,  representing 
the  prayers  of  Israel,  on  the  altar  in  the  holy 
place.  To  him  the  angel  Gabriel  appeared 
and  announced  that  he  was  to  be  the  father 
of  the  i)romised  forerunner  of  Messiah.  This 
was  probably  in  October,  6  B.  c.  After  his 
term  of  service  in  the  temple  was  over,  he 
and  his  wife,  Elisabeth,  returned  to  their 
home  in  a  city  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah 
(Luke  i.  39),  and  awaited  the  fulfillment  of 
the  promise.  Six  mouths  later  the  angel  ap- 
peared to  Mary,  a  maiden  probably  of  Davidic 
descent,  who  lived  in  Nazareth  and  was  be- 
trothed to  Joseph,  who  was  certainly  de- 
scended from  the  great  king  of  Israel  (Mat.  i. 
1-16;  Luke  i.  27) ;  see  Genealogy.  Joseph 
was  a  carpenter  by  trade,  a  man  of  humble 
station  though  of  high  descent,  and  a  devout 
Israelite.  To  Mary  the  angel  announced  that 
she  was  to  become  the  mother  of  Messiah 
(Luke  1. 28-38)  by  the  power  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
working  in  her,  and  that  the  child,  who  was  to 
be  called  Jesus,  should  have  the  throne  of  his 
father  David.  For  her  comfort  also  she  was 
told  of  the  pregnancy  of  Elisabeth,  who  was 
her  kinswoman.  When  the  angel  left  her, 
Mary  hastened  for  protection  and  sympathy  to 
the  house  of  Zacharias.  At  their  meeting,  the 
spirit  of  prophecy  came  on  these  two  women. 
While  Elisabeth  greeted  Mary  as  the  mother 
of  her  Lord,  Mary,  like  Hannah  of  old  (1 
Sam.  ii.  1-10),  broke  forth  in  a  song  of  praise 
for  the  salvation  of  Israel  that  was  coming 
and  for  the  honor  which  had  been  conferred 
on  hor.  It  is  evident  that  these  strange 
events  were  regarded  by  them  both  in  the 
spirit  of  strong  faith  and  holy  exaltation, 
the  perfect  expression  of  the  historic  hope  of 
Israel.  When  the  time  drew  near  for  Elisa- 
beth to  be  delivered  of  the  child  which  she 
had  conceived,  Mary  returned  to  Nazareth. 
Her  further  protection  against  reproach  was, 
however,  secured  by  God  himself.  Joseph, 
seeing  her  condition,  was  disposed  quietly  to 
put  her  away  without  public  accusation,  but 
even  this  gentle  treatment  was  forestalled. 
An  angel  revealed  to  him  in  a  dream  the 
cause  of  Mary's  condition  ;  told  him  that  he 
was  to  have  Messiah  for  his  child  ;  and  that, 
as  Isaiah  had  foretold,  the  latter  was  to  be 
born  of  a  virgin.  With  faith,  equal  to 
Mary's,  Joseph  believed  the  message  and 
made  Mary  his  legal  wife.  It  was  thus  se- 
cured that  Mary's  child  was  born  of  a  virgin, 
and  at  the  same  time  that  he  had  a  legal 
human  father  and  his  mother  was  protected 
by  the  love  and  respectability  of  a  husband. 
There  can  be  little  doubt  that  these  facts 
were  made  known  by  Mary  herself  at  a  later 
time.  The  fact  that  neither  Christ  nor  his 
a.postles  apjical  to  his  miraculous  conception 
in  proof  of  his  Messiahshij)  occasions  no 
reason  for  doubting  the  narrative.  The  event 
was  not  one  which  could  be  used  as  public 
proof  But  the  narrative  of  Christ's  birth 
beautifully  harmonizes  with  what  we  now 
know  of   his  dignity  and   his  mission   upon 


earth.  The  Messiah  was  to  be  the  perfect 
flower  of  Israel's  spiritual  life  ;  and  so  Jesus 
was  born  in  the  bosom  of  this  pious  family 
circle  where  the  pure  religion  of  the  O.  T. 
was  believed  and  cherished.  The  Messiah 
was  to  appear  in  lowliness ;  and  so  Jesus 
came  from  the  home  of  the  Nazarcne  car- 
penter. The  Messiah  was  to  be  the  .son  of 
David,  and  so  Joseph,  his  legal  father,  and 
probably  Mary,  his  actual  mother,  were  de- 
scended from  David.  The  Messiah  was  to  be 
the  incarnation  of  God,  a  divine  person 
uniting  to  himself  a  human  nature,  and  so 
Jesus  was  born  of  a  woman  but  miraculously 
conceived  by  the  power  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 
After  relating  the  birth  of  John  and  the 
prophetic  song  which  burst  from  the  long- 
sealed  lips  of  his  father  Zacharias  (Luke  i. 
57-79),  over  the  advent  of  Messiah's  fore- 
runner, the  evangelist  Luke  explains  how 
Jesus  came  to  be  born  in  Bethlehem.  The 
emperor  Augustus  had  ordered  an  enroll- 
ment of  all  the  subjects  of  the  empire,  and 
although  Palestine  was  under  Herod,  its  in- 
habitants also  were  included  in  the  decree. 
The  enrollment  of  the  Jews,  however,  evi- 
dently took  place  after  the  Jewish  method, 
by  which  each  father  of  a  household  was 
regi.stered,  not  at  his  dwelling  place,  but  at 
the  place  where  his  family  belonged  in  view 
of  its  ancestry.  Hence  Joseph  had  to  go  to 
Bethlehem,  the  original  home  of  David. 
Mary  accompanied  him.  The  lodging  place,, 
or  khan,  where  strangers  were  permitted 
to  sojourn,  was  already  fully  occupied  when 
they  arrived,  and  they  only  found  shelter  in  a 
stable,  M'hich  may  have  been,  as  early  tradi- 
tion affirms,  in  a  cave  near  the  town.  Such 
caves  were  often  used  about  Bethlehem  for 
stables.  We  are  not  told  that  any  cattle 
were  occupying  the  stable.  It  may  have 
been  unused  at  the  time.  Nor  would  a 
stable  in  that  country  and  among  that  people 
have  seemed  as  offensive  a  lodging  place  as 
it  might  with  us;  but  it  was  a  lowly  abode 
for  the  birthplace  of  Messiah.  Yet  such  it 
was  destined  to  be,  for  there  Mary's  child 
was  born,  and  she  laid  him  in  a  manger 
(Luke  ii.  7).  But  though  born  so  humbly, 
he  was  not  to  he  without  attestation.  That 
night  shepherds  in  a  field  near  Bethlehem 
were  visited  by  angels,  who  told  thini  of 
Messiah's  birth  |and  where  he  lay,  and  sang 
in  the  hearing  of  the  shepherds  :  "  Glory  to 
God  in  the  highest,  and  on  earth  peace  among 
men  in  whom  he  is  well  pleased "  (Luke  ii. 
14,  R.  v.).  The  shepherds  hastened  to  Beth- 
lehem and  saw  the  child.  They  related  what 
they  had  seen  and  heard,  and  then  returned 
again  to  their  flocks.  All  this  was  again  in 
striking  harmony  with  the  mission  of  Messiah. 
Yet  we  should  remember  that  the  event  oc- 
curred in  a  circle  of  humble  peasants,  and  that 
it  made  no  noise  in  the  busy  world.  For  a 
while  Joseph  and  Jfary  lingered  in  Bethle- 
hem. On  the  eighth  day  the  child  was  cir- 
cumcised   (Luke    ii.  21)   and   the  appointed 


Jesus  Christ 


367 


Jesus  Christ 


nafne,  Jesus,  was  given  to  him.  Forty  days 
after  his  birth  (Lev.  xii.)  his  parents  took 
him,  as  the  law  directed,  to  the  temple  aud 
Mary  oflered  her  gifts  of  purilicatiou  and 
presented  lier  child  unto  the  Lord.  The 
firstborn  male  child  of  the  Hebrew  mother 
was  to  be  redeemed  by  the  payment  of  five 
shekels  (Num.  xviii.  16),  and  this  is  meant 
when  it  is  said  that  they  brought  him  "  to  pre- 
sent him  to  the  Lord."  The  mother  was  also 
to  offer  her  thanksgiving,  and  it  is  specially 
noted  by  Luke  that  Mary  gave  the  offering  of 
the  poor,  "  a  pair  of  turtle  doves,  or  two  young 
pigeons."  The  modest  circumstances  of  the 
family  are  thus  further  attested.  Yet  the 
lowly  Messiah  was  not  to  leave  his  Father's 
house  without  recognition.  An  aged  saint, 
Simeon  by  name,  came  into  the  temple  and 
the  spirit  of  inspiration  fell  upon  him  at 
sight  of  the  child.  He  had  been  promised 
by  God  that  he  should  not  die  till  he  had 
seen  Messiah.  Taking  the  infant  in  his  arms, 
Simeon  gave  thanks  aud  predicted  the  glory 
and  sorrow  of  his  life  (Luke  ii.  25-35). 
Anna  also,  a  prophetess  of  great  age,  who 
continually  dwelt  in  the  tem])le,  bore  witness 
to  the  advent  of  the  Christ  (Luke  ii.  36-38). 
But  a  more  remarkable  attestation  was  soon 
to  follow.  Shortly  after  Joseph  aud  Mary 
had  returned  to  Bethlehem,  certain  magi 
from  the  east  appeared  in  Jerusalem  and  de- 
clared that  they  had  seen  Messiah's  star  in 
the  heavens  and  were  come  to  worship  him. 
They  had  doubtless  learned  ft'om  the  Jews 
scattered  throughout  the  east  of  the  expec- 
tation of  a  coming  king  in  Judsea  who  would 
be  man's  great  deliverer.  They  were  doubt- 
less also  students  of  the  stars,  and  God  used 
their  superstitious  notions  to  make  them 
witnesses  of  the  gentile  world,  waiting  in 
the  half-light  of  natural  religion  for  the  com- 
ing of  the  Saviour,  of  whom  they  felt  the 
need,  but  whose  real  character  they  did  not 
understand.  In  the  east  they  had  seen  a 
star  which  for  some  reason  they  considered 
to  portend  the  birth  of  the  Jewish  king. 
Coming  to  Jerusalem,  they  inquired  for  him. 
Their  message  troubled  the  equally  super- 
stitious Herod,  and  summoning  the  scribes, 
he  demanded  where  Messiah  was  to  be  born. 
When  told  that  he  was  to  be  born  in  Bethle- 
hem, Herod  sent  the  magi  there,  but  bade 
them  promise  to  inform  him  if  they  found 
the  child.  On  the  way  the  magi  saw  the  star 
again  over  Bethlehem,  and,  having  found 
Jesus,  offered  him  rare  gifts  of  frankincense, 
gold,  and  myrrh.  We  can  imagine  with  what 
renewed  awe  Joseph  and  Mary  must  have 
received  these  unexpected  and  strange  visi- 
tors. They  were  another  sign  of  the  high 
destiny  of  the  child.  The  magi,  however, 
were  warned  of  God  not  to  return  to  Herod, 
for  that  wicked  man  only  intended  to  use 
them  to  destroj'  the  newly  born  king.  They 
departed  home,  therefore,  by  another  way. 
Joseph  also  was  warned  by  an  angel  of  the 
impending   danger  and   instructed  to  take 


Mary  and  the  babe  to  Egypt,  well  out  of 
Herod's  reach.  It  was  none  too  soon,  for 
presently  the  cruel  king,  whose  readiness  to 
murder  even  his  own  sous  is  related  l)y  Jo- 
sephus,  sent  soldiers  to  slay  all  the  male 
children  in  Bethlehem  who  were  less  than 
three  years  old.  He  hoped  thus  to  accom- 
plish the  object  in  which  he  had  been  foiled 
by  the  departure  of  the  magi  without  in- 
forming him  concerning  the  child  they  had 
sought.  Bethlehem  was  a  small  place  aud 
the  number  of  children  slain  may  not  have 
been  large  ;  but  the  act  was  cruel  enough  at 
the  best.  Jesus,  however,  had  escaped.  How 
long  he  was  kept  in  Egypt  we  do  not  know. 
Probably  it  was  a  couple  of  months.  There 
were  many  Jews  there,  so  that  Joseph  could 
easily  find  a  refuge.  But  in  due  time  the 
angel  informed  him  of  Herod's  death  and 
directed  him  to  return.  It  was  apparently 
his  first  purpose  to  rear  the  child  in  Bethle- 
hem, David's  city.  But  his  fear  of  Archelaus, 
Herod's  son,  made  him  hesitate.  Again  God 
gave  him  instructions,  and  in  accordance 
with  them  Joseph  and  Mary  sought  once 
more  their  old  home  in  Nazareth.  In  conse- 
quence of  this,  Jesus  appeared  among  the 
people,  when  his  public  life  began,  as  the 
prophet  of  Nazareth,  the  Nazarcne.  Such 
are  the  few  incidents  ]ireserved  in  the  gos- 
pels of  the  birth  and  infancy  of  Jesus.  Won- 
derful as  they  appear  to  us,  they  attracted 
no  attention  at  the  time  on  the  part  of  the 
world.  The  few  persons  concerned  in  them 
either  forgot  them  or  kept  them  to  them- 
selves. But  when  the  church  was  founded 
we  may  suppose  that  Mary  told  them  to  the 
disciples.  Matthew  aud  Luke  have  related 
them  to  us  quite  independently  of  each  other, 
the  former  to  illustrate  the  roj-al  Messiahship 
of  Jesus  and  his  fulfillment  of  prophecy  ;  the 
latter  to  explain  the  origin  of  Jesus  and  the 
historical  beginnings  of  his  life. 

After  the  return  to  Nazareth,  nothing  is 
told  us  of  Jesus'  life,  except  the  one  incident 
of  his  visit  with  his  parents  to  the  temple 
when  he  had  become  twelve  years  of  age 
(Luke  ii.  41-51).  That  incident,  however,  is 
instructive.  It  shows  the  continued  piety  of 
Joseph  and  Mary  and  the  devout  training 
which  they  sought  to  give  the  child.  It 
shows  also  the  early,  spiritual  development 
of  Jesus,  for  he  was  already  mainly  inter- 
ested in  those  religious  questions  on  which 
the  Jewish  rabbis  gave  instruction  to  their 
pupils.  We  are  not  to  imagine  the  boy  of 
twelve  as  instructing  the  doctors,  but  as  a 
pupil  in  one  of  their  temple  schools,  and  yet 
as  showing  by  his  questions  a  spiritual  in- 
sight which  amazed  them.  The  incident  also 
illustrates  the  natural,  human  life  which 
Jesus  led.  He  grew,  we  are  told,  "  in  wisdom 
and  stature  [or  age],  and  in  favor  with  God 
and  men  "  (Luke  ii.  5-2).  The  wonders  of 
his  infiincy  were  doubtless  kept  a  secret  by 
Joseph  and  Mary,  and  Jesus  appeared  to  his 
companions  and  the   family  in   no  wise  a 


Jesus  Christ 


368 


Jesus  Christ 


supernatural  beiug,  but  only  remarkable  for 
his  mental  force  and  moral  purity.  Putting 
together,  however,  other  facts  incidentally 
mentioned  in  the  gospels,  we  can  form  some 
idea  of  the  circumstances  in  which  the  child- 
hood and  young  manhood  of  Jesus  were  passed. 
He  was  a  member  of  a  family.  He  had  four 
brothers  and  some  sisters  (Mark  vi.  3,  etc.). 
Some  have  supposed  that  these  were  the 
children  of  Joseph  by  a  former  marriage ; 
others  that  they  were  Christ's  cousins.  It 
seems  to  us  most  natural  and  scriptural  to 
believe  that  they  were  the  children  of  Joseph 
and  Mary,  born  after  Jesus.  But  at  any 
rate,  Jesus  grew  up  in  a  family,  experiencing 
the  pleasures  and  the  discipline  of  family 
life.  He  became,  like  Joseph,  a  carpenter 
(3),  so  that  he  was  accustomed  to  manual 
labor.  But  mental  discipline  also  was  not 
wanting.  Jewish  children  were  well  in- 
structed in  the  Scriptures,  and  our  Lord's 
familiarity  with  them  is  evident  from  his 
teaching.  His  parables  also  reveal  a  mind 
sensitive  to  the  teaching  of  nature,  and 
which  must  have  delighted  always  to  ponder 
the  evidence  of  God's  mind  in  the  works  of 
his  hand.  Nazareth,  though  somewhat  se- 
cluded, was  on  the  edge  of  the  busiest  part 
of  the  Jewish  world  and  not  far  from  some 
of  the  most  famous  scenes  of  Israel's  history. 
From  the  clifl'  back  of  the  town  the  eye 
could  contemplate  many  places  associated 
with  great  events.  Not  far  ofi"  was  the  sea 
of  Galilee,  around  which  was  gathered  the 
varied  life  of  the  world  in  miniature.  It 
was  a  period  also,  as  has  been  said,  of  much 
political  excitement,  and  Jewish  homes  were 
often  agitated  with  the  report  of  stirring 
events.  There  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that 
Jesus  grew  up  in  isolation.  We  should  rather 
imagine  him  keenly  alive  to  the  progress  of 
events  in  Palestine.  While  the  language 
commonly  spoken  by  him  seems  to  have  been 
the  Aramaic,  which  had  displaced  the  older 
Hebrew  among  the  later  Jews,  he  must  often 
have  heard  Greek  used  and  may  have  been 
familiar  with  it.  All  this  period  of  his  life, 
however,  the  evangelists  i)ass  over.  Their 
books  were  written  not  to  give  biographies 
of  Jesus,  but  to  report  his  public  ministry. 
We  can  see  enough,  however,  to  prove  the 
naturalness  of  our  Saviour's  human  life,  the 
fitness  of  his  surroundings  to  prepare  him  for 
his  future  work,  the  beauty  of  his  character, 
and  thus  the  gradual  unfolding  of  his  hu- 
manity in  expectation  of  the  hour  when  he 
was  to  offer  himself  as  God's  Messiah  to  his 
people.  That  hour  drew  nigh  when,  perhaj)s 
in  the  summer  of  A.  d.  26,  John,  the  son  of 
Zacharias,  who  had  hitherto  led  a  life  of 
ascetic  devotion  in  the  desert  (Luke  i.  80), 
received  from  God  his  commission  to  summon 
the  nation  to  re]>entance  for  their  sins  in 
preparation  for  Messiah's  coming.  John 
moved  from  })lace  to  place  along  the  Jordan 
valley,  and  administered  the  rite  of  baptism 
to  those  who  believed  his  message.   He  called 


both  the  nation  and  individuals  to  repent- 
ance for  sin,  spoke  in  the  tone  of  the  older 
prophets,  especially  of  Elijah,  and  announced 
that  Messiah  was  at  hand,  that  he  would 
purify  Israel  with  judgments,  and  make  ex- 
piation for  the  world's  sin  (Mat.  iii. ;  Mark  i. 
1-b;  Luke  iii.  1-18;  John  i.  19-36).  The 
efi'ect  of  his  ministry  was  widespread  and 
profound.  Even  from  Galilee  the  j)Cople 
tiocked  to  his  preaching.  The  sanhedrin 
sent  a  deputation  to  inquire  his  authority 
(John  i.  19-28).  While  the  ruling  classes 
were  unmoved  by  his  appeal  (Mat.  xxi.  25), 
poi)ular  wonder  and  excitement  were  aroused, 
and  the  jnirely  religious  character  of  his  mes- 
sage led  the  truly  pious  to  believe  that  the 
long-deferred  hope  of  Israel  was  at  last  to  be 
fulfilled.  After  John's  ministrj'  had  con- 
tinued for  some  time,  perhaps  for  six  months 
or  more,  Jesus  appeared  amid  the  multitude 
and  asked  the  prophet  to  baptize  him.  The 
inspired  insight  of  the  Baptist  recognized  in 
him  one  who  had  no  need  of  repentance; saw 
in  him,  in  fact,  no  less  than  the  Messiah 
himself.  "I  have  need,"  he  said,  "to  be 
baptized  of  thee,  and  comest  thou  to  me?" 
(^lat.  iii.  14).  We  are  not  to  suppose  that 
Jesus  did  not  already  know  himself  perfectly 
well  to  be  the  Christ.  His  reply  rather 
shows  the  contrary  :  "  Suffer  it  now  :  for  thus 
it  becometh  us  to  fulfill  all  righteousness." 
The  baptism  meant  for  him,  partly,  self- 
dedication  to  the  work  which  John  had  an- 
nounced, and  also  the  conscious  taking  upon 
himself  of  the  sin  of  the  people  whom  he  had 
come  to  save.  As  he  came  from  the  baptism 
(Mark  i.  10),  John  (John  i.  33,  34)  saw  the 
heavens  opened  and  the  Spirit  of  God,  in  the 
form  of  a  dove,  descending  and  remaining  on 
him,  and  a  voice  came  from  above  :  "  This  is 
my  beloved  Son,  in  whom  I  am  well  pleased  " 
(Mat.  iii.  17).  This  was  the  full  endowment 
of  our  Lord's  human  nature  with  spiritual 
power  for  his  ministry.  How  truly  human, 
as  well  as  divine,  he  was  through  it  all  is 
shown  by  the  temptation  which  immediately 
followed.  He  was  not  to  enter  on  his  work 
without  adequate  mental  preparation.  Re- 
alizing his  vocation,  he  was  led  by  the 
Si)irit  into  the  wilderness,  doubtless  for  medi- 
tation. There  the  great  tempter  met  him, 
and  sought  to  pervert  his  purpose  to  selfish 
and  worldly  ends.  Jesus  must  have  himself 
related  this  experience  to  his  disciples.  While 
w^e  are  not  to  doubt  the  outward  reality  of 
the  tempter  and  the  physical  features  of  the 
scene  as  descril)ed  to  us  (Mat.  iv.  1-11  ;  Luke 
iv.  1-13),  we  sliould  not  forget  that  the  power 
of  the  tem])tation  lay  in  the  subtlety  with 
which  the  world  was  presented  to  Jesus  as 
more  attractive  than  the  life  of  stern  obedi- 
ence to  God,  with  its  probably  fatal  close. 
For  forty  days  the  temptation  lasted,  and 
Jesus  returned  from  it  to  the  Jordan  fully 
dedicated  to  the  lowly,  suffering  lot  which 
he  knew  to  be  God's  will  for  his  Messiah. 
Forthwith   he   began  to  call  disciples.     Yet 


Jesus  Clirist 


369 


Jesus  Christ 


with  no  loud  procl:imation  of  his  advent  did 
ho  inaugurate  his  work.    The  Baptist  pointed 
him   out  to   some   ol'   liis    own    disciples  as 
the   Lamb   of   God    (John    i.  29,   36).     Two, 
John  and  Andrew,  followed  the  new  teacher. 
Simon  was  soon  added  to  the  number  {^3- 
42).      The  next  day   Philip  and  Nathanael 
were  invited  (43-oi).     With  his  little  band 
Jesus  quietly  returned    to   Galilee,  and  at 
Cana  performed  his  first  miracle,  in  which 
the  di.sciples  saw  the  first  signs  of  his  com- 
ing glory  (ii.  1-11).     We  must  be  impressed 
with  the  absence  of  any  attempt  to  make  a 
X)ublic  display.     The  new  movement  began 
with  the  faith  of  a  few  obscure  Galilseans. 
But  St.  John's  account  makes  it  clear  that 
Jesus  was  fully  sensible  of  who  he  was  and 
what  he  had  come  to  do.     He  was  only  wait- 
ing for  the  favorable  moment  to  offer  him- 
self to  Israel  as  her  Messiah.     That  moment 
was  naturally  found  in  the  approaching  pass- 
over  (April,  A.  D.  27).      From   Capernaum, 
whither    he  and  his  family  and    disciples 
had  gone  (12),  he  ascended  to  Jerusalem, 
and  there  proceeded  to  cleanse  the  temple  of 
the  traders  who  profaned  it.     It  was  an  act 
worthy  of  a  prophet  to  reform  the  flagrant 
abuses  of  God"s  service ;  but  Christ's  words, 
"  Make  not  my  Father's  house  a  house  of 
merchandise,"'  indicate   that   he   claimed  to 
be  more   than   a   prophet  (16).     It  was,  in 
fact,  a  public  summons  of  Israel  to  follow 
him  in  the  work  of  religious  reformation, 
for  only  when  the  Jews  had  rejected  him 
would  he  proceed  to  organize  the  new  church 
of  the  future  ;  but  he  himself  did  not  expect 
them  to  follow  him.     This  is  proved  by  his 
veiled  prediction  of  his  death  at  their  hands 
(19),   while  in  the  conversation  with   Nico- 
demus   he   clearly    brought    out    the   neces- 
sity of  a  new  birth  and  of  his  own  suffer- 
ing   (iii.    1-21),    in    order    that    any    might 
enter  the  kingdom  which    God's   love    had 
sent  him  to  establish.     For  our  knowledge 
of  this  early  Judsean  ministry  of  Jesus  we 
are  indebted  to  St.   John   (ii.  13 -iv.  3).     It 
lasted  apparently  about  nine  months.     After 
the  passover  Jesus  retired  from  the  city  to 
the  JudiBan  country,  and  having  found  the 
nation  unwilling  to  follow  him,  he  began  to 
preach,  as  the  Baptist  was  still  doing,  the 
neces.sity  of   repentance.     For   a   while   the 
two  worked  .side  by  side.     Not   till  .Tobn's 
providential  mission  was  plainly  over  would 
Jesus  begin  an  independent  one  of  his  own. 
Both  labored  together  for  the  spiritual  quick- 
ening of  the  nation.     Jesus  began  finally  to 
attract  more  disciples  than  Jolin  did.     This 
led  him  to  terminate  his  Jud<ean  ministry, 
for  neither  would  he  appear  as  a  rival  of  his 
coworker  (John   iv.   1-3).     He  turned    once 
more  to%vard  Galilee.     On  the  way  through 
Samaria  occurred   his  memorable  interview 
with    the    woman    at    Jacob's    well    (4-42). 
But  he   hastened   northward.      Arriving   in 
Galilee,   he    found    that    his  fame    had    pre- 
ceded  him    (4.3-45).     A  nobleman   from  Ca- 
24 


pernaum  sought  him  out,  even  in  Cana, 
where  he  was  stopping,  and  secured  from 
him  the  cure  of  his  son  (46-54).  It  was 
clear  that  Galilee  was  the  place  where 
he  should  labor  and  that  the  fields  were 
white  to  harvest  (35).  Then,  it  would 
seem,  an  event  occurred  which  indicated 
that  the  hour  for  him  to  begin  his  proper 
W'Ork  had  indeed  providentially  arrived. 
The  news  came  that  John  the  Baptist  had 
been  cast  into  prison  by  Herod  Antipas. 
The  work  of  the  herald  was  over.  The  old 
Jewish  church  had  been  sufficiently  called  to 
repentance  and  reformation,  and  slie  had  re- 
fused to  listen.  Jesus  began  forthwith  in 
Galilee  to  preach  the  kingdom  of  God,  to 
announce  the  germinal  princii)les  of  the  new 
dispensation,  and  to  gather  the  nucleus  of 
the  future  church. 

The  great  Galiltean  ministry  of  Jesus  lasted 
about  sixteen  months.  He  took  for  his  center 
the  busy  mart  of  trade,  Capernaum.  In  Gali- 
lee he  was  in  the  midst  of  a  population  prevail- 
ingly Jewish,  yet  in  a  region  removed  from  in- 
terference by  the  religious  authorities  of  the 
nation.  His  evident  purpose  was  to  set  forth 
the  true,  spiritual  kingdom  of  God,  and  by 
mighty  works  to  convince  men  of  his  owa 
authority  and  of  the  character  of  the  king- 
dom. He  asked  for  faith  in  himself.  He 
unveiled  the  real  character  of  God  and  his 
requirements  of  men.  He  did  not  apply  to 
himself  the  name  Messiah,  for  it  would  have 
been  too  easily  misunderstood  by  carnal 
minds.  He  generally  called  himself  the  Son 
of  man.  He  did  not  at  first  speak  of  his 
death.  They  were  not  ready  to  hear  of  that. 
He  taught  the  principles  of  true  religion, 
with  himself  as  its  authoritative  expounder. 
His  mighty  works  roused  the  greatest  enthu- 
siasm. He  was  thus  enabled  to  attract  wide 
attention,  till  the  whole  land  was  eager  to 
see  and  hear  him.  But,  as  he  foresaw,  the 
final  result  was  the  disappointment  of  the 
people  with  his  unworldly  ideas.  Only  a 
little  band  faithfully  clave  to  him.  Yet  by 
his  teaching  he  laid  down  truths  which  that 
band  of  disciples  were  to  carry,  after  his 
death,  throughout  the  world.  For  the  order 
of  events  in  the  lower  or  early  Galilpean 
ministry  we  I'efer  to  the  harmony  in  the 
article  Gospel.  We  can  here  only  note  the 
leading  phases  of  the  history.  The  first 
was  that  of  the  opening  of  the  work.  This 
was  marked  by  startling  miracles,  by  the 
summons  to  believe  the  gospel,  and  by  the 
awakening  of  enthusiastic  interest  in  .lesus 
on  the  part  of  the  Galilfeans.  It  included 
the  events  in  the  harmony,  beginning  with 
the  first  rejection  at  Nazareth  and  ending 
with  Levi's  feast.  The  close  of  this  phase 
of  his  work,  which  lasted  perhaps  four 
months,  found  Jesus  the  center  of  universal 
interest  in  Galilee,  and  gathered  about  him 
a  little  company  of  devoted  followers.  We 
are  not  told  much  about  his  teaching  as 
vet ;  but  from  what  we  are  told  and  from  the 


Jesus  Christ 


370 


Jesus  Christ 


siguificimt  minicli'S  he  performed — such  as 
the  cure  of  the  demoniac  (Mark  i.  23-27), 
the  healing  of  the  leper  (40-45),  the  cure 
of  tlie  i)aralytic  (ii.  1-12),  the  miraculous 
draught  of  lish  (Luke  v.  1-12) — it  is  clear 
that  the  burden  of  his  message  was  sub- 
stantially that  which  he  announced  iu  Naz- 
areth (iv.  18-21),  "The  Spirit  of  the  Lord 
is  upon  me,  because  he  liath  anointed  me 
to  preach  the  gospel  to  the  poor;  he  hath 
sent  me  to  heal  the  brokenhearted,  to  preach 
deliverance  to  the  captives,  and  recover- 
ing of  sight  to  the  blind,  to  set  at  liberty 
them  that  are  bruised,  to  preach  the  accep- 
table year  of  the  Lord."  The  aspect  of 
aU'airs,  however,  soon  began  to  change,  for 
opposition  arose  on  the  part  of  the  Pharisees. 
This  is  the  second  phase  of  the  Galilsean 
ministry.  Jesus  visited  Jerusalem  (John  v.  1) 
and  there  healed  the  impotent  man  on  the 
Sabbath.  At  once  conflict  with  the  rulers 
and  rabbis  broke  out.  Yet  the  conflict  seems 
to  have  been  purposely  provoked  by  Jesus,  in 
order  that  through  it  the  diflerence  between 
the  spirit  of  his  teaching  and  that  of  current 
Judaism  might  appear.  We  see  iu  him  now 
the  spiritual  interpreterof  the  Old  Testament, 
bringing  out  its  real  meaning,  and  doing  so 
(V.)  with  express  appeal  to  his  own  au- 
thority as  the  Son  of  God  and  the  divinely 
appointed  teacher  of  men.  This  phase  in- 
cluded, besides  John  v.,  the  incidents  of 
plucking  the  ears  of  corn  and  the  healing  of 
the  man  with  the  withered  hand ;  see  Gos- 
pel. The  conflict  with  the  Pharisees  and 
the  continued  advance  of  popular  interest 
led  next  to  the  organization  of  his  disciples, 
which  constituted  the  thii'd  phase  of  this 
part  of  his  ministry.  He  now  appointed  his 
twelve  apostles,  and,  on  one  famous  day,  gave 
in  the  sermon  on  the  mount  a  description 
of  the  character  and  life  of  the  true  members 
of  God's  kingdom.  It  is  a  sublime  exhibition 
of  a  genuinely  religious  life,  in  joyful  unison 
with  its  heavenly  Father,  and  consecrated  to 
his  service  in  the  salvation  of  the  world,  the 
real  fulfillment  of  the  old  law,  though  utterly 
opposed  to  the  formality  and  superficiality  of 
Pharisaism,  the  ideal  of  trust  and  communion 
of  man  in  relation  to  God.  The  sermon  on 
the  mount  was  not  meant  by  Jesus  to  teach 
the  way  of  salvation,  nor  did  it  constitute  by 
any  means  his  whole  gospel.  He,  like  the 
apostles,  taught  salvation  through  faith  in 
himself.  But  in  this  sermon,  over  against 
Pharisaism  and  popular  ignorance,  he  set 
forth  tliat  spiritiuvl  life  which  is  the  manifes- 
tation of  the  divine  kingdom  and  to  entrance 
into  which  faith  in  Jesus  leads.  The  outlines 
of  the  new  organization  having  thus  been 
enunciated,  we  read,  as  the  fourth  phase,  of 
a  succession  of  miracles  and  tours  through 
lower  (ialilee — ,Iesns  being  accompanied  by 
his  ajjostles — for  the  jiurpose  of  extending 
his  influence.  This  phase  extends  in  the 
harmony  from  the  close  of  the  sermon  on 
the  mount  to  the  time  when  Herod  inquired 


concerning  the  new  teacher.  During  these 
months  the  popular  interest  in  Jesus  steadily 
increased,  but  the  opposition  of  the  Pharisees 
increased  equally.  The  most  notable  point 
in  the  history  just  here  is  the  great  day  of 
parables.  The  parable  was  a  form  of  in- 
struction in  which  Jesus  was  unrivaled.  It 
was  intended  to  convey  truth  to  receptive 
minds,  and  yet  to  avoid  such  open  expression 
of  it  as  would  give  his  enemies  a  plea  for  in- 
terfering with  him.  The  appearance  of  para- 
bles in  his  teaching  just  at  this  period  shows 
the  increasing  gravity  of  the  situation,  ne- 
cessitating a  certain  reserve  on  Christ's  part. 
We  must,  at  the  same  time,  admire  the  in- 
comparable skill  with  which  he  embodied 
in  these  simple  stories  the  profoundest  truths 
concerning  the  origin  and  progress  and  jicrils 
and  destiny  of  the  spiritual  kingdom  which 
he  was  establishing  in  the  world.  At  length, 
however,  the  work  in  Galilee  came  to  a  crisis. 
Herod  Antipas  began  to  inquire  concerning 
Jesus,  and  the  fact  was  a  warning  that  com- 
plications, such  as  had  already  led  to  John's 
imprisonment,  and  still  more  recently  to  his 
murder,  might  ensue.  A  sufticient  ojipor- 
tunity  had,  moreover,  been  given  to  the 
people  to  test  their  relation  to  the  truth. 
Ju.st  then  an  event  occurred  which  decided 
the  matter.  Jesus  had  sought  temporary  re- 
tirement with  the  twelve  ;  but  the  multitudes 
had  followed  him  to  a  desert  place  on  the 
northeastern  shore  of  the  sea  of  Galilee,  and, 
in  compassion  for  their  needs,  he  had  miracu- 
lously fed  them,  five  thousand  in  number, 
from  five  loaves  and  two  fishes.  The  enthu- 
siastic GaliUeans  wished  to  take  him  by  force 
and  make  him  a  king  (John  vi.  15)  ;  but  that 
very  fact  proved  that  they  had  wholly  mis- 
understood his  mission.  It  was  time  to  bring 
his  work  to  a  close.  From  the  beginning  he 
had  intimated  that  he  had  come  to  die,  and 
that  only  by  dying  could  he  be  their  Sav- 
iour (iii.  14,  15).  It  was  now  time  to  pre- 
pare for  the  sacrifice.  On  the  next  day  after 
the  feeding  of  the  five  thousand  Jesus  deliv- 
ered in  Capernaum  the  discourse,  recorded 
in  vi.  22-71,  upon  himself  as  the  bread 
of  life  and  on  the  necessity  of  eating  his 
flesh  and  drinking  his  blood.  Then,  after 
some  pai'ting  denunciation  of  the  Pharisaic 
misrepresentations  of  religion  (Mark  vii.  1- 
23),  he  brought  his  public  ministry  in  Galilee 
to  a  close  by  retiring  with  his  disciples  from 
the  region  in  which  he  had  hitherto  been 
working. 

The  next  great  period  in  Christ's  life  is 
called  the  later  Galilaean  ministry  ;  see  har- 
monj-,  in  article  Gospel.  It  lasted  about  six 
months.  In  it  Jesus  went,  for  the  only  time 
in  his  life,  into  gentile  territory,  viz.,  the 
regions  of  Tyre  and  Sidon.  Then,  having 
aiiparently  passed  southward  along  tlie  east- 
ern side  of  the  ui)per  Jordan  and  the  sea  of 
Galilee,  we  find  him  in  the  regiim  of  De- 
capolis.  Again  he  went  far  into  the  northern 
part  of  Galilee,  and  finally  returned  again  to 


Jesus  Christ 


371 


Jesus  Christ 


Capernaum.  The  period  was  mainly  devoted 
to  the  jireparation  of  his  discijiles  for  his 
death  and  for  the  extension  of  his  j^ospel  to 
all  peoples.  lie  preached  little,  and  then 
mainly  to  gentiles  or  to  the  half-heathen 
people  on  the  south  and  east  of  the  sea  of 
Galilee.  Finally,  near  Cfesarea  Philippi,  at 
the  hase  of  mount  llermon,  he  elicited  from 
Peter  and  the  rest  the  full  confession  of  his 
Messiahship,  and,  in  connection  therewith, 
he  plainly  told  them  of  his  coming  death 
and  resurrection,  and  of  the  nece.ssity  that 
every  follower  of  his  should  he  willing  also 
to  hear  the  cross.  Shortly  after  occurred  the 
transfiguration,  in  which  three  of  his  apos- 
tles beheld  his  glory,  and  in  which,  it  would 
seem,  he  devoted  himself  finally,  with  sub- 
lime exaltation  of  spirit,  to  the  sacrifice  to 
which  law  and  prophecy,  as  he  was  reminded 
by  Moses  and  Elias,  had  looked  forward. 
Afterwards  he  repeated  the  prediction  of  his 
death,  and,  having  returned  to  Capernaum, 
further  instructed  his  disciples  (Mat.  xviii. ) 
in  that  conception  of  God's  service  as  one  of 
humility,  self-sacrifice,  and  love,  of  which 
his  own  great  act  of  self-devotion  was  to  be 
the  permanent  example. 

It  was  now  probably  the  early  autumn  of 
A.  D.  29,  and  leaving  Capernaum  for  the  last 
time  Jesus  "  steadfastly  set  his  face  to  go  to 
Jerusalem"  (Luke  ix.  .51).  The  next  period 
of  his  ministry  is  called  the  last  journeys  to 
Jerusalem.  It  is  impossible  to  follow  in  exact 
order  our  Lord's  movements,  for  St.  Luke,  on 
whom  we  are  mainly  dependent  for  the  rec- 
ord of  this  period,  does  not  follow  a  precise 
chronological  method  of  narration.  But  the 
main  features  of  the  period  are  clear  enough. 
Jesus  now  sought  to  attract  the  public  atten- 
tion of  the  whole  land,  including  Jud<ea. 
He  sent  out  the  seventy  to  announce  his 
coming.  He  visited  Jerusalem  at  the  feast 
of  tabernacles  (John  vii.),  and  again  at  the 
feast  of  dedication  (x.  2:2).  and  on  both  occa- 
sions offered  himself  repeatedly  to  the  peo- 
ple. He  called  himself  the  light  of  the 
world  and  the  good  shepherd  of  God's  flock, 
and  boldly  contended  with  the  rulers  who 
opposed  his  pretensions.  He  also  moved 
back  and  f(jrth  through  Judsea  and  Persea, 
and  explained  in  popular  discour.se  and  with 
more  beauty  of  illustration  than  ever  before 
the  true  religious  life  and  the  true  idea  of 
God  and  of  his  service.  Here  belong  the 
parables  of  the  good  Samaritan,  the  wedding- 
feast,  the  lost  sheep,  the  lost  coin,  the  prodi- 
gal son,  the  unjust  steward,  the  rich  man  and 
Lazarus,  the  importunate  \^^dow,  the  Phari- 
see and  the  publican.  Thus  the  announce- 
ment of  the  go.spel  became  more  complete, 
while  the  fierceness  of  the  opposition  of  the 
rulers  became  more  intense,  until  an  event 
occurred  which  brought  matters  to  a  climax. 
Word  was  brought  to  Jesus  of  the  sickne,ss  of 
his  friend  Lazarus  in  Bethany.  Going  to 
him,  he  found  him  already  four  days  dead, 
and  forthwith  he  eclipsed  all  his  previous 


miracles  by  raising  the  dead  man  to  life 
(xi.  1-46).  The  miracle  was  so  stupendous 
and  ])erformed  so  near  .leru.salem  that  it  had 
a  profound  ell'ect  on  tlie  people  of  tlu'  capital  ; 
and  the  sanhedrin,  under  the  lead  of 
Caiaphas,  the  high  priest,  decided  that  the 
influence  of  Jesus  could  be  destroyed  only 
by  his  death  (47-53).  Forthwith  Jesus  re- 
tired from  the  vicinity  (.>1),  evidently  de- 
termined that  he  should  not  die  until  the 
passover.  As  that  drew  near  he  began  to 
approach  the  city  through  Penea  (Mat.  xix. ; 
XX.;  Mark  x. ;  Luke  xviii.  1.5-xix.  28), 
teaching  as  he  went,  but  again  ])redicting 
his  death  and  resurrection,  until  he  reached 
Bethany  once  more,  six  days  before  the  feast 
(John  xii.  1).  At  Bethany,  Mary,  the  sister 
of  Lazarus,  anointed  his  head  and  feet  while 
he  was  at  supper,  an  event  in  which  Jesus 
saw  a  silent  prophecy  of  his  coming  burial. 
But  the  next  day  he  made  the  triunii)hal 
entry  on  an  ass's  colt  into  Jerusalem.  By 
that  he  invited  the  anger  of  the  rulers, 
offered  him.self  publicly  as  Messiah,  and 
illustrated  the  peaceful  character  of  the 
kingdom  he  had  come  to  found.  The  next 
day  he  returned  again  to  the  capital,  and,  as 
three  years  before,  cleansed  the  temple  of  the 
traders  who  profaned  its  courts,  thus  once 
more  calling  the  nation  to  follow  him  in  a 
purification  of  Israel.  But  though  the  i)il- 
grims  to  the  festival  crowded  about  him  and 
had  hailed  him  at  the  triumphal  entry  as 
the  Messiah,  the  rulers  maintained  their 
resolute  enmity.  On  the  next  day  (Tuesday) 
he  again  visited  the  city,  on  his  way  cursing 
the  liarren,  though  blooming,  fig  tree,  which 
was  so  apt  an  emblem  of  the  barren,  though 
pretentious,  Jewish  church.  Arrived  at  the 
temple,  he  was  met  by  a  deputation  from  the 
sanhedrin.  which  demanded  his  authority 
for  his  acts.  This  he  -efused  to  give,  know- 
ing that  they  were  already  resolved  to  de- 
stroy him,  while,  by  the  parables  of  the  two 
sons,  the  wicked  husbandmen,  and  the  mar- 
riage of  the  king's  son.  he  described  their 
disobedience  to  God,  the  infidelity  of  Israel 
to  her  high  trust,  and  the  certain  desolation 
of  the  faithless  church  and  city.  Forthwith 
he  was  questioned  by  a  succession  of  partii'S 
who  sought  to  find  accusation  against  liini  or 
to  weaken  his  reputation.  The  Pharisees 
and  Herodians  asked  about  the  lawfulness 
of  giving  tribute  to  Csesar;  the  Sadducees 
about  the  resurrection  :  a  law>'er  about  tlie 
great  commandment ;  and  he.  having  silenced 
each  in  turn,  discomfited  them  by  his  ques- 
tion concerning  David's  address  to  Messiah 
as  Lord,  for  the  psalmist's  language  clearly 
implied  that  his  own  claim  to  be  the  S<m  of 
God  and  equal  with  God  was  not  blasphe- 
mous. It  was  a  day  of  bitter  conflict,  .lesus 
vehemently  denounced  the  unworthy  leaders 
of  the  people  (Mat.  xxiii.  1-38).  When  cer- 
tain Greeks  desired  to  see  him  he  .saw  in 
their  coming  a  presage  of  the  Jews'  rejection 
of  him,  and  that  the  gentiles  were  to  be  his 


Jesus  Christ 


372 


Jesus  Christ 


followers,  and  realized  that  the  end  was  at 
liaud  (John  xii.  20-50).  As  he  left  the  tem- 
ple he  sadly  remarked  to  his  disciples  that 
.soon  the  splendid  huilding  would  be  in  ruins, 
and  later  on  the  same  evening  he  gave  to 
four  of  them  his  prediction  of  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem,  the  .spread  of  the  gospel, 
the  sufferings  of  his  followers,  and  his  own 
second  advent,  a  prediction  which  shows  to 
us  that  amid  the  lowering  storm  of  Jewish 
hostility  the  vision  of  Jesus  was  clear,  and 
that  he  moved  on  to  his  fate  knowing  it  to 
be  the  appointed  path  to  ultimate  success.  It 
is  probable  that  on  that  very  night  the  plot 
was  formed  to  destroy  him.  Judas,  one  of 
the  twelve,  had,  we  may  believe,  long  been 
alienated  from  the  spiritual  ideas  of  the 
Master.  He  wasgrieved  also  at  Christ's  re- 
fusal to  seek  a  worldly  kingdom  ;  for  Judas 
was,  John  tells  us,  an  avaricious  man.  At 
the  supper  at  Bethany  he  had  become  finally 
and  fully  conscious  of  his  entire  want  of 
sympathy  with  Jesus,  and  as  the  disappoint- 
ment which  he  felt  over  the  failure  of  his 
hopes  grew  keener  he  resolved  to  wreak  his 
anger  on  the  Lord  by  betraying  him  to  the 
rulers.  His  offer  changed  their  plans.  They 
had  purposed  to  wait  until  the  festival  was 
over  and  the  crowds  had  departed.  But  in 
the  absence  of  any  real  charge  against  Jesus 
they  were  only  too  glad  to  avail  themselves 
of  the  traitor's  proposal.  The  next  day 
(Wednesday)  seems  to  have  been  spent  by 
Jesus  in  retirement.  He  probably  remained 
in  Bethany.  On  Thursday  afternoon  the 
paschal  lambs  were  to  be  .slain,  and  after  sun- 
set the  paschal  supper,  with  which  the  seven- 
day  feast  of  unleavened  bread  began,  was  to 
be  eaten  by  all  pious  Israelites.  On  that 
day  Jesus  sent  Peter  and  John  into  the  city 
to  prepare  the  passover  for  him  and  the 
twelve.  He  .sent  them,  no  doubt,  to  the 
house  of  a  disciple  or  friend  (Mat.  xxvi.  18)  ; 
but  by  the  device  of  telling  them  to  follow 
when  they  entered  the  city  a  man  whom  they 
would  meet  bearing  a  pitcher  of  water,  he 
kept  the  place  of  assembly  secret  from  the 
rest  of  the  di.sciples,  for  the  purjiose  no  doubt 
of  preventing  Judas  from  betraying  it  to  the 
rulers,  and  thu.s  possibly  interfering  with 
the  last  precious  interview  with  the  apostles. 
When  evening  came  he  observed  with  them 
the  i)assover  supper.  For  the  order  of  events 
during  the  evening,  .see  again  the  harmony. 
The  view  of  some  that  according  to  John's 
Go.spel  (xiii.  1,  29;  xviii.  28;  xix.  31)  Jesus 
was  crucified  on  Nisan  14th,  the  day  on  which 
the  paschal  lamb  was  slain,  and  therefore 
that  he  did  not  eat  the  ]>assover  supper  at  the 
regular  time,  but  anticipated  it  by  a  day, 
appears  to  be  quite  inconsistent  with  the 
language  reported  by  Matthew  (xxvi.  17-19), 
Mark  (xiv.  ]2-l(i),  and  Luke  (xxii.  7-13,  15), 
and  the  expressions  appealed  to  in  John  may 
be  explained  on  the  hy])othesis  which  we  are 
following. ■■■  It  should  be  noted  that  in  all 
*  John  xiii.  1  does  not  mean  that  all  that  is 


])robability  Judas  withdrew  before  the  estab- 
lishment  of  the  eucharist,  and  that  Jesus 
twice  predicted  the  fall  of  Peter,  once  in 
the  upper  room  and  again  while  on  the 
way  to  Gethsemane.  John's  Gospel  does 
not  relate  the  e.stablishment  of  the  eucha- 
rist, but  it  gives  the  Lord's  last  discourses 
with  the  apostles,  in  which  he  comforted 
them  in  view  of  his  departure  from  them  by 
revealing  the  unchangeable  spiritual  union 
between  himself  and  them,  and  the  mis- 
sion of  the  Spirit  which  would  bring  to  frui- 
tion their  relation  to  him.  It  records  also 
his  sublime  high-priestly  prayer  (xvii.).  On 
the  way  to  Gethsemane  Jesus  further  warned 
the  disciples  that  they  would  soon  be  scat- 
tered, and  appointed  a  meeting  with  him, 
after  his  resurrection,  in  Galilee.  The  agony 
in  the  garden  was  his  final  and  complete  sur- 
render of  himself  to  the  last  great  act  of  sac- 
rifice. It  was  interrupted  by  the  coming  of 
Judas  with  a  company  of  soldiers,  obtained 
doubtless  from  the  garrison  near  the  temple 
on  the  ground  that  a  .seditious  person  was  to 
be  arrested  (John  xviii.  3,  12),  together  with 
some  of  the  Levitical  guard  and  servants  of 
the  chief  priests.  Judas  knew  that  Jesus 
was  wont  to  resort  to  Gethsemane.  Some 
suppose,  however,  that  he  had  first  gone 
to  the  upper  room  and,  finding  that  Jesus 
had  departed,  followed  to  Olivet,  at  the  base 
of  which  the  garden  lay.  Jesus,  after  a  brief 
expostulation,  submitted  to  arrest ;  where- 
upon his  disciples  lied.  The  captors  took 
him  first  to  Annas  (13),  the  father-in-law 
of  Caiaphas,  where  he  had  a  ])reliminary 
examination  Avhile  the  sanhedrin  was  being 
convened  (13,  14,  19-24).  It  is  not  improb- 
able that  Annas  and  Caiaphas  lived  in  the 
same  palace,  for  Peter's  denials  are  said  to 
have  occurred  in  the  court  of  the  palace, 
both  while  this  examination  before  Annas 
and  the  later  one  before  the  sanhedrin 
were  taking  place.  At  the  first  examination 
Jesus  refused  to  answer  the  inquiries,  and  de- 
manded that  evidence  against  him  be  pro- 
duced. He  was  sent  bound,  however,  to  the 
apartments  of  Caiaphas,  where  the.  sanhedrin 
had  hastily  assembled.  No  harmonious  evi- 
dence of  blasphemj",  which  was  the  crime 
they  sought  to  prove  against  him,  could  be 
found ;  so  that  the  high  priest  was  forced  to 
solemnly  adj  ure  him  to  say  if  he  were  Me-ssiah . 
Thereupon  Jesus  made  the  claim  in  the  most 
exjjlicit  manner,  and  the  angry  court  con- 
demned him  as  worthy  of  death  for  bias- 
recorded  in  ch.  xiii.  was  "  before  the  feast  of  the 
passover,"  bul  is  an  introductory  remark  de- 
seribins  tlu'  loving  spirit  in  which  the  fatal  pass- 
over  wiis  entered  upon  by  Jesus;  xiii.  29,  "buy 
tliose  thintrs  that  we  have  need  of  asaiust  the 
feast,"  may  refer  to  tilings  necessary  for  t}ie  next 
dav,  on  which  the  freewill  ofteriiisrs  of  the  people 
were  presented;  xviii.  28,  "that  they  niifiht  eaf 
the  passover,"  may  mean  simply  "  keep  the  pas- 
chal festival;"  xix.  SI,  "the  preparation,"  was 
not  tlie  i)reparation  for  the  passover,  but  for  the 
Sabbath. 


Jesus  Christ 


373 


Jesus  Christ 


phemy.  The  unjust  spirit  of  his  judges  ap- 
peared iu  the  ribald  mockery  to  which  he 
was  subjected.  It  was,  however,  the  hvw 
that  the  decisions  of  tlie  saiihedriii  must  be 
made  in  the  daytime.  Hence  very  early  in 
the  morning  the  court  convened  again  and 
the  same  formalities  were  gone  through 
(Luke  xsii.  66-71),  and  then,  since  per- 
mission of  the  governor  was  required  for  the 
execution  of  a  criminal,  they  hastened  with 
Jesus  to  Pilate.  The  indecent  haste  of  the 
whole  proceeding  shows  their  fear  that  the 
people  might  prevent  his  destruction.  Pilate 
probably  resided  in  Herod's  palace  on  the 
hill  of  Zion.  But  the  distance  from  the  high 
priest's  house  was  not  great,  and  it  was  still 
very  early  when  the  governor  was  summoned 
forth  to  hear  their  request.  They  wished 
him  at  first  to  grant  permission  for  the  execu- 
tion without  inquiring  into  the  charges,  but 
this  he  refused  to  do  (John  xviii.  29-32). 
Then  they  accused  Jesus  of  "perverting  the 
nation,  and  foi'bidding  to  give  tribute  to 
Caesar,  saying  that  he  himself  is  Christ  a 
king"  (Luke  xxiii.  2).  After  Jesus  had 
ackiiowledged  to  the  governor  tliat  he  was  a 
king  (3),  Pilate  examined  him  privately 
(John  xviii.  33-38),  and  discovered  the 
wholly  non-political  and  harmless  charac- 
ter of  his  claims.  He  forthwith  declared 
that  he  found  no  fault  in  him  and  that  he 
would  let  him  go.  But  the  governor  was  in 
reality  afraid  to  thwart  the  will  of  his  dan- 
gerous subjects,  and  when  they  fiercely  de- 
manded the  crucifixion  of  Jesus  he  fell  back 
on  various  weak  expedients  to  shift  the  re- 
sponsibility. Having  learned  that  Jesus  was 
from  Galilee.  Pilate  sent  him  to  Herod  Anti- 
pas  (Luke  xxiii.  7-11),  who  also  was  then  in 
Jerusalem ;  but  Herod  refused  to  exercise 
jurisdiction.  Meanwhile  the  crowd  had  in- 
creased, and  the  governor  appealed  to  them 
to  say  what  prisoner  he  should  release,  as  his 
custom  was,  at  the  passover.  He  evidently 
hoped  that  the  popularity  of  Jesus  would 
rescue  him  from  the  chief  priests.  But  the 
latter  persuaded  the  rabble  to  ask  for  Barab- 
bas.  The  message  of  his  wife  further  in- 
creased Pilate's  anxiety  to  release  Jesus ;  but 
though  he  several  times  appealed  to  the  mul- 
titude in  his  behalf,  they  were  implacable 
and  bloodthirsty.  The  governor  was  afraid 
to  act  on  his. own  convictions  and  weakly 
gave  permission  for  the  execution.  Yet 
while  the  scourging  which  always  preceded 
crucifixion  was  in  progress  in  the  hall  of  his 
palace  he  could  not  rest.  Again  he  sought 
to  satisfy  the  Jews  by  the  spectacle  of  Jesus 
bleeding  and  thorn-crowned,  but  they,  made 
bold  with  success,  cried  out  that  he  ought  to 
die  because  he  made  himself  the  Son  of  God 
(John  xix.  1-7).  This,  however,  increased  Pi- 
late's superstitions,  so  that  again  he  examined 
Jesus  privately  and  again  sought  to  release 
him  (8-12)  ;  but  the  Jews  finally  appealed  to 
his  political  ambition  and  practically  accused 
him  of  disloyalty  to  Caesar  in  abetting  a  rival 


king.  This  decided  the  matter.  Pilate  had 
the  grim  satisfaction  of  hearing  the  Jews 
proclaim  their  supreme  allegiance  to  the 
emperor  (13-15),  and  therewith  he  handed 
Jesus  over  for  execution.  Jesus  thus  died 
for  no  crime  and  without  any  real  legal  jiruc- 
ess.  His  death  was  literally  a  judicial  mur- 
der. The  execution  was  carried  out  by  four 
soldiers  (John  xix.  23)  under  charge  of  a  cen- 
turion. With  him  also  two  common  robbers 
were  led  to  death.  The  victims  usually  car- 
ried their  crosses,  either  the  whole  of  them 
or  the  transverse  portion.  Jesus  seems  to 
have  carried  the  whole,  .since  he  fainted  un- 
der it.  The  place  of  crucifixion  was  a  short 
distance  outside  the  city  ;  see  Golgotha.  The 
victim  was  usually  nailed  to  the  cross  on  the 
ground  and  then  the  cross  was  placed  up- 
right in  the  hole  prepared  for  it.  The  crime 
of  the  offender  was  written  on  a  tablet  and 
placed  over  his  head.  In  Jesus'  case  the 
accusation  was  written  iu  Hebrew,  Greek, 
and  Latin.  Its  longest  form  is  given  by  John 
(xix.  19),  "  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  the  king  of  the 
Jews."  Mark  tells  us  that  it  was  "  about  the 
third  hour  "  (/.  e.  9  a.  m.)  when  the  crucifixion 
was  completed.  If  we  remember  that  the  pro- 
ceedings began  "as soon asit  was  day  "  (Luke 
xxii.  66),  their  completion  about  nine  o'clock 
will  not  seem  incredible.  It  is  moreover  iu 
accord  with  the  haste  which  had  characterized 
the  action  of  the  Jews  from  the  beginning. 

Into  the  incidents  which  the  gospels  have 
preserved  as  occurring  during  the  crucifixion 
we  cannot  go  here.  Such  sufferers  often  re- 
mained alive  for  several  days;  but  the  al- 
ready exhausted  frame  of  Jesus  did  not  en- 
dure the  agony  so  long.  At  the  ninth  hour 
he  expired  with  a  great  cry.  The  words 
spoken  from  the  cross,  however,  indicate  that 
he  retained  his  consciousness  to  the  end,  and 
that  he  fully  realized  the  significance  of  all 
that  happened.  When  he  died  there  seem  to 
have  been  but  few  present.  The  crowd  which 
followed  him  at  first  had  returned  to  the  city. 
The  mocking  priests  also  had  left  him.  A 
few  di.sciples  and  the  soldiers  are  all  that  we 
know  to  have  been  present  at  the  end.  The 
rulei's  were,  therefore,  not  aware  that  he  had 
died.  L^uwilling  to  have  the  bodies  hanging 
on  the  cross  over  the  Sabbath,  they  went  to 
Pilate  and  asked  that  their  legs  might  be 
broken  ;  but,  when  the  soldiers  came  to  Jesus 
for  this  purpose,  they  found  him  already  dead. 
One,  however,  pierced  his  side  to  make  sure, 
and  John,  who  was  near,  saw  blood  and 
water  issue  from  the  wound  (xix.  34).  .Tesus 
seems  to  have  died  literally  of  a  broken 
heart.  Meanwhile  Joseph  of  Arimatha'a,  a 
secret  disciple  of  Jesus,  though  a  rich  man 
and  a  member  of  the  sanhedrin — who,  how- 
ever, had  not  consented  to  his  blaster's  con- 
demnation (Luke  xxiii.  51) — knowing  that 
death  had  come,  had  begged  for  the  body  of 
Jesus.  By  him  and  a  few  others  it  was  laid 
in  a  garden  of  Jo.seph's,  in  a  new  tomb  hewu 
out  of  a  rock. 


Jesus  Christ 


374 


Jesus  Christ 


Now  it  is  clear  that  the  disciples  were 
wholly  disconcerted  aud  overwhelmed  by  the 
sudden  arrest  and  death  of  their  Lord. 
Though  he  had  on  three  recorded  occasions 
forewarned  them  of  his  death  and  of  his 
resurrection  on  the  third  day,  they  were  too 
distressed  to  have  any  hojie.  Though  he 
had  told  them  to  go  to  Galilee  to  meet  him, 
tlicy  lingered  in  Jerusalem.  Their  conduct 
will  not  seem  incredible  nor  the  narrative 
doubtful  to  those  who  know  the  prostration 
which  often  accompanies  bitter  disappoint- 
ment and  sorrow.  Hence  Jesus  api>eared  to 
them  in  Jerusalem  and  its  vicinitj'.  The 
resurrection  narratives  in  the  gospels  are  not 
intended,  however,  to  be  complete  accounts 
of  the  events.  They  do  not  pretend  to  mar- 
shal the  evidence  for  the  reality  of  the  res- 
urrection. That  consisted  in  the  testimony 
of  apostles  to  whom  he  repeatedly  appeared 
(1  Cor.  XV.  3-8).  In  the  gospels  we  have  a 
number  of  incidents  preserved  either  because 
of  their  intrinsic  interest  or  for  the  sake  of 
the  spiritual  instruction  which  they  provided 
to  believers.  The  order  of  events  seems  to 
have  been  nearly  the  following :  Early  in 
the  morning  of  the  first  day  of  the  week  two 
companies  of  pions  Galilsean  women  pro- 
ceeded to  the  sepulcher  to  anoint  the  body 
of  Jesus  for  permanent  burial.  The  one 
company  consisted  of  Mary  Magdalene,  Mary 
the  mother  of  James,  and  Salome  (Mark  xvi. 
1).  Joanna  and  other  nnnamed  women  were 
probably  in  the  second  party  (Luke  xxiv.  10, 
■which  is  a  general  statement,  including  the 
report  of  all  the  women).  The  first  party 
saw  the  stone  rolled  away  from  the  tomb, 
and  Mary  Magdalene,  supposing  that  the 
body  had  been  stolen,  returned  to  Peter  and 
John  with  the  news  (John  xx.  1,  2).  Her 
companions  went  on,  and  entering  the  tomb 
heard  from  the  angel  the  news  of  the  resur- 
rection and  the  message  to  the  disciples  (Mat. 
xxviii.  1-7 ;  Mark  xvi.  1-7).  As  they  has- 
tened away,  we  may  suppose  that  they  met 
the  other  cortpany  of  women,  and  that  all 
returned  again  to  the  tomb,  but  only  to  re- 
ceive from  two  angels  a  more  emphatic  assur- 
ance and  direction  (Luke  xxiv.  1-8).  The 
women  then  hastened  toward  the  city  with 
the  news  and  on  the  way  Jesus  met  them 
(Mat.  xxviii.  9,  10).  Meanwhile  Mary  Mag- 
dalene had  reported  to  Peter  and  John  that 
the  tomb  was  empty,  and  they  had  run 
thither  and  found  it  even  so  (John  xx.  3-10). 
She  had  followed  them  and,  when  they  de- 
parted from  the  garden,  she  remained,  and 
to  her  also  did  Jesus  appear  (11-18).  All 
the  women  finally  returned  to  the  disci- 
])les  and  reported  the  wonderful  news.  It 
was  not,  however,  on  the  testimony  of  these 
women  that  faith  in  the  resurrection  of  Jesus 
was  to  rest.  During  the  day  he  appeared 
to  Peter  (Luke  xxiv.  34;  1  Cor.  xv.  5),  later 
to  two  discii)les  journeying  to  Emmaus 
(Luke  xxiv.  13-35),  and  in  the  evening  to 
all  the  eleven  except  Thomas  (3()-43 ;  John 


XX.  19-23).  At  that  time  be  ate  before 
them,  proving  the  reality  of  his  physical 
resurrection.  Since,  however,  Thomas  even 
yet  would  not  believe,  the  discii)les  still  lin- 
gered in  Jerusalem,  and  on  the  following 
Sunday  Jesus  again  appeared  to  them,  and 
proved  to  the  doubting  apostle  that  he  had 
indeed  risen  (John  xx.  24-29).  Then,  it 
would  api)ear,  the  apostles  returned  to  Gali- 
lee. We  next  read  of  seven  of  them  fishing 
in  the  sea  of  Galilee  and  of  the  Lord's  ap- 
pearance to  them  (John  xxi.).  By  appoint- 
ment also  he  met  them  on  a  mountain  of 
Galilee  and  gave  to  them  "  the  great  commis- 
sion," with  the  assurance  of  his  power  aud 
presence  (Mat.  xxviii.  16-20).  This  may  very 
probably  have  been  the  occasion  when  five 
hundred  disciples  were  present  (1  Cor.  xv.  (i). 
Soon  after  he  appeared  also  to  James  (7), 
but  where  we  know  not.  Unally  he  brought 
the  apostles  again  to  Jerusalem,  aud  lead- 
ing them  out  to  the  motmt  of  Olives  to  a 
place  where  Bethany  was  in  sight  (Luke 
xxiv.  50,  51)  he  was  taken  up  into  heaven 
and  a  cloud  received  him  out  of  their  sight 
(Acts  i.  9-12).  We  have  thus  ten  appear- 
ances of  the  risen  Saviour  recorded  in  the 
New  Testament,  while  Paul  ]jroperly  adds 
the  appearance  to  him  on  the  way  to  Dama.s- 
cus  (1  Cor.  xv.  8).  There  were  doubtless, 
however,  other  ai)pearances  not  recorded. 
Luke  says  (Acts  i.  3)  that  "  he  showed  him- 
self alive  after  his  passion  by  many  proofs, 
appearing  unto  them  by  the  space  of  forty 
days"  (R.  V.).  Yet  he  did  not  continue 
with  them  in  constant  intercourse  as  he  had 
done  before.  He  rather  manifested  himself 
to  them  (John  xxi.  1,  E.  V.).  The  forty  days 
between  his  resurrection  and  ascension 
formed  evidently  a  transitional  period,  in- 
teuded  to  train  the  disciples  for  their  future 
work.  It  was  necessary  to  give  ample,  re- 
jieated,  and  varied  proof  of  the  resurrection, 
and  this  wasdone  as  we  have  seen.  It  was  nec- 
essary to  give  them  instruction  concerningthe 
necessity  of  hisdeath  and  thecharacterof  the 
kingdom  which  through  their  labors  he  was 
to  establish.  It  was  requisite  to  i)oint  out  to 
them  the  fulfillment  of  Scrij)ture  by  his  death 
and  resurrection,  for  thus  alone  would  they 
see  the  continuity  of  the  new  dispeus;itiou 
with  the  old.  For  this  instruction  they  had 
not  been  ready  before  his  death,  but  it  is  re- 
peatedly referred  to  as  having  been  given 
during  these  fortv  days  (Luke  xxiv.  44-48; 
John  XX.  21-23;  "xxi!  15-22;  Acts  i.  3-8). 
And  finally  the  experiences  of  the  forty  days 
trained  the  disciples  to  think  of  their  Master 
as  absent  and  yet  living ;  as  invisible  and 
yet  near  them  ;  as  risen  to  a  new  life  and 
yet  retaining  the  old  nnture  and  even  the  old, 
though  now  glorified,  body,  which  they  had 
loved  ;  as  exalted  but  still  the  .same,  so  that 
they  were  prepared  to  go  forth  and  proclaim 
him  as  the  glorified  Son  of  txod  and  crowned 
king  of  Israel,  yet  also  the  Man  of  Nazareth 
aud  the  Lamb  of  God  who  takes  away  the 


Jesus  Christ 


375 


Jeuel 


sin  of  the  world.  Meanwhile  the  Jews 
affirmed  that  his  disciples  had  stolen  his 
body.  Fearing  this,  they  had  on  the  day  of 
his  death  requested  from  Pilate  a  military 
watch  to  guard  the  tomb.  When  the  resur- 
rection occurred,  accompanied,  as  we  are 
told,  by  the  descent  of  an  angel  who  rolled 
the  stone  from  the  tomb,  the  soldiers  were 
overcome  with  fright  and  afterwards  fled. 
Superstitious  pagans  as  they  were,  they 
doubtless  were  little  more  affected  by  what 
they  had  seen  than  ignorant  men  usually 
are  by  what  they  consider  ghostly  aj^pear- 
auces.  But  the  rulers,  who  may  possibly 
have  accounted  for  the  soldiers'  rejwrt  by 
supposing  a  trick  on  the  part  of  the  disciples, 
gave  the  men  money  to  keep  the  matter 
quiet,  and  thus  the  report  was  given  out 
that  the  body  had  been  stolen  while  the  sol- 
diers slept  (Mat.  xxviii.  11-15 1.  ^^^leu,  how- 
ever, the  apostles  began,  on  the  day  of  Pen- 
tecost, to  give  their  testimony  to  the  resur- 
rection, and  the  number  of  believers  in  it 
grew  rapidly  (Acts  ii.,  etc.).  it  was  by  at- 
tempts at  force,  not  by  proofs,  that  the  chief 
priests  tried  to  silence  their  witness  and  sub- 
due the  growing  sect  (Acts  iv.). 

We  have  not  sought  in  this  article  to  ex- 
hibit the  teaching  of  Jesus,  but  the  outward 
framework  and  historic  movement  of  his  life. 
In  the  latter  there  appears,  as  we  gather  it 
from  the  gospels,  a  gradual,  progressive 
revelation  of  himself  and  of  his  message, 
which  constitutes  one  of  the  stronge.st  evi- 
dences of  the  truthfulness  of  the  accounts 
on  which  our  knowledge  is  based.  The  real- 
ity of  the  humanity  of  Christ  made  it  possi- 
ble for  him  thus  to  appear  as  a  real  charac- 
ter of  human  history,  related  to  a  particular 
environment,  and  to  present  in  his  life  a 
career  which  moved  naturally,  yet  steadily, 
forward  to  a  definite  goal.  His  was  a  gen- 
uinely human  life  and,  therefore,  capable  of 
historical  treatment.  At  the  same  time  Jesus 
knew  and  declared  himself  to  be  more  than 
man  le.  g.  Mat.  xi.  27 :  John  v.  17-3S  :  x.  30: 
xvii.  .5,  etc.).  As  his  self-revelation  advanced 
his  disciples  realized  his  divine  dignity  (Mat. 
xvi.  16:  John  xx.  2S).  Then  later  reflection 
and  experience,  under  the  illumination  of 
the  Spirit,  made  his  divinity  still  more 
evident  to  them,  until  the  last  surviving 
apostle  was  led  to  become  the  fourth  evan- 
gelist and  to  present  in  his  Lord's  earthly 
career  the  incarnation  of  the  personal  divine 
Word.  Yet  St.  John  never  forgot  nor  obscured 
the  real  humanity  of  Jesus.  He  gives  us  the 
full  truth  concerning  the  person  of  the  great 
Master.  ""  In  the  beginning  was  the  Word, 
and  the  Word  was  with  God.  and  the  Word 
was  God"  (John  i.  1).  and  "the  Word  was 
made  flesh,  and  dwelt  among  u.s,  (and  we 
beheld  his  glory,  the  glory  as  of  the  only 
begotten  of  the  Father.)  full  of  grace  and 
truth  ■■  (14 1.  "These  [things]  are  written," 
he  concludes,  '"that  ye  might  believe  that 
Jesus  is  the  Christ,  the  Son  of  God :  and  that 


believing  ye  might    have   life  through   his 
name"'  (xx.  31).  g.  t.  p. 

Je'ther  [abundance,  eminence,  excellence], 

1.  A  descendant  of  Judah  through  Jerah- 
meel.  He  died  childless  (1  Chrou.  ii.  32  ;  cp. 
26,  28). 

2.  A  man  registered  among  the  descendants 
of  Judah,  but  the  lineage  is  not  traced  be- 
yond his  father,  Ezra  (1  Chron.  iv.  17). 

3.  An  Asherite,  apparently  the  same  as 
Ithran,  son  of  Zophah  (1  Chron.  vii.  37  with 
38). 

4.  A  form  of  Jethro.  Moses'  father-in-law 
(Ex.  iv.  18,  R.  V.  margin). 

5.  The  firstborn  son  of  Gideon.  His  father 
bade  him  fall  upon  the  captives.  Zebah  and 
Zalmunna,  and  slay  them :  but  the  youth 
shrank  from  the  deed,  and  they  escaped  the 
disgrace  of  dving  at  the  hands  of  a  bov 
(Judg.  viii.  20'  21). 

6.  The  father  of  Amasa.  Absalom's  com- 
mander-in-chief (1  Kin.  ii.  5).     See  Ithba. 

Je'theth. 

A  chieftain  of  Edom  (Gen.  xxxvi.  40 ;  1 
Chron.  i.  51). 

Jeth'lah.    See  Ithlah. 

Je'thro  [his  preeminence,  his  excellence]. 

A  priest  of  Midian  and  Moses'  fiither-in- 
law  (Ex.  iii.  1).  He  is  called  Eeuel  (ii.  18  ; 
Antiq.  ii.  12,  1).  Eeuel,  which  means  friend 
of  God.  seems  to  have  been  his  personal 
name,  and  Jethro,  his  excellence,  to  have 
been  his  honorary  title.  His  seven  daugh- 
ters tended  his  flocks  :  and  Moses,  who  had 
fled  from  Egypt,  rendered  them  a  service 
which  led  to  his  introduction  to  Jethro's 
family  and  marriage  with  Zipporah.  one  of 
the  daughters.  Moses  kept  his  father-in- 
law's  flocks  for  about  forty  years  (Ex.  iii.  1. 
2;  Acts  vii.  30).  When  called  by  God  to  re- 
turn to  Egypt  and  achieve  the  emancipation 
of  the  Hebrews.  Moses  obtained  .Tethro's  per- 
mission to  depart,  and  took  with  him  his 
wife  Zipporah  and  his  two  sons  (Ex.  iv.  18- 
20)  :  but  he  afterwards  sent  her  and  her 
two  sons  temporarily  back  to  her  father's  house 
(24-26  ;  xviii.  2) :  see  Zipporah.  After  the 
passage  of  the  Eed  Sea.  whidi  conducted  the 
Israelites  into  the  vicinity  of  Jethro's  coun- 
try, the  Midianite  priest  brought  his  daugh- 
ter and  her  two  sons  back  to  Moses  (xviii. 
1-7).  He  rejoiced  over  the  deliverance  of  the 
emancipated  people,  and  suggested  the  ap- 
pointment of  judges  when  he  saw  that  the 
Hebrew  leader  was  wearing  himself  out  by 
deciding  even  the  most  trivial  cases  per- 
sonally  (8-27).     See  Hobab. 

Je'tur  [possibly,  nomad  or  nomadic  camp]. 

A  people  descended  from    Ishmael  (Gen. 

XXV.  15  :  1  Chron.  i.  31 ;  v.  19).    See  Ituk^a. 

Je'u-el  [perhaps,  treasure  of  God]. 

1.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Zerah.  At 
one  period  he,  with  690  of  his  clan,  lived  at 
Jerusalem  (1  Chron.  ix.  6). 

2.  A  Levite,  a  descendant  of  Elizaphan. 


Jeusli 


376 


Jezreel 


He  took  part  in  the  reformation  under  Heze- 
kiah  [2  C'bron.  xxix.  13,  in  A.  V.  Jeiel). 

3.  A  contemporary  of  Ezra  who  with  mem- 
bers of  his  family  returned  from  Babylonia 
with  the  scribe  (Ezra  viii.  13,  in  A.  V.  Jeiel). 

Je'ush,  in  A.  V.  once  Jehush  (1  Chron. 
viii.  39)  [perhaps,  hastening]. 

1.  A  son  of  Esau  by  his  wife  Oholibamah 
(Gen.  xxxvi.  5).  He  became  a  chieftain  in 
Edom  (la). 

2.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Bilhau  (1  Chron. 
vii.  10). 

3.  A  Levite,  family  of  Gershou  and  a  son 
of  Shimei  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  10,  11). 

4.  A  descendant  of  Jonathan  (1  Chron. 
viii.  39). 

5.  A  son  of  Kehoboam  (2  Chron.  xi.  19). 

Je'uz  [counseling]. 

A  Benjamite,  son  of  Shaharaim  by  his  wife 
Hodesh  (1  Chron.  viii.  10). 

Jew  [from  Latin  ludseus,  Greek  loudaios, 
Hebrew  Y'hudi'\. 

One  belonging  to  the  tribe  or  to  the  king- 
dom of  Judah  (2  Kin.  xvi.  6  ;  xxv.  25).  Then 
the  meaning  was  extended,  and  the  word  was 
applied  to  any  one  of  the  Hebrew  race  who 
returned  from  the  captivity  ;  and  finally  it 
comprehended  any  one  of  that  race  through- 
out the  world  (Esther  ii.  5  ;  Mat.  ii.  2). 
For  their  history  while  they  were  in  Pales- 
tine, see  History.  Their  present  state  is  a 
fulfillment  of  prophecv  (Lev.  xxvi.  33,  39; 
Dent.  iv.  27;  xxviii.  25,  36,  37,  64-68) ;  they 
are  scattered  over  all  gentile  lands,  but  no- 
where in  the  world,  not  even  in  Palestine,  have 
they  a  land  where  they  can  live  under  a  gov- 
ernment of  their  own.  The  Jews'  language 
(2  Kin.  xviii.  26 ;  Neh.  xiii.  24)  was  Hebrew. 

Jew'ess. 

A  woman  belonging  to  the  Hebrew  race 
(Acts  xvi.  1 ;  xxiv.  24). 

Jew'ry.     See  Jud.ea. 

Jez-a-ni'ah ;  in  full  Jaazaniah  (2  Kin. 
xxv.  23)  [Jehovah  doth  hearken]. 

A  captain  of  the  forces,  son  of  Hoshaiah,  a 
Maacathite  (2  Kin.  xxv.  23;  Jer.  xl.  7,  8  ; 
xlii.  1).  He  came  with  his  men  to  pay  his 
respects  to  Gedaliah,  whom  Nebuchadnezzar 
had  appointed  governor  of  Judah  after  the 
capture  of  Jerusalem.  Jezaniah  had  no  com- 
plicity in  the  subsequent  murder  of  Gedaliah, 
and  seems  to  have  taken  a  prominent  part  in 
attempting  to  bring  the  perpetrators  to  justice. 
He  joined  in  appealing  to  Jeremiah,  the 
prophet,  to  ask  advice  of  (iod  concerning  the 
purpose  of  the  remnant  of  the  Israelites  to 
migrate  to  Egypt  (xlii.).  He  was  a  brother 
of  Azariah,  or  more  probably  Azariah  is  a 
corruption  of  Jezaniah  (xliii.  2). 

Jez'e-bel  [unmarried,  chaste]. 

1.  Daughter  of  Ethbaal,  king  of  the  Zi- 
donians  and  former  priest  of  Astarte  (1  Kin. 
xvi.  31  ;  con.  Apion.  i.  18).  She  became  the  wife 
of  Ahab,  king  of  Israel.  Being  of  more  mascu- 
line temperament  than  her  somewhat  efiemi- 


nate  husband,  she  ruled  over  him,  gave 
him  evil  counsel,  and  at  last  caused  his 
ruin.  She  was  a  devoted  worshiper  of  Baal, 
and  intolerant  of  all  other  faiths.  To  please 
her,  Ahab  reared  a  temple  and  an  altar  to 
Baal  in  Samaria,  and  set  up  an  Asherah  (1 
Kin.  xvi.  32,  33).  Though  legally  only  the 
king's  consort,  and  not  the  ruler  of  the  coun- 
try, yetsheslew  all  the  prophetsof  Jehovah  on 
whom  she  could  lay  hands,  and  did  this  ap- 
parently on  her  own  responsibility  (xviii.  4- 
13).  When  she  planned  the  death  of  Elijah 
(xix.  1,  2).  and  afterwards  efifected  the  judicial 
murder  of  Naboth,  she  similarly  ignored  the 
king's  authority,  though  he  condoned  the  deed 
(xxi.  16-22).  On  account  of  these  murders 
and  other  violations  of  the  moral  law,  the 
divine  sentence  was  pronounced  against  her 
that  the  dogs  should  eat  Jezebel  by  the  wall 
of  Jezreel  (23).  The  prophecy  was  fulfilled. 
When,  eleven  years  after  Ahab's  death,  Jehu 
executed  pitiless  vengeance  on  the  royal 
household,  Jezebel  painted  her  face,  tired 
her  head,  and,  looking  out  at  a  window, 
called  to  him  as  he  approached :  "Had  Zimri 
peace,  who  slew  his  master?"  Jehu  looked 
up  at  the  window  and  said  :  "  Who  is  on  my 
side  ?  who  ?  "  Two  or  three  eunuchs  looked 
out.  "  Throw  her  down,"  he  cried,  and  they 
unhesitatingly  obeyed.  She  fell  in  front  of 
his  chariot,  which  he  intentionally  drove 
over  her,  and  her  blood  bespattered  the 
horses  and  the  wall.  About  an  hour  later, 
recalling  that  the  dead  woman  was  a  king's 
daughter,  he  gave  directions  to  bury  her; 
but  it  was  found  that  the  dogs,  which  with 
other  animals  constitute  the  scavengers  of 
oriental  cities,  had  been  beforehand  with 
them.  They  had  left  no  more  of  her  than 
the  skull,  and  the  feet,  and  the  palms  of  her 
hands  (2  Kin.  ix.  7,  30-37). 

2.  A  woman  at  Thyatira  who  called  her- 
self a  prophetess,  and  seduced  some  members 
of  the  Christian  church  there  to  commit 
fornication  and  eat  things  sacrificed  to  idols. 
It  is  probable  that  Jezebel  is  a  symbolic 
name.  If  so,  it  was  given  because  of  a  resem- 
blance between  her  and  Ahab's  idolatrous 
and  wicked  queen  (Rev.  ii.  20,  23). 

Je'zer  [formation]. 

A  son  of  Naphtali,  and  founder  of  a  tribal 
family  (Gen.  xlvi.  24;  Num.  xxvi.  49;  1 
Chron.  vii.   13). 

Je-zi'ah.    See  Izzi.^^h. 

Je'zi-el  [assembly  of  God]. 

A  Benjamite,  son  of  Azmaveth,  who  joined 
David  at  Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  3). 

Jez-li'ah.     See  Izliah. 

Je-zo'ar.     See  Izhar. 

Jez-ra-hi'ah  [Jehovah  shineth  forth]. 

An  overseer  of  singers  in  Nehemiah's  time 
(Neh.  xii.  42). 

Jez're-el  [God  soweth]. 

1.  A  city  near  the  boundary  line  of  Issachar 
(Josh.  xix.  17,  18).     The  Israelites  encamped 


Jezreel 


377 


Jezreel 


at  a  fountain  in  its  vicinity 
just  before  the  battle  of  Gil- 
boa  ( 1  Sam.  xxix.  1  ;  cp.  2  Sam. 
iv.  4),  the  Philistines  follow- 
ing them  to  the  same  localitj- 
(1  Sam.  xxix.  11).  Ish-bosheth 
ruled  over  Jezreel  among 
other  places  ('2  Sam.  ii.  9)  ; 
and  it  was  one  of  the  capitals 
of  Ahab  (I  Kin.  xviii.  45),  and 
also  of  his  son  (2  Kin.  viii.  29). 
Naboth  was  a  Jezreelite,  his 
vinej'ard  was  in  close  prox- 
imity to  Ahab's  palace,  and 
he  was  stoned  outside  the  citv 
(1  Kin.  xxi.  1,  13).  Jezebe"l 
met  her  violent  death  in  Jez- 
reel (23;  2  Kin.  ix.  10,  30-35). 
Ahab's  seventy  sons  were  mas- 
sacred there  by  order  of  Jehu 
(x.  1-11).  The  bloodshed  in 
these  sanguinary  transactions 
is  called  by  Hosea  "  the  blood 
of  Jezreel,"  and  he  prophesied 
that  it  should  be  avenged  (Hos. 
i.  4).  The  crusaders  correctly 
identified  Jezreel  with  Par- 
vum  Gerinum,  now  the  vil- 
lage Zer'in.  The  discovery 
lapsed  into  oblivion,  and  was  not  revived  till 
1814.  The  identification  is  now  universally 
accepted.    Though  in  a  plain,  the  site  was  an 


W^^!*-^ 


J(  7TLC 


admirable  one  for  a  fortified  city,  standing  as 
it  does  upon  the  brow  of  a  very  steep,  rockj'  de- 
scent, of  100  feet  or  more,  toward  the  north- 


Plain  of  Esf]r.Tf-l"n. 


Jibsam 


378 


Joab 


east,  with  a  splendid  view  all  the  way  to  the 
Jordan.  The  fountain  of  Jezreel,  which 
is  below  the  village,  is  copious  and  good.  It 
is  called  'Ain  el-Meiyiteh.  Another  and  yet 
more  copious  one,  'Ain  Jalud,  is  at  no  great 
distance.  The  ancient  vineyards  seem  to 
have  been  to  the  east  of  the  city,  where 
rock-cut  wine  presses  now  exist. 

The  valley  of  Jezreel  is  either  the  great 
plain  intersecting  Palestine  immediately 
north  of  Carmel,  or,  better,  that  part  of  it 
which,  adjacent  to  Jezreel,  descends  from 
Jezreel  eastward  to  the  Jordan  (Josh.  xvii. 
16  ;  Hosea  i.  5).  In  Gideon's  days  the  Midi- 
anites  and  Amalekites  pitched  within  its 
limits  (Judg.  vi.  33).  The  whole  central 
plain  is  now  called  the  plain  of  Esdra- 
elon,  a  slight  modification  of  Jezreel  (cp. 
Judith  i.  8;  iv.  6;  vii.  3).  Through  all  by- 
gone time  it  has  been  a  battlefield  of  nations. 

2.  A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  56).  It  seems  to  have  been  from 
this  place  that  David  obtained  his  wife 
Ahinoam  the  Jezreelitess  (1  Sam.  xxv.  43; 
xxvii.  3).     Exact  situation  unknown. 

3.  A  man  of  Jucjah,  descended  from  Hur 
(1  Chron.  iv.  3). 

4.  A  son  of  the  projihet  Hosea.  So  named 
because  Jehovah  had  declared  that  he  would 
avenge  the  blood  of  Jezreel  on  the  house  of 
Jehu  (Hos.  i.  4,  5). 

Jib'sam.     See  Ibsam. 
Jid'lapli  [he  weepeth]. 
A  son  of  Nahor  and  Milcah  (Gen.   xxii. 
22).     It  is  not  known  where  he  settled. 
Jim'na  and  Jimnali.     See  Imnah. 
Jiph'tah.     See  Iphtah. 
Jiph'thah-el.     See  Iphtah-el. 

Jo'ab  [Jehovah  is  father]. 

1.  Son  of  Seraiah  and  descendant  of  Kenaz, 
■who  was  reckoned  with  the  tribe  of  Judah. 
He  was  the  father  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
valley  of  craftsmen  (1  Chrou.  iv.  13,  14). 

2.  The  son  of  Zeruiah  (2  Sam.  viii.  16), 
David's  half  sister  (1  Chron.  ii.  16 ;  cp.  2 
Sam.  xvii.  25).  Joab  was,  therefore,  that 
king's  nephew.  He  was  the  second  of  three 
brothers,  Abishai,  Joab.  and  Asahel,  all  of 
an  heroic  type.  He  does  not  seem  to  have 
accompanied  David  when  a  fugitive  during 
the  latter  part  of  Saul's  reign  :  perha})s  he 
was  then  too  young,  though  his  elder  brother, 
Abishai,  was  of  age  to  go,  and  went  (1  Sam. 
xxvi.  6-25).  Joab's  first  personal  appear- 
ance on  the  scene  of  public  life  is  when  he 
is  at  the  head  of  David's  soldiers  in  the  war 
with  Ish-bosheth.  He  commanded  at,  and  was 
victor  in,  the  battle  which  grew  out  of  the 
tournament  at  Gibeon  (2  Sam.  ii.  12-32).  He 
either  believed,  or  at  least  pretended  to  be 
convinced,  that  when  Abner,  Ish-bosheth's 
commander-in-chief,  after  his  quarrel  with 
his  royal  master,  sought  an  interview  with 
David,  he  came  simply  as  a  spy.  Having 
reproved   the   king   for  allowing  Abner    to 


depart  in  peace,  Joab  recalled  him  and, 
with  the  connivance  of  Abishai,  assassinated 
him  at  a  nominally  friendly  interview.  He 
assigned  as  the  reason  for  the  murder  the 
fact  that  his  younger  brother  Asahel  had 
been  killed  by  Abner  in  the  battle  at  Gibeon. 
He  omitted,  however,  to  mention  that  it  was 
in  a  fair  fight,  and  strictlj"  in  self-defense. 
Probably,  also,  an  unavowed  second  reason 
was  the  apprehension  of  Joab  and  Abishai 
that  Abner  might  be  given  the  command  of 
the  army.  David  felt  himself  politically  too 
weak  to  bring  them  to  justice,  yet  he  never 
condoned  the  crime  (2  Sam.iii.i-39).  When 
David  had  become  king  of  all  Israel  and  led 
his  army  against  the  Jebusite  fort  on  mount 
Zion,  he  promised  that  the  first  one  who  should 
climb  up  the  gutter  leading  from  the  Jebusite 
city  to  the  stronghold  and  capture  the  hold 
should  be  chief  and  captain  of  the  army.  The 
first  to  climb  was  Joab,  who  in  consequence 
became  head  of  the  forces  (2  Sam.  iv.  8,  with 
1  Chron.  xi.  6).  He  soon  afterwards  repaired 
a  portion  of  the  city  (8).  After  David's  con- 
quest of  the  Edomites  (2  Sam.  viii.  13,  14 ;  1 
Chron.  xviii.  12),  Joab  remained  in  Edom 
with  the  army  for  six  months,  cutting  oif 
every  male  (1  Kin.  xi.  14-17).  He  com- 
manded in  the  war  with  the  confederate 
Syrians  and  Ammonites  (2  Sam.  x.  1-14  ;  1 
Chron.  xix.  1-19).  and  he  so  pressed  the  siege 
of  Eabbah  that  he  could  at  any  time  have 
as.saulted  it  successfully ;  but  instead  of 
doing  so  he  sent  for  David  that  he  might 
have  the  credit  of  the  victory  (2  Sam.  xi.  1 ; 
xii.  26-29;  cp.  1  Chron.  xx.  1-3)..  He  was 
the  king's  obsequious  servant,  and  carried 
out  the  directions  about  putting  Uriah  in  the 
forefront  of  the  battle  that  he  might  be  slain 
(2  Sam.  xi.  6-27).  It  was  Joab  who  sent  to 
David  the  wise  woman  of  Tekoa  to  induce 
him  to  forgive  Absalom  (xiv.  1-27)  ;  but  he 
was  so  reluctant  to  interfere  further  in  the 
case  that  it  was  not  until  his  barley  field  had 
been  set  on  fire  by  the  unworthy  prince  that 
he  consented  to  act  again  (28-33).  When 
Absalom  rebelled  Joab  remained  loyal  to 
David,  and  led  one  of  the  three  divisions  of 
the  royal  forces  which  defeated  the  rebels 
(xviii.  1,  2).  Then,  in  defiance  of  the  king's 
command,  he  thi-ust  three  darts  through  the 
heart  of  the  revolted  prince,  terminating  his 
life  (9-17),  and  afterwards  he  spoke  some 
plain  though  not  unwise  words  to  the  king 
on  his  extravagant  grief  at  the  death  of 
a  rebellious  son  (xix.  1-8).  David  shortly 
after  appointed  Amasa  to  be  captain  of  the 
host  in  the  room  of  Joab  (13),  and  when 
Sheba  rebelled  Amasa  was  employed  to  lead 
the  forces  sent  to  crush  the  revolt.  This 
gave  mortal  offense  to  Joab,  who,  at  an 
avowedly  friendly  interview,  stabbed  him 
dead  just  as  he  had  killed  Abner  in  sim- 
ilar circumstances,  only  that  this  time  there 
was  no  pretense  of  a  blood  feud  between 
the  parties.  Jealousy  was  the  motive  for  the 
crime.     Then  Joab  and  Abishai  put  down 


Joah 


579 


Joash 


the  rebellion  (xx.  1-22).  Joab  thus  again 
beuiime  coniiuander-iu-chief  (23 ;  cp.  also  1 
Kiu.  ii.  34,  35).  He  was  opposed  to  David's 
numbering  the  people,  and  inteutionally  did 
the  work  imperfectly  (2  Sam.  xxiv.  1-9;  1 
Chron.  xsi.  1-6).  When  Adonijah  set  himself 
up  for  king  Joab  went  with  him  (1  Kin.  i.  7), 
but,  with  his  other  supporters,  deserted  him  on 
hearing  that  Solomon  had  been  proclaimed 
king  (28-49).  David  on  his  deathbed  indi- 
cated his  wish  thi^t  Joab  should  be  brought 
to  justice  for  the  murders  of  Abuer  and  of 
Amasa.  Solomon  carried  out  the  sentence. 
Joab,  clinging  to  the  horns  of  the  altar  in 
the  court  of  the  tabernacle,  fell  by  the  hand 
of  Benaiah,  chief  of  the  bodyguard,  and  was 
buried  in  his  own  house  in  the  wilderness 
(ii.  5,  6,  28-34). 

3.  Founder  of  a  family,  members  of  which 
returned  from  captivity  (Ezra  ii.  6;  viii.  9; 
Neh.  vii.  11). 

Jo'ah  [Jehovah  is  brother]. 

1.  A  sou  of  Obed-edom  (1  Chron.  xxvi.  4). 

2.  A  Levite,  son  of  Zimmah  and  a  descend- 
ant of  Gershom  (1  Chi-on.  vi.  21).  Perhaps 
he  was  the  Levite,  son  of  Zimmah  and  de- 
scendant of  Gershon  who  assisted  at  the  re- 
ligious reformation  under  king  Hezekiah  (2 
Chron.  xxix.  12). 

3.  A  sou  of  Asaph.  He  was  the  recorder 
under  king  Hezekiah  (2  Kin.  xviii.  18,  26 ; 
Is.  xxxvi.  3,  11,  22). 

4.  A  son  of  Joahaz.  He  was  recorder 
under  king  Josiah  (2  Chron.  xxxiv.  8). 

Jo'a-haz  [Jehovah  hath  laid  hold  of]. 
Father  of  king  Josiah' s  recorder  Joah  (2 
Chron.  xxxiv.  8). 

Jo-a'nan,  in  A.  Y.  Joanna  [Greek  form  of 
Yohnnan,  Jehovah  hath  been  gracious]. 

An  ancestor  of  Christ,  who  lived  about 
500  B.  c.  (Luke  iii.  27). 

Jo-an'na  [a  Greek  form  of  Yoltanan,  Je- 
hovah hath  been  gracious]. 

The  wife  of  Chuza,  steward  of  Herod  the 
tetrarch.  She  was  one  of  those  women  who 
ministered  to  Jesus  of  their  substance  (Luke 
viii.  3),  and  one  of  the  party  who  accompa- 
nied Mary  Magdalene  to  the  sepulcher  of 
our  Lord  (xxiv.  10). 

For  the  man  called  Joanna  in  A.  V.,  see 

JO.\NAN. 

Jo-an'nan.     See  John  2. 

Jo'a-rib.     See  Joiarib  2. 

Jo'ash.  I.,  and  Jehoash  [.Tehovah  is  strong]. 
The  longer  form  is  used  in  2  Kin.  only,  but 
the  shorter  form  also  occurs  there  frequeutly. 

1.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Shelah  (1 
Chron.  iv.  22). 

2.  A  man  of  Manasseh,  family  of  Abiezer 
and  father  of  Gideon  fJudg.  vi.  11,  15).  He 
lived  at  Ophrah.  and  was  apparently  a  man 
of  substance.  He  had  reared  an  altar  to 
Baal  and  an  Asherah.  These  Gideon  was 
directed  to  throw  down,  and  he  did  so.     The 


idolaters  demanded  that  Joash  should  sur- 
render his  son  to  be  put  to  death  for  the  sac- 
rilege, but  Joash  shrewdly  said  :  "  If  Baal  is 
a  god,  let  him  plead  for  himself"  (Judg.  vi. 
11-32). 

3.  A  Benjamite  of  Gibeah  who  came  to 
David  at  Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  3). 

4.  A  son  of  Ahab  (1  Kin.  xxii.  26 ;  2 
Chron.  xviii.  25). 

5.  Son  of  Ahaziah,  king  of  Judah.  When 
Athaliah,  the  mother  of  Ahaziah,  heard  that 
her  son  had  been  slain  by  Jehu,  she  massa- 
cred all  his  children  except  Joash,  then  only 
an  infant,  who  escaped  by  the  artifice  of  the 
late  king's  sister  Jehosheba,  wife  of  the  high 
priest.  He  was  hidden  with  his  nurse  for  six 
years  iu  the  temple,  Athaliah  meanwhile 
ruling  over  the  land.  In  the  seventh  year, 
Jehoiada,  the  high  priest,  showed  Joash  to 
the  palace  guards,  and,  placing  them  at  posts 
where  they  could  be  of  most  service  iu  de- 
fending him,  publicly  anointed  him  king. 
The  measure  was  a  popular  one,  and  as  the 
boy  stood  by  a  pillar,  with  the  royal  crown  on 
his  head,  the  military  men  and  others  who 
saw  him  shouted  "God  save  the  king!" 
Athaliah,  hearing  the  noise,  rushed  to  the 
spot  and  entered  the  temple ;  but,  by  the 
high  priest's  orders,  she  was  at  once  ejected 
and  slain,  leaving  Joash  now  without  a  rival. 
Then  Jehoiada  framed  two  covenants :  the 
one  that  the  youthful  ruler  and  his  people 
should  serve  Jehovah,  and  the  other  that 
they  should  discharge  their  mutual  duties  as 
king  and  subjects.  Then  they  proceeded  to 
the  house  of  Baal,  and  broke  it  down,  destroy- 
ing the  images  which  it  contained,  and  kill- 
ing Mattan,  its  officiating  priest,  on  the  altar 
(2  Kin.  xi.  1-20;  2  Chron.  xxiii.  10-21). 
Joash  ascended  the  throne  835  B.  c,  but  was 
the  only  legitimate  king  since  842,  and  his 
reign  was  apparently  dated  from  this  year 
with  841  as  his  first  regnal  year.  So  in  Eng- 
land, the  Commonwealth  was  ignored  and 
the  fir.st  year  of  Charles  II. 's  actual  reign 
was  called  the  twelfth :  king  de  jure  on  the 
death  of  Charles  I.,  January  .30th,  1648-49, 
king  (le  facto  at  the  Restoration,  jNIay  29th, 
1660.  Joash  was  seven  years  old  at  his  coro- 
nation and  he  reigned  forty  years.  Of  cour.se, 
at  the  age  of  seven  the  character  of  his 
nominal  rule  depended  wholly  on  the  char- 
acter of  his  advisers.  Happily,  he  was  un- 
der the  direction  of  the  high  priest,  Jehoi- 
ada, and  as  long  as  that  wise  counselor  lived, 
Joash  did  well,  one  notable  measure  of  his 
being  the  repair  of  the  temple,  though  the 
peo])le  still  continued  generally  to  worship 
at  the  high  places  (2  Kin.  xii.  1-16).  But  on 
the  death  of  Jehoiada,  at  an  advanced  age, 
both  the  king  and  his  people  apostatized  from 
Jehovah,  and  began  to  set  up  Asherim  and 
other  idols.  Zechariah,  the  son  of  Jehoiada, 
denounced  judgment  upon  the  evil  doens,  on 
which  Joash  gave  orders  for  his  murder ;  and 
the  multitude,  breaking  out  into  riot,  grati- 
fied their  sovereign  by  stoning  to  death  the 


Joasli 


380 


Job 


too  faitlifnl  prophet  (2  Chron.  xxiv.  15-22; 
Mat.  xxiii.  35).  Soon  afterwards  Hazael, 
king  of  Syria,  having  captured  the  Philistine 
city  of  (Jath,  threatened  Jerusalem,  and  had 
to  be  bought  off  with  the  contents  of  the  tem- 
])le  treasury.  When  the  invaders  departed, 
Joash  was  suffering  from  sore  diseases.  Ama- 
ziah,  his  son,  conducted  the  government; 
and  in  the  course  of  three  years,  as  it  would 
appear,  tlie  servants  of  Joash  slew  him  in 
liis  bed  in  revenge  for  the  murder  of  Zech- 
ariah  {2  Kin.  xii.  20  ;  2  Chron.  xxiv.  25)  ;  see 
Chronology.  He  was  buried  in  the  city 
of  David,  but  not  in  one  of  the  proper  sepul- 
chers  of  the  kings.  Joash  was  an  infant  in 
8-42  B.  c.  and  was  seven  years  old  in  835  (2 
Kin.  xi.  21),  and  his  son  Amaziah  was  twenty- 
five  years  old  in  804  (xiv.  2).  The  son  was 
accordingly  born  in  828,  in  Joash's  four- 
teenth or  fifteenth  year.  In  oriental  life  this 
is  physically  possible  and  is  i-eadily  paralleled. 
The  early  marriage  of  Joash  was  desirable 
and  was  doubtless  urged  by  the  high  priest 
Jehoiada,  since  Joash  was  the  sole  survivor 
of  his  family  and  in  his  offspring  lay  the 
only  hope  that  so  great  a  calamity  would  be 
averted  as  the  extinction  of  the  direct  line 
of  David. 

(i.  Son  of  Jehoahaz^  king  of  Israel.  He 
began  to  reign  about  805  B.  c,  and  reigned 
sixteen  years.  lu  religious  matters  he  fol- 
lowed in  the  footsteps  of  Jeroboam  I.,  con- 
tinuing the  worship  of  the  two  calves  at 
Bethel  and  Dan.  Nevertheless  he  felt  intense 
veneration  for  Elisha,  weeping  and  express- 
ing sorrow  when  the  great  prophet  was  dying. 
Elisha,  before  he  passed  away,  enjoined  the 
king  to  open  the  window  eastward  and  shoot 
out  an  arrow.  He  did  so.  The  i)rophet  then 
bade  him  take  arrows  and  smite  upon  the 
ground.  He  did  so,  smiting  the  ground  thrice. 
The  arrows  symbolized  victories  which  he  was 
to  gain  over  the  Syrians ;  and  had  he  struck 
six  times  instead  of  three,  the  number  of  vic- 
tories would  have  been  doubled  (2  Kin.  xiii. 
14-25).  Afterwards  he  lent  100,000  merce- 
naries to  Amaziah,  the  new  king  of  Judah,  for 
an  Edomite  expedition.  A  prophet  directed 
them  to  be  sent  honie,  which  was  accordingly 
done.  Though  they  had  been  paid  in  full 
for  the  services  which  they  had  been  forbid- 
den to  render,  yet  they  departed  in  a  great 
rage,  plundering  the  territory  of  Judah  as 
they  went  along  (2  Chron.  xxv.  6-10,  13). 
Perhaps  on  this  account,  Amaziah  sent  Joasli 
a  challenge  to  fight.  Joash  remonstrated  in 
severe  language,  but  Amaziah  would  not  for- 
bear. A  battle  took  ])lace  at  Beth-shemesh, 
in  which  Joash  was  victorious  ;  and  he  fol- 
lowed up  his  success  by  breaking  down  a 
part  of  the  wall  surrounding  Jerusalem,  and 
carrying  off  the  treasures  of  the  temple  and 
tlie  ]>alace,  with  hostages  as  guarantees 
against  further  disturl)ance  of  the  peace. 
On  the  death  of  Joash,  his  son,  Jeroboam  II., 
ascended  the  throne  (2  Kin.  xiv.  8-16 ;  2 
Chron.  xxv.  17-24). 


Jo'ash,  II.  [perhaps,  Jehovah  hath  hastened 
(to  help)]. 

1.  A  Benjamite,  family  of  Becher  (1  Chron. 
vii.  8). 

2.  An  officer  who  had  charge  of  David's  oil 
cellars  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  28). 

Jo'a-tham.     See  Jotham  2. 

.  Job,  I.  (Gen.  xlvi.  13,  A.  V.).     See  loB. 

Job,  II.  [one  ever  returning  to  God  (Ewald). 
If  derived  from  'ayeb,  it  denotes  not  one  per- 
secuted (Gesenins),  but  rSther  one  character- 
ized by  hostility]. 

An  O.  T.  saint  who  dwelt  in  the  land  of 
Uz  (Job  i.  1).  He  is  mentioned  for  the  first 
time  elsewhere  by  Ezekiel  (xiv.  14,  16,  20). 
It  appears  that  he  lived  under  patriarchal 
conditions,  in  some  district  eastward  from 
Palestine  and  contiguous  to  the  desert,  at  a 
time  when  the  Chaldeans  made  raids  in  the 
west  (i.  17).  There  is  no  reason  to  doubt 
that  he  is  an  historical  personage  and  that  he 
passed  through  the  remarkable  experiences 
described  in  the  book  which  bears  his  name. 
These  experiences  brought  the  question,  Why 
does  God  permit  the  righteous  to  suffer?,  to 
the  forefront ;  and  afforded  the  material  for 
a  magnificent  philosophical  poem. 

The  Book  of  Job  is  a  poetic  book  of  the  O. 
T.  which  gives  an  account  of  the  sufl'erings 
of  Job,  of  the  argument  carried  on  betw'een 
himself  and  his  friends  concerning  the  rea- 
sons for  his  sufi'erings,  and  of  the  solution  of 
the  problem.  It  is  not  known  whether  the 
poem  was  written  during  the  lifetime  of  Job 
or  later.  The  prologue  (i.-iii.  2),  the  intro- 
ductions to  the  various  speeches  and  es- 
pecially to  Elihu's  speech  (xxxii.  1-5),  and 
the  epilogue  narrating  the  prosperity  of 
Job  in  his  latter  days  under  Jehovah's 
blessing  (xlii.  7-17),  are  in  prose. 

In  the  opening  of  the  book,  Job  is  repre- 
sented as  being  very  prosperous,  possessing 
i    many  flocks  and  herds,  a  large  number  of 
j   servants,  and  a  numerous  family.     Satan  is 
j   permitted  to  try  Job's  faith  in   God,  first  by 
causing  him  to  be  despoiled  of  his  possessions, 
!   and  to  be  bereaved  of  his  family  ;  when  this 
means    fails,  Satan  is  further  permitted  to 
cause  Job  much  sufl'eringin  body.  Job's  faith 
triumjihs  over  all  difficulties,  and  he  is  finally 
restored  to  more  than  his  former  prosperity. 
The  book  between   the  introduction    and 
conclusion  may  be  divided  into  three  main 
parts,  each  of  which  muy  be  again  divided 
into   three   minor  parts.     The    introduction 
describes    Job's   prosperity  ai.d  happy  con- 
\   dition.      In    part    first,    first    subhead,    we 
find   Job's  first  afHiction  described,  the  loss 
of  his  property  and  family;  under  the  sec- 
ond   head    comes  the   second    stage    of    the 
afHiction,  the  attack  on  Job's  person,  and  un- 
der the  third  head,  the  coming  of  his  three 
friends   to   condole  with  him.     Part  second 
contains  the  argument  between  Job  and  his 
three   friends,     this   being    threefold,    each 
I   friend  speaking  three  times  (except  the  third, 


Jobab 


381 


Joel 


who  speaks  twice),  and  Job  replying  to  each. 
This  forms  the  iirincipal  part  of  the  book. 
Tlie  tliree  friends  argue  on  the  basis  that 
affliction  is  always  and  necessarily  a  result 
of  sin,  and  as  Job  accepts  this  general  prin- 
cipk-,  but  denies  its  application  to  himself, 
misunderstandings  result,  and  the  speakers 
are  as  far  from  a  solution  of  the  situation  in 
the  end  as  in  the  beginning.  Firstly,  Eli- 
phaz  begins  the  argument  by  expressing  in 
general  the  sinfulness  of  man  and  hinting 
at,  rather  than  boldly  asserting,  Jol)'s  special 
sinfulness.  Job  answers,  declaring  his  inno- 
cence. Secondly,  Bildad  continues  in  the 
.same  strain,  insisting  that  the  Lord  cannot 
be  unjust,  therefoi-e  man  must  be  at  fault. 
Job  answers  as  before  that  he  is  innocent,  ap- 
pealing to  God  to  lighten  his  burden  of  afflic- 
tion. Thii-dly,  Zophar  follows  with  the  same 
argument,  implying  more  directly  that  Job 
must  be  a  sinner.  The  second  series  of 
speeches  now  begins.  The  same  arguments 
are  gone  over  by  the  speakers  in  the  same 
order,  the  friends  becoming  more  vehement 
and  impatient  of  what  they  consider  Job's 
obstinacy.  In  the  third  series  Eliphaz  openly 
accu.ses  Job  of  secret  sin.  After  Job's  earnest 
denial,  Bildad  falls  back  on  the  first  position, 
and  Zophar  remains  silent.  But  during  these 
arguments  Job  is  profoundly  conscious  of  his 
own  uprightness,  yet  cannot  understand 
God's  apparent  harshness  to  him.  His  in- 
ward struggle  becomes  more  intense  as  his 
outward  situation  appears  more  hopeless,  but 
he  remains  firm  in  his  determination  that 
whatever  befall  him  still  will  he  trust  in 
God.  Then  the  thought  bursts  upon  him 
that  sometime,  in  God's  own  pleasure,  he 
will  be  justified.  It  may  not  be  in  this  life, 
but  it  will  certainly  come.  That  carries  with 
it  a  conviction  of  immortalitj%  and  with  the 
statement,  "  I  know  that  my  redeemer  liveth, 
and  that  he  shall  stand' up  at  the  last  upon 
the  earth  :  and  after  my  skin  hath  been  thus 
destroyed,  yet  from  my  flesh  shall  I  see 
God,"  Job  reaches  a  foundation  from  which 
nothing  can  move  him. 

In  the  third  part  of  the  book  Elihu,  who 
until  this  time  has  been  a  silent  listener,  pro- 
poses to  argue  out  the  matter  upon  a  diflferent 
basis.  Instead  of  regarding  the  afflictions  of 
men  as  a  punishment  for  sin,  he  declares  that 
they  are  often  sent  as  a  means  of  strength- 
ening and  purifying  the  children  of  God. 
They  are  not,  then,  the  exi)ression  of  an 
angry  and  implacable  God,  but  the  chasten- 
ing of  a  loving  father.  In  this  Elihu  appears 
as  the  messenger  of  the  Lord,  preparing  the 
way  for  his  coming,  and  offering  an  argument 
which  Job  could  dispute  or  accept.  Job  ac- 
cepts this  view.  Next,  the  divine  decision  is 
given  and  Job  humbles  himself  before  the 
Lord.  Finally,  Job  is  restored  to  double  his 
former  prosperity,  and  his  family  is  restored 
to  the  same  number  as  before. 

Jo'bab  [shouting,  trumpet  call,  howling,  a 
desert]. 


1.  An  Arabian  tribe  descended  from  Joktan 
(Gen.  X.  29;  1  Chron.  i.  23).  It  is  not  known 
what  district  they  occupied. 

2.  A  king  of  Edom.  He  was  the  son  of 
Zerah  of  Bozrah  (Gen.  xxxvi.  3.3  ;  1  Chron. 
i.  44,  45). 

3.  A  king  of  Madon,  who  entered  into  the 
northern  confederacy  against  Joshua,  but, 
with  his  allies,  was  totally  defeated  at  the 
waters  of  Merom  (Josh.  xi.  1 ;  sii.  19). 

4.  A  Benjamite,  sou  of  Shaharaim  by  his 
wife  Hodesh  (1  Chron.  viii.  9). 

Joch'e-bed  [Jehovah  is  glorious,  or  Jeho- 
vah is  the  great  oue]. 

A  daughter  of  Levi,  who  married  her 
nephew  Amram  and  became  the  ancestress 
of  Miriam,  Aaron,  and  Moses  (Ex.  vi.  20 ; 
Num.  xxvi.  59)  ;  see  Egypt  iii.  3. 

Jod. 

The  tenth  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet. 
English  I  and  its  modification  J  come  from 
the  same  source,  and  both  are  used  to  rejire- 
sent  it  in  anglicizing  Hebrew  names,  as  in 
Jechoniah.  It  stands  at  the  head  of  the 
tenth  section  of  Ps.  cxix.  in  several  ver.sions, 
in  which  section  each  verse  begins  with  this 
letter.  It  was  often  confused  by  readers  with 
van  (q.  v.). 

Jo 'da. 

An  ancestor  of  Christ,  who  lived  near  the 
time  of  the  exile  (Luke  iii.  26).  A.  V.,  fol- 
lowing a  diflerent  reading,  has  Juda — i.  e., 
Judah. 

Jo'ed  [Jehovah  is  witness]. 

A  Benjamite,  descended  from  Jeshaiah 
(Neh.  xi.  7). 

Jo'el  [Jehovah  is  God]. 

1.  A  Levite,  familj-  of  Kohath,  and  an  an- 
cestor of  Samuel  the  prophet  (1  Chron.  vi.  36, 
with  .34,  38).  Probably  he  is  not  identical 
with  Shaul  (24),  but  belongs  to  the  collateral 
line  descended  through  Zephaniah  from  Ta- 
hath. 

2.  The  elder  sou  of  Samuel  the  prophet 
and  father  of  Heman  the  singer  (1  Sam.  viii. 
2;  1  CUiron.  vi.  33;  xv.  17).  Called  once  in 
the  Hebrew  text  aud  A.  V.  Vashni  (vi.  28). 
This  name  the  R.  V.  relegates  to  the  margin, 
placing  Joel  in  italics  in  the  text. 

3.  A  Gershonite  Levite,  who  with  1.30  of 
his  brethren,  of  whom  he  was  the  head, 
aided  in  bringing  up  the  ark  from  the  house 
of  Obed-edom  to  the  city  of  David  (1  Chron. 
XV.  7,  11, 12).  He  seems  to  have  been  the  son 
of  Ladan  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  8),  who  was  ap- 
pointed to  take  charge  of  the  dedicated  treas- 
ures of  the  house  of  God  (xxvi.  21,  22). 

4.  A  man  of  Issachar,  and  a  chief  of  that 
tribe.  He  was  descended  through  Uzzi  (1 
Chron.  vii.  3). 

5.  One  of  David's  valiant  men,  a  brother 
of  Nathan  (1  Chron.  xi.  38) ;  see  Igal. 

6.  Son  of  Pedaiah  and  ruler  in  David's 
reign  of  the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh  west  of 
the  Jordan  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  20). 

7.  A  chief  of  the  Gadite  tribe  prior  to  the 


Joel 


382 


Jogbehah 


reigns  of  Jotham  king  of  Jndah  and  Jero- 
boam II.  king  of  Israel  (1  Chrou.  v.  12;  cp. 
17). 

8.  A  Reubenite,  whose  family  occupied  the 
district  about  Aroer  (1  Chron.  v.  4,  and  prob- 
ably h). 

9.  A  Koliathite  Levite,  son  of  Azariah,  who 
aided  in  cleansing  the  temjile  during  Heze- 
kiah"s  reign  (2  Chron.  xxix.  12). 

10.  A  Simeonite  prince,  who  took  part  in  a 
war  with  the  Amalekites  during  the  reign  of 
Hezekiah  (1  Chron.  iv.  35-43). 

11.  A  son  of  Nebo,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  43). 

12.  A  Beujamite,  son  of  Zichri,  overseer  at 
Jerusalem  during  the  government  of  Nehe- 
miah  (Neh.  xi.  i)). 

13.  Sou  of  Pethuel,  and  the  author  of  the 
second  among  the  minor  prophetic  books. 
Nothing  is  known  of  his  history  (Joel  i.  1). 

The  book  consists  of  two  parts,  of  thirty- 
six  versos  each.  I.  Prediction  of  judgment 
and  an  exhortation  to  repentance  (i.2-ii.  17). 
A  period  of  unexampled  distress  has  occurred 
or  is  impending,  produced  by  a  .scourge  of 
locusts,  and  calling  for  repentance  and  sup- 
plication (i.  2-20).  The  same  theme  under 
the  figure  of  an  army  with  horses  and  chari- 
ots is  repeated,  and  the  call  for  repentance 
and  prayer  is  renewed  (ii.  1-17).  A  devasta- 
tion by  literal  locusts  may  be  intended  in 
chap,  i.,  and  possibly  even  in  chap,  ii.,  as 
many  believe.  If  so,  it  served  the  prophet 
as  an  occa.sion  and  a  type  for  his  message  (ii. 
1-27).  Whether  there  was  an  actual  plague 
of  locusts  at  the  time  or  not,  locusts  are  a 
natural  figure,  employed  in  Scripture,  for  an 
invading  army  (Rev.  ix.  3-11),  and  the 
prophet  adojjts  the  figure  of  such  a  devasta- 
tion to  symbolize  the  great  day  of  Jehovah's 
power  and  judgment.  The  judgment  is  nigh 
at  hand  (ii.  1),  is  to  be  the  last  before  the 
ilessianic  l)lc.ssing  (28),  and  is  to  be  executed 
by  a  people  great  and  strong  (2),  which  come 
from  the  north  (20),  before  whom  a  fire  de- 
voureth  and  behind  whom  a  flame  burneth 
(3),  whose  camp  is  very  great  (11),  and  on 
account  of  whom  the  inhabitants  of  Zion 
cry  out  to  the  Lord  for  deliverance,  that  the 
nations  should  not  rule  over  them  (17).  The 
allegorical  view  is  the  oldest,  and  has  been 
the  most  i)revalent.  II.  The  blessing  which 
shall  follow  the  judgment  (ii.  18-iii.21).  The 
destroyer  shall  be  himself  destroyed,  the 
wasted  years  restored,  and  bountiful  harvests 
again  bless  the  land  (ii.  18-27)  ;  God's  Spirit 
shall  be  poured  out  on  all  flesh  (28-.32  ;  cp. 
Acts  ii.  1()-21  ;  Rom.  x.  13),  and  all  enemies 
of  the  kingdom  shall  be  brought  to  judg- 
ment, there  being  compreliended  in  one  i)ic- 
ture  God's  successive  judgments  of  the  na- 
tions and  the  final,  universal  judgment, 
culminating  in  the  establishment  of  Zion 
forever. 

The  book  is  not  dated,  and  its  contents 
afford  but  scanty  indications  of  the  time  of 
its  composition.     It  mentions  the  scattering 


of  Israel  among  the  nations  (iii.  2),  but  the 
reference  is  not  to  the  ten  tribes  si)ecifically, 
but  to  the  children  of  Abraham,  Isaac,  and 
Jacob,  God's  people  and  heritage,  and  is 
moreover  a  prophecy.  So,  too,  the  captivity 
of  Judah  and  Jerusalem  is  mentioned  (iii.  1), 
but  likewise  prophetically  in  the  spirit  of 
Deuteronomy  (xxviii.)  or  of  Micah  (iii.  10; 
iv.  12).  For  the  prophet  and  people  are  in 
Judah,  Zion  exists  (Joel  ii.  1, 15),  the  temple 
is  standing  (i.  14  ;  ii.  17),  and  the  service  is 
regularly  conducted,  although  the  meal  and 
drink  ott'erings  are  sjioken  of  as  cut  oft'  V>y 
reason  of  the  destruction  of  vegetation  (i.  9- 
13 ;  cp.  ii.  14).  The  prophecy  does  not  belong 
to  the  period  after  the  exile,  nor  to  the  time 
between  the  first  dei)ortation  of  the  Jews 
and  the  fall  of  the  city,  nor  to  the  earlier 
period  when  the  Assyrians  were  invading 
the  land,  for  judgment  is  not  pronounced 
against  Assyria  or  Babylon  or  later  enemies, 
but  only  against  Judali's  foes,  Tyre  and  Sidon, 
Phiiistia,  Edom,  and  Egypt  (iii.  4,  19).  Tyre 
and  Sidon  had  forgotten  the  brotherly  cove- 
nant (Amos  i.  9),  and  had  purchased  Jewish 
captives  from  the  Philistines  and  sold  them 
to  the  remote  Greeks.  There  is  no  reference 
to  Syria,  from  which  Judah  scarcely  sutFered 
before  the  reign  of  Ahaz  (2  Kin.  xii.  17). 
During  and  after  the  reign  of  Ahaz,  the 
prophets  of  Judah  frequently  refer  to  Sj-ria 
as  a  hostile  power  (Is.  vii.  8;  viii.  4;  xvii.  ; 
Jer.  xlix.  23-27;  Zech.  ix.  1).  Nor  is  there 
any  mention  of  the  Assyrians,  who  did  not 
come  into  conflict  with  Judah  until  after  the 
time  of  Ahaz,  and  who  for  a  half  century 
preceding  Ahaz'  reign  had  not  been  active 
in  western  Asia.  There  is  reference  to  the 
Greeks,  not  as  present  in  Palestine  or  as  hos- 
tile to  Judah,  but  simply  as  a  nation  afar  off 
to  whom  the  Phtenicians  and  Philistines  had 
sold  captive  children  of  Judah,  and  as  con- 
trasted with  the  men  of  Sheba,  a  nation  at 
another  extremity  of  the  earth,  to  whom 
Judah  shall  sell  captives  taken  from  Phiiistia 
and  Phoenicia  (Joel  iii.  1-8).  The  majority  of 
commentators  accordingly  believe  that  the 
prophecy  was  uttered  liefore  the  time  of  Ahaz. 
The  position  of  the  book  as  second  among 
the  minor  prophets  indicates  that  the  belief 
was  current  at  the  time  of  forming  the  canon 
that  Joel  began  to  prophesy  after  Hosea  had 
commenced  his  prophetic  labors  and  before 
Amos  had  entered  ujjon  his,  that  is.  during 
the  reign  of  Uzziah,  king  of  Judah,  and  while 
Jeroboam  was  on  the  throne  of  Israel  (Hos. 
i.  1 ;  Amos  i.  1  ;  vii.  10). 

Jo-e'lah  [possibly,  let  him  help]. 

A  son  of  Jeroham  of  Gedor.  He  joined 
David  at  Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  7). 

Jo-e'zer  [Jehovah  is  help]. 
A  Korahite  who  joined  David  at  Ziklag  (1 
Chron.  xii.  6). 

Jog'be-hali  [lofty]. 

A  town  of  Gad  (Num.  xxxii.  35  ;  Judg. 
viii.  11).     Its  name  still  lives  in  Jubeihah,  a 


Jogli 


383 


John 


village  6  miles  northwest  of  Eabbath  Am- 
mou  on  the  road  from  es-Saltaud  the  Jordan. 

Jog'li  [led  into  exile]. 

Father  of  Bukki,  of  the  tribe  of  Dan 
(Num.  xxxiv.  22). 

Jo'ha. 

1.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Beriah  (1  Chron. 
viii.  Ki). 

2.  A  Tizite.  son  of  Shimri  and  one  of  David's 
mighty  men  (1  Chron.  xi.  45). 

Jo-ha'nan  [.Tehovah  is  gracious]. 

1.  A  Benjamite  who  joined  David  at  Zik- 
lag  (1  Chron.  xii.  4). 

2.  The  eighth  of  tlie  Gadites  who  did  so. 
He  was  made  a  captain  in  David's  army  (1 
Chron.  xii.  12,  14). 

3.  A  member  of  the  high-priestly  line,  who 
lived  about  800  B.  c.  (1  Chron.  vi.'lO). 

4.  An  Ei)hraimite  (2  Chron.  xxviii.  12). 

5.  The  eldest  sou  of  king  Josiah  (1  Chron. 
iii.  15).     He  seems  to  have  died  young. 

6.  Son  of  Kareah  and  a  captain  of  the 
army,  who  on  hearing  that  Nebuchadnezzar 
had  appointed  Gedaliah  governor  of  Judah, 
came  with  his  men  to  submit  to  the  new 
ruler  (2  Kin.  xxv.  22,  23;  Jer.  xl.  8,  9).  He 
warned  Gedaliah  that  Baalis,  king  of  the 
Ammonites,  had  sent  a  certain  Ishmael  to 
murder  him  (13,  14)  ;  and  when  the  governor, 
neglecting  the  warning,  was  assassinated,  he 
led  the  force  which  went  to  avenge  his  death 
(xii.  11-15).  He  afterwards  counseled  and 
carried  out  a  removal  of  the  Jewish  remnant 
to  Egvpt,  against  the  advice  of  Jeremiah  (16- 
xliii.  13). 

7.  A  son  of  Elioenai  (1  Chron.  iii.  24). 

8.  A  son  of  Hakkatan,  of  the  clan  of  Az- 
gad.  With  110  males,  he  accompanied  Ezra 
from  Babylon  (Ezra  viii.  12). 

9.  Son  of  Eliashib,  but  scarcely  of  the  high 
priest  Eliashib.  Ezra  went  to  Johanan's 
chamber,  and,  refusing  to  eat  or  drink, 
mourned  over  the  sin  of  those  who  had  con- 
tracted foreign  marriages  (Ezra  x.  6,  in  R. 
V.  Jehohanan). 

10.  Son  of  Tdbiah,  the  Ammonite,  who 
married  a  Jewess  in  the  days  of  Nehemiah 
(Neh.  vi.  18,  in  R.  V.  Jehohanan). 

11.  A  high  priest  (Neh.  xii.  22),  grandson 
of  Eliashib  (23;  cp.  11).  In  ver.  11,  the  name 
appears  as  Jonathan,  doubtless  through  cor- 
ruption of  the  text.  Josephus,  who  calls 
him  John,  says  that  he  killed  his  brother 
Jesus  in  the  temple,  believing  tliat  he  was 
about  to  supersede  him  in  the  high-priest- 
hood. This  was  in  the  reign  of  Artaxerxes 
Mnemou,  405-362  B.  c.  (Antiq.  xi.  7,  1 ;  cp. 
5,4). 

John  [Greek  'loannes,  from  Hebrew  Yo- 
hnnaii,  Jehovah  hath  been  gracious]. 

1.  Father  of  Mattathias,  the  instigator  of 
the  Maccabsean  revolt  (1  Mac.  ii.  1). 

2.  Eldest  son  of  Mattathias  (1  Mac.  ii.  2,  in 
A.  V.  Joannan).  He  was  surnamed  Gaddis 
(in  A.  V.  Caddis),  a  word  of  unknown  mean- 
ing.    He  was  slain  by  the  children  of  Jam- 


bri,  about  160  b.  c.  (ix.  36,  38,  42;  and  2  Mac. 
viii.  22,  where  he  is  erroneously  called 
Joseph). 

3.  A  man  who  obtained  special  privileges 
for  the  Jews  from  Antiochus  the  Great  (2 
Mac.  iv.  11).  He  was  son  of  Accos  and  father 
of  Eupolemus  (1  Mac.  viii.  17). 

4.  Son  of  Simon,  the  Maccabec  (1  Mac. 
xiii.  53  ;  xvi.  1).  He  liecame  known  as  John 
Hyrcanus.  About  142  B.  c.  he  was  appointed 
by  his  father  commander-in-chief  of  the  army 
(xiii.  53).  He  met  ami  defeated  Cendebteus 
in  battle  near  Jamuia  (xvi.  1-10).  When  his 
father  and  two  brothers  were  nmrdered  in 
135  E.  c,  and  he  himself  was  marked  for 
destruction,  he  took  the  oflensive  against  his 
adversary  and  drove  him  from  Judsea  (Antiq. 
xiii.  8,  1).  He  exercised  the  olhce  of  high 
priest  and  civil  governor  from  135  to  105  B. 
c.  Antiochus  Sidetes,  king  of  Syria,  invaded 
Judgea,  and  in  the  fall  of  134  b.  c.  laid  siege 
to  Jerusalem.  After  a  year,  the  Syrians  took 
the  city  and  dismantled  its  fortifications 
('xiii.  8,  2  and  3).  The  death  of  Antiochus 
afibrded  John  an  opportunity  to  enlarge  his 
domains,  and  he  conquered  Samaria  and 
Idumsea.  He  also  renewed  the  alliance  with 
the  Romans  and  thereby  secured  the  resto- 
ration of  Joppa  and  other  towns  to  Jewish 
authority.  He  also  repaired  the  walls  of 
Jerusalem  (1  Mac.  xvi.  23).  The  civil  war 
which  broke  out  in  Syria  in  125  B.  c.  and  a 
succession  of  Syrian  kings  from  whom,  for 
one  reason  or  another,  he  had  nothing  to 
fear,  enabled  John  to  maintain  his  independ- 
ence without  ditiiculty.  He  favored  the 
Pharisees  at  the  first,  but  when  they  unrea- 
sonably clamored  for  his  resignation  of  the 
high-priesthood,  he  went  over  to  the  Sad- 
ducees.  With  his  death  in  105  b.  c.  the  power 
of  the  Maccabees  and,  with  it,  of  Israel  rap- 
idly waned.     See  Maccabees. 

5.  John  the  Baptist.  The  immediate  fore- 
runner of  Jesus,  whose  way  he  was  sent  to 
prepare.  John  was  born  of  godly  parents, 
and  was  of  full  priestly  descent,  both  his 
father  Zacharias  and  his  mother  Elisabeth 
being  descendants  of  Aaron  (Luke  i.  5).  At 
the  same  time  Elisabeth,  the  Levite,  was 
cousin  to  the  Virgin  Mary,  who  belonged  to 
the  tribe  of  Judah  (3()).  The  residence  of 
John's  parents  was  at  a  town  in  the  hill 
country  of  Judaea  (39).  Perhaps  the  town 
was  Juttah,  but  it  is  generally  believed  to- 
have  been  Hebron.  When  Zacharias,  in  the 
performance  of  his  priestly  duties,  was  burn- 
ing incense  in  the  temple  at  Jerusalem,  the 
angel  Gabriel  appeared  to  him,  promised  that 
he  should  become  the  father  of  a  son,  directed 
that  the  child  should  be  named  John,  and  be 
brought  up  as  a  Nazirite,  like  Samson  and 
Samuel,  and  foretold  that  he  should  be  filled 
with  the  Holy  Spirit  from  birth  and  prepare 
the  people  for  the  Lord  (Luke  i.  8-17).  John 
was  born  in  the  year  5  b.  c.  He  spent  his 
early  years  in  seclusion  in  the  wilderness  near 
his  home,    west  of  the  Dead  Sea  (80).     In 


John 


384 


John 


A.  D.  26  he  appeared  as  a  jireaclier  iu  the 
wihleruess  adjoiuing  the  Jovdau.  His  minis- 
try is  believed  to  luive  been  exercised  dur- 
ing a  Sabbatic  year  (iii.  1,  2),  in  which  the 
])eoi)le  were  relieved  of  labor  in  the  fields 
and  had  leisure  to  attend  John's  preaching. 
He  came  to  announce  a  new  dispensation, 
l)roclaiming  the  advent  of  the  kingdom  of 
God  and  the  l)aptism  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
(Mat.  iii.  2,  11),  to  prepare  the  people  in  in- 
tellect and  heart  for  the  reception  of  Christ 
(.3,  8),  to  i)oint  out  the  Christ  in  the  person 
of  Jesus  ("John  i.  15),  and  to  show  the  union 
of  tlie  two  dispensations  in  the  Christ,  as  the 
Lamb  of  God  (29,  36).  He  addressed  him- 
self with  great  eai-nestness  and  jjlainness  of 
speech  to  the  immense  multitudes  who  re- 
paired to  him  from  all  quarters.  He  urged 
the  necessity  of  immediate  and  sincere  re- 
pentance, the  special  reason  assigned  being 
that  the  kingdom  of  heaven  was  at  hand. 
The  penitents,  after  confes.sing  their  sins, 
were  baptized  by  John  in  the  Jordan  ;  and 
he  became  distinguished  from  others  of  the 
name  by  being  called  the  Baptist.  The  bap- 
tism by  water  which  he  administered  typi- 
fied cleansing  from  sin.  He  did  not  regard 
it  as  enough,  but  directed  his  hearers  to  One 
who  should  come  afte-r  him,  whose  shoe- 
latchet  he  was  not  worthy  to  unloose,  and 
who  would  baptize  them  with  the  Holy 
Ghost  and  fire  (Mat.  iii.  5-12).  Notwith- 
standing this  confession  of  inferiority  to 
Jesus,  our  Lord  sought  baptism  at  his  hands. 
John  remonstrated,  which  shows  that  he 
knew  Jesus  to  be  the  Messiah  ;  but  he  obeyed, 
for  he  recognized  his  own  subordinate  i)osi- 
tion  (13-17).  He  knew  Jesus  from  the  teach- 
ing of  his  parents,  and  the  correctness  of 
this  information  was  confirmed  to  him  by  the 
visible  descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit  upon  Jesus 
at  his  baptism.  By  this  sign  he  was  author- 
ized to  declare  Jesus  to  be  the  Christ  (John 
i.  32,  33).  Malachi  had  foretold  the  appear- 
ance of  Elijah,  the  prophet,  before  the  great 
and  terrible  day  of  the  Lord,  to  turn  the 
heart  of  the  fathers  to  the  children  and  the 
heart  of  the  children  to  their  fathers.  John 
denied  that  he  was  Elijah  in  person  (John  i. 
21) ;  he  defined  his  own  mission  and  charac- 
teristics by  simply  cjuoting  Is.  xl.  3.  But 
John  came  in  the  sjiirit  and  ])0wer  of  Elijah 
(Mai.  iv.  5,  6,  with  Luke  i.  17),  he  was  the 
messenger  sent  to  ])rei)are  the  way  before 
Christ  (Mai.  iii.  1,  with  Mark  i.  2),  and  Jesus 
applied  these  jiredictions  to  John  (Mat.  xi. 
10,  14;  xvii.  12,  13).  There  was  a  resem- 
blance between  the  two  men  also  iu  their 
cheap  and  coarse  attire,  which  they  wore  to 
symbolize  the  renouncement  of  ease  and  lux- 
ury, and  in  their  blunt  manners,  which  ren- 
dered them  fitter  for  the  wilderness  than  for 
kings'  courts  (2  Kin.  i.  8,  and  Mat.  iii.  4;  xi. 
8  ;  Mark  i.  6).  John  had  said  of  Jesus,  "He 
must  increase,  but  I  must  decrease;"  and 
without  jealousy  he  saw  the  fulfillment  of 
his  prediction  (John  iii.  25-30).     His  public 


ministry  was  short,  but  his  popular  success 
was  immense.  At  length,  toward  the  close  of 
A.  D.  27  or  iu  the  early  part  of  28,  having  with 
his  usual  fidelity  reproved  Herod  the  tetrarch 
for  living  in  sin  with  his  brother  Philip's 
wife,  he  was  committed  to  prison  (Luke  iii. 
19,  20).  While  there,  perplexed  and  impa- 
tient at  Christ's  method  of  developing  his 
work,  and  perhaps  feeling  that  he  was  for- 
gotten while  others  were  helped,  he  sent  two 
of  his  disciples  to  ask  if  Jesus  were  the  prom- 
ised Messiah.  In  reply  Jesus  pointed  to  his 
works.  When  the  two  disciples  departed, 
Jesus  took  the  opi)ortunity  of  passing  a  high 
panegyric  on  John  (Mat.  xi.  2-15).  John  was 
the  greatest  of  the  prophets  in  that  he  was 
privileged  to  prepare  the  people  for  the 
Christ's  appearance  and  to  point  out  the 
Christ  to  them.  The  vindictivencss  of  the 
adulteress  Herodias  caused  John's  death. 
She  persuaded  her  daughter,  who  had  pleased 
Herod  by  her  dancing,  to  ask  the  head  of  the 
Baptist.  It  was  given  her,  and  the  headless 
body  was  soon  afterwards  removed  by  John's 
disciples  and  buried.  Finding  their  master 
gone,  they  remembered  his  testimony  to  the 
Lamb  of  God,  and  became  disciples  of  Jesus 
(Mat.  xiv.  3-12  ;  Mark  vi.  16-29 ;  Luke  iii. 
19,  20).  Josephus  attributes  the  death  of 
John  the  Baptist  to  Herod's  jealousy  of  his 
great  influence  with  the  people.  He  says 
also  that  the  destruction  of  Herod's  army  in 
the  war  with  Aretas,  which  soon  after  oc- 
curred, was  generally  considered  a  divine 
judgment  on  the  tetrarch  for  the  murder  of 
John.  The  historian  makes  the  place  of  the 
Baptist's  imprisonment  and  death  the  fort  of 
Machserus  (Antiq.  sviii.  5,  2).  Machaerus, 
now  called  Mekaur,  is  situated  in  the  moun- 
tains on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Dead  Sea, 
about  5  miles  north  of  the  Anion,  and  on  the 
top  of  a  conical  hill  3800  feet  above  the  Dead 
Sea.  The  wall  of  circumvallation  of  the  old 
stronghold  still  remains  clearly  traceable, 
while  inside  are  a  deep  well  and  two  dun- 
geons. One  of  the  latter  may  have  been  the 
prison  in  which  John  was  confined. 

6.  Father  of  the  apostle  Peter  (John  i.  42; 
xxi.  15-17,  both  E.  V.).  He  is  called  Jonah 
in  Mat.  xvi.  17.     See  Jonah. 

7.  John  the  apostle.  A  son  of  Zebedee, 
and  brother  of  that  James  who  suffered  mar- 
tyrdom under  Herod  Agrippa  I.  (Mat.  iv.  21 ; 
Acts  xii.  1,  2).  It  is  reasonably  inferred  that 
he  was  younger  than  James,  and  that  his 
mother  was  named  Salome  and  was  sister  to 
the  mother  of  Jesus  ;  see  James.  His  father 
w'as  a  master  fisherman  on  the  sea  of  Galilee, 
and  his  two  sons  aided  him  in  his  occupation 
(Mark  i.  19,  20).  John  had  attended  the 
X)reachiiig  of  tlie  Baptist  at  the  Jordan,  and 
was  evidently  the  unnamed  disciple  to  whom 
and  Andrew  John  the  Baptist  pointed  out 
Jesus  as  the  Lamb  of  God  (John  i.  35-40).  He 
doubtless  accompanied  Jesus  back  to  Galilee, 
and  attended  the  wedding  at  Cana  (ii.  1-11). 
But  he  had  not  been  summoned  yet  to  per- 


John 


385 


John,  Epistles  of 


mauent  fellowship  with  Jesus,  and  he  re- 
sumed his  work  ou  the  hike.  While  he  was 
so  engaged  with  James,  Jesus  called  them  to 
follow  him  (Mat.  iv.  '21,  22  ;  Mark  i.  19,  20). 
Later  they  were  appointed  apostles  (Mat.  x. 
2).  Our  Lord  called  James  and  John  Boaner- 
ges, .sous  of  thunder  (Mark  iii.  17),  evidently 
from  a  certain  vehemence  of  disposition  which 
they  po.ssessed.  The  impetuosity  of  their 
natural  temperament,  not  yet  fully  chastened 
by  grace,  was  shown  when  John  rebuked  one 
who  cast  ou  t  demons  in  Christ's  name,  but  who 
was  not  one  of  the  disciples  (Luke  ix.  49), 
and  when,  finding  their  Master  rejected  in 
a  Samaritan  village,  they  wished  to  call  down 
fire  from  heaven  on  the  unbelieving  inhabi- 
tants (.52-56).  A  certain  lapse  into  selfishness 
was  also  to  be  laid  to  their  charge  when  they 
joined  with  their  mother  in  petitioning  for 
the  places  of  honor,  the  one  on  the  right 
Land  and  the  other  on  the  left  hand  of  Jesus 
in  his  future  kingdom  ;  but  at  the  same  time 
their  zeal  was  manifested,  for  they  declared 
themselves  ready  to  face  death  for  him  (Mat. 
XX.  20-24  ;  Mark  x.  35-41).  But  the  natural 
defects  of  their  character  were  overcome, 
and  their  very  vehemence,  chastened  by 
grace,  became  an  element  of  strength  and 
a  glory.  They  early  belonged  to  the  in- 
ner circle  of  Christ's  friends,  and  John 
showed  an  eminently  loving  and  unself- 
ish disposition,  becoming  in  consequence 
the  disciple  whom  Jesus  peculiarly  loved, 
and  occupying  the  place  next  to  Jesus 
at  the  table  (John  xiii.  23 ;  xix.  26 ;  xx.  2 ; 
xxi.  7,  20).  John  was  one  of  the  three  apos- 
tles whom  Jesus  honored  above  the  rest  bj' 
selecting  them  to  be  present  at  the  raising  of 
Jairus'  daughter  (Mark  v.  37;  Luke  viii. 
51),  at  the  transfiguration  (Mat.  xvii.  1 ;  Mark 
ix.  2;  Luke  ix.  28),  and  at  the  agony  in  the 
garden  (Mat.  xxvi.  37;  Mark  xiv.  33).  He 
Avas  known  to  the  Jewish  high  priest,  and 
he  brought  into  the  pontifical  palace  the 
apostle  Peter  (John  xviii.  16),  whose  part- 
ner in  fishing  he  once  at  least  had  been 
on  the  sea  of  Gralilee  (Luke  v.  10).  He 
followed  Jesus  to  the  place  of  crucifixion, 
and  Jesus  on  the  cross  commended  his  mother 
Mary  to  John's  loving  care,  and  the  trust 
was  accepted  and  efticiently  discharged,  with 
a  sense  of  the  high  honor  which  it  conferred 
(John  xix.  27).  Ou  the  resurrection  morn- 
ing, when  the  women  reported  that  the  Lord 
had  risen,  Peter  and  John  ran  together  to 
the  sepulcher.  John  arrived  first;  but  stood 
at  the  opening,  looking  in.  Peter  boldly  en- 
tered (xx.  1-10).  Shortly  after  this  John  re- 
turned again  for  a  time  to  his  old  means  of 
livelihood  on  the  sea  of  Galilee  (xxi.  2). 
While  there  a  misunderstanding  as  to  the 
meaning  of  a  certain  utterance  of  .Jesus  led 
to  the  unfounded  notion  that  a  promise  had 
been  made  that  the  apostle  should  never  die 
(xxi.  22).  Subsequent  to  the  ascension,  he 
was  one  of  the  120  who  met  in  the  upper 
room  at  Jerusalem  (Acts  i.  13).     After  Pente- 


cost, he  became  Peter's  colleague  in  active 
missionary  work  (iii.  1).  Both  were  imjiris- 
oned  by  the  Jewish  authorities,  and  witnessed 
a  good  confession  (iv.  19).  Both  were  sent 
by  their  fellow-apostles  to  Samaria  to  aid  in 
the  work  begun  by  Philip  (viii.  14).  John 
was  one  of  the  apostles  who  remained  in  Je- 
rusalem during  the  persecutions  that  soon 
assailed  the  infant  church,  and  he  was  still 
there,  a  pillar  of  strength,  when  Paul  visited 
the  city  after  his  first  missionarv  journey 
(XV.  6;'Gal.  ii.  9).  Five  books  of 'the  N.  f. 
are  ascribed  to  him — the  Fourth  Gospel,  three 
epistles,  and  the  book  of  Eevelation.  In  the 
title  of  the  last-named  work  the  author  is 
called  St.  John  the  Divine.  Tradition  fixes 
on  Ephesus  as  the  scene  of  his  later  minis- 
trations, and  it  is  probable  that  the  seven 
churches  of  Asia  enjoyed  his  care  (Eev.  i.  11). 
W^hen  he  penned  the  Revelation,  probably  in 
A.  D.  95,  he  was  in  the  island  of  Patnias,  an 
exile  for  the  word  of  God  and  the  testimony 
of  Jesus  (Rev.  i.  9).  The  accession  of  Nerva 
is  said  to  have  freed  him  from  danger  and 
enabled  him  to  return  to  Ephesus.  Polycarp, 
Papias,  and  Ignatius  were  his  pupils.  Poly- 
carp's  disciple  Irenseus  states  that  he  con- 
tinued to  reside  at  Ephesus  until  his  death 
in  the  reign  of  Trajan. 

8.  John  Mark.  Mark  the  evangelist.  Mark, 
however,  was  only  the  surname  ;  John  was 
the  proper,  and  probably  the  earlier,  name 
(Acts  xii.  12,  25).     See  Mark. 

9.  A  Jewish  dignitary  who  took  part  with 
Annas,  Caiaphas,  Alexander,  and  as  many  as 
were  of  the  kindred  of  the  high  priest, 
which  perhaps  he  was  himself,  in  calling  the 
apostles  Peter  and  John  to  account  for  their 
preaching  (Acts  iv.  6). 

John,  E-pis'tles  of. 

The  First  Epistle  of  John  is  evidently  by 
the  author  of  the  Fourth  Gospel.  The  same 
characteristic  phraseology  is  found  in  both 
works  and  the  same  way  of  constructing 
sentences.  The  epistle  moreover  plainly  sup- 
poses the  readers'  acquaintance  with  the  gos- 
pel. Both  were  evidently  sent  primarily  to 
the  same  churches,  and  in  the  opinion  of 
many  the  epistle  was  an  accompaniment  of 
the  gospel.  The  opening  words  of  the  epis- 
tle suggest  at  once  the  gospel's  prologue,  and 
parallels  between  the  two  books  may  be 
found  in  nearly  every  verse  of  the  epistle. 
The  epistle,  moreover,  has  in  view  the  world 
as  the  antagonist  of  the  church  and  the  field 
of  its  operations  (ii.  2,  1.5-17  :  iv.  .3-5  ;  v.  4.  5, 
19),  and  warns  against  heresies  which  struck 
at  the  integrity  of  Christ's  person  (ii.  18-26; 
iv.  1-3 ;  v.  6-10).  These  features  harmonize 
with  the  date  and  purjiose  of  the  gospel.  The 
two  works  therefore  clearly  came  from  the 
same  hand  and  at  about  the  .same  time.  The 
epistle  seeks  to  apply  to  Christian  life  the 
truth  whose  historical  revelation  is  recorded 
in  the  gospel.  It,  no  less  than  the  gospel, 
claims  to  be  by  an  apostle.     The  writer  was 


Jolin,  Epistles  of 


386 


Jolin,  Gospel  according  to  St. 


one  of  tliose  who  had  lived  in  personal  con- 
tact with  Christ  (i.  1-li,  5;  iv.  14)  and  writes 
in  an  authoritative  manner  as  became  an 
apostle  (i.  4;  ii.  1;  iv.  6,  14).  How  deeply 
he  had  absorbed  the  teaching  of  his  Lord  is 
proved  by  the  similarity  of  phraseology  and 
thought  between  the  epistle  and  Christ's  dis- 
courses in  the  gospel.  The  Johannean  author- 
ship of  the  epistle  is  vouched  for  by  Irenseus 
ami  the  Muratori  Fragment ;  while  earlier 
quotations  by  Polycarp,  Papias,  etc.,  prove 
its  use  in  the  church  from  the  beginning  of 
the  second  century.  Its  train  of  thought 
may  be  outlined  as  follows:  After  the  intro- 
duction (i.  1-4),  in  which  John  declares  the 
purpose  of  his  ministry  to  be  the  declaration 
to  men  of  the  manifestation  of  the  life-giv- 
ing, divine  Word,  in  order  that  they  may 
have  joyful  fellowship  in  him  with  the  orig- 
inal apostles,  he  teaches  that  the  character 
of  God,  as  learned  from  Christ,  must  deter- 
mine tke  character  of  theChi'istiau's  inward 
and  outward  life  (i.  5-ii.  6)  ;  hence  he  urges 
to  love  of  the  brethren,  warns  against  love 
of  the  world  and  beretical  teaching  (ii.  7-27). 
He  next  in.sists  (ii.  28-iii.  24)  on  the  necessity 
of  doing  righteousness,  and  so  of  abiding  in 
God,  in  view  of  the  coming  second  advent  of 
Christ ;  since  at  it  our  divine  sonship  will 
be  fully  manifested  and  that  sonship  is 
distinguished  by  obedience  and  love.  Then 
he  reminds  his  readers  (iv.)  that  the  test  of 
Laving  the  .Si)irit  of  God  is  to  be  found  in  the 
true  confession  of  Christ  as  the  incarnate  Son 
of  God,  in  adherence  to  apostolic  teaching,  and 
in  love  ;  and  that  right  faith  in  Jesus  is  the 
condition  of  the  whole  spiritual  life  of  love  (v. 
1-12).  In  the  conclusion  (v.  13-21)  he  tersely 
summarizes  the  purpose  of  the  epistle  as  in- 
tended to  confirm  them  in  faith  and  com- 
munion with  God,  and  solemnly  recites  the 
historical  and  spiritual  facts  on  which  their 
eteriuil  life  steadfastly  reposes. 

The  Second  Epistle  of  John.  The  author 
calls  himself  "  the  elder,"  and  writes  to  ''  the 
elect  lady  and  her  children,"  expressing  his 
joy  at  the  Christian  life  of  her  children  and 
warning  her  against  heretical  teachers.  The 
brevity  of  the  epistle  easily  explains  the 
l)aucity  of  references  to  it  in  the  earliest 
writers.  In  fact  the  external  evidence  is 
larger  than  would  be  expected.  The  Johan- 
nciin  autlnirshiji,  however,  is  abundantly 
proved  by  the  remarkable  coincidences  of 
laugtuige  and  tliought  with  1  John  and  no 
motive  can  be  imagined  for  its  forgery.  Some 
have  supposed  that  by  the  elect  lady  was 
meant  a  church  ;  others  suppose  her  an  indi- 
vidual named  Kuria  (the  Greek  for  lady). 
It  is  pro))ab]y  best  to  leave  the  name  in- 
definite. 

Tlie  Third  Epistle  of  John.  Another  brief 
letter  addressed  by  the  c'ld(-r  to  Gains  (he 
well-beloved,  exiircssiug  joy  at  the  hosjiitality 
to  the  brethren  which  Gains  had  shown,  and 
urging  his  friend  to  continue  to  imitate  that 
whicli  is  good.     Keference  is  also  made  to  a 


certain  Diotrephes  who  had  opposed  the 
writer  ;  and  on  the  other  hand  to  a  Demetrius 
who  is  praised.  It  is  impossible  to  identify  this 
Gains  with  any  of  that  name  mentioned  in 
the  N.  T. ;  see  Gaivs  3.  He  appears  to  have 
been  a  prominent  man  in  one  of  the  churches 
of  Asia,  but  not  an  officer  of  the  church. 
This  epistle  is  remarkably  like  the  first  and 
second  in  style  and  thought :  so  that  there  is 
no  reason  to  doubt  that  the  three  were  by  the 
same  writer. 

All  John's  epistles,  with  those  of  James, 
Peter,  and  Jude,  are  frequently  included  in 
the  number  of  the  so-called  "catholic"  or 
"  general "  epistles,  i.  e.  those  addressed  not 
to  particular  churches  or  persons,  but  to  large 
or  many  communities.  1  John  was  no  doubt 
sent  to  the  churches  of  Asia,  among  which 
the  Fourth  Gospel  was  first  issued.  'To  2  and 
3  John,  however,  this  title  does  not  apply, 
nor  are  they  styled  "general"  in  A.  V.  or 
R.  V.  They  were  probably  i)laced  among 
the  "general  "  epistles  simply  because,  being 
brief,  they  were  attached  to  1  John. 

G.  T.  P. 

Jolin  the  Divine,  The  Revelation  of  St. 

See    IvEVELATIOX. 

John,  Gos'pel  according  to  St. 

The  title  prefixed  to  the  Fourth  Gospel,  in 
accordance  with  the  universal  belief  of  the 
early  church  that  the  book  was  written  by 
the  apostle  John.  Like  the  other  gospels  it 
does  not  mention  the  writer's  name,  but  both 
internal  and  external  considerations  support 
the  traditional  belief. 

I.  Internal  evidence.  (1)  The  writer  was 
one  of  the  apostles.  This  appears  from  his 
use  of  the  first  person  plural  (i.  14  and  jier- 
haps  xsi.24)  and  from  many  items  of  minute 
description,  especially  concerning  the  impres- 
sion made  on  the  disciples  bv  events  in 
Christ's  life,  etc.  (i.  37  ;  ii.  11,  17;  iv.  27,  54  ; 
ix.  2;  xi.  8-16;  xii.  4-6,  21,  22;  xiii.  23-26; 
xviii.  15 ;  xix.  26,  27,  35  ;  xx.  8),  and  from 
the  explicit  statement  in  xxi.  24.  (2)  He 
mentions  a  "disciple  whom  Jesus  loved" 
(xiii.  23;  xix.  26  ;  xx.  2  ;  xxi.  7,  20,  21).  who, 
in  xxi.  24,  is  said  to  be  the  author.  All  the 
apostles,  however,  are  mentioned  by  name  in 
the  book  except  Matthew,  James  the  son  of 
Aljilueus,  Simon  Zelotes,  and  the  sons  of 
Zebedee.  The  three  former  did  not  belong 
to  the  narrower  circle  of  intinuite  disciples, 
to  one  of  whom  this  title  would  alone  be 
applicable,  and  James  the  son  of  Zebedee 
died  early  (Acts  xii.  2).  John,  therefore, 
alone  remains.  (3)  That  the  writer  was  a 
Jew  is  proved  incontestably  by  the  strongly 
Hebraistic  character  of  his  style  in  writing 
Greek.  (4)  He  shows  intimate  acquaintance 
with  the  geography,  history,  and  customs  of 
tlie  Jews  during  Christ's  ministrv  {e.  g.  i.  21, 
28,  46;  ii.  6;  iii.  23;  iv.  5,  27,  "R.  V.;  v.  2, 
3;  vii.  40-52;  ix.  7;  x.  22,  23;  xi.  18;  xviii. 
28  ;  xix.  31),  and  his  book  gives  more  personal 
details  than  any  of  the  gospels.    The  internal 


John,  Gospel  according  to  St.        387       John,  Gospel  according  to  St. 


evidence  thus  harmonizes  strikingly  with  the 
Johannean  authorship.  Nothing  stronger 
coukl  he  asked,  short  of  an  exjilicit  state- 
ment. The  latter,  in  fact,  is  almost  given  in 
xxi.  24,  for,  aecording  to  the  unanimous  tes- 
timony of  early  Christian  history,  John  was 
the  only  apostle  who  lived  long  enough  to 
give  rise  to  the  helief  that  he  would  survive 
till  the  second  advent.  Chap.  xxi.  is  evi- 
dently an  addition  by  the  author  to  his  work, 
which  was  originally  intended  to  close  with 
chap.  XX.  It  amounts  substantially  to  an 
atiirmation  that  St.  John  was  the  author  of 
the  wholi'  treatise. 

II.  E.rteninl  evidence.  The  testimony  of 
Irenseus  (born  about  A.  D.  115-125  and 
bishop  of  Lyons  in  the  last  part  of  the 
second  century),  who  was  a  disciple  of 
Polj'carp,  who  was  a  disciple  of  St.  John,  is 
explicit  that  John  wrote  this  Gospel  in  Ejihe- 
sus  after  the  other  gospels  had  been  issued. 
This  is  of  itself  sufiicient  evidence.  It  is 
confirmed,  however,  by  a  line  of  testimonies 
from  the  very  close  of  the  apostolic  age.  The 
First  Epistle  was  plainly  written  by  the  au- 
thor of  the  Gospel,  and  its  apo.stolic  authority 
is  attested  by  its  use  by  Polycarp  (A.  D.  110) 
and  Papias  (a.  d.  130-140).'  The  Ignatian 
epistles  (a.  d.  100)  show  that  the  Gospel  was 
familiar  and  authoritative  to  the  churches  of 
Asia  Minor  at  the  beginning  of  the  second 
century.  Justin  (a.  d.  150)  used  it  freely, 
and  quotes  from  it.  evidently  considering  it 
one  of  "the  memoirs  of  the  apostles,"  which 
he  .says  were  called  gospels,  and  were  written 
by  the  apostles  and  their  comjianions.  In  the 
Teaching  of  the  Apo.stles  the  use  of  the 
Fourth  Gospel  is  thought  by  many  to  be  im- 
plied ;  and,  while  that  is  perhaps  doubtful, 
the  more  recently  recovered  apocryphal  Gos- 
pel of  Peter  shows  that  the  Fourth  Gospel 
formed  with  the  other  three  the  narrative 
upon  the  basis  of  which  the  pseudo-Peter 
wrote.  Tatian's  Diatessaron  was  a  harmony 
of  the  gospels  used  in  the  churches,  and  is  a 
combination  of  our  four.  The  MS.  of  Syriac 
gospels,  recently  found  by  Mrs.  Lewis,  proves 
that  in  the  second  century  our  four  gospels 
were  the  accepted  ones  in  the  Syrian  church. 
Finally,  it  is  certain  that  even  the  earliest 
heretics  (Gnostic)  of  the  second  century  ac- 
cepted the  Fourth  Gospel  as  apostolic.  Thus 
external  evidence  amply  confirms  the  belief 
that  the  Fourth  Gospel  was  written  by  St. 
John,  and,  as  such,  was  received  as  authori- 
tative by  the  church  from  the  very  beginning 
of  the  post-apostolic  age.  The  evidence  also 
points  to  its  composition  in  Asia  Minor  (tra- 
dition says  Ephesus)  in  the  last  quarter  of 
the  first  century.  The  opponents  of  Jesus 
are  called  simply  the  Jews  (i.  19 ;  ii.  18 ; 
V.  10;  vii.  15,  etc.),  explanations  are  given 
about  the  Jewish  feasts  (vi.  4  ;  vii.  2  ;  xi.  55  ; 
xix.  31),  the  sea  of  Galilee  is  explained  by 
its  gentile  name,  sea  of  Tiberias  (vi.  1), 
and  the  designation  in  the  prologue  of  Christ 
as  the  Word  of  God  points  to  a  period  when 


Christianity  was  confronted  with  such  philo- 
sophical tendencies  as  we  know  existed  iu 
Asia  Minor.  This  explains  also  the  ai)parent 
purpose  of  the  book.  It  was  to  give  Christ's 
testimony  to  himself  as  the  incarnate  Son  of 
God  and  Saviour  of  the  world  (xx.  30,  31). 
It  assumes  acquaintance  with  the  other  gos- 
pels and  intends  t(j  suj)plement  them  ;  see 
Gospel.  They  had  not  given  those  great 
discourses  of  the  Lord,  in  which  he  had  re- 
plied to  the  attacks  of  the  Jews  ujjou  his  di- 
vine claims  or  had  unfolded  to  his  disciples 
the  mysteries  of  his  being  and  their  spiritual 
relations  to  himself.  This  self-testimony  of 
Jesus  John  determined  to  set  down,  esi)ecial- 
ly  since  heresies  had  risen  which  denied 
some  aspects  of  the  person  of  Christ.  With 
this  he  combined  also,  as  was  natural,  many 
items  of  personal  reminiscence.  The  result 
was  to  provide  the  church  with  a  comj)lete 
portrayal  of  her  divine-human  Lord. 

John's  Gospel  begins  with  a  prologue  (i.  1- 
18),  in  which  the  apostle  summarizes  the 
great  truth  about  to  be  shown  iu  the  life  of 
Christ,  viz.  the  existence  of  a  second  divine 
person  whose  office  it  is  to  reveal  God  and 
who  is,  therefore,  called  the  Word,  who,  be- 
sides being  the  universal  source  of  life  and 
light  to  creation,  became  incarnate  as  Jesus 
Christ,  and  thus  to  those  who  believed,  re- 
vealed God  and  imparted  salvation.  He 
then  relates,  1.  The  opening  testimonies  to 
Jesus  given  by  John  the  Baptist  and  by  Jesus 
himself  to   his   first   disciples    (i.    19-ii.    11). 

2.  Christ's  revelation  of  himself  in  a  series  of 
acts  and,  still  more,  of  discourses  addressed 
to  inquirers  or  to  his  adversaries  (ii.  12-xii. 
50).  This  includes  (a)  his  testimony  at  his 
first  passover  (ii.  12-25),  and  the  discourse 
with  Nicodemus  (iii.  1-21),  together  with 
the  renewed  testimony  of  the  Baptist  (22- 
36)  ;  (b)  the  conversation  with  the  woman  of 
Samaria  (iv.  1-42)  ;  (c)  the  second  miracle  in 
Galilee  (43-54)  ;  {(J)  Christ's  defense  to  the 
Jews  of  his  divine  dignity  and  authority  (v.) ; 
ie)  his  presentation  of  himself  as  the  bread 
of  life  (vi.)  ;  (/)  his  renewed  defense  of  his 
authority  and  dignity  at  the  feast  of  taber- 
nacles (vii.,  viii.) ;  (g)  the  healing  of  the 
blind  man  and  parable  of  the  good  shepherd 
(ix.  1-x.  21) ;  {}>)  Christ's  final  testimony  to 
the  Jews  (22-42)  ;  {,})  the  raising  of  Laz- 
arus and  its  consequences  (xi.)  ;  {k)  the  tes- 
timony given  at  Bethany,  in  the  triumphal 
entry,  and  at  the  visit  of  the  Greeks  (xii.). 

3.  Christ's  revelation  of  him.self  in  connec- 
tion with  his  death  and  resurrection  (xiii. 
1-xxi.  25).  This  includes  (a)  his  last  dis- 
courses with  his  disciples  (xiii.-xvii.)  ;  (h)  his 
arrest,  trial,  and  crucifixion,  in  which  he 
bore  witness,  particularly  before  Pilate,  to 
his  person  and  work  (xviii.,  xix.)  ;  (c)  his 
resurrection  and  certain  testimonies  con- 
nected with  it  (xx..  xxi.).  The  result  is  to 
show  that  in  the  human  Jesus  there  was  the 
eternal  Son  of  God.  who  by  his  person, 
teaching,  and  redeeming  work  has  revealed 


Joiada 


388 


Jonah 


God  and  secured  eternal  life  to  those  who 
receive  him.  St.  John  thus  represents  the 
mission  of  Jesus  as  the  climax  of  God's  self- 
revelation  and  as  the  procurement  for  be- 
lievers of  tliat  light  which  consists  in  knowl- 
edge of  the  highest  truth  and  of  that  life 
which  consists  in  spiritual  union  with  God, 
which  together  constitute  the  perfect  good 
and  the  everlasting  salvation.  "These 
[things]"  he  says,  "  are  written,  that  ye  might 
believe  that  Jesus  is  the  Christ,  the  Son  of 
God  ;  and  that  believing  ye  might  have  life 
through  his  name  "  (xx.  31). 

G.  T.  P. 

Joi'a-da  [Jehovah  hath  known]. 

1.  A  son  of  Paseah,  who  repaired  a  gate  of 
Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  6  ;  in  A.  V.  Jehoiada). 

2.  A  high  priest,  great-grandson  of  Jeshua 
(Neh.  xii.  10). 

Joi'a-kim  [Jehovah  doth  establish]. 

A  high  i)riest,  son  of  Jeshua  (Neh.  xii.  10, 
12,  21-2()),  in  the  reign  of  [Arta]xerxes  (An- 
tiq.  xi.  5,  1). 

Joi'a-rib  or  Jehoiarib,  the  two  forms  freely 
interchanging  in  Hebrew  [Jehovah  defends]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Aaron.  His  family 
formed  the  first  of  the  twenty-four  courses 
into  which  David  divided  the  priests  (1  Chron. 
xxiv.  7),  and  it  dwelt  at  Jerusalem  (ix.  10)  ; 
see  Jehoiarib. 

2.  A  chief  of  the  priests  who  returned  from 
Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Neh.  xii.  6,7).  In 
the  next  generation  a  father's  house  bore 
this  name  (19;  cp.  1  Mac.  ii.  1,  Joarib  being 
the  Greek  form). 

3.  A  man  of  understanding  who  was  re- 
turning from  Babylon  with  Ezra  and  was 
sent  with  others  from  the  encampment  on 
the  river  of  Ahava  to  secure  Levites  and 
Nethinini  for  the  service  of  the  temple 
(Ezra  viii.  16,   17). 

4.  A  man  of  Judah,  descended  from  a  cer- 
tain Zechariah  (Neh.  xi.  5). 

Jok'de-am  [perhajis,  possessed  by  people]. 

A  town  in  the  mountains  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  ."")()).     Site  unknown. 

Jo'kim. 

A  mail  of  Judah,  family  of  Shelah  (1 
Chron.    iv.  22). 

Jok'me-am  [the  people  is  brought  to- 
gether] . 

A  town  of  Ephraim  (1  Chron.  vi.  68),  ap- 
parently near  Abel-mchohih  (1  Kin.  iv.  12, 
where  A.  \.,  contrary  to  the  Hcl)rew  t(>xt, 
calls  it  Jokneam).  The  Kohathite  Levites 
were  given  residence  in  it  (1  Chron.  vi.  66, 
68).  Instead  of  this  town,  Kibzaim  is  given 
in  Josh.  xxi.  22,  and  is  commonly  believed  to 
be  another  name  of  the  same  place. 

Jok'ne-am  [the  i)oople  is  i)ennitted  to 
]iossi'ss,  or  it  is  allowed  to  possess  jjcople]. 

1.  A  town  on  or  near  mount  Carmel  (Josh, 
xii.  22).  Th(!  boundary  line  of  the  tribe  of 
Zebulun  extended  to  the  river  that  is  before 
Jokneam   (xix.    11).     It  was  given    with  its 


suburbs  to  the  Merarite  Levites  (xxi.  34). 
The  identification  jiroposed  by  Eli  Smith  and 
Eobinsou  is  generally  accepted,  namely  Tell 
Keimun,  probably  the  Cyamon  of  Judith  vii. 
3,  on  the  southern  margin  of  the  plain  of 
Esdraelon,  on  the  slopes  of  Carmel,  a  little 
south  of  the  Kishon,  and  about  ir>  miles 
northwest  by  west  of  Jezreel.  It  commands 
the  main  pass  from  the  western  portion  of 
Esdraelon  to  the  more  southern  plain. 

2.  A  place  mentioned  in  A.  V.  of  1  Kin.  iv. 
12  ;  but  see  Jokmeam. 

Jok'sban  [perhaps,  a  fowler]. 

The  jirogeuitor  of  a  tribe  descended  from 
Abraham  by  Keturah  (Gen.  xxv.  1,2).  From 
Jokshan  sprang  Sheba  and  Dedan  (3).  Exact 
place  of  settlement  unknown. 

Jok'tan  [Hebrew  Yoktav,  little,  small]. 

A  person  or  tribe  descended  from  Shem 
through  Eber  and  from  whom  thirteen  tribes 
of  Arabia  sprang  (Gen.  x.  25,  29  ;  1  Chron.  i. 
19-23).  The  Mussulmans  correctly  or  incor- 
rectly call  Joktan  Kaht/ni. 

Jok'tbe-el  [probably,  subjection  to  God  or 
it  is  made  to  serve  God]. 

1.  A  village  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  38).  The  identification  with  the  ruin 
Kutlaneh,  about  4  miles  east  by  south  of 
Ekron,  and  4  west-southwest  of  Gezer  is 
groundless. 

2.  A  name  given  by  Amaziah.  king  of 
Judah,  to  Selah,  now  Petra,  when  he  had 
taken  it  in  war  (2  Kin.  xiv.  7). 

Jo'na.     See  Jonah  2. 
Jon'a-dab  and    Jebonadab    [Jehovah    is 
bounteous]. 

1.  Son  of  David's  brother  Shimeah  (2  Sam. 
xiii.  3). 

2.  A  son  of  Eechab,  the  Kenite  (Jer.  xxxv. 
6  ;  cp.  1  Chron.  ii.  55).  He  became  head  of 
the  tribe  and  gave  character  to  it  by  his  rule 
requiring  his  people  to  dwell  in  tents,  refrain 
from  agriculture,  and  abstain  from  wine  (Jer. 
xxxv.  6,  7)  in  order  to  ]n-eserve  jirimitive 
simi)licity  of  manners.  Jehu,  finding  that 
Jonadab  sympathized  with  his  work  of  sup- 
pressing Baal  worship,  took  him  to  Samaria, 
where  he  aided  Jehu  in  putting  out  of  Baal's 
temple  all  who  were  not  priests  of  that  god, 
in  preparation  for  the  massacre  which  was  to 
ensue  (2  Kin.  x.  15,  23). 

Jo'nab,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Jonas,  tM'ice 
Jona,  the  Greek  genitive  case  (Mat.  xvi.  17  ; 
John  i.  42)  [a  dove]. 

1.  A  prophet  of  Israel,  a  sou  of  Amittai, 
and  citizen  of  Gath-hepher  in  Galilee,  who 
before  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Jeroboam  II. 
foretold  Israel's  recovery  of  its  borders  from 
the  entering  of  Hamath  to  the  sea  of  the 
plain  (2  Kin.  xiv.  25;  Jon.  i.  1). 

The  book  of  Jonah  is  the  fifth  in  order  of 
the  minor  prophetic  l)ooks  in  the  Hebrew 
original,  in  the  Septuagint,  and  in  the  Eng- 
lish Bible.  It  may  be  divided  into  three  sec- 
tions :— 


Jonah 


389 


Jonah 


I.  Jonah's  disobedience  (i.).  He  was  bid- 
den to  go  to  Nineveh  and  ery  against  it.  But 
he  desired  the  destruetion  of  the  city,  proba- 
bly because  its  punishment  woukl  humble  an 
enemy  of  Israel ;  and  he  feared  lest  it  should 
repent  at  his  message  and  be  spared  to  the 
destruction  of  his  nation.  Accordingly  he 
took  ship  at  Joppa  to  flee  to  Tarshish.  A  great 
storm  arose.  The  ship  was  in  danger.  At 
length  the  sailors  cast  lots  to  ascertain  on 
whose  account  the  storm  had  been  sent.  The 
lot  fell  upon  Jonah.  He  told  them  that  he 
was  a  worshiper  of  the  God  of  heaven 
who  had  made  the  sea  and  the  dry  land  ;  and 
that,  if  they  would  cast  him  overboard,  the 
sea  would  become  calm.  They  reluctantly 
obeyed.  The  sea  became  quiet ;  and  the 
prophet,  who  had  disappeared  in  the  depths, 
was  swallowed  by  a  great  fish  which  the  Lord 
had  prepared.  II.  Jonah's  prayer  (ii.).  Sur- 
prised at  finding  himself  alive  in  the  midst 
of  the  sea,  the  prophet  gave  thanks  to  God 
for  his  present  escape  from  death  and  grate- 
fully expressed  the  hope  of  ultimate  deliver- 
ance. The  fish  at  length  vomited  him  upon 
the  dry  land.  III.  Jonah's  message  and  its 
results  (iii.,  iv.).  Bidden  a  second  time  to  go 
to  Nineveh,  he  obeyed  and  delivered  his  mes- 
sage. The  Ninevites  publicly  repented  and 
God  spared  the  city.  At  this  Jonah  was  dis- 
pleased ;  not  that  his  prophecy  had  been  nulli- 
fied by  the  repentance  of  the  people,  for  he 
and  his  hearers  expected  that  it  would  be 
(iii.  9;  iv.  2),  but  jirobably  because  he  felt 
that  the  doom  of  his  own  country  was  sealed. 
But  by  the  withering  of  a  gourd  the  Lord 
taught  him  the  lesson  of  divine  compassion 
on  man  and  beast  generally,  irrespective  of 
man's  relation  to  the  church. 

It  has  been  urged  that  the  book  of  Jonah 
nowhere  claims  to  have  been  written  by  that 
prophet.  But  the  title  (i.  1)  is  like  the  title 
of  Hosea,  Joel,  Micah,  Zephaniah,  Haggai, 
and  Zechariah,  books  of  which  the  author- 
ship is  not  disputed.  It  is  urged  further  that 
the  book  was  written  long  after  Jonah's  time, 
because  in  the  prayer  ascribed  to  him  are 
some  quotations  from  late  psalms  (ii.  .3  with 
Ps.  xlii.  7  ;  5  with  Ps.  Ixix.  1  ;  9  with  Ps.  1. 
14).  But  the  i>salms  may  equally  well  con- 
tain quotations  from  Jonah.  The  prophecy 
may  be  dated  before  or  shortly  after  the  close 
of  the  reign  of  Jeroboam  II.  (2  Kin.  xiv.  25). 
It  perhaps  belongs  chronologically  after  Amos 
(Amos  i.  1)  and  probably,before  the  vigorous 
reign  of  Tiglath-pileser  over  Assyria,  which 
began  in  745  b.  c. 

The  narrative  has  been  variously  regarded 
as  myth,  legend,  parable,  history.  The  chief 
interpretations  are — 1.  The  allegorical  or  par- 
abolical. This  conception  of  the  prophecy  is 
much  in  vogue,  for  it  avoids  the  miracle.  It 
interprets  Jonah  as  a  type  of  Israel  fleeing 
from  the  duty  imposed  on  the  nation  to  bear 
witness  to  the  world  for  God.  The  sea  typi- 
fies, as  frequently,  the  raging  nations;  the 
sleep  of  Jonah  represents  Israel's  sloth  to  ful- 


fill its  mission  to  the  gentiles,  for  which  it  is 
delivered  into  captivity  to  the  world,  i)u(  yet 
is  preserved  alive;  having  been  discii)line(l, 
it  is  ready  to  engage  in  its  apjjointed  mission, 
but  it  is  still  narrow  and  needs  to  be  taught 
the  wideness  of  God's  mercy.  In  sujtport  of 
this  view  it  is  j)ointed  out  that  .Jeremiah 
speaks  of  Nebuchadnezzar  under  tlie  figure 
of  a  dragon  swallowing  up  Israel,  but  com- 
pelled to  di.sgorge  his  prey  (Ii.  34),  and  Hosea 
represents  the  exile  of  Israel  as  lasting  three 
days  (vi.  2).  If.  however,  there  was  any  i)or- 
rowing  at  all,  Jeremiah  is  as  likely  to  liave 
borrowed  from  Jonah  as  vice  versa.  Hosea 
was  a  contemporary  prophet  with  Jonaii  iu 
the  northern  kingdom,  and  might  draw  a 
lesson  from  Jonah's  experience,  if  there  is 
any  interdependence  of  Hos.  vi.  2  and  .Ton.  i. 
17.  2.  The  historical.  The  miraculous  ele- 
ment is  magnified  or  minimized  according  to 
individual  judgment  and  knowledge.  The 
conception  of  the  narrative  as  historical  has 
these  supi)orts:  (1)  The  form  of  the  book  is 
historical  and  has  left  this  impression  on  its 
readers.  (2)  Jonah  himself  was  unquestion- 
ably a  historical  personage.  (3)  While  it  is 
conceivable  that  the  words  of  Christ  regard- 
ing Jonah  in  the  belly  of  the  fish  and  at 
Nineveh  do  not  imply  his  belief  in  the  events, 
it  is  highly  probable  that  they  do.  especially 
since  Jonah  was  a  real  person  (Mat.  sii.  39, 
40  :  Luke  xi.  29,  .30).  (4)  The  narrative  was 
regarded  by  the  Jews  as  historical  (Antiq.  ix. 
10,  2).  (5)  The  repentance  of  the  Ninevites 
is  credible.  They  were  given  to  superstition  ; 
national  distress  and  a  low  state  of  tlie  em- 
pire would  dispose  them  to  listen  to  a  warn- 
ing from  the  gods  ;  the  arrival  from  a  for- 
eign country  of  a  strange  prophet,  of  whose 
peculiar  history  they  may  have  heard,  was 
calculated  to  afTectthem;  the  Spirit  of  (iod 
worketh  when  and  where  he  will.  It  is 
urged,  indeed,  against  the  historical  charac- 
ter of  the  book  that  a  jiermanent  conversion 
of  the  Ninevites  did  not  take  place.  Cer- 
tainly it  did  not,  and  it  is  nowhere  asserted 
that  it  did.  The  statement  merely  is  that 
the  men  of  that  generation  repented  under 
the  lead  of  their  king.  So  the  men  of  Judah 
in  Hezekiah's  and  .Josiah's  reigns  sanctified 
themselves  under  the  leadershij)  of  those 
kings.  It  is  further  urged  that  the  book  was 
.scarcely  regarded  as  a  historical  narrative 
when  the  Hebrew  canon  was  arranged,  or  it 
would  have  been  placed  among  the  historical, 
and  not  among  the  prophetical,  books.  But 
the  recorded  events  are  typical  and  proi)lietic, 
like  the  events  narrated  in  Zech.  vi.  9-15. 
And  what  is  more,  the  Hebrew  canon  does 
not  make  the  distinction  between  historical 
and  prophetical  books.  The  prose  writings 
of  official  prophets  are  grouped  by  them- 
selves. Omitting  Ruth,  the  books  from  Joslina 
to  2  Kings  inclusive  are  classed  as  prophetic. 
This  collection  forms  continuous  history,  and 
it  is  immediately  followed  by  a  second  group 
denominated  prophetic,  and  containing  all 


Jonam 


390 


Jonathan 


the  remaining  books  which  bear  the  name  of 
an  official  iiroi)het.  Here  Jonah  rightly  be- 
longs, and  here  the  book  has  been  placed.  See 
Canon. 

2.  Father  of  Simon  Peter  (Mat.  xvi.  17; 
John  i.  42;  xxi.  15).  In  R.  V.  of  John 
Simon's  father  is  called  John  on  the  authority 
of  manuscripts. 

jo'nam,  in  A.  V.  Jonan,  the  reading  of 
variant  texts  [perhaps  a  modification  of  the 
Hebrew  YoJianan,  Jehovah  hath  been  gra- 
cious] . 

An  ancestor  of  Christ,  who  lived  about  two 
hundred  years  after  David  (Luke  iii.  30). 

Jo'nas.     See  Jonah. 

Jon'a-tlian  [Jehovah  has  given]. 

1.  A  Levite,  son  or  remoter  descendant  of 
Gershom,  son  of  Moses  (Judg.  xviii.  30,  R.  V.). 
He  was  doubtless  the  Levite  who  had  so- 
journed at  Bethleheni-judah,  but  had  left 
that  town  to  seek  another  residence,  and, 
when  passing  through  Ephraini,  was  hired 
by  Micah  to  officiate  as  priest  before  an  image 
of  Jehovah  (xvii.  7-13).  When  the  Dauites 
were  on  their  way  to  seek  new  settlements 
in  the  north  of  Palestine,  they  robbed  Micah 
of  his  image,  and  persuaded  his  mercenary 
priest  to  go  with  them,  tempting  his  ambition 
by  promising  that  he  should  be  the  priest, 
not  of  a  single  household,  but  of  a  tribe. 
They  kept  their  word,  and  Jonathan  became 
the  fir.st  of  a  line  of  ])riests  who  worshiped 
at  the  shrine  of  the  stolen  idol  all  the  time 
that  the  tabernacle  was  in  Sliiloh,  till  the 
captivity  of  the  land  or  district  (Judg.  xviii. 
3-6,  14-31).  To  avoid  the  dishonor  accruing 
to  Moses  from  the  idolatry  of  his  descendant, 
a  nun  was  in,serted  in  the  Hebrew  word  for 
Moses,  which  changed  it  into  Manasseh  (.30, 
A.  v.).  The  inserted  letter  was  not  incor- 
porated into  the  text,  but  was  suspended  above 
the  line. 

2.  Eldest  son  of  king  Saul  (1  Sam.  xiv.  49 ; 
cp.  XX.  31).  Whew  first  mentioned,  after  his 
father  had  reigned  two  years,  he  is  in  com- 
mand of  1000  men,  while  Saul  leads  other 
2000.  Jonathan  with  his  forces  attacked  and 
destroyed  the  Philistine  garrison,  or  rather 
deputy,  at  Geba  (1  Sam.  xiii.  3).  Shortly 
afterwards  the  young  prince,  attended  only 
by  his  armor-bearer,  climbed  up  an  ascent 
between  two  rocks,  called  Bozez  and  Seneh, 
and  suddenly  assailing  the  first  Philistines 
he  met,  created  a  panic  in  their  army,  which 
became  so  great  that  in  their  fright  the  sol- 
diers turned  their  arms  against  each  other 
(xiv.  1-23).  The  same  day  Saul  had  almost 
put  his  heroic  son  to  death  for  having  eaten 
honey  in  a  wood,  being  ignorant  that  the 
king  had  pronounced  a  rash  imprecatio7\ 
against  any  one  who  should  partake  of  food 
that  day.  But  the  people  interfered,  and 
would  not  allow  Jonathan's  life  to  be  sacri- 
ficed (24-46).  When  David,  then  a  young 
man  and  known  but  to  few,  achieved  his 
great  victory  over  Goliath,  Jonathan,  who 


was  of  a  singularly  unselfish  nature,  con- 
ceived a  warm  friendship  for  the  hero 
(xviii.  1).  and  would  not  give  it  up,  even 
when  Saul  pointed  out  that  his  friend  might 
one  day  supersede  him  on  the  throne.  During 
Saul's  persecution  of  David,  Jonathan  com- 
municated with  his  yc)uthful  associate,  giving 
him  most  valuable  intelligence  of  the  king's 
feelings  and  movements,  till  at  length  the 
tyrant,  provoked  by  what  he  considered  his 
unfilial  conduct,  threw  a  javelin  at  him,  as 
he  had  more  than  once  done  at  David  (xviii. - 
XX.).  On  this  last  occasion  Jonathan  was 
seeking  to  discover  whether  a  reconciliation 
of  Saul  with  David  was  possible.  David  was 
lying  in  concealment  in  the  fields  waiting 
for  word.  The  two  friends  anticipated  the 
difficulty  Jonathan  might  have  in  conveying 
this  information  to  David,  especially  in  case 
Saul  should  be  evilly  minded  toward  the  son 
of  Jesse,  for  Jonathan  was  known  to  favor 
David,  and  Saul  and  the  party  opposed  to 
David  would  watch  Jonathan  to  prevent  him 
from  communicating  with  David  and  a  .sec- 
ond time  frustrating  their  plans.  Accord- 
ingly, to  disarm  suspicion,  Jonathan  arranged 
to  go  out  with  company,  and  as  though  to 
hunt,  and  by  means  of  arrows  to  give  a  sign 
to  David.  He  did  so,  and  then,  finding  that 
suspicion  had  been  allayed  and  that  he  was 
no  longer  observed,  he  sent  the  boy  back  to 
the  town  with  the  bow  and  arrows,  and  re- 
mained for  a  final  interview  with  David. 
The  two  friends  met  once  after  this  in  the 
wood  of  Ziph  (1  Sam.  xxiii.  16-18).  Jona- 
than was  killed,  with  two  of  his  brothers 
and  their  father,  at  the  battle  of  Gilboa,  and 
his  bones,  like  theirs,  were  affixed  to  the 
wall  of  Beth-shean,  till  the  men  of  Jabesli- 
gilead  removed  them  and  gave  them  honor- 
able burial  (xxxi.  1,  11-13 ;  1  Chron.  x.  2,  8- 
12).  David  deeply  lamented  his  death  (2 
Sam.  i.  17-27).  Jonathan  left  behind  him  a 
son  called  Mephibosheth  and  Merib-baal,  who 
was  lame,  his  nurse  having  let  him  fall  from 
her  arms  when  he  was  five  years  old,  as 
she  was  running  away  with  him  in  terror 
when  the  news  of  Gilboa  came  (2  Sam.  iv.  4). 
David  ultinuitely  showed  him  great  kindness 
for  Jonathan's  sake,  and  the  line  of  his  de- 
scendants is  traceable  for  several  generations 
in  increasing  numbers,  as  if  all  danger  of  its 
extinction  had  ])assed  away  (2  Sam.  ix.  1-13; 
1  Chron.  viii.  .33-40;  ix.  39-44). 

3.  Uncle  of  king  David.  He  M'as  a  coun- 
selor, a  man  of  understanding,  and  a  scribe 
(1  Chron.  xxvii.  .32).  Some  expositors  believe 
that  in  this  passage  the  Hebrew  word  for 
uncle  is  used  in  a  general  sense  for  relation, 
and  they  identify  this  counselor  with  David's 
nephew  Jonathan  (R.  Y.,  margin). 

4.  Son  of  the  high  priest  Abiathar.  He 
was  one  of  two  young  men  who  concealed 
themselves  at  En-rogel,  near  Jerusalem,  dur- 
ing Absalom's  rebellion,  and  sent  David  in- 
formation of  everything  passing  in  the  city 
(2  Sam.  XV.  36  ;  xvii.  15-22).     When  Adonijah 


Jonathan 


391 


Joppa 


attomptod  to  usiirj)  the  tliruue  and  was  cele- 
liratiiii;  a  IVust,  Jonathan  hroiiijht  the  news 
that  Solomon  had  l)een  prochiinied  king,  a 
piece  of  intelligence  which  led  to  the  hreak- 
iiig  up  of  the  assemblage  (1  Kin.  i.  41-49). 

.5.  A  son  of  David's  brotlier  Shimeah,  and 
victor  over  one  of  Goliath's  sons,  as  David 
bad  been  over  Goliath  himself  {2  Sam.  xxi. 
2L  22). 

i).  One  of  David's  mighty  men,  son  of 
Shage  or  rather  Shammah  the  Hararite  (1 
Chron.  xi.  34;  cp.  2  Sam.  xxiii.  11).  The 
text  of  2  -Sam.  xxiii.  32,  33  is  to  be  emended 
by  comparison  with  Chronicles. 

7.  A  son  of  Kareah.  After  the  capture  of 
Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  he  placed 
himself  under  the  protection  of  Gedaliah 
(Jer.  xl.  8).  The  name  is  not  found  in  the 
corresponding  passage  (2  Kin.  xxv.  23).  Per- 
haps it  accidentally  dropped  out  of  Kings  or 
erroneously  crept  into  the  text  of  Jeremiah. 

8.  Father  of  that  El)ed,  head  of  the  house 
of  Adin,  who  with  fiftj'  males  accompanied 
Ezra  to  Palestine  (Ezra  viii.  (i). 

9.  A  son  of  Asaliel,  who  opposed  Ezra's 
proposition  that  the  Jews  should  put  away 
their  foreign  wives  (Ezra  x.  1.^,  R.  V.). 

10.  A  Levite  of  the  lineage  of  Asaph  (Neh. 
xii.  35 ;  cp.  xi.  15,  17). 

11.  A  priest,  head  of  a  father's  house  in  the 
days  of  the  high  priest  Joiakim  (Xeh.  xii.  14). 

12.  A  high  priest,  son  of  Joiada  (Neh.  xii. 
11).     See  JoH.\x.\N  11. 

13.  Youngest  son  of  the  priest  Mattathias 
(1  Mac.  ii.  5).  When  his  brother  Judas  Mac- 
eabfeus  was  slain  in  battle  in  160  b.  c,  Jona- 
than was  chosen  his  successor  (ix.  23-31). 
The  forces  at  his  disposal  were,  however,  too 
few  for  offensive  operations  against  the 
Syrians,  and  he  withdrew  into  the  wilder- 
ness of  Tekoa  (33).  He  was  surnamed 
Apphus  (ii.  5),  which  is  thought  to  mean 
Dissembler,  and  to  have  been  given  him  on 
account  of  his  tirst  exploit,  in  which  he  laid 
an  ambush  for  the  children  of  Jambri  and 
slew  them  because  they  had  killed  his 
brother  John  (ix.  37-41).  On  a  Sabbath  day 
in  157  B.  c.  he  repulsed  an  attack  of  the 
SjTians  under  Bacchides  on  the  Jordan, 
probably  on  the  eastern  bank  ;  but  after  the 
victory  he  and  his  followers  leaped  into  the 
river  and  swam  to  the  other  side  (ix.  4.3-48), 
where  they  remained  (58).  outwitting  the 
attempts  which  were  made  to  assassinate 
their  leader  (60,  61).  Jonathan  and  Simon 
afterwards  fortified  themselves  at  Bethbasi 
in  the  wilderness,  probably  of  Tekoa ;  and 
when  Bacchides  besieged  the  fortress,  Jona- 
than left  Simon  to  defend  the  place,  while 
he  himself  ravaged  the  .surrounding  country 
(62,  66).  Bacchides  was  so  straitened  that 
he  made  peace  with  Jonathan  and  withdrew 
from  Judfea  (67-72).  Jonathan  took  up  his 
residence  at  Michmash,  and  began  to  judge 
the  people  (73).  When  Alexander  Balas  re- 
volted against  Demetrius,  king  of  Syria,  the 
latter  hastened  to  secure  Jonathan  as  an 


ally,  and  gave  him  authority  to  gather 
troops.  The  Syrians  who  were  still  in  the 
strongholds  of  Judsea  lied,  and  Jonathan  en- 
tered Jerusalem  in  1.52  B.  C.  (x.  1-14).  Alex- 
ander, equally  desirous  to  have  the  support 
of  Jonathan,  appointed  him  high  ]»ricst  of 
the  Jews  and  king's  friend,  and  joiuithan 
put  on  the  pontifical  robes  at  the  feast  of 
tabernacles  in  152  b.  c.  (15-21).  Upon  hear- 
ing of  this  event,  Demetrius  hastened  to 
make  further  concessions  to  the  Jews  (22-45). 
Jonathan,  however,  gave  no  credence  to  the 
words  of  Demetrius;  and  Alexander,  when 
he  secured  the  throne  of  Syria  in  150  B.  c. 
appointed  him  governor  of  Judiea  (46,  59- 
66).  In  148-7  B.  c.  Demetrius  II.  raised 
the  standard  of  revolt  against  Alexander. 
Demetrius  was  assisted  by  ApoUonius,  who 
sent  a  threatening  message  to  Jonathan. 
Jonathan  seized  Joppa  and  defeated  Apol- 
lonius  in  the  neighboring  plain  (67-87). 
When  Alexander's  father-in-law,  Ptolemy, 
intervened  in  the  war,  Jonathan  showed  his 
friendship  and  accompanied  him  to  the  bor- 
ders of  Syria  (xi.  1-7).  Ptolemy  proved 
treacherous  to  Alexander  and  placed  Deme- 
trius on  the  throne.  Jonathan  was  able  to 
secure  the  friendship  of  the  new  king,  and 
rendered  him  great  service  by  a  contingent 
of  3000  Jewish  soldiers,  who  quelled  an  in- 
surrection against  Demetrius  in  Antioch. 
Demetrius  proved  false,  and  Jonathan  sided 
with  the  young  Antiochus  and  fought  suc- 
cessfully mth  the  troops  of  Demetrius  near 
Kedesh  in  Galilee.  Jonathan  now  sought 
the  aid  of  the  Romans  and  Spartans  (xii.  1, 
2) ;  he  also  undertook  aggressive  operations 
against  Demetrius,  and  defeated  his  troops 
and  allies  in  the  vicinity  of  Hamath  (24-35). 
But  Tryphon,  who  had  championed  the 
cause  of  the  young  Antiochus.  now  lifted  up 
his  hand  against  his  master  and  .sought  to 
destroy  Jonathan  also.  He  persuaded  the 
Jewi.s.h  leader  to  come  with  but  a  small  body- 
guard to  Ptolemais.  When  Jonathan  en- 
tered, the  gates  of  the  city  were  closed, 
Jonathan's  escort  was  put  to  the  sword,  he 
himself  was  seized  and  kept  for  a  time  a 
prisoner  and  finally  slain  in  Gilead  in  143 
B.  c.  (.39-48;  xiii.' 12-23).  The  bones  of 
Jonathan  were  recovered  and  buried  in  the 
family  sepulcher  at  Modin  (2.5-27). 

14.  A  general  who,  at  the  command  of 
Simon  Maccabeus,  took  po.ssession  of  Joppa. 
He  was  a  son  of  Absalom  (1  'Mac.  xiii.  11). 

Jo'nath  e'lem  re-ho'kim,  in  A.  V.  Jonath- 
elem-recliokim  [the  siknt  dove  of  them  that 
are  afar  off  or,  by  changing  the  pronuncia- 
tion of  the  middle  word,  the  dove  of  the  dis- 
tant terebinths]. 

Probably  the  air  to  which  Ps.  hi.  was  to 
be  set  (Ps.  Ivi.  title). 

Jop'pa,  in  A.  V.  once  Japlio  (Josh.  xix.  46), 
and  so  twice  on  margin  of  R.  V.  of  O.  T., 
this  being  the  Hebrew  form,  while  Joppa  is 
derived  from  the  Greek  [beauty]. 


Jorah 


393 


Joram 


A  town  in  Palcstiue  whieli  was  assigned  to 
Dan  (Josh.  xix.  4(j).  It  was  tlu>  seaport  of 
Jerusaloni,  to  which  the  wood  cut  down  in 
Lebanon  for  the  building  of  Solomon's  temple 
was  floated  from  Tyre  (2  Chron.  ii.  1(5).  Jonah 
embarked  at  .Ioi>iia  in  a  ship  about  to  sail  to 
Tarshish.  when  he  made  his  vain  attenijit  to 
escape  from  Jehovah  (Jon.  i.  3).  When  the 
temple  was  rebuilt,  after  the  return  from 
Biibylon  under  Zerubbabel  and  Jeshua,  rafts 
of  cedar  trees  were  again  lloated  from  Tyre 
to  Joppa  (Kzra  iii.  7.  R.  V.).  The  t'hristian 
woman  Tabitha  lived  her  charitable  life  and 
died  at  Jojipa  and  was  raised  from  the  dead 
by  Peter  (Acts  ix.  36-42).  The  miracle  re- 
sulted in  many  converts  to  Christianity  being 
made  in  the  place.  The  apostle  remained 
with  them  for  some  time,  lodging  in  the  house 
of  one  Simon  a  tanner  (43;  x.  5.  6);  and  it 
was  to  Joppa  that  the  servants  of  Cornelius 
came  to  invite  Peter  to  Ca;sarea  (7-48). 
Joppa  still  flourishes.  It  is  called  by  the 
Arabs  Yafa,  and  by  the  English  Jaffa.  A 
ledge  of  rocks  runs  out  from  the  promontory 
on  which  the  houses  stand,  and  makes  a 
harbor  which,  though  small  and  dangerous, 
is  still  the  only  one  on  the  coast  for  many 
miles  north  and  south.  The  harbor  is  sur- 
rounded by  rocks,  with  two  entrances,  the 
most  northerly  one  rendered  dangerous  by 
.sandbanks,  the  other,  which  is  only  10  feet 
wide,  by  its  proximity  to  rocks.  Only  a  few 
small  vessels  can  find  accommodation  within 
its  confined  area.  The  town  stands  on  a 
rocky  hill  of  oldong  form  on  successive  plat- 
forms produced  by  strata  reposing  the  one  on 
the  other.  In  the  vicinity  are  fine  gardens, 
watered  by  Persian  water  wheels,  and  con- 
taining orange,  lemon,  apricot,  quince,  and 
other  fruit  trees.  It  has  various  soap  works, 
and  tanneries  still  exist  upon  the  seashore. 
It  is  the  gate  of  entrance  into  Palestine  for 
pilgrims  from  all  quarters,  and  is  the  western 
terminus  for  the  Jaffa  and  Jerusalem  railway. 

Jo'rah.     See  H.\riph. 

Jo'rai. 

A  Gadite  (1  Chron.  v.  13). 

Jo'ram  and  Jehoram,  the  forms  being  in- 
terchangeable in  Hebi-ew  [Jehovah  is  high]. 

1.  A  son  of  Toi,  king  of  Hamath,  who  was 
.sent  by  his  father  to  congratulate  David  on 
his  victory  over  Hadadezer  (2  Sam.  viii.  10). 
Called  in  1  Chron.  xviii.  10  Hadoram.  which 
in  this  case  probably  means  "the  god  Addu 
or  Hadad  is  exalted.'' 

2.  A  Levite,  descended  from  Moses'  son 
Eliezer  (1  Chron.  xxvi.  2."):  cp.  xxiii.  1,5,  17). 

3.  Son  of  Ahab,  king  of  Israel.  On  the 
death  of  his  elder  brother,  Ahaziah,  he  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne  8.53  B.  c,  and  reigned 
till  842  B.  c.  He  put  away  the  image  of  Baal 
which  his  father  had  made,  but  adhered  to 
the  calf  worship  instituted  by  Jeroboam.  On 
the  death  of  Ahab,  Mesha,  king  of  Moab,  had 
rebelled  and  withheld  tribute.  To  recover 
his  dominion  over  Moab,  Joram  obtained  the 


assistance  of  king  Jehoshaphatof  Judah,  and 
of  the  Edoniite  ruler.  As  the  confederates 
were  marching  around  the  southern  jiortion 
of  the  Dead  Sea,  they  were  nearly  perishing 
with  thirst,  but  Elisha  bade  them  dig  trenches, 
and  on  the  following  niorning  water  came 
rushing  down  the  wady  and  filled  the 
trenches.  Not  only  did  the  water  supjdy 
the  needs  of  the  Israelites,  but,  looking  ruddy 
under  the  rays  of  the  morning  sun,  was  mis- 
taken by  the  Moabites  for  blood  ;  and.  suppos- 
ing that  the  Israelites  had  fallen  out  among 
themselves,  they  rushed  to  the  spoil.  Joram 
and  his  allies  rose  again.st  them  when  they 
were  thus  off  their  guard,  and  jjut  them  to 
flight,  and  then  overran  Moab,  but  without 
being  able  permanently  to  reduce  it  to  sub- 
jection (2  Kin.  iii.  1-27) ;  .see  Moabite 
Stone.  Joram  was  the  king  to  whom  the 
Syrian  sovereign  sent  Naanian,  with  a  letter, 
to  be  cured  of  his  lei)rosy  (v.  1-27).  It  was 
Joram  to  whom  Elisha  communicated  every 
movement  of  the  Syrian  invaders,  and  who 
had  them  in  his  power  at  Samaria,  and 
by  Elisha's  advice  sent  them  home  unmo- 
lested (vi.  8-23).  He  was  king  during  that 
siege  of  Samaria  which  brought  on  the 
dreadful  famine,  and  was  incompetent  and 
W'icked  enough  to  vow  vengeance  against 
Elisha,  his  best  ally  (31-33).  Joram's  end 
was  tragic.  Wounded  at  Eamoth-gilead^ 
which  he  was  besieging,  he  returned  to  Jez- 
reel  to  be  cured  of  his  wounds,  and  had  for 
his  guest  Ahaziah,  king  of  Judah,  who  had 
come  to  visit  him  in  his  sickness.  The  two 
kings  rode  out  together,  each  in  his  chariot, 
when  the  ruthless  Jehu  drove  furiously  up 
and  slaughtered  them  both.  The  murder  of 
Joram  took  place  in  the  plot  of  ground  which 
had  once  constituted  Xaboth's  vineyard,  and 
the  body  of  the  king  was  cast  out  of  the 
chariot  at  that  .spot  to  be  devoured  by  dogs, 
thus  fulfilling  part  of  the  prophecy  against 
Ahab's  apostate  liouse.  With  Joram  the 
dynasty  of  Omri  ceased,  and  that  of  Jehu  be- 
gan (ix.  1-x.  17). 

4.  One  of  the  priests  sent  by  Jehoshaphat 
to  instruct  the  people  (2  Chron.  xvii.  8). 

.5.  Son  of  Jehoshaphat.  From  about  854 
B.  c.  he  was  associated  with  his  father  in  the 
government,  and  in  849  B.  c,  in  the  fifth 
year  of  Jehoram,  king  of  Israel,  the  reins  of 
government  were  transferred  entirely  to  his 
hands  (2  Kin.  viii.  16  ;  cp.  i.  17  ;  iii.  1).  No 
sooner  did  he  feel  himself  secure  on  his 
throne  than  he  murdered  all  his  brothers  and 
some  other  princes  of  Judah  (2  Chron.  xxi. 
1-4).  He  had  for  his  wife  a  daughter  of 
Ahab.  who  led  him  into  gross  forms  of 
heathenism,  as  Jezebel  had  seduced  Ahab  (2 
Kin.  viii.  18;  2  Chron.  xxi.  6,  11).  As  in 
other  cases,  his  departure  from  Jehovah 
brought  with  it  adversity.  The  Edomites 
rose  in  rebellion,  and  though  he  gained  a 
victory  over  them,  yet  this  did  not  prevent 
their  achieving  their  independence.  Libnah 
also  revolted,  and  successfully  (2  Kin.  viii. 


Jordan 


394 


Jordan 


20-22;  2  Chron.  xxi.  8-10).  Philistine  and 
Arab  marauders  entered  Judah  and  plun- 
dered the  palace,  carrying  off  the  king's  wives 
and  children,  with  the  single  exception  of 
Jehoahaz,  or  Ahaziah,  the  youngest  boy  (2 
Chron.  xxi.  16,  17;  xxii.  1).  A  writing  from 
the  prophet  Elijah  was  handed  to  the  king, 
denouncing  his  apostasy  and  his  wickedness, 
and  threatening  him  with  painful  disease  and 
death ;  see  Elijah.  He  was  soon  after- 
wards seized  with  dysentery,  which  became 
chronic  and  continued  for  two  years  (2  Chron. 
xxi.  18,  19).  During  this  sickness  Ahaziah 
acted  as  regent  (2  Kin.  ix.  29  with  viii.  25, 
26).  There  was  no  pretense  at  lamentation 
when  his  death  occurred.  His  sole  reign, 
beginning  in  the  fifth  year  of  Jehoram  of 
Israel,  was  eight  j-ears.  He  died  in  842  b.  c, 
leaving  his  one  surviving  son  Ahaziah  to  as- 
cend the  throne  (2  Kin.  viii.  24  ;  2  Chron.  xxi. 
12-xxii.  1). 

Jor'dan  [descender]. 

The  most  important  river  in  Palestine, 
and,  in  some  respects,  the  most  interesting 
one  in  the  world.  It  rises  from  various 
sources.  The  eastern  source  is  at  Banias.  the 
ancient  Caesarea  Philippi,  where  a  copious 
stream,  the  Banias,  issues  from  a  cave  at  the 
base  of  a  mountain.  The  central  source  is 
at  Tell  el-Kadi,  probably  the  ancient  Dan, 
where  from  two  springs  a  yet  more  abundant 
stream,  the  Leddan,  rises.  The  Christian 
father  Jerome  assumed  that  Jor  was  the  name 
of  the  Banias,  and  Dan  that  of  the  Leddan, 
and  that  the  combination  of  the  two  made 
Jordan.  But  the  eastern  source  had  no  such 
name  as  Jor  ;  and  the  word  Jordan  is  not 
compounded  of  the  two  words  Jor  and  Dan, 
but  is  a  simple  word.  The  third  source  of 
th^  Jordan,  and  the  one  most  remote  from 
its  mouth,  is  the  fountain,  below  Hasbeiya, 
from  which  the  river  Hasbany  proceeds. 
Thomson  says  that  the  Hasbany  is  the  longest 
hy  40  miles,  the  Leddan  much  the  largest, 
and  the  Banias  the  most  beautiful.  In  the 
rainy  season  the  Hasbany  is  fed  by  many 
small  streams  and  rills  from  the  ravines 
around  the  north  of  Hermon.  In  fact,  the 
proximity  of  that  great  mountain  is  a  potent 
factor  in  determining  the  existence  and  the 
magnitude  of  the  Jordan.  From  the  Banias 
source  of  the  river  to  its  entrance  into  the 
lake  of  Huleh  or  the  waters  of  Merom  is  a 
distance  of  12  miles  ;  the  junction  of  the 
Banias  and  the  Leddan  taking  place  about 
midway  between  these  points,  and  the  con- 
fluence with  the  Hasbany  a  fraction  of  a  mile 
lower.  The  lake  itself  is  4  miles  long.  The 
Jordan,  emerging  from  it  at  its  southern  side, 
next  makes  its  way  lOJ  miles  more  to  the  sea 
of  Galilee,  which  is  12^  miles  long.  After 
passing  through  this  lake,  it  pursues  a  tortuous 
course,  till  it  enters  the  Dead  Sea,  at  a  point 
6.5  miles  in  a  straight  line  from  the  southern 
part  of  the  sea  of  CTalilee.  Including  the 
two  lakes,  and  taking  no  note  of  the  wind- 


ings, the  river  from  Banias  to  the  Dead  Sea 
is  104  miles  long.  As  far  as  is  known,  it 
stands  absolutely  alone  among  the  rivers  of 
the  world  in  the  fact  that  throughout  the 
greater  part  of  its  course  it  runs  below  the 
level  of  the  ocean.  When  it  issues  forth 
from  the  cave  at  Banias  it  is  1000  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  Mediterranean.  By  the  time 
it  enters  the  waters  of  Merom  it  has  fal- 
len all  but  seven  of  those  thousand  feet;  at 
the  sea  of  Galilee  it  is  682  feet  below  the  sea 
level,  and  when  entering  the  Dead  Sea  1292 
feet.  It  was  appropriately  named  Jordan, 
the  descender.  If  a  smart  earthquake  were 
to  establish  a  connection  between  the  Medi- 
terranean and  the  Jordan  valley,  or  if  the 
Vandal-like  proposal,  once  made,  were  car- 
ried out,  of  joining  them  by  a  channel  arti- 
ficially cut,  such  hallowed  spots  as  the  sea 
of  Galilee,  with  the  sites  of  Capernaum, 
Bethsaida,  etc.,  and,  farther  down  the  river, 
Jericho,  would  disappear  into  the  depths  of 
a  salt-water  gulf.  In  1848  an  expedition 
from  the  United  States,  led  by  Lieut.  Lynch, 
of  the  American  navj',  successfully  sailed 
from  the  sea  of  Galilee  to  the  Dead  Sea. 
The  explorers  found  two  ten-aces  along  the 
banks  of  the  river.  The  stream  itself  pur- 
sued a  very  tortuous  course.  Lieut.  Lynch 
thus  wrote  :  "  In  a  space  of  60  miles  of  lati- 
tude and  4  miles  of  longitude  the  Jordan 
traverses  at  least  200  miles.  .  .  We  have 
plunged  down  twenty-seven  threatening  rap- 
ids, besides  a  great  many  of  lesser  magni- 
tude." The  low-lying  valley  of  the  Jordan 
in  its  southern  parts,  where  the  depression  is 
greatest,  is  virtually  a  tropical  country,  and 
requires  nothing  but  irrigation  to  make  it 
produce  crops  of  tropical  luxuriance  (War  iv. 
8,  3).  On  account  of  its  fertility  Lot,  for- 
getful of  moral  considerations,  chose  it  as  the 
place  of  his  residence  (Gen.  xiii.  8-13).  The 
Jordan  was  not  bridged  in  ancient  times,  but 
forded.  The  fords  are  frequent  and  easy  in 
the  upper  stream  and  as  far  down  as  the 
mouth  of  the  Jabbok,  where  Jacob  crossed 
(xxxii.  10  ;  xxxiii.  18).  Below  that  point  the 
river  is  rarely  fordable,  and  then  only  at  cer- 
tain seasons  of  the  year.  The  current  of  the 
river  is  so  rapid  near  Jericho  that  the  numer- 
ous pilgrims  who  go  thither  to  bathe  are 
always  in  danger,  and  not  infrequently  are 
swept  away.  For  the  Israelites  to  cross  the 
Jordan  at  any  time,  and  above  all  when  the 
river  was  in  flood,  required  the  miracle  of 
the  dividing  of  the  stream  narrated  in  the 
Book  of  Joshua  (Josh.  iii.  1-17  ;  iv.  1-24  ;  Ps. 
cxiv.  3,  5).  The  overflow  of  the  Jordan  dur- 
ing the  time  of  harvest  (March  or  April  in 
that  warm  valley)  is  produced  by  the  melting 
of  the  snow  on  mount  Hermon  (Josh.  iii.  15). 
The  river  was  anciently  fringed,  as  it  is  now, 
with  a  thicket  of  trees  and  shrubs,  in  which 
lions  lurked  (Jer.  xlix.  19:  Zech.  xi.  3). 
Naaman,  the  Syrian,  was  directed  to  wash  in 
Jordan  seven  times  that  he  might  be  miracu- 
lously cured  of  his  leprosy  (2  Kin.   v.  10), 


Jorim 


396 


Joseph 


and  ultimately  did  as  he  was  bidden  (14). 
John  tlu'  Baptistadmiiiistered  the  special  rite 
which  gave  him  his  designation,  in  Jordan, 
and  it  was  there  that  our  Lord  was  baptized 
(Mat.  iii.  6,  13-17). 

Jo'rim. 

An  ancestor  of  Christ,  who  lived  about  350 
years  after  David  (Luke  iii.  'M). 

Jor'ke-am,  in  A.  V.  Jorkoam  [perhaps, 
pallor  or  fear  of  the  people,  or  possibly,  sta- 
l>ility,  expansion]. 

A  place  peopled  by  members  of  the  family  of 
Hezron  and  house  of  Caleb  (1  Chron.  ii.  44). 

Jos'a-bad.     See  Jozabad. 

Jos'a-phat.     See  Jehoshaphat. 

Jo'se.     See  Jesus  2. 

Jo'sech. 

An  ancestor  of  Christ,  who  probably  lived 
after  the  exile  (Luke  iii.  26).  The  A.  V.,  fol- 
lowing a  diflerent  reading,  calls  him  Joseph. 

Jos'e-decli.     See  Jozadak. 

Jo'seph  [may  he  add].  The  name  has  also 
the  sound  of  a  verb  of  diflerent  etymology, 
meaning  "he  taketh  away  ;"  and  the  Hebrew 
writer  in  Gen.  xxx.  23,  24,  following  custom, 
plays  upon  the  sound  and  iii)on  both  etymol- 
ogies when  he  explains,  not  what  the  root  of 
tlae  word  is,  but  the  reason  for  bestov.ing  the 
name. 

1.  The  eleventh  of  Jacob's  twelve  sons, 
and  the  elder  son  of  Eachel,  who,  when  she 
gave  him  birth,  said,  ''  The  Lord  add  to  me 
another  son,"  and  therefore  called  his  name 
Joseph  (Gen.  xxx.  22-24).  He  was  born  in 
Paddan-aram,  about'six  years  before  the  re- 
turn of  Jacob  to  Canaan  (25 ;  cp.  xxxi.  41), 
when  Jacob  was  90  or  91  years  old.  He  was 
his  father's  favorite  child,  because  he  was  the 
son  of  his  old  age  and  Eachel's  child  ;  and  he 
made  him  a  coat  such  as  was  worn  by  young 
people  of  the  better  class  (xxxvii.  3).  The 
father's  favoritism  aroused  the  envy  of  the 
elder  brethren  ;  and  their  ill-will  was  in- 
creased by  two  dreams  which  Joseph  had,  and 
which  foreshadowed  the  time  when  his 
father,  his  mother,  and  his  brethren  should 
bow  down  and  do  him  obeisance.  When 
Joseph  was  seventeen  years  old  (xxxvii.  2), 
Jacob  sent  him  to  Shechem,  where  his  broth- 
ers were  feeding  their  flocks,  to  ask  after 
their  welfare.  On  reaching  Shechem,  he 
found  that  they  had  gone  on  to  Dothan,  and 
he  followed  them  thither.  As  he  was  seen  ap- 
proaching, the  brothers  proposed  to  slay  him 
and  report  to  his  father  that  a  wild  beast  had 
devoured  him.  Reuben,  however,  prevailed 
upon  them  not  to  take  Joseph's  life,  but  to 
cast  him  alive  into  a  pit,  intending  eventu- 
ally to  take  the  youth  out  and  restore  him  to 
his  father.  In  Reuben's  absence  a  caravan 
of  Ishmaelites,  traveling  on  the  great  high- 
way that  led  down  into  Egypt,  drew  near. 
To  Midianite  merchantmen  of  the  company 
Joseph  was  sold.  A  kid  of  the  goats  being 
killed,  his  coat  was  dipped  in  the  blood  and 


the  besmearerl  garment  was  sent  to  Jacob, 
who  concluded  that  his  son  had  been  torn  to 
l)ieces  by  some  wild  beast  (Gen.  xxxvii.  1-35). 
Meanwhile  the  slave  dealers  took  Joseph 
down  into  Egy]it,  and  sold  him  to  Potiphar, 
the  captain  of  Pharaoh's  guard.  The  young 
slave's  ability  was  soon  discovered,  and 
Potiphar  gave  him  charge  of  all  his  house. 
But  on  false  accusations  he  was  committed 
to  prison,  where  he  was  confined  for  years. 
There  he  so  gained  the  confidence  of  the 
jailer  that  all  the  prisoners  were  committed 
to  his  charge.  God  enabled  him  to  interpret 
prophetic  dreams  of  the  chief  butler  and  the 
chief  baker  of  Pharaoh,  who  were  confined 
with  him  in  prison,  and  his  interpretation  in 
each  instance  was  found  correct.  Two  years 
later  Pharaoh  dreamed  two  ])rophetic  dreams, 
which  no  one  could  interpret,  and  the  chief 
l.)Utler,  who  had  been  restored  to  his  royal 
master's  favor,  remembered  Joseph  and  told 
of  the  occurrences  in  the  prison.  Josejih  was 
immediately  sent  for,  and  interjireted  the 
dreanjs,  both  of  which  had  the  same  mean- 
ing. Seven  years  of  great  plenty  were  to  be 
succeeded  by  seven  years  of  grievous  famine. 
He  ventured  to  recommend  that  some  one 
should  be  appointed  to  collect  the  sur[ilus 
produce  during  the  seven  years  of  plenty, 
and  store  it  against  the  years  of  famine.  Pha- 
raoh saw  the  wisdom  of  the  suggestion  ;  and, 
justly  believing  that  no  one  would  carry  out 
the  plan  more  efl'ectively  than  its  author,  ele- 
vated Joseph  to  be  the  second  man  in  the 
kingdom  of  Egypt.  Joseph  was  now  thirty 
years  of  age  (xli.  46).  He  had  been  chastened 
and  humbled  by  the  sufl'erings  of  thirteen 
years.  Pharaoh  gave  him  Asenath,  daughter 
of  a  priestly  family  at  On.  to  wife  ;  and  be- 
fore the  years  of  famine  came,  two  sons  were 
born  to  him,  Manasseh  and  Ephraim  ;  and 
from  them  two  tribes  sprang  (Gen.  xli.  50-52; 
xlviii.  5 ;  Num.  xxvi.  28).  The  famine 
came  as  predicted  (see  Nile),  and  afl'ected  all 
the  known  world,  especially  the  western  part 
of  it  around  the  Mediterranean  (xli.  54,  56, 
57).  In  Egypt,  however,  there  was  a  store 
of  food.  In  due  time  Joseph's  brothers 
had  to  come  down  to  the  latter  country 
to  buy  grain.  They  did  not  recognize  Jo- 
seph, but  he  knew  them  ;  and  as  they  did 
obeisance  to  him,  he  saw  that  the  dreams 
which  brought  him  into  such  trouble  had 
come  to  be  verified.  After  testing  their  char- 
acter in  various  ways,  on  their  second  visit 
he  revealed  himself  to  them,  forgave  them 
the  wrong  they  had  done  him,  and  persuaded 
them  and  their  father  to  settle  in  Egypt. 
Pharaoh  warmly  welcomed  them.  The  king 
who  acted  thus  kindly  has  long  ))een  believed 
to  have  been  Apepi  II.  or  Apoi)liis  (Eusebius). 
At  any  rate,  he  was  doubtle.ss  of  the  Hyk- 
sos  or  Shepherd  dynasty,  and  being  himself 
a  Semite,  was  the  more  ready  to  welcome 
men  of  a  race  identical  with  his  own.  Joseph 
died  at  the  age  of  110  years,  and  his  body 
was  embalmed  and  put  in  a  coflin  in  Egypt  ; 


Joseph 


397 


Joseph 


but  he  had  left  strict  injunctions  that  when 
the  exodus  took  place  his  remains  should  be 
removed  to  Canaan  ((ieu.  xlii.-l. ;  Heb.  xi. 
22).  His  wishes  were  carried  out;  and  his 
remains  were  ultimately  buried  near  She- 
chem,  iu  the  very  center  of  the  promised  laud 
(Ex.  xiii.  19;  Josh.  xxiv.  32). 

The  particulars  of  Joseph's  life,  which  in- 
volve Egyptian  customs,  are  borne  out  by 
the  monuments  and  the  papyri.  It  is  known, 
for  instance,  from  the  Eosetta  stone  that  it 
was  the  habit  of  the  king  to  release  prisoners 
at  his  birthday  feast  and  on  other  great  occa- 
sions. References  to  magicians  and  sooth- 
sayers are  frequent,  and  great  stress  is  laid 
on  dreams  as  messages  from  the  gods.  When 
Joseph  was  sent  for  in  the  prison,  although 
there  is  express  mention  of  haste,  yet  he 
stayed  to  shave  himself  and  put  on  clean 
raiment  (Gen.  xli.  14).  Shaving  was  particu- 
larly practiced  and  among  the  priests  was  a 
religious  rite.  The  term  "  Lord  over  the 
whole  laud ''  has  been  found  but  ouce  (on  a 
monument  in  the  museum  of  Turin),  but  the 
investiture  of  an  official  of  high  rank  is  fre- 
quently depicted  and  agrees  with  the  descrip- 
tion iu  Genesis,  the  signet  ring,  the  linen  ves- 
ture, and  the  chain  about  the  neck  being 
prominent.  The  phrase,  also,  '"  According  un- 
to thy  word  [mouth]  shall  all  my  people  be 
ruled  "  is  emphasized  by  the  fact  that  the 
hieroglyph  for  ruler  is  a  mouth. 

There  is  reference  to  Egyptian  conceptions 
of  propriety  in  the  separate  setting  of  bread 
for  Joseph,  for  his  brethren,  and  for  the  Egyp- 
tians present  (Gen.  xliii.  32).  Joseph  ate  by 
himself,  because  he  was  a  man  of  highest 
rank  and  a  member  of  the  priestly  class, 
which  kept  apart  from  the  laity.  The  Egyp- 
tians ate  by  themselves,  for  Egyptians  held 
aloof  from  foreigners ;  the  priests  ate  and 
drank  nothing  that  was  imported  (Porphery 
iv.  7),  and  the  people  generally  considered  it 
an  abomination  to  use  the  eating  utensils  of 
the  Greeks  (Herod,  ii.  41),  and  ostracized 
shepherds,  swineherds,  and  cowherds,  even 
when  native  Egyptians,  because  the  occupa- 
tion of  tending  cattle  was  incompatible  with 
the  refinement  and  cleanliness  demanded  by 
Egj-ptian  standards  (Gen.  xlvi.  34  ;  Herod,  ii. 
47;  cp.  164).  This  objection  to  herdsmen 
was  probably  the  cause  of  Joseph's  settling 
his  kindred  in  the  land  of  Goshen,  where 
they  would  not  come  in  contact  with  the  na- 
tives of  the  land. 

Jacob-el  and  Joseph-el  are  names  of  places 
in  Palestine  conquered  by  Thothmes  III., 
the  Egyptian  warrior-king,  long  after  the 
descent  of  Jacob  and  his  sons  into  Egypt  and 
about  a  century  before  the  exodus.  It  is 
doubtful  whether  they  stand  in  any  relation 
to  the  patriarch  Jacob  and  his  son  Joseph. 
They  are  names  like  Jiphthah-el  or  Iphtah-el, 
a  valley  in  the  territory  of  Zebulun  (Josh. 
xix.  14),  may  mean  God  doth  supplant  and 
God  doth  take  away,  and  they  were  in  use  in 
Babylonia  as  personal  names. 


The  two  tribes  of  Manasseh  and  Ephraim 
descended  from  Josepii's  tW(jsons.  Tiie  Idess- 
ings  pronounced  on  Joseph  by  the  dying 
Jacob  were  designed  for  these  tribes  as  well 
as  for  Joseph  himself  (Gen.  xlviii.  8-22;  xlix. 
22-20).  In  Ps.  Ixxx.  1  Joseph  is  a  poetic 
designation  of  the  tribes  of  Manasseh  and 
Ephraim. 

2.  Father  of  the  spy  from  the  tribe  of  Issa- 
char  (Num.  xiii.  7). 

3.  A  son  of  Asaph  and  head  of  a  course  of 
musicians  in  the  reign  of  David  (1  Chron. 
XXV.  2,  9). 

4.  An  ancestor  of  Christ,  Mho  lived  between 
the  time  of  David  and  the  exile  (Luke  iii. 
30). 

5.  A  son  of  Bani,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  42). 

6.  A  priest,  head  of  the  family  of  Sheba- 
niah  in  the  days  of  the  high  priest  Joiakim 
(Neh.  xii.  14). 

7.  An  ancestor  of  Christ  who  lived  after 
the  exile  (Luke  iii.  26,  in  E.  V.  Josech). 

8.  Son  of  Mattathias,  iu  the  ancestry  of 
Christ  (Luke  iii.  24,  25). 

9.  Son  of  Zacharias.  When  Judas  Macca- 
baeus  sent  Simon  to  aid  the  Jews  in  Galilee 
and  himself  went  to  fight  in  Gilead,  he  left 
Joseph  and  Azarias  in  charge  of  the  forces  in 
Judaea.  They  engaged'  in  battle,  contrary  to 
their  orders,  and  were  defeated  (1  Mac.  v.  18, 
55-62). 

10.  The  husband  of  Mary,  the  mother  of 
Jesus  (Mat.  i.  16  ;  Luke  iii.  23).  For  his  an- 
cestry see  Gene.\logy.  When  Mary  was 
found  with  child  before  marriage,  Joseph 
was  minded  to  put  her  away  without  public 
exposure,  for  he  was  a  just  man.  But  an 
angel  informed  him  iu  a  dream  that  the  child 
to  be  born  had  been  miraculously  conceived 
by  the  Holy  Spirit.  Now  he  had  no  hesita- 
tion in  carrying  out  his  contract  with  her, 
and  he  made  her  his  wife  (Mat.  i.  18-25). 
Being  a  descendant  of  David,  he  had  to  go 
to  Bethlehem,  the  earlj^  home  of  his  ances- 
tors, for  enrollment,  according  to  the  decree 
of  the  emperor  Augustus,  and  was  there  with 
Mary  when  Jesus  was  born  (Luke  ii.  4,  16). 
He  was  with  Mary  when,  at  the  presentation 
of  Jesus  in  the  temple,  Simeon  and  Anna 
gave  forth  their  prophetic  utterances  (33). 
Warned  by  an  angel  in  a  dream  that  Herod 
plotted  the  murder  of  the  child,  Joseph  con- 
ducted the  flight  into  Egypt  (Mat.  ii.  13,  19). 
He  returned  to  Nazareth  when  Herod  was 
dead  (22,  23).  He  was  accustomed  to  go  with 
Mary  annually  to  the  passover  at  Jerusalem, 
and  he  took  Jesus  also  to  the  feast  when 
our  Lord  was  twelve  years  old  (Luke  ii. 
43),  and  he  also  safely  reached  Nazareth 
on  the  return  journey  (51).  He  was  a  car- 
penter (Mat.  xiii.  55),  and  was  assisted  in  his 
work  by  the  young  man  Jesus  (Mark  vi.  3). 
Apparently  Joseph  was  alive  when  Jesus'  min- 
istry had  well  begun  (]\Iat.  xiii.  55),  but  as 
we  do  not  hear  of  him  in  connection  with 
the  crucifixion,  it  may  be  inferred  that  he 


Joses 


398 


Joshua 


died  previous  to  that  event.  This  was  the 
reasou  why  Jesus,  when  on  the  cross,  com- 
mended Mary  to  the  kindness  of  the  apostle 
John,  which  he  would  scarcely  have  done 
liad  her  natural  guardian  still  been  alive 
(John  xix.  26,  27). 

11.  The  same  as  Joses  1  (Mat.  xiii.  55,  E.  V.). 
See  Brethren  of  the  Lord. 

12.  A  Jew  of  Arimatha?a,  a  member  of  the 
sanhedrin,  a  councilor  of  honorable  estate, 
who  looked  for  the  kingdom  of  God  (Mark 
XV.  43).  He  had  not  consented  to  the  resolu- 
tion of  the  sanhedrin  to  put  Jesus  to  death, 
for  he  was  a  disciple  of  Jesus,  although  se- 
cretly, for,  like  Nicodemus,  the  only  other 
member  of  the  governing  body  who  believed 
on  our  Lord,  he  was  fearful  of  publicly  com- 
mitting himself.  Both  became  more  cour- 
ageous when  they  saw  the  crucifixion.  Joseph 
went  boldly  to  Pilate,  begged  the  body  of 
Jesus,  and  laid  it  in  his  own  new  tomb,  which 
he  had  hewn  out  in  a  rock  (Mat.  xxvii.  57- 
60  ;  Luke  xxiii.  50-53;  John  xix.  38). 

13.  A  Christian  called  Barsabbas  or  son  of 
Sabbas,  and  Justus.  He  had  companied  with 
Jesus  and  the  disciples  from  the  time  of 
Jesus'  baptism,  and  was  one  of  two  who 
were  considered  worthy  to  fill  the  vacancy 
among  the  apostolic  twelve  produced  by  the 
apostasy  of  Judas ;  but  the  lot  fell  upon 
Matthias  (Acts  i.  21,  26).  He  was  probably  a 
brother  of  Judas,  called  Barsabbas  (Acts  xv. 
22). 

14.  The  personal  name  of  Barnabas  (Acts 
iv.  36,  in  A.  V.  Joses). 

Jo'ses. 

1.  One  of  the  brethren  of  the  Lord  (Mark 
vi.  3).  In  Mat.  xiii.  55,  E.  V.  prefers  the 
manuscripts  which  give  the  name  as  Joseph. 

2.  The  personal  name  of  Barnabas,  for  a 
time  the  missionary  colleague  of  Paul  (Acts 
iv.  36,  in  E.  V.  Joseph). 

Jo'shah  [perhaps,  uprightness], 
A   Simeonite,   son  of  Amaziah  (1   Chron. 
iv.  34). 

Josh'a-phat  [Jehovah  hath  judged]. 

1.  A  Mithuite,  one  of  David's  mighty  men 
(1  Chron.  xi.  43). 

2.  A  priest,  one  of  the  trumpeters  before 
the  ark  during  its  removal  to  Jerusalem  (1 
Chron.  xv.  24,  in  A.  V.  Jehoshaphat). 

Josh-a-vi'ah  [perhaps,  Jehovah  setteth 
upright]. 

One  of  David's  mightv  men  (1  Chron.  xi. 
46). 

Josh-be-ka'sliali  [possibly,  seat  of  hard- 
ness] .  , 

A  singer,  son  of  Heman  (1  Chron.  xxv.  4), 
and  head  of  the  seventeenth  course  of  singers 
(24). 

Josh-eb-bas'she-beth,  in  A.  V.  margin 
Josheb-bassebet. 

A  textual  corruption  in  2  Sam.  xxiii.  8  for, 
apparently,  Isb-baal,  there  is  a  Lord.  Baal 
was  altered,  as  was  often  done  after  it  had 


acquired  idolatrous  associations,  to  hosheth, 
shame  ;  and  instead  of  bosheth,  i.  e.  b-sh-th, 
the  word  b-sh-b-lh  which  ends  the  preceding 
verse  was  seen  by  a  copyist.  His  identity 
with  Jashobeam  is  fairly  established  by  com- 
parison of  this  verse  with  1  Chron.  xi.  11 
and  verses  8  and  9  with  1  Chron.  xxvii.  2, 
4.  This  latter  form  is  jierhaps  another  mode 
of  avoiding  the  name  Baal. 

Josh-i-bi'an,  in  A.  Y.  Josibiah  [Jehovah 
gives  an  abode]. 

A  Simeonite,  family  of  Asiel  (1  Chron. 
iv.  35). 

Josh'u-a,  in  A.  V.  once  Jehoshua  (Num. 
xiii.  16),  and  once  Jehoshuah  (1  Chron.  vii. 
27),  the  latter  an  incon.sistency  not  found  in 
A.  V.  in  the  original  edition  of  1611.  Jehoshua 
developed  into  Jeshua  (Neb.  viii.  17),  and 
this  form  was  Grecianized  and  appears  as 
Jesus  (Acts  vii.  45)  [Jehovah  is  salvation]. 

1.  An  Ephraimite,  the  son  of  Nun  (Num. 
xiii.  8,  16).  His  military  tendencies  were  so 
soon  recognized  that,  when  first  he  ajipears 
in  the  Scripture  narrative,  he  is  the  leader 
of  the  Israelitish  army  in  its  first  conflict 
with  the  Amalekites,  and,  aided  by  the 
prayers  of  Jloses,  achieves  the  victory  (Ex. 
xvii.  8-16).  A  personal  attendant  on  Moses, 
he  was  with  him  on  mount  Sinai  when  the 
golden  calf  was  made,  and  mistook  the  noise 
of  idolatrous  revelry  in  the  camp  for  the 
shouting  of  hostile  combatants  (xxiv.  13  ; 
xxxii.  17,  18).  He  bad  charge  of  the  first 
tent  of  meeting  (xxxiii.  11).  As  prince  of 
Ephraim,  he  was  one  of  the  twelve  spies  sent 
to  report  on  the  land  of  Canaan  and  its  as- 
sailability  ;  and  he  was  one  of  the  two  who 
encouraged  the  people  to  go  and  possess  the 
land  (Num.  xiii.  8  ;  xiv.  6-9).  For  this  he 
narrowly  escaped  being  stoned  to  death  (10). 
When  the  ten  cowardly  spies  were  doomed  to 
die  in  the  wilderness  for  their  distrust  of  Je- 
hovah's power  to  aid  them,  Joshua  and  his 
faithful  colleague,  Caleb,  were  exempted 
from  the  penalty,  and  lived  on  (xiv.  30,  38). 
At  the  end  of  the  forty  years'  sojourn  in  the 
wilderness,  by  divine  direction  Moses  placed 
Joshua  before  the  high  priest  and  the  congre- 
gation in  Shittim  and  publicly  ordained  him 
to  be  his  successor  (Num.  xxvii.  18-23  ;  Dent, 
i.  38) ;  and  just  before  death,  the  lawgiver 
took  Joshua  to  the  tabernacle  to  receive  his 
charge  from  the  Lord  (xxxi.  14.  23).  On 
the  death  of  Moses,  Joshua  began  immediate 
preparations  for  cros.sing  the  Jordan.  The 
people  were  allowed  three  days  in  which  to 
prepare  victuals  (Josh.  i.  10,  11),  the  two  and 
a  half  tribes  were  reminded  of  their  obliga- 
tion to  render  their  brethren  armed  assist- 
ance (12-18).  and  spies  were  dispatched  to 
search  out  Jericho  (ii.  1).  The  camp  was 
then  moved  to  the  river  and  the  people  care- 
fully instructed  as  to  the  order  of  march  (iii. 
1-6).  He  showed  his  military  skill  in  the 
plan  of  campaign  which  he  adopted  for  the 
conquest  of  Canaan  :  a  central  camp,  advan- 


Joshua 


399 


Josiah 


tageously  situated  ;  the  capture  of  the  towns 
which  coininaiuled  tiie  approaches  to  liis 
cauip:  jji-eatcampaijiiisfoUowiug  up  victories; 
see  C'axaan.  He  blundered,  however,  in 
making  a  treaty  with  the  (iibeonites  and  in 
not  garrisoning  the  citadel  of  the  Jebusites. 
By  these  two  mistakes,  Judah  was  to  a  degree 
isolated  from  the  northern  tribes.  He  car- 
ried out  the  injunction  to  assemble  the  peo- 
ple on  Ebal  and  lierizim  to  hear  the  blessings 
and  the  cursings  (viii.  o0~3r)).  Aided  by  the 
high  i)riest  and  a  commission,  he  superin- 
tended the  allotment  of  the  conquered  coun- 
try, beginning  the  distributiou  while  the 
camp  was  at  Gilgal  (xiv.  (i-xvii.).  and  com- 
pleting it  and  assigning  cities  of  refuge  and 
the  Levitical  towns  after  he  had  removed  the 
tabernacle  to  Shiloh  (xviii.-xxi.).  For  him- 
self he  asked  and  obtained  a  town,  Timnath- 
serah,  in  mount  Ephraim  (xix.  50).  When 
old,  he  convoked  an  assembly  of  the  people 
at  Shechem,  because  it  was  the  place  of 
Abraham's  first  altar  on  entering  Canaan  and 
the  locality  where  the  tribes  had  invoked 
blessings  and  cursings  upon  themselves. 
There  he  made  them  a  powerful  address, 
urging  them  not  to  forsake  Jehovah  (xxiv. 
1-28).  Soon  afterwards  he  died,  at  the  age 
of  110,  and  was  buried  at  the  place  of  his 
choice,  Tininath-serah  (29,  30). 

The  Book  of  Joshua  properly  follows  Peu- 
teronomy  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  and  in 
the  English  Bible  ;  for  it  continues  the  his- 
tory from  the  death  of  Moses,  which  was  the 
last  event  recorded  in  Deuteronomy.  It  is 
more  intimately  connected  with  the  Penta- 
teuch than  with  the  books  which  follow  it : 
for  the  spirit  of  the  Mosaic  times  was  still 
active  in  the  history  which  it  recounts ;  and 
it  is  the  sequel  of  Genesis  in  that  it  records 
the  po.ssession  of  the  promised  land  for  which 
Abraham  waited,  as  related  in  Genesis.  But 
since  it  was  not  written  by  Moses,  it  was 
kept  distinct  from  the  five  books  of  Moses  in 
the  Hebrew  Scriptures.  In  these  Scriptures 
it  is  the  first  of  "  the  prophets  ;  "  and  begins 
that  division  of  them  called  the  "  former 
prophets,"  which  embraces  all  the  books  of 
the  English  Bible  between  Joshua  and  2 
Kings  inclusive,  except  Euth  ;  see  Canox. 
The  book  may  be  divided  into  three  sections  : 

I.  The  conquest  of  Canaan  (i.-xii.)  :  includ- 
ing the  preparation  for  crossing  the  Jordan 
and  the  passage  of  the  river  (i.-iv.  18),  the 
establishment  of  the  camp  and  celebration 
of  the  passover  (iv.  19-v.  12),  the  capture  of 
Jericho  and  Ai,  the  confirmation  of  the  cov- 
enant on  Ebal,  and  the  treaty  with  the  Gibe- 
onites  (v.  13-ix.),  the  southern  and  northern 
campaigns  (x.,  xi.),  and  the  summary  (xii.). 

II.  The  settlement  of  Canaan  (xiii.-xxii.)  ; 
including  a  description  of  the  land  which  re- 
mained to  be  divided  (xiii.),  its  allotment, 
with  the  assignment  of  cities  of  refuge  and 
the  allotment  of  towns  to  the  tribe  of  Levi 
(xiv.-xxi.),  and  the  temporary  misunder- 
standing about  the  altar  on  the  Jordan,  as 


though  it  were  intended  to  divide  the  nation 
(xxii.).  III.  Joshua's  farewell  address  and 
death  (xxiii.,  xxiv.). 

It  is  expressly  stated  that  Joshua  wrote 
"these  words,"  including  at  least  the  ac- 
count of  the  proceedings  at  Shechem  (xxiii.- 
xxiv.  2'))  in  the  book  of  the  law  of  God 
(xxiv.  26).  The  concluding  verses  of  the 
book  (xxiv.  29-33)  were  written  after  the 
death  of  Joshua,  Eleazar,  and  the  men  of 
that  generation.  The  simplest  theory  is  that 
the  conquest  of  Hebron,  Debir,  and  Anab  by 
Caleb  took  place  after  the  death  of  Joshua 
and  is  recorded  proleptically  in  xv.  13-20 
(see  Hebron),  that  Zephath  is  called  Hormah 
by  anticipation  in  xii.  14,  and  that  this  verse 
reflects  an  event  which  occurred  alter  the 
death  of  Joshua  (Judg.  i.  17;  see  Hokmah)  ; 
and  that  xix.  47  records  the  migration  of  the 
Danites  in  the  days  of  the  judges.  It  is 
reasonable  to  conclude  from  the  general 
character  of  the  documents  and  casual  state- 
ments in  them  that  large  portions  of  the 
book  were  in  writing  in  the  time  of  Joshua. 
At  any  rate,  they  received  final  form  while 
the  town  of  Ai  was  still  in  ruins  (viii.  28), 
before  the  reign  of  Solomon,  while  the 
Canaanites  still  dwelt  in  Gezer  (xvi.  10  with 
1  Kin.  ix.  16),  and  before  the  reign  of  David, 
at  a  time  when  the  Jebusites  still  occupied 
the  stronghold  of  Jerusalem  (xv.  63).  In  gen- 
eral, see  Pentateuch. 

2.  A  native  of  Beth-shemesh,  the  owner  of 
a  field  to  which  the  kine  drawing  the  cart 
which  carried  the  ark  from  the  Philistine 
country  made  their  way  (1  Sam.  vi.   14). 

3.  The  governor  of  Jerusalem  during  the 
reign  of  Josiah  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  8). 

4.  The  high  priest  while  Zerubbabel  was 
governor  of  Judah  (Hag.  i.  1,  12,  14  ;  ii.  2- 
4  ;  Zech.  lii.  1-9).  Called  in  Ezra  and  Xehe- 
miah  Jeshua  (q.  v.). 

Jo-si'ah,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Josias  [Jehovah 
healeth]. 

1.  Son  and  successor  of  Amon  in  the  king- 
dom of  Judah.  He  came  to  the  throne  about 
the  year  639  B.  c.  He  was  then  only  eight 
years  old,  but  he  had  already  begun  to  seek 
after  the  God  of  David  his  father.  While  he 
was  of  immature  years,  tl^e  keeper  of  his 
conscience  and  the  director  of  the  kingdom 
seems  to  have  been  the  higb  priest  Hilkiah, 
but  in  Josiah  he  had  an  apt  and  willing 
pupil.  When  the  king  was  in  his  twelfth 
year,  he  made  a  first  movement  against  idol- 
atry, breaking  down  the  images  of  Baal  and 
the  Asherim.  not  merely  in  Judah,  but 
in  Israel  (2  Kin.  xxii.  1,  2  ;  2  Chron.  xxxiv. 
1-7).  In  his  eighteenth  year  he  took  ener- 
getic steps  to  repair  and  adorn  the  temple; 
and  the  workmen,  entering  with  enthusiasm 
into  his  plans,  acted  with  exemplary  fidelity 
in  using  the  money  intrusted  to  them  for  the 
purpose.  While  the  repairs  of  the  temple 
were  being  executed,  Hilkiah,  the  high 
priest,  informed  Shaphan,  the  scribe,  that  he 


Josiah 


400 


Jotbathah 


had  found  the  book  of  the  law  iu  the  house 
of  the  Lord.  He  handed  the  book  over  to 
Shaphau,  who  read  it  to  the  monarch.  Josiah 
was  deeply  impressed  by  the  prophecy  that 
if  the  people  departed  from  Jehovah  dread- 
ful consequences  would  ensue.  He  rent  his 
clothes  and  humbled  himself  before  God,  who 
was  pleased  to  give  him  the  gracious  assur- 
ance that  the  threatened  calamity  should  not 
come  iu  his  time  (2  Kin.  xxii.  8-20  ;  2  Chron. 
xxxiv.  15-28).  The  prophecy  which  so  af- 
fected Josiah  was  Deut.  xxviii.-xxx.,  especial- 
ly xxix.  25-28.  The  book  found  by  Hilkiah 
must  thus  have  contained  Deuteronomy  at 
least,  and  it  may  have  been  a  copy  of  the  en- 
tire Pentateuch.  The  sacred  books  had, 
doubtless,  been  generally  destroyed  and  lost 
sight  of  during  the  apostasy  and  persecution 
in  the  long  reign  of  Manasseh  (2  Kin.  xxi. 
16 ;  2  Chrou.  xxxiii.  9)  ;  and  the  book  found 
by  Hilkiah  was  probably  the  temple  copy  of 
the  law,  which  had  been  hidden  or  thrown 
aside  during  the  profanation  of  the  sanctuary 
(Deut.  xxxi.  9,  26).  That  Deuteronomy  was 
an  old  book  at  the  time  may  be  argued  from 
the  fact  that  it  reflects  the  condition  of  Israel 
in  early  times  and  not  in  the  reign  of  Josiah. 
It  enjoins  upon  the  people  the  extermination 
of  the  Canaanites  and  Amalekites  (xx.  16- 
18 ;  XXV.  17-19),  but  in  Josiah's  day  there 
was  no  occasion  for  such  a  law.  It  contem- 
plates foreign  conquest  ou  the  part  of  the 
Israelites  (xx.  10-15)  ;  but  in  Josiah's  day 
and  for  nearly  a  century  previously  the  ques- 
tion was  not  of  conquest,  but  whether  Judah 
could  maintain  its  existence  at  all.  It  vests 
the  supreme  authority  under  Jehovah  in  a 
judge  and  the  priesthood,  but  makes  pro- 
vision for  a  time  when  the  Israelites  should 
desire  a  king  (xvii.  8-20;  xix.  17);  but  in 
Josiah's  day  the  Israelites  had  been  ruled  by 
kings  for  centuries.  It  discriminates  against 
Ammon  and  Moab  in  favor  of  Edom  (xxiii. 
3-8) ;  but  in  Josiah's  day  and  for  a  longtime 
previously  Egypt  was  the  representative  foe 
of  the  people  of  God  (Is.  Ixiii.  6 ;  Joel  iii.  19 ; 
Obad.),  and  Jeremiah  promises  future  resto- 
ration to  Moab  and  Ammon,  but  denies  it  to 
Edom  (xlviii.  47  ;  xlix.  6,  17,  18).  The  leg- 
islation of  Deuteronomy  was  in  force  long 
before  the  time,of  Josiah:  it  was  observed  at 
the  coronation  of  Joash  in  835  B.  c.  (2  Kin. 
xi.  12),  and  was  followed  by  Joash's  sou  and 
successor,  Amaziah  (xiv.  6 ;  cp.  Deut.  xxiv. 
16).  The  reading  of  the  book  to  the  people 
affected  them  as  it  had  the  king.  So  deep 
was  the  impression  produced  that  a  sec- 
ond assault  upon  idolatry  was  begun,  more 
sweeping  than  the  first.  After  the  king  and 
his  subjects  had  together  covenanted  to  wor- 
ship Jehovah  only,  they  proceeded  to  take 
the  vessels  of  Baal,  of  the  Asherim,  and  of 
the  heavenly  bodies,  burn  them,  and  cast  the 
ashes  into  the  brook  Kidron.  The  Asherah  in 
the  house  of  the  Lord  was  similarly  burnt, 
the  residences  of  the  sodomites  were  broken 
down,  and  the  high  places  were  destroyed, 


not  merely  through  the  kingdom  of  Judah, 
but  through  the  former  territory  of  the 
northern  tribes,  now  largely  empty  of  its 
Israelitish  inhabitants.  The  valley  of  Hin- 
nom  and  the  shrine  of  Topheth,  in  which 
children  had  been  made  to  pass  through  the 
fire  to  Molech,  were  defiled,  and  other 
sweeping  reforms  eflected.  When  at  Bethel, 
Josiah  took  the  bones  of  the  idolatrous 
priests  from  their  graves,  and  burnt  them  on 
the  altar,  thus  fulfilling  the  prophecy  of  a 
man  of  God  in  Jeroboam's  time  (1  Kin.  xiii. 
2).  Nor  did  he  scruple  to  slay  the  living 
idolatrous  priests  themselves  on  the  altars  on 
which  they  had  been  accustomed  to  sacrifice. 
Then  he  concluded  by  holding  a  passover,  so 
well  attended  and  so  solemn  that  nothing 
like  it  had  been  celebrated  since  the  time  of 
Samuel  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  1-25;  2  Chron.  xxxiv. 
29-xxxv.  19).  Thirteen  years  afterwards 
Pharaoh -n echo,  king  of  Egypt,  marched  an 
army  along  the  maritime  portion  of  Palestine 
on  his  way  to  the  Euphrates,  where  he  de- 
signed to  try  his  strength  against  the  great 
Assyrian  power.  Situated  as  the  small  and 
comparatively  feeble  kingdom  of  Judah  was 
between  the  Assyrian  and  Egyptian  empires, 
then  in  mutual  hostility,  it  was  difficult  for 
it  to  maintain  neutrality ;  indeed,  Josiah 
seems  to  have  looked  on  himself  as  a  vassal 
of  the  Assyrian  king,  legally  and  morally 
bound  to  give  him  military  aid  in  war;  and 
he  gave  battle  to  Pharaoh-necho  at  Megiddo 
in  the  plain  of  Jezreel,  and  in  the  fight 
was  mortally  wounded  by  an  arrow  .  His  at- 
tendants removed  him  from  his  war  chariot 
to  a  second  conveyance,  which  brought  him 
to  Jerusalem.  He  had,  however,  only  reached 
that  capital  when  he  died.  Great  lamenta- 
tions were  made  for  him  by  Jeremiah,  the 
singing  men  and  the  singing  women,  and  the 
people  generally.  His  loss  to  his  country  was 
irreparable.  The  religious  reforms  which  he 
had  commenced  were  assailed,  and  the  par- 
tial independence  which  his  country  had  en- 
joyed under  his  rule  passed  away.  He  had 
reigned  thirty-one  years,  but  was  only  thirty- 
nine  when  he  died,  about  608  B.  c.  (2  Kin. 
xxii.  1 ;  xxiii.  29,  30  ;  2  Chron.  xxxv.  20- 
27;  cp.  Zech.  xii.  11).  Jeremiah  and  Zeph- 
aniah  prophesied  during  the  latter  part  of 
of  his  reign  (Jer.  i.  2;  iii.  6;  Zeph.  i.  1). 

2.  A  son  of  Zephaniah,  in  Zechariah'sdays 
(Zech.  vi.  10).  Perhaps  the  same  as  Hen  of 
ver.  14  ;  but  see  Hen. 

Jos-i-bi'ah.     See  Joshibiah. 

Jos-i-pM'ah  [Jehovah  will  increase]. 

Head  of  the  house  of  Shelomith,  who  re- 
turned from  exile  with  Ezra  (Ezra  viii.  10). 

Jot'bah  [pleasantness,  goodness]. 

The  town  of  king  Amon's  grandfather  (2 
Kin.  xxi.  19). 

Jot'ba-thah,  in  A.  Y.  once  Jotbath  (Deut. 
X.  7)  [goodness,  pleasantness]. 

A  station  of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilder- 
ness,   apparently    near   Ezion-geber    (Num. 


Jotham 


401 


Jubile 


xxxiii.  33).     The  place  abounded  in  brooks 
of  water  (Deut.  x.  7).     Situation  unknown. 

jo'tham,  in  A.  V.  once  Joatbam  (Mat.  i. 
9),  in  imitation  of  the  Cxveek  form  [Jehovah 
is  upright]. 

1.  Youngest  son  of  (iideon.  He  escaped 
when  his  seventy  brothers  (the  ofl'spring  of 
polygamy,  of  course)  wore  massacred  by  their 
half-brother  Abimelech  ;  and  afterwards,  in 
contempt  of  the  usurjiation,  standing  on 
mount  Gerizim,  he  uttered  the  parable,  audi- 
ble to  the  Shechemites  in  the  valley  below, 
of  the  trees  anointing  a  king  (Judg.  ix.  1-21). 

2.  A  king  of  .ludah,  who  reigned  as  regent 
of  his  father,  Uzziah,  while  the  latter  was  a 
leper  (2  Kin.  xv.  5).  His  regency  began 
while  Jeroboam  II.  was  still  king  of  Israel 
(1  Chron.  v.  17).  Further  evidence  of  the 
partial  contemporaneousness  of  the  regency 
of  Jotham  and  the  reign  of  Jeroboam  exists, 
if  the  earthquake  took  place  while  Uzziah 
and  Jeroboam  were  reigning  (Amos  i.  1 ; 
Zech.  xiv.  5)  and  occurred  coincidently  with 
or  shortly  after  Uzziah's  invasion  of  the 
priest's  office  (Antiq.  ix.  10,  4).  Jotham  be- 
came sole  ruler  when  his  father  died,  about 
734  B.  c.  He  followed  Jehovah,  but  did  not 
interfere  with  the  high  places  at  which  the 
people  worshiped  other  gods.  He  built  the 
high  gate  of  the  temple  and  worked  on  the 
wall  on  the  hill  of  Ophel,  south  of  the  holy 
house.  He  erected  cities  in  the  uplands  of 
Judah  and  castles  and  towers  in  the  forests. 
He  gained  a  victory  over  the  Ammonites 
and  made  them  tributary.  During  his  reign 
of  sixteen  years  Isaiah  and  Hosea  continued 
to  prophesy  (Is.  i.  1  ;  Hos.  i.  1).  At  the 
close  of  his  reign  the  allied  Israelites  and 
Sj'rians  began  their  invasion  of  Judah.  He 
died  at  the  age  of  forty-one ;  surviving  his 
father  scarcely  a  year,  it  seems.  He  left  his 
son  Ahaz  to  ascend  the  throne  (2  Kin.  xv. 
32-38;  2  Chron.  xxvii.  1-9).  With  Jotham, 
Hoshea  is  connected  by  a  strange  syn- 
chronism :  "  Ho.shea  reigned  in  the  twentieth 
year  of  Jotham"  (2  Kin.  xv.  30).  This  ref- 
erence has  been  explained  as  meaning  the 
twentieth  year  since  Jotham  began  to  reign, 
his  accession  having  been  recorded  (ver.  .5), 
hut  his  reign  and  death  not  having  been  yet 
described  by  the  author  of  Kings.  What- 
ever be  the  true  explanation,  this  strange 
synchronism  goes  far  to  bring  the  data  of 
the  Hebrew  record  into  harmony  with  the 
Assyrian  chronology. 

3.  A  son  of  .Tahdai  (1  Chron.  ii.  47). 
Jour'neys  of  the  Is'ra-el-ites.    See  Wil- 
derness OF  THE  Wandkrinc;. 

Joz'a-bad,  in  A.  V.  once  Josabad  (1  Chron. 
xii.  4)  [Jehovah  has  bestowed]. 

1.  A  Gederathite  who  joined  David  at  Zik- 
lag  (1  Chron.  xii.  4). 

2  and  3.  Two  Manassites  who  assisted 
David  to  pursue  the  Amalekites  after  their 
capture  of  Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  20). 

4.  A  Levite,  one  of  the  overseers  of  the 

26 


tithes  in  Hezekiah's  reign  (2  Chi"on.  xxxi. 
13). 

.'>.  A  chief  of  the  Levites  in  the  time  of 
Josiah  (2  Chron.  xxxv.  9). 

(j.  A  Levite,  son  of  Jeshua  (Ezra  viii.  33). 
Perhaps  he  was  the  Jozabad  who  by  order 
of  Ezra  took  part  in  teaching  the  people  the 
law  (Nell.  viii.  7),  and  was  the  Levitical 
chief  who  had  the  oversight  of  the  outward 
business  of  the  house  of  God  (Neh.  xi.  It!)  ; 
he  may  have  been  the  Levite  of  the  name, 
who  was  induced  by  Ezra  to  put  away  hi.s 
foreign  wife  (x.  23). 

7.  A  priest,  a  son  of  Pashhur,  induced  by 
Ezra  to  put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  22). 

Joz'a-car,  in  A.  V.  Jozachar  [Jehovah  has 
remembered]. 

Son  of  an  Ammouitess  and  one  of  the  two 
assassins  of  Joasli,  king  of  Judah  (2  Kin. 
xii.  21).  Called  erroneously  Zabad  in  2 
Chron.  xxiv.  2(j ;  see  Beth  and  Daleth. 

Joz'a-dakaud  Jehozadak,  in  A.V.  Josedech 
in  Haggai  and  Zechariah  [Jehovah  is  just]. 

Father  of  Jeshua,  the  high  priest  (Ezra  iii. 
2,  8).  He  was  carried  captive  to  Babylonia 
by  Xebuchadnezzar  (1  Chron.  vi.  15). 

Ju'bal  [a  stream,  a  moist  region ;  perhaps 
also  music]. 

The  younger  son  of  Lamech,  by  his  wife 
Adah.  Jubal  was  the  father  of  all  such  as 
handle  the  harp  and  pipe  (Gen.  iv.  21). 

Ju'bi-le,  in  some  editions  of  A.  Y.  Jubilee 
[joyful  shout,  sound  of  the  trumpet]. 

The  fiftieth  year  occurring  after  seven 
times  seven  years  had  been  counted  from 
the  institution  of  the  festival  or  from  the 
last  jubilee  (Lev.  xxv.  8-10) ;  cp.  the  calcu- 
lation of  Pentecost.  It  derived  its  name 
from  the  custom  of  proclaiming  it  by  a  blast 
on  the  trumpet.  As  every  seventh  year  was 
a  Sabbatic  year,  the  jubilee  followed  imme- 
diately after  one  of  this  character.  In  the 
tenth  day  of  the  seventh  month  (the  great 
day  of  atonement),  in  the  fiftieth  year,  the 
trumpet  of  the  jubilee  was  sounded.  It  pro- 
claimed liberty  to  all  Israelites  who  were  in 
bondage  to  any  of  their  countrymen,  and  the 
return  to  their  ancestral  possessions  of  any 
who  had  been  compelled  through  poverty  to 
sell  them.  Even  the  ground  for  that  year  was 
allowed  to  remain  fallow,  though  it  had  been 
so  in  the  previous  Sabbatic  year.  To  pre- 
vent injustice  to  one  who  having  purchased 
land  could  retain  it  only  to  the  first  jubilee, 
the  practice  (thoroughly  in  conformity  with 
the  principles  of  political  economy)  was  to 
give  for  the  purchased  possession  only  the 
worth  of  the  temporary  occupation  till  the 
jubilee  year.  But  one  purchasing  from  an- 
other a  house  in  a  walled  city  retained  it 
permanently ;  it  did  not  revert  to  the  orig- 
inal owner  at  the  jubilee,  since  city  lots  were 
apparently  not  bound  up  with  the  several 
portions  of  Canaan  as  originally  allotted  to 
families.  Those  of  the  nnwalled  villages  were 
regarded  as  belonging  to  the  field  and  did  so 


Jucal 


402 


Judah 


return ;  so  also  did  the  houses  of  Levites 
wheresoever  situated  (Lev.  xxv.  8-55;  xxvii. 
17,  18;  Num.  xxxvi.  4).  There  appears  to 
be  an  allusion  to  the  jubilee  in  Is.  Ixi.  1-3 
and  Ezek.  xlvi.  17 ;  cp.  also  Neh.  v.  1-13. 

Ju'cal.     See  Jehucal. 

Ju'da.     See  Judah,  Judas,  Joda. 

Ju-dse'a,  in  A.  V.  in  canonical  books  once 
Judea  (Ezra.  v.  8),  and  thrice  Jewry  (Dan.  v. 
13 ;  Luke  xxiii.  5 ;  John  vii.  1)  [Latin  from 
Greek  loudain,  Jewish  land,  and  that  in  turn 
from  Hebrew  Y'htidah]. 

A  geographical  term  first  introduced  in 
the  Bible  in  Ezra  v.  8,  A.  V.,  to  designate  a 
province  of  the  Persian  empire.  It  is  there 
the  rendering  of  the  Aramaic  Y'hud.  The 
R.  V.  translates  it  "the  province  of  Judah." 
The  land  of  Judsea  is  mentioned  in  1  Esdras 
i.  39,  and  the  kings  of  Judtea  in  verse  33. 
The  land  of  Judgea  is  also  spoken  of  in  Mac- 
cabee  times  after  the  Persian  had  given  place  to 
the  Macedonian-Greek  domiuioxi  (1  Mac.  v.  45 ; 
vii.  10,  A.  v.).  On  the  banishment  of  Arche- 
laus  Judsea  was  annexed  to  the  Roman 
province  of  Syria ;  but  it  was  governed  by 
procurators  appointed  by  the  Roman  em- 
peror. The  succession  of  procurators  was 
interrupted  for  a  brief  period  by  the  reign 
of  Herod  Agrippa  I.,  a.  d.  41-44.  The  pro- 
curator resided  at  Csesarea.  His  immediate 
superior  was  the  proconsul,  or  president,  of 
Syria,  ruling  from  Antioch  (Luke  iii.  1 ; 
Antiq.  xvii.  13,  5;  xviii.  1,  1).  This  ar- 
rangement obtained  when  our  Lord  carried 
out  his  ministry  on  earth,  and  Judsea  is  often 
mentioned  in  the  N.  T.  (Luke  xxiii.  5-7; 
John  iv.  3 ;  vii.  3 ;  Acts  i.  8).  Its  northern 
boundary  may  be  considered  as  extending 
from  Joppa  on  the  Mediterranean  to  a  point 
on  the  Jordan  about  10  miles  north  of  the 
Dead  Sea.  Its  southern  boundary  may  be 
drawn  from  the  wady  Ghuzzeh,  about  7 
miles  southwest  of  Gaza,  through  Beer-sheba, 
to  the  southern  portion  of  the  Dead  Sea. 
The  length  from  north  to  south  is  about  55 
English  miles,  and  that  from  east  to  west 
the  same.     See  History. 

Ju'dah,  Grecianized  Judas,  genitive  Juda, 
and  once  anglicized  Jude  (Jude  i.)  [object  of 
praise] . 

1.  The  fourth  son  of  Jacob,  the  fourth  al.so 
of  Leah.  There  were  noble  elements  about 
his  character,  and  when  Simeon  and  Levi, 
two  of  his  elder  brothers,  by  treachery  and 
murder  avenged  the  wrongs  of  Dinah,  who 
was  the  full  sister  of  all  three,  Judah  took 
no  part  in  the  double  crime  (Gen.  xxxiv.). 
He  married  a  Canaanite,  a  daughter  of  Shua 
of  Adullam,  and  had  two  wicked  sons,  Er 
and  Onan,  who  were  slain  by  divine  judg- 
ment for  their  sins  (xxxviii.  1-10).  Prior  to 
this  he  had  had  a  third  son,  Shelah  (5). 
Afterwards,  by  Tamar,  the  deceased  Er"s 
widow,  Judah  became  the  father  of  twin 
sons,  Perez  and  Zerah  (11-30  ;  xlvi.  12  ;  Num. 
xxvi.  19).     It  was  through  Perez  that  Judah 


became  the  ancestor  of  David  (Ruth  iv.  18-22), 
and  when  the  fullness  of  time  was  come,  of 
our  Lord  (Mat.  i.  3-16).  Judah  saved 
Joseph's  life  by  proposing  that  he  should 
be  sold  instead  of  murdered  (Gen.  xxxvii. 
26-28).  When  Joseph,  whose  relationship 
to  his  brother  was  not  suspected,  proposed 
to  detain  Benjamin  in  Egypt,  Judah  depre- 
cated the  step  in  a  speech  marked  by 
great  natural  eloquence,  and  ended  by  ofl'er- 
iug  himself  to  remain  a  prisoner  provided 
Benjamin  was  .set  free  (xliv.  33,  34).  The 
result  of  this  splendid  advocacy  was  that 
Joseph,  with  no  further  delay,  revealed  him- 
self to  his  brethren  (xlv.  1).  When  Jacob 
was  on  his  way  to  Egypt  he  chose  Judah, 
though  not  the  eldest  son,  to  go  before  him 
to  Joseph,  to  shoM'  the  way  before  him  unto 
Goshen  (xlvi.  28).  On  account  of  the  sins 
of  Reuben,  Simeon,  and  Levi,  they  were 
passed  over,  and  the  blessing  of  the  birth- 
right was  bestowed  by  Jacob  on  Judah  (xlix. 
3-10).     See  Shiloh. 

2.  A  tribe  sprung  from  Judah.  It  was  di- 
vided into  five  tribal  families  which  proceeded 
from  his  three  sons  and  two  grandsons  (Num. 
xxvi.  19-21 ;  1  Chron.  ii.  3-6).  The  prince  of 
the  tribe  of  Judah  in  the  early  period  of  the 
wanderings  was  Nahshon,  the  son  of  Am- 
minadab  (Num.  i.  7;  ii.  3 ;  vii.  12-17;  x.  14). 
Another  prince  was  Caleb,  son  of  Jephunneh 
(xiii.  6;  xxxiv.  19).  At  the  first  census  in 
the  wilderness  it  numbered  74,600  (i.  26,  27) ; 
and  at  the  second  census,  taken  at  Shittim 
on  the  eve  of  entering  Canaan,  76,500  (xxvi. 
22).  It  was  one  of  the  tribes  which  stood  on 
mount  Gerizim  to  bless  the  people  (Dent, 
xxvii.  12).  Achan,  who  brought  destruction 
on  his  countrymen  and  on  himself,  belonged 
to  the  tribe  of  Judah  (Josh.  vii.  1,  17,  IS). 
After  the  death  of  Joshua,  the  people  of  this 
tribe  were  chosen  to  set  an  example  to  the 
others  of  dispossessing  the  Canaanites;  and, 
with  the  assistance  of  theSimeonites,  they  cap- 
tured Bezek,  Hebron,  Zephath,  Gaza,  Ashke- 
lon,  and  Ekron,  the  last  three  being  Philis- 
tine cities.  To  the.se  Caleb's  younger  brother 
Othniel  added  Debir  (Judg.  i.  1-20). 

The  tribe  of  Judah  occupied  the  greater 
part  of  southern  Palestine.  The  boundary 
drawn  for  it  by  Joshua  commenced  at  the 
extreme  southern  point  of  the  Dead  Sea, 
passed  thence,  probably  by  wady  cl-Plkreh, 
south  of  the  ascent  of  Akrabbini,  to  the 
wilderness  of  Zin,  thence  by  the  south  of 
Kadesh-barnea  and  the  brook  of  Egypt  to 
the  Mediterranean  Sea.  The  eastern  border 
was  the  Dead  Sea.  The  northern  boundary 
started  from  the  northern  end  of  the  sea,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Jordan,  and  passing  by 
Beth-hoglah  and  near  Jericho,  went  up  by  the 
ascent  of  Adummim,  by  En-shemesh,  to  En- 
rogel  and  the  valley  of  the  son  of  Hinnom, 
south  of  Jerusalem,  passed  on  to  Kirjath- 
jearim,  and  thence  by  Beth-ishemesh  and 
Timnah,  north  of  Ekron,  to  Jabneel,  and  on 
to  the  ]\Iediterranean.     That  sea  itself  con- 


Judah 


403 


Judah 


stituted  the  western  bouudary,  but  a  portion 
of  the  area  was  almost  always  in  the  hauds  of 
the  Philistines  (Josh.  xv.  112  ;  v\).  also  13-63  ; 
xviii.  11-20).  The  lenyth  oltiie  territory  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah  from  north  to  south  was  about 
50  miles  where  most  thickly  inhabited,  but 
about  1)5  miles  from  Jerusalem  to  Kadesh- 
barnea ;  and  its  breadth  from  the  Jordan  to  the 
Philistine  plain  was  aljout  15  miles.  As  to  its 
physical  features,  it  is  naturally  divided  into 
three  regions:  the  hill  country  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  48 ;  Luke  i.  39)  ;  the  lowland  or 
Shephelah  (Josh.  xv.  33),  and  the  plain  near 
the  Mediterranean  Sea.  The  country  about 
Beer-sheba  was  known  as  the  Xej^eb  or  .south. 
A  great  part  of  Judah  is  rocky  and  barren, 
but  it  is  admirably  adapted  for  the  culture 
of  the  vine  and  for  jiasture  (cp.  Gen.  xlix.  11, 
12).  The  artificially-terraced  hills  (now  neg- 
lected) w'ere  once  the  scene  of  extensive  cul- 
tivation. Parts  of  the  territory  were  regarded 
as  a  wilderness,  especially  the  region  south 
of  Arad  (Judg.  i.  16)  and  that  immediately 
west  of  the  Dead  Sea  (Ps.  Ixiii.  title).  The  city 
of  Judah  (2  Chron.  xxv.  28)  is  the  city  of 
David  (2  Kin.  xiv.  20).  The  text  is  probably 
corrupt. 

Soon  after  their  conquest  of  Canaan  the 
Israelites  were  oppressed  by  the  king  of  Meso- 
potamia, but  Othniel  of  the  tribe  of  Judah 
delivered  the  nation  from  the  foreign  domi- 
nation (Judg.  iii.  8-11).  In  the  troublous 
times  which  now  came  upon  the  Israelites, 
due  to  their  neglect  of  God,  to  tribal  jealousies, 
amd  to  failure  to  dispos.sess  all  the  heathen, 
Judah,  Dan,  and  Simeon  became  a  group  by 
them.selves,  separated  from  the  other  tribes 
to  the  north  by  a  strip  of  country  several 
miles  broad  which  was  traversed  with  incon- 
venience, in  part  by  reason  of  its  Canaanite 
inhabitants,  Amorites,  Gibeonites,  and  Jebu- 
sites,  and  in  part  on  account  of  its  natural 
roughness  and  wildness,  being  cleft  by  deep 
transverse  valleys  between  Jerusalem  and 
Jericho.  It  was  also  se])arated  from  Gad  and 
Eeuben  by  the  chasm  of  the  Jordan  and  the 
Dead  Sea.  The  tribe  had  its  own  difficulties 
to  contend  with,  being  beset  by  the  Philis- 
tines (Judg.  iii.  31 ;  x.  7 :  xiii.  1),  and  took 
little  part  in  the  wars  of  the  other  tribes 
against  oppressors.  Boaz  and  Ruth  lived  in 
Bethlehem  at  this  time.  Judah.  however, 
united  with  the  other  tribes  to  punish  Benja- 
min (xx.  1,  18).  In  the  time  of  Eli  and  Samuel, 
when  the  Philistines  oppressed  both  Judah 
and  Benjamin,  intercourse  with  the  northern 
tribes  became  closer;  and  Judah  was  included 
in  the  kingdom  of  Saul.  After  the  death  of 
Saul,  the  men  of  Judah  supported  the  claims 
of  their  tribesman  David  to  the  throne,  and 
for  seven  years  warred  in  his  behalf.  When 
his  cause  triumphed,  Jerusalem  on  the  bor- 
der of  Judah  and  Benjamin  was  made  the 
capital  of  all  Israel.  The  promi.se  had  been 
given  to  David  that  his  posterity  should  for- 
ever occupy  his  throne  (2  Sam.  vii.  13-16  ;  1 
Chron.  svii.  12,  14,  23),  though  chastisement 


would  be  inflicted  if  there  were  a  departure 
from  Jehovah.  The  promise  was  not  intended 
to  do  away  with  the  necessity  for  wisdom  in 
the  king,  and  when  Kehoboam  manifested 
his  uuacquaiiitance  with  the  first  jirinciples 
of  government,  ten  tribes  were  lost  to  the 
house  of  David.     See  Israel. 

Judah  and  a  large  i)art  of  Benjamin  re- 
mained loyal  to  David's  line,  and  constituted 
the  main  elements  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah. 
This  kingdom  lasted  from  about  931  B.  c. 
until  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  in  587  B.  c.  During 
this  time  nineteen  kings  of  David's  line,  ex- 
clusive of  the  usurping  ijueen  Athaliah,  oc- 
cupied the  throne  ;  see  Chkonology.  Its 
territory  was  nearly  coincident  with  that  of 
the  tribes  of  Judah  and  Benjamin,  save  that 
the  northern  boundary  fluctuated,  Bethel 
being  sometimes  held  by  Judah,  especially 
after  the  fall  of  Samaria.  An  event  which 
exercised  the  most  powerful  influence  on 
the  history  and  ultimate  fate  of  the  rival 
kingdoms  was  the  construction  of  the  two 
golden  calves  by  Jeroboam,  that  the  people 
of  his  kingdom  might  have  local  sanctuaries, 
and  not  have  to  visit  Jerusalem  for  worship, 
and  perhaps  be  there  won  over  to  their  old  al- 
legiance. One  eflect  this  had  was  to  make  all 
who  were  faithful  to  Jehovah  emigrate  to  the 
kingdom  of  Judah,  bringing  it  no  mean  ac- 
cession of  spiritual  and  even  of  political 
strength  (1  Kin.  xii.  26-33  ;  xiii.  33;  2  Chron. 
X.  16, 17).  The  first  relations  of  the  two  rival 
kingdoms  were  naturally  those  of  mutual  hos- 
tility. This,  doubtless,  emboldened  the  neigh- 
boring nations  to  intermeddle  in  Jewish  af- 
fairs, aud  in  the  fifth  year  of  Kehoboam's 
reign  Shishak,  king  of  Egypt,  plundered  Je- 
rusalem (1  Kin.  xiv.  2,5-28;  2  Chron.  xii. 
1-12).  War  between  Judah  and  Israel  went 
on  in  a  languid  way  during  the  first  sixty 
years  of  their  separate  existence  (1  Kin.  xiv. 
30;  XV.  7,  16;  2  Chron.  xii.  15;  xiii.  2-20); 
after  which,  under  Ahab  and  Jehoshaphat, 
not  merely  peace,  but  a  i)olitical  and  family 
alliance  took  place  between  the  two  reigning 
houses.  In  consequence,  the  worship  of  Baal 
was  introduced  into  Judah,  and  at  last  be- 
came a  potent  factor  in  the  destruction  of 
the  kingdom.  Two  great  parties  were  formed, 
the  one  attached  to  the  worship  of  Jehovah, 
the  other  in  favor  of  Baal  aud  other  foreign 
divinities.  During  the  subsequent  period  of 
the  kingdom  of  Judah  these  parties  were  in 
continual  conflict  with  each  other,  first  one 
and  then  the  other  becoming  temporarily 
dominant,  according  as  the  reigning  monarch 
was  its  friend  or  its  opponent.  As  at  other 
periods  of  the  theocracy,  fidelity  to  Jehovah 
brought  temporal  as  well  as  spiritual  pros- 
perity, while  apostasy  from  him  was  attended 
by  di.saster.  Among  the  good  kings  were  Asa, 
Jehoshaphat,  Hezekiah,  and  Jcsiah,  while 
Ahaz,  Manasseh,  and  some  others  were  con- 
spicuously the  rever.se.  The  foreign  relations 
of  the  kingdom  were  important.  Egy])t  was 
Judah's  neighbor  on  the  southwest,  and  was 


Judah 


404 


Judas 


frequently  involved  in  the  affairs  of  Judah. 
The  Egyptian  kings  Shishak  and  Zerah  and, 
after  a  long  interval,  Necho  warred  with 
Judah.  On  the  other  hand,  Egypt  was  re- 
garded as  a  valuable  ally  against  the  great 
empires  on  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates;  and 
the  blow  intlicted  upon  the  Assyrians  by 
Tirhakah  in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah  contribu- 
ted to  the  deliverance  of  Judah,  and  later 
the  advance  of  the  Egyptians  compelled  the 
army  of  Nebuchadnezzar  to  raise  the  siege 
of  Jerusalem  temporarily.  See  Pharaoh. 
On  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Baby- 
lonians, a  large  body  of  Jews  found  refuge 
in  the  country  of  the  Nile.  During  all  these 
years  the  varied  influences  of  Egyptian  cul- 
ture and  religion  were  exerted  upon  the 
people  of  Judah.  In  respect  to  the  powerful 
nations  on  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  there 
were,  of  course,  an  Assyrian  and  a  Baby- 
lonian period.  The  Assyrian  period  began 
in  734  B.  c,  when  Ahaz  invoked  the  aid 
of  Tiglath-jjileser  against  the  allied  kings  of 
Israel  and  Syria,  and  afterwards  did  homage 
to  him  at  Damascus.  After  the  Assyrian  con- 
quest of  the  northern  kingdom  a  decade  later, 
Judah  was  exposed  for  nearly  a  century  and 
a  quarter  to  the  greed  and  fury  of  the  As- 
syrians, until  Nineveh  was  overthrown  by 
the  Babylonians.  Sargon.  Sennacherib,  Esar- 
haddon,  and  Ashurbanipal,  four  successors  on 
the  Assyrian  throne,  mention  more  or  less 
extensive  conquests  of  Judah.  Three  of 
these  four  kings  are  mentioned  in  the  He- 
bi'ew  records  (Is.  xx.  1 ;  xxxvi.  1 ;  xxxvii.  38). 
The  Babylonian  period  began  in  605,  when 
Jehoiakim  was  subjugated  by  Nebuchadnez- 
zar. In  less  than  a  score  of  years  Jerusalem 
was  in  ruins  and  the  people  of  Judah  were 
deported  to  Babylonia.  The  divine  promise 
to  David  did  not  preclude  the  temporary  loss 
of  the  throne  by  his  descendants. 

The  causes  which  led  to  the  fall  of  Jerusa- 
lem and  the  exile  were:  1.  Those  causes  which 
issued  in  tlie  disruption  of  the  kingdom  and 
the  fall  of  Samaria,  which  left  Judah  solitary. 
See  Israel.  2.  The  neglect  of  God's  com- 
mand to  exterminate  the  Canaanites.  When 
the  Israelites  could  not,  that  is,  would  not, 
utterly  destroy  the  Canaanites,  they  pre- 
served the  leaven  of  corruption  in  their 
midst.  3.  Social  and  political  alliances  with 
idolatrous  peoples.  4.  The  loss  of  moral 
strength  by  apostasy  and  the  loss  of  enthu- 
siasm for  a  great  cause  on  earth,  the  estab- 
lishment of  God's  kingdom.  5.  Eefusal  to 
repent  at  the  call  of  the  prophets.  6.  When 
these  agencies  had  wrought  ruin  to  the  state 
and  to  manhood,  when  it  was  time  to  yield, 
the  persistent  resistance  to  the  dominant  em- 
j)ire  made  with  the  help  of  petty  alliances 
was  a  short-sighted  policy,  and  a  mistaken 
estimate  of  the  coming  imperial  power.  Little 
Judah  should  not  have  been  submissive  to 
Assyria,  but  should  have  yielded  to  Babylon 
toward  the  last.  Such  was  the  exhortation 
of  Jeremiah.     From  the  verv  beginning  of 


their  national  existence  the  Hebrew  people 
needed  to  husband  all  their  resources,  physi- 
cal and  political,  moral  and  spiritual,  if  their 
kingdom  was  to  stand  amidst  the  empires  of 
the  world.  On  the  return  from  exile,  Zerub- 
babel,  a  descendant  of  David,  was  the  civil 
ruler  ;  but  he  was  oply  a  local  governor  under 
the  Persians.  He  was  followed  after  a  time 
by  Nehemiah,  also  of  the  tribe  of  Judah.  Ex- 
cept during  the  administration  of  these  two 
men,  the  governor  of  the  Persian  province 
Beyond-the-river,  of  which  Judah  formed  a 
part,  was  the  res])onsible  head.  After  the 
conquest  of  Alexander  the  Great,  Judfea  be- 
longed to  Egypt  and  Syria  in  turn.  The  suc- 
cessful revolt  of  the  Maccabees  against  the 
Syrians  led  to  the  establishment  of  a  dynasty 
of  i)riest-kings,  who  sprang  from  the  tribe  of 
Levi,  but  occu])ied  the  throne  of  David.  See 
Maccabees.  They  were  succeeded  by  an 
Idumaau  dynasty,  beginning  with  Herod  tlie 
Great,  ruling  under  the  authority  of  the  Ko- 
mans.  See  Herod,  History,  Jerusalem. 
When  the  scepter  reverted  to  the  house  of 
David  the  kingdom  was  no  longer  temporal 
but  spiritual,  and  the  sovereign  no  eai'thly 
potentate,  but  the  Son  of  God. 

To  judge  from  the  context,  by  Judali  the 
tribal  territory  is  meant  in  Josh.  xix.  34. 
The  passage  has  not  been  satisfactorily  ex- 
plained, the  word  Judah  is  not  found  in  the 
Septuagint ;  perhaps  the  text  is  corrupt. 

3.  A  Levite,  among  whose  descendants  was 
Kadmiel  (Ezra  iii.  9).     See  Hodaviah. 

4.  A  Levite  who  returned  from  Babylon 
with  Zerubljabel  (Neh.  xii.  8). 

5.  A  Levite,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put  away 
his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  23). 

6.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Hassenuah,  and 
second  in  command  over  the  city  of  Jerusa- 
lem (Neh.  xi.  9). 

7.  One  who  took  part  in  the  dedication  of 
the  wall,  probably  a  jjrince  of  Judah  (Neh. 
xii.  34J. 

Ju'das,  genitive  Juda  ;  the  Greek  form  of 
the  Hebrew  proper  name  Judah. 

1.  Judah,  son  of  Jacob  (Mat.  i.  2,  3,  A.  V.). 

2.  An  ancestor  of  Jesus,  who  lived  before 
the  exile  (Luke  iii.  30 ;  in  A.  V.  Juda). 

3.  Judas  Maccabseus,  third  of  the  five  sons 
of  the  priest  Mattathias  (1  Mac.  ii.  1-5).  His 
father,  driven  to  desperation  by  the  deter- 
mination of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  to  force 
idolatry  upon  the  Jews,  began  the  struggle 
for  religious  liberty.  On  the  death  of  Matta- 
thias, in  l(j6  B.  c,  Judas,  in  compliance  with 
his  father's  wish,  assumed  the  military  lead- 
ership of  the  faithful  Jews  (ii.  66;  iii.  1).  He 
entered  immediately  upon  a  career  of  vic- 
tory. A  combined  Syrian  and  Samaritan 
army,  under  the  command  of  Apollonius,  ad- 
vanced against  him.  He  routed  it,  slew  Apol- 
lonius, and  took  his  sword  (10,  11).  Judas 
fought  with  this  sword  during  the  remainder 
of  his  life  (12).  He  defeated  another  Syrian 
army  under  Seron  near  Beth-horon  (13-24), 


Judas 


405 


Judas 


and,  probably  still  in  166  B.  c,  won  a  de- 
cisive battle  with  Gorgias  near  Emmaus  (27- 
iv.  25).  In  the  i'ulluwiuj!;  year  Antiochiis 
sent  a  large  army  into  Jiidiea  under  the  com- 
mand of  Lysias,  but  it  was  defeated  by  Judas 
at  Beth-zur  (iv.  26-34).  In  consequence  of 
these  successes,  the  Jews  recovered  control 
of  the  temple,  purified  it,  and  consecrated  it 
anew  (36-o3).  This  event  was  celebrated  by 
the  annual  feast  of  dedication  (John  x.  22). 
This  Syrian  war  was  followed  l)y  offensive 
operations  under  Judas  and  his  brother  Simon 
against  hostile  neighboring  nations  (1  Mac.  v. 
9-54).  Antiochus  Eupator  succeeded  his  father 
Antiochus  Epiphanes  on  the  throne  of  Syria, 
and  reigned  from  164  to  162  B.  c.  Under  the 
guidance  of  Lysias  he  renewed  the  war  with 
the  Jews.  Lysias  defeated  Judas  at  Beth- 
zacharias  (vi.  28-47).  and  laid  siege  to  Jeru- 
salem (48-54),  but  was  compelled  by  compli- 
cations at  home  to  conclude  a  peace  with 
Judas  and  return  to  Antioch.  The  Jews  ac- 
knowledged the  suzerainty  of  Syria,  but  were 
promised  the  free  exercise  of  their  religion 
(55-61).  Demetrius  Soter,  who  reigned  from 
162  to  150  B.  c,  again  favored  the  Grecian 
party  among  the  Jews,  and  put  the  helleu- 
izer  Alcimus  into  the  high-priesthood  (vii.  1- 
20).  Judas  resisted  the  efforts  of  this  high 
priest  (23,  24),  and  Demetrius  sent  an  army 
under  Nicanor  to  support  Alcimus ;  but  Nica- 
nor  was  defeated  at  Capharsalama  and  again 
at  Adasa  near  Beth-horon  (26-50).  During 
the  brief  peace  which  ensued  Judas  began 
negotiations  with  the  Romans,  and  obtained 
from  them  assurances  of  friendship  and  as- 
sistance (viii.)  ;  but  probably  before  the  an- 
swer of  the  senate  was  returned,  Demetrius 
sent  another  army  under  Bacchides  into 
Judfea  in  160  b.  c.  Judas  offered  valiant  re- 
sistance to  the  invaders  at  Elasa,  but  his 
troops  were  worsted  and  he  himself  was  slain 
(ix.  1-18).  His  body  was  recovered  by  his 
brothers,  and  buried  in  the  family  sepulcher 
at  Jlodin  (19).  It  was  some  time  before  the 
patriotic  party  recovered  from  the  demorali- 
zation caused  by  their  defeat  and  the  death 
of  their  leader,  but  at  length  they  offered  the 
command  to  Judas'  brother  Jonathan  (23-31). 

4.  Son  of  Chalphi  and  one  of  the  two  cap- 
tains who  stood  by  Jonathan  Maccabfeus  at 
Hazor  when  all  the  rest  had  fled,  and  enabled 
him  to  retrieve  the  day  (1  Mac.  xi.  70). 

5.  A  son  of  Simon  Maccabteus  (1  Mac.  xvi. 
2).  His  father  devolved  the  command  of  the 
army  upon  him  and  his  brother  John,  and 
sent  them  against  Cendebteus.  The  two 
brothers  gained  a  great  victory  over  the 
Syrian  general  near  Kidron,  not  far  from 
Ashdod  (2-10).  Judas  was  wounded  in  the 
battle  (9).  In  1.35  B.  c,  about  three  years 
later,  he  and  his  brother  Mattathias  were 
treacherously  murdered  in  the  castle  of  Dok 
by  a  kin.sman  by  marriage,  either  at  a  feast 
at  the  same  time  that  their  father  Simon 
was  assas-sinated  (14-17)  or  a  little  later 
(Antiq.  xiii.  8,  1). 


6.  Judas  of  Galilee,  who,  in  the  days  of 
the  enrollment,  raised  a  revolt;  but  he  per- 
ished, and  all,  as  many  as  obeyed  liiiii.  were 
scattered  abroad  (Acts  v.  37  ;  cj).  l.,uke  ii.  2). 
Josephus  calls  him  several  times  a  Galila-an, 
but  once  a  (Jaulonite,  of  the  city  of  Gamala, 
implying  that  he  was  from  Gaulonitis,  east 
of  the  Jordan.  It  ajipears  that,  with  the 
support  of  a  Pharisee  called  Sadduc,  Judas 
imbued  his  countrymen  with  the  belief  that 
the  enrollment  under  Quirinius  was  the  com- 
mencement of  their  reduction  to  a  state  of 
servitude.  He  founded  a  philosoi)hic  sect 
whose  chief  tenet  was  that  their  only  ruler 
and  lord  was  God  (Antiq.  xviii.  1.  1  and  6; 
War  ii.  8,  1).  Josephus  states  that  Judas 
succeeded  in  making  some  of  the  Jews  re- 
volt, and  implies,  but  does  not  directly  men- 
tion, that  he  lost  his  life.  He  expressly 
states,  however,  that  his  sons  were  slaiu 
(Antiq.  xx.  5,  2i.  The  indirect  consequence 
of  this  attemiit  was  the  rise  of  the  party  of 
zealots,  who  largely  contributed  to  the  dis- 
turbances which  provoked  the  Jewish  war  of 
A.  D.  66-70. 

7.  Judas  Iscariot,  son  of  Simon  Iscariot 
(John  vi.  71.  R.  V.),  and  the  apostle  who  be- 
trayed his  divine  Lord,  and  that  by  a  kiss. 
By  being  surnamed  Iscariot  he  is  distin- 
guished from  another  of  the  twelve  who  was 
named  Judas  (Luke  vi.  16;  John  siv.  22). 
The  surname  probably  meant  that  he  came 
originally  from  Kerioth  in  the  south  of  Judah, 
toward  the  land  of  Edom  (Josh.  xv.  25). 
Judged  by  his  character,  he  followed  Jesus 
probably  because  he  expected  to  derive 
earthly  advantage  from  the  establishment 
of  Christ's  kingdom.  Jesus,  without  naming 
any  person,  early  referred  to  the  future  act 
of  treason  which  one  of  the  twelve  would 
commit  (John  vi.  70).  Judas  was  appointed 
to  keep  the  bag,  but  he  yielded  to  dishon- 
esty, and  appropriated  part  of  the  money 
to  himself.  When  Mary  of  Bethany  in 
her  affection  for  Jesus  broke  the  alabaster 
box  of  precious  ointment  and  anointed 
him,  Judas  was  the  spokesman  of  himself 
and  others  in  denouncing  what  he  con- 
sidered extravagance ;  not  that  he  cared 
for  the  poor,  but  that  he  wished  the  price 
of  the  ointment  to  be  put  into  the  bag, 
whence  he  could  help  himself  as  he  had 
done  before  (John  xii.  5,  6).  Jesus  mildly 
reproved  him ;  but  the  rebuke  aroused  his 
resentment,  and  he  went  to  the  chief  priests 
and  offered  to  betray  Jesus  unto  them  for  a 
price.  They  agreed  with  him  on  thirty 
pieces  of  silver,  about  $19.50,  an  ordinary 
price  for  a  slave.  From  that  time  Judas 
sought  an  opportunity  to  deliver  Jesus  unto 
them  (Mat.  xxvi.  14-16;  Mark  xiv.  10,  11; 
Ex.  xxi.  32:  Zech.  xi.  12.  13).  At  the  pas.s- 
over  supper  Jesus,  in  order  to  carry  out  his 
design  of  being  crucified  at  the  feast,  ])ointed 
out  the  traitor.  The  devil  had  already  put 
into  the  heart  of  Judas  to  betray  his  Master 
(John  xiii.  2).     When  Jesus  solemnly  said. 


Judas 


406 


Jude 


"  One  of  you  shall  betray  me,"  each  disciple 
asked,  "Lord,  is  it  I?"  Peter  beckoned  to 
John  to  ask  Christ  who  it  was,  and  as  Jesus 
and  Judas  were  dipping  together  in  the  dish 
Jesus  said  :  "  He  it  is,  for  whom  I  shall  dip 
tlie  sop,  and  give  it  him  ;  "  and  he  gave  it  to 
Judas  (Mat.  xxvi.23;  John  xiii.26  R.V.).  After 
the  sop  Satan  entered  into  Judas  (27).  See- 
ing the  attention  of  the  disci])les  directed  to 
him,  he  also  asked  :  "  Is  it  I,  Rabbi  V  "  Jesus 
answered  :  "Thou  hast  said,"  which  was  the 
equivalent  of  "  Yes"  (Mat.  xxvi. 21-25  E.  V.). 
Even  yet  the  disciples  did  not  know  what 
Jesus  meant,  and  when  he  added,  "  That  thou 
doest,  do  quickly,"  they  supposed  that  this 
was  a  direction  to  the  treasurer  to  lose  no 
time  in  buying  some  articles  of  which  they 
had  need.  The  traitor  went  at  once  to  the 
chief  priests.  It  is  probable  that  Judas  was 
not  at  the  institution  of  the  sacrament.  He 
was  present  at  the  supper,  and  partook  of  it 
with  the  twelve  (Mat.  xxvi.  20)  ;  but  he  went 
out  immediately  after  receiving  the  sop  (John 
xiii.  30),  and  the  eucharist  was  after  the 
supper  (Mat.  xxvi.  26-29  ;  Mark  xiv.  22-25  ; 
Luke  xxii.  19,  20).  Luke  in  narrating  the 
events  of  the  supper,  changes  the  actual  order 
that  he  may  place  the  spirit  of  Christ  and  the 
spirit  of  the  disciples  in  contrast  (xxii.  15-20 
and  21-24).  After  the  departure  of  Judas 
the  tone  of  Jesus'  conversation  changes. 
When  supper  was  ended  he  led  the  eleven  to 
the  garden  of  Gethsemane.  Thither  Judas 
came,  accompanied  by  a  great  multitude  with 
swords  and  staves,  from  the  chief  priests 
and  elders.  In  accordance  with  a  sign  which 
had  been  agreed  upon,  in  order  to  point  out 
Jesus  to  the  soldiers,  Judas  advanced  and 
saluted  Jesus  with  a  kiss,  and  Jesus  was 
seized  (Mat.  xxvi.  47-50).  The  next  morn- 
ing, when  Judas,  now  in  calmer  mood,  saw 
that  Jesus  was  condemned,  and  was  likely  to 
be  put  to  death,  he  awoke  to  the  enormity  of 
his  guilt,  and  went  to  the  chief  priests  with 
the  confession,  "  I  have  sinned  in  that  I 
have  betrayed  the  innocent  blood,"  and 
ofl'ered  to  return  the  money.  His  conscience 
was  not  so  seared  as  the  consciences  of  the 
chief  priests,  who,  having  seduced  the  erring 
apostle  into  his  great  sin,  then  turned  round 
on  him  and  said,  "What  is  that  to  us?  see 
thou  to  that."  On  which  he  cast  down  the 
silver  pieces  in  the  temple,  and  went  and 
hanged  himself  (Mat.  xxvii.  3-5),  and  falling- 
headlong  he  burst  asunder  in  the  midst,  and 
all  his  bowels  gushed  out  (Acts  i.  18).  The 
109th  Psalm,  directed  primarily  against  .some 
contemporary  of  the  writer,  found  fulfillment 
in  Judas  (Ps.  cix.  8;  Acts  i.  20).  But  no 
heavenly  coercion  compelled  the  son  of  per- 
dition (John  xvii.  12)  to  fulfill  his  destiny. 
Nor  was  he,  a  suppliant,  refused  mercy ;  he 
did  not  ask  it. 

8.  One  of  the  twelve  apostles,  carefully 
distinguished  from  Judas  Iscariot  (John  xiv. 
22).  He  was  son  or  perhaps  brother  of  James 
(Luke  vi.  16;  Acts  i.  13;  see  R.  Y.  text  and 


margin).  He  was  also  called  Thaddseus.  for 
this  name  is  found  in  other  lists  in  the  place 
corresponding  to  his  (Mat.  x.  3;  Mark  iii. 
18).  The  received  text  of  Mat.  x.  3  has 
"  Lebbfeus,  whose  surname  was  Thadda?us." 
These  two  surnames  are  believed  to  mean 
the  same  thing:  the  former  coming  from 
Hebrew  and  Aramaic  leh,  heart,  and  the 
latter  from  Aramaic  thad,  a  mother's  breast, 
and  both  signifying  a  beloved  child. 

9.  One  of  the  four  brethren  of  the  Lord 
(Mat.  xiii.  55;  Mark  vi.  3,  in  A.  Y.  Juda), 
and  probably  the  author  of  the  Epistle  of 
Jude.    See  Brethren  of  the  Lord,  Jude. 

10.  A  man  who  lived  at  Damascus,  in  the 
street  called  Straight,  and  with  whom  Paul 
lodged  just  after  his  conversion  (Acts  ix. 
11). 

11.  Judas,  surnamed  Barsabbas.  He  was  a 
leading  man  in  the  church  at  Jerusalem,  and 
was  chosen  with  Silas  to  accompany  Barnabas 
and  Paul  to  Antioch,  bearing  the  letter  from 
the  council  at  Jerusalem  to  the  churches 
of  Syria  and  Ciiicia.  He  had  prophetic  gifts. 
His  subsequent  history  is  unknown  (Acts  xv. 
22, 27,  32).  He  bears  the  same  surname  as  the 
disciple  Joseph,  who  was  proposed  for  the 
apostleship,  and  was  probably  his  brother 
(i.  23). 

Jude.  in  E.  V.  of  Jude  1  Judas. 

An  English  form  of  the  name  Judas,  given 
in  the  A.  Y.  to  the  writer  of  the  Epistle  of 
Jude  (ver.  1).  He  describes  himself  simply 
as  "brother  of  James,"  by  whom  the  author 
of  the  Epistle  of  James  and  leader  of  the 
church  in  Jerusalem  seems  to  be  meant.  In 
this  case  Jude  should  be  a  brother  of  the  Lord, 
and  not  an  apostle ;  and  these  inferences 
seem  borne  out  by  the  presence  of  a  Judas  in 
the  lists  of  our  Lord's  brethren  (Mat.  xiii.  55; 
Mark  vi.  3),  and  by  the  apparent  implication 
of  verse  17  of  his  epistle,  that  its  writer  was 
not  an  apostle.  Those  who  identify  the 
brothers  of  the  Lord  with  the  sons  of 
Alphfeus,  nevertheless,  identify  Jude  with 
the  apo.stle  Judas.  Except  his  bare  name, 
nothing  is  recorded  of  him  beyond  what  we 
may  infer  from  the  facts  that  the  brethren 
of  the  Lord  did  not  believe  in  him  during 
his  life  on  earth  (John  vii.  5)  and  that  after 
his  resurrection  they  were  his  followers 
(Acts  i.  14).  An  interesting  story  told  of  his 
grandchildren  by  the  church  writer,  Hege- 
sippus,  and  preserved  by  Eusebius  (H.  E.  iii. 
20),  confirms  the  possible  inference  from  1 
Cor.  ix.  5  that  he  was  married,  and  implies 
that  he  was  dead  before  a.  d.  80. 

The  General  Epistle  of  Jude  is  a  brief 
epistle.  It  names  its  author  as  Judas,  a 
bond  servant  of  Jesus  Christ  and  brother  of 
James  (ver.  1,  R.  Y.  margin)  ;  that  is  proba- 
bly Judas,  the  brother  of  the  Lord  (Mat.  xiii. 
55  ;  Mark  vi.  3).  Its  address  is  quite  general : 
"to  them  that  are  called,  lieloved  in  God  the 
Father,  and  kept  for  Jesus  Christ "  (ver.  1, 
R.  Y.).     Nevertheless,  it  is  probable  from  the 


Judges 


407 


Judges,  Book  of 


character  of  thi'  epistle,  which  seems  intended 
for  ii  special  occasion  and  is  full  of  allusions 
which  would  be  likely  to  l)e  intelligible  only 
to  Jews,  that  some  particular  body  of  Chris- 
tians was  intended,  which,  from  tlie  circum- 
stances of  sending  the  letter,  did  not  need  to 
be  specified  in  the  addi-ess.  It  is  most 
natural  to  think  of  it  as  intended  for  the 
Jewish  Christians  dwellinj?  in  Palestine.  The 
letter  has  been  largely  used  by  2  Pet.  ii., 
and  must  have  been  written  before  it, 
probably  not  much  before :  it  seems  most 
natural  to  date  it  about  A.  D.  66.  It  was 
called  out  by  the  outbreak  among  Jude's 
readers  of  an  alarming  heresy  with  immoral 
tendencies,  probably  sometliing  like  the  in- 
cipient gnosticism  rebuked  in  the  pastora? 
epistles  and  the  Apocalypse  (ver.  3,  4,  10, 
1.'),  16,  18),  and  was  designed  to  .save  the 
churches  addressed  from  its  inroads.  After 
the  address  (ver.  1,  2),  it  assigns  the  reason 
for  its  writing  (ver.  3,  4),  and  then  first  an- 
nounces the  condemnation  in  store  for  the 
false  teachers  (ver.  5-16),  and  afterwards 
divulges  the  duty  of  true  Christians  in  the 
circumstances  (ver.  17-23),  concluding  with 
a  rich  and  appropriate  doxology  (ver.  24,  25). 
Owing  doubtless  to  its  brevity,  there  are  no 
very  clear  traces  of  the  u.se  of  Jude  in  the 
very  earliest  fathers  of  the  church.  In  the 
latter  part  of  the  second  century,  however, 
it  is  found  in  full  use  in  the  Greek  and 
Latin  churches  alike,  and  was  clearly  from 
the  beginning  a  part  of  the  Christian  canon. 

B.  B.  AV. 

Judg'es. 

Men  who  were  raised  up  to  head  successful 
revolts  against  foreign  oppressors  and,  hav- 
ing emancipated  the  nation  and  shown  there- 
by their  call  of  God,  were  looked  to  by  the 
people  to  maintain  their  rights.  National 
apostasy  from  Jehovah  and  the  worship  of 
heathen  deities  were  uniformlj'  punished,  both 
then  and  in  after  times,  by  Jehovah's  allow- 
ing the  nation  to  he  brought  under  a  foreign 
yoke.  Upon  the  repentance  of  the  people 
and  return  to  Jehovah,  a  saviour  like  unto 
Mo.ses  was  raised  up.  There  were  twelve  of 
these  judges,  not  including  Abimelech,  who 
was  a  petty  king  and  not  called  of  God  (ix.). 
They  were  Othniel  of  Judah,  deliverer  of 
Israel  from  the  king  of  ^Mesopotamia  ;  Ehud, 
who  expelled  the  Moabites  and  Ammonites  ; 
Shamgar,  smiter  of  six  hundred  Philistines 
and  saviour  of  Israel ;  Deborah,  associated 
with  Barak,  who  led  Xaphtali  and  Zebnlun 
to  victory  against  the  northern  Canaanites  ; 
Gideon,  who  drove  the  Midianites  from  the 
territory  of  Israel ;  Tola  and  Jair ;  Jeph- 
thah,  subduer  of  the  Ammonites ;  Ibzan, 
Elon,  Abdon,  and  Samson,  the  troubler  of 
the  Philistines.  Eli  and  Samuel  also  judged 
Israel  (1  Sam.  iv.  18;  vii.  15),  but  the  former 
acted  in  his  official  capacity  as  high  priest 
and  the  latter  as  a  prophet  of  Jehovah. 
Tliese  judges  did  not  form  an  unbroken  suc- 
cession of  rulers,  but  appeared  sporadically. 


They  were  often  local,  discharging  their  du- 
ties in  restricted  districts.  They  apparently 
exercised  only  such  authority  as  was  spon- 
taneously accorded  to  them.  They  could  not 
order  the  various  tribes  to  war.  Some  of  the 
op])ressions  and  not  a  few  of  the  judges  were 
evidently  contemporaneous  and  overlapped. 
Shamgar,  for  example,  was  contemporary 
with  Ehud,  for  the  account  of  his  exploit  is 
inserted  in  the  midst  of  the  narrative  of 
Ehud's  work  (iii.  31);  and  a  Philistine  op- 
pression of  Judah  was  coeval  with  the  Am- 
monite domination  east  of  Jordan  and  attack 
on  Judah,  Benjamin  and  Ephraim  (x.  7).  See 
Chronology. 

These  facts  throw  light  on  the  distracted 
state  of  the  nation  during  the  period  of  the 
judges.  The  political  districts,  moreover, 
are  found  to  be  those  that  were  separated  by 
the  Jordan  and  by  the  heathen  barrier  be- 
tween Judah  and  the  north.  The  song  of 
Deborah  and  the  hi.story  of  Jephthah  show 
the  laxity  of  the  bonds  which  united  the 
tribes,  and  make  known  what  tribes  were 
able  and  willing  to  join  forces  and  fortunes. 
The  isolation  of  Judah  is  remarkable ;  see 
Judah.  But  there  were  centralizing  influ- 
ences at  work.  National  feeling  existed,  for 
the  war  of  extermination  waged  against 
Benjamin  shows  the  sense  of  national  guilt 
and  national  responsibility.  There  was  one 
ark  for  all  the  tribes  in  the  national  taber- 
nacle at  Shiloh  (Josh,  xviii.  1  ;  Judg.  xxi. 
19;  cp.  Ex.  xxiii.  14-17).  It  was  carried  to 
Bethel,  the  frontier  town  of  Benjamin  near- 
est to  Gibeah,  when  the  men  of  Israel  gath- 
ered there  to  wage  war  against  the  tribe  of 
Benjamin,  but  would  first  worship  the  Lord 
and  ask  counsel  of  him  (Judg.  xx.  18-29). 
Great  oppressions  united  the  people  in  com- 
mon misery  and  called  for  united  action  ; 
great  deliverers  united  the  hearts  of  the  people 
in  loyalty  and  pride  about  one  head  ;  great  de- 
liverances, obtained  by  united  action,  bound 
tribes  more  closely  together  in  common 
glory. 

The  period  of  the  judges  has  been  called 
Israel's  iron  age.  The  people  frequently 
lapsed  into  idolatry,  and  worship  at  the  sanc- 
tuary was  rendered  difficult  by  the  distracted 
state  of  the  country.  Rudeness  of  manners 
was  displayed  in  Jael's  murder  of  Sisera,  in 
Jephthah's  sacrifice  of  his  daughter,  in  Gid- 
eon's treatment  of  the  men  of  Succoth,in  the 
sin  of  the  men  of  Gibeah.  Against  the.se 
shadows,  however,  there  stand  out  brightly 
the  trust  and  filial  piety  of  Jephthah's 
daughter,  the  fidelity  of  Ruth  to  Naomi,  and 
the  kindly  and  upright  character  of  Boaz. 

Judg'es,  Book  of. 

A  historical  book  of  the  O.  T.  placed  after 
Joshua  and  continuing  the  narrative  from 
the  death  of  Joshua.  The  work  consists  of 
three  parts.  I.  Introduction  (i.-ii.  5),  giving 
an  account  of  the  extent  to  which  the  coun- 
trv  had  been   subdued  after  the  death  of 


Judges,  Book  of 


408 


Juniper 


I 


Joshua.  II.  A  history  of  the  judges  as  saviours 
of  Israel,  from  the  death  of  Joshua  to  that  of 
Samsou  (ii.  tJ-xvi.  31).  This  section  has  its 
own  iutroductiou  iu  prophetic  style,  sum- 
mariisiug  the  events  of  the  period  and  point- 
ing out  the  religious  lesson  (ii.  G-iii.  6),  fol- 
lowed by  more  or  less  detailed  accounts  of 
six  judges  and  bi'ief  mention  of  other  six. 
The  assumption  of  kingshij)  by  Abimelech, 
son  of  Gideon,  is  recorded  as  an  integral  part 
of  the  history,  although  he  was  a  petty  king 
rather  than  a  judge,  and  was  not  a  saviour  of 
Israel.  III.  Two  appendices,  namely,  an  ac- 
count of  Micah's  image  worship  and  its  es- 
tablishment among  the  Danites  of  the  north 
(xvii.,^  xviii.),  and  of  the  sin  of  the  men  of 
Gibeah  and  the  consequent  war  for  its  pun- 
ishment (xix.-xxi.). 

The  date  of  the  composition  of  the  Book 
of  Judges  is  difficult  to  determine.  At  any 
rate,  the  following  facts  must  be  satisfied. 
All  schools  of  criticism  at  present  acknowl- 
edge the  great  antitjuity  of  the  song  of  Deb- 
orah, and  that  it  is  practically  contemporary 
with  the  event  which  it  celebrates.  This 
section,  the  second  and  main  portion  of  the 
book,  could  not  have  been  written  until  after 
the  death  of  Samson  (svi.  30,  31).  In  the 
appendices,  the  recurring  expression,  "  iu 
those  days  there  was  no  king  in  Israel," 
points  to  the  composition  of  these  chapters  at 
least  after  the  establishment  of  the  kingdom. 
The  tabernacle  was  no  longer  at  Shiloh 
(xviii.  31)  when  they  were  written.  The 
mention  of  the  "captivity  of  the  land" 
(xviii.  30)  has  beeia  interpreted  as  a  reference 
to  the  ravages  of  Tiglath-pileser  in  the  north 
(2  Kin.  XV.  29),  or  to  the  deportation  of  the 
ten  tribes  after  the  fall  of  Samaria.  But  this 
explanation  conflicts  with  the  parallel  state- 
ment, "all  the  time  that  the  house  of  God 
was  iu  Shiloh "  (Judg.  xviii.  31).  More- 
over, historical  circumstances  in  the  reigns 
of  David,  Solomon,  and  Jeroboam  (1  Kin. 
v.-vii. ;  xii.  28-31)  make  it  highly  improb- 
able that  this  image  worship  continued 
to  be  practiced  until  the  time  of  Tiglath- 
pileser  or  the  Assyrian  exile.  Hence  from 
the  time  of  David  Kimchi  many  interpreters 
have  understood  the  captivity  of  the  land  to 
refer  to  the  capture  of  the  ark  by  the  Philis- 
tines, when  Jehovah  forsook  Shiloh.  Several 
expositors  have  adopted  the  conjecture  of 
Houbigant  that  the  last  letter  in  the  phrase 
"  captivity  of  the  land  "  has  become  corrupt, 
and  that  the  Hebrew  text  originally  had 
nun  instead  of  tzade,  which  would  then 
read  "captivity  of  the  ark."  Keil  thinks 
that  the  reference  is  to  a  conquest  of  the  land 
of  the  northern  Danites  and  enslavement  of 
its  population  by  the  neighboring  Syrians  of 
Damascus.  Any  of  these  suppositious  is  be- 
set by  fewer  ditficulties  than  the  assumption 
that  Micah's  image  worship  continued  until 
the  fall  of  Samaria.  Tlie  expression  "from 
Dan  even  to  Beersheba  "  (xx.  1)  was,  of  course, 
appropriate  in  the  times  of  the  judges,  for  it 


doubtless  originated  then.  For  x.  11-lS  ;  cp. 
i.  31,  32,  34  ;  iii.  13,  31  ;  vi.  3,  9,  10,  33.  The 
indications  of  time,  which  are  found  in  the 
appendices,  thus  point  to  the  period  before 
David's  reign  over  all  Israel.  The  general 
introduction  to  the  book  was  written  while 
the  Jebusites  still  occupied  the  stronghold  at 
Jerusalem  (i.  21).  All  these  indications  of 
time  strongly  favor  the  inference  that  the 
book  as  a  whole  was  written  in  the  time  of 
Samuel,  if  not  actually  by  that  prophet  him- 
self, as  the  Jews  of  old  believed.  Critics 
who  deny  the  Mosaic  authorshiiJ  of  Deu- 
teronomy assume  that  a  late  reviser  worked 
over  the  material,  because  the  book  reflects 
the  same  religious  conception  as  does  Deu- 
teronomy. 

As  the  analysis  of  the  work  shows,  these 
histories  were  gathered  and  placed  in  their 
present  framework  in  order  to  exhibit  their 
religious  teaching  and  serve  as  an  admonition 
to  subsequent  ages.  This  religious  signifi- 
cance of  the  events,  which  the  comi)iler  de- 
sired to  exhibit,  was  not  concealed  from  the 
actors  themselves.  The  song  of  Deborah  and 
the  national  uprising  to  punish  the  perpetra- 
tors and  abetters  of  the  crime  of  Gibeah  re- 
veal the  consciousness  of  the  participants  that 
they  were  engaged  in  sacred  warfare  and 
that  the  history  which  was  being  enacted 
was  full  of  religious  instruction. 

Judg'ment  Hall.     See  Pe^torium. 

Ju'dith  [object  of  praise,  praiseworthy  ; 
also  feminine  of  Y'hudi,  a  Jew,  and  meaning 
a  Jewess] . 

1.  A  wife  of  Esau  and  daughter  of  Beeri, 
the  Hittite  (Gen.  xxvi.  34).  She  was  also 
called  Oholibamah  (xxxvi.  2;  cp.  Anah). 

2.  Heroine  of  the  book  of  Judith ;  see 
Apocrypha. 

Ju'li-a  [feminine  form  of  Latin  Julius]. 

A  female  Christian  at  Eome  to  M'hom  Paul 
sent  his  salutation  (Rom.  xvi.  15). 

Ju'li-us. 

A  centurion  of  the  Augustan  band,  em- 
ployed to  conduct  Paul  as  a  prisoner  to  Rome 
(Acts  xxvii.  1).  He  showed  courtesy  to  the 
apostle,  allowing  him  to  visit  his  friends  at 
Sidon  (3).  He  did  not  believe  Paul's  predic- 
tion of  the  coming  storm,  but  on  finding  it 
verified  by  the  event,  he  evidently  formed  a 
high  opinion  of  the  apostle,  and  for  his  sake 
saved  all  the  prisoners  from  being  put  to 
death  by  the  soldiers  to  prevent  their  escap- 
ing when  the  ship  became  a  wreck  (43). 

Ju'ni-as,  in  A.  V.  Junia. 

A  Jewish  Christian  at  Rome,  to  whom  Paul 
sent  a  salutation,  alluding  to  the  fact  that  he 
was  his  kinsman  and  fellow-prisoner,  and 
had  been  before  him  in  Christ  (Rom.  xvi.  7). 

Ju'ni-per. 

Not  the  coniferous  tree  of  the  genus  Juni- 
per u.i,  of  which  several  species  occur  in 
Lebanon,  Galilee,  and  Bashan ;  but  a  legu- 
miuous  plant  (Reiama  netam),  an  almost  leaf- 


Jupiter 


409 


Eadesh 


less  broom  (1  Kin.  xix.  4,  5  ;  Job  xxx.  4;  Ps. 
cxx.  4) ;  see  BiitxiM. 

Ju'pi-ter. 

Tbc  siiiirenu'  god  of  the  Romans.  He  cor- 
responded to  tile  Zeus  of  the  (ireeks,  and  iu 
the  only  part  of  the  N.  T.  in  wiiieli  the  name 
is  introduced  (Acts  xiv.  12,  13)  the  Greek 
text  has  Zeus.  Zeus  had  a  noted  temi)le  at 
Olympia  in  Elis  (Herod,  ii.  7),  from  which  he 
derived  his  designation  of  Olympius.  Anti- 
ocluis  Epiphanes  erected  a  temple  to  him  un- 
der that  title  at  Atlieus,  dedicated  the  tem- 
ple at  Jeru.salem  to  Jiijiiter  Olympius,  and  at 
the  request  of  the  Samaritans,  Jo.sephussays, 
called  the  sanctuary  on  Gerizim  by  the  name 
of  Jupiter,  the  protector  of  strangers  (2 
Mac.  vi.  2;  Antii}.  xii.  5,  .5).  The  worship 
of  Jupiter,  which  Paul  and  Barnabas  met 
with  at  Lystra,  existed  at  the  time  over  the 
whole  Greek  and  Roman  world.  He  had 
temples  and  a  priesthood  ;  garlands  were 
presented  to  him,  as  were  also  ofieriugs  of 
other  kinds,  and  oxen  and  sheep  were  sacri- 
ficed to  propitiate  his  favor. 

Ju-shab-he'sed  [loving-kindness  is  re- 
turned). 

A  sou  of  Zerubbabel  (1  Chron.  iii.  20). 

Jus'tus  [just,  righteous]. 

1.  A  surname  of  Joseph,  the  unsuccessful 
candidate  for  the  apostleship  rendered  va- 
cant bv  the  fall  of  the  unworthy  Judas 
(Act^  i!  23). 

2.  A  godlj'  man  of  Corinth,  whose  house 
adjoined  the  syuagogue,  and  with  whom 
Paul  lodged  (Acts  xviii.  7).  His  fuller  uame 
was  Titus  Justus  (R.  V.). 

3.  The  surname  of  a  Jew  called  Jesus,  who 
joined  Paul  in  sending  salutations  to  the  L'o- 
lossians  (Col.  iv.  11). 

Ju'tah  and  Jut'tah  [extended,  inclined]. 

A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah,  men- 
tioned with  Maon,  Carmel,  and  Ziph,  and 
doubtless  in  their  vicinity  (Josh.  xv.  55). 
With  its  suburbs  it  was  assigned  to  the  priests 
(xxi.  16).  It  is  now  called  Yuttah,  and  stands 
on  a  low  eminence,  about  5A  miles  S.  by  W.  of 
Hebron.  The  supposition  is  credible  that 
Jutah  was  the  city  of  Judah  in  the  hill  coun- 
try to  which  Mary  went  to  visit  Elisabeth 
(Luke  i.  39 1,  and  that  Judah  Cloitdn)  has 
been  substituted  for  Jutah  ('lonfa).  The 
more  common  view,  however,  is  that  Hebron 
was  the  city  of  Elisabeth. 


K. 


Kab,  in  A.  V.  Cab. 

A  Hebrew  dry  measure  (2  Kin.  vi.  25)  ; 
containing,  according  to  rabbinical  tradition, 
one  sixth  of  a  seah  or  one  one  hundred  and 
eightieth  of  a  homer.     See  Measure. 

Kab'ze-el  and  once  Jekabzeel  ( Neh.  xi.  25) 
[God  brings  together]. 

A   citv   in   the   extreme  south   of  Judah 


(Josh.  XV.  21).  It  was  the  home  of  David's 
heroic  supporter,  Beuaiah  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  2U  ; 
1  Chron.  xi.  22).  The  town  was  inhabited 
after  the  exile  (Xeh.  xi.  25 ;  where  it  is 
called  by  the  synonymous  uame  of  Jekabzeel). 
Exact  situation  unknown. 

Ka'desh,    including    Ka- desh-bar'ne-a 

[consecrated].  The  meaning  of  P>arnca  is 
unknown. 

1.  A  fountain,  city  or  town,  and  wilderness 
on  the  southern  frontier  of  Judah  and  of 
Palestine  (Num.  xx.  16  ;  xxxiv.  4;  Josh.  xv. 
3  ;  Ps.  xxix.  8  ;  Ezek.  xlvii.  19  ;  xlviii.  28) ; 
distinguished  as  Kadesh-baruea  from  other 
places  bearing  the  uame  Kadesh  (Num.  xiii. 
26  with  xxxii.  8  ;  Deut.  i.  19  with  46).  At  an 
early  period  it  was  called  Eu-mishpat  or 
Fountain  of  Judgment  (Gen.  xiv.  7).  It  was 
in  the  wilderness  of  Paran  (Num.  xiii.  3,  26), 
in  the  wilderness  of  Ziu  (Num.  xx.  1  ;  xxvii. 
14),  eleven  days'  journey  from  Sinai  by  way 
of  mount  Seir  (Deut.  i.  2),  in  the  uttermost 
of  the  border  of  Edom  (Num.  xx.  16).  It 
appears  to  have  been  not  a  great  distance 
from  the  highway  between  Palestine  and 
Egj-pt,  for  Hagar's  well  was  situated  between 
Kadesh  and  Bered,  and  on  the  road  to  Egypt 
(Gen.  xvi.  7,  14  ;  cp.  xx.  1).  The  place  was 
overrun  by  Chedorlaomer  (xiv.  7).  Into  the 
region  adjacent  Hagar  tied  (xvi.  7,  14),  and 
Abraham  sojourned  there  for  a  time  (xx.  1). 
The  Israelites,  during  their  wanderings, 
twice  encamped  at  Kadesh.  They  arrived  iu 
the  neighborhood  in  the  second  year  about 
the  fifth  mouth  (Num.  xiii.  20;  cp.  x.  11), 
sent  tlieuce  the  spies  into  Canaan,  received 
the  discouraging  report  there  about  the  diffi- 
culties of  conquest  (xiii.  26),  refused  to  ad- 
vance, and  were  coudemned  to  remain  in  the 
wilderness,  and  abode  at  Kadesh  many  days 
(Deut.  i.  46).  They  returned  to  Kadesh  in 
the  first  month  (Num.  xx.  1)  of  the  fortieth 
year  (xxxiii.  36,  38;  cp.  Deut.  ii.  7,  14).  Here 
Miriam  died  and  was  buried  (Num.  xx.  1)  ; 
and  here  Moses  smote  the  rock  that  water 
might  gush  out,  as,  in  similar  circumstances, 
it  had  done  at  Eephidim  (xx.  1-13) ;  see 
Meribah.  But  he  and  Aaron  sinned  in  act- 
ing in  their  own  name.  From  Kadesh  am- 
bassadors were  sent  to  the  king  of  Edom  to 
ask  permission  for  the  Israelites  to  pass 
through  his  territory  (xx.  14,  16,  22  ;  Judg. 
xi.  16,  17).  In  1842,  the  Rev.  J.  Rowlands 
discovered  a  fountain  called  by  the  Arabs 
Kades  or  Kudes,  on  the  east  of  Jebel  Helal. 
In  1878,  the  Rev.  T.  W.  Holland,  and  in 
1881  the  Rev.  Dr.  H.  Clay  Trumbull,  visited 
the  spot  and  revived  the  identification.  The 
name  remains  in  wady  Kadis,  Jebel  Kadis, 
and  'Ain  Kadis ;  the  site  answers  to  the  bib- 
lical description  in  every  respect;  and  con- 
firmation is  alTorded  by  the  name  of  the  ad- 
jacent wady,  Abu  Retemat.  On  the  ground 
that  the  Israelites  encamped  twice  at  Kadesh 
(Num.  xiii.  26;  xx.  1,  22:  xxxiii.  36),  many 
interpreters  had  long  been  of  the    opinion 


Kadmiel 


410 


Kanah 


that  Rithmah  was  practicallj'  identical  with 
Kadesh  (xii.  16  with  xxxiii.  18)  ;  and  now  it 
appears  that  the  wady  nearest  and  iiarallel  to 
that  of  Kadis  bears  the  name  corresponding 
to  Rithmah,  wady  Abu  Retemat.  'Ain  Kadis 
is  about  77  miles  to  the  south  of  Hebron  and 
51   miles  south  of  Beersheba.     The  spring, 


Kad'mon-ites  [people  of  the  east] . 

A  tribe  dwelling  somewhere  between  Egypt 
and  the  Euphrates  (Gen.  xv.  19),  probably  in 
the  Syrian  desert. 

Kain  [possession,  creature,  smith]. 

1.  Progenitor  of  the  Kenite  tribe,  which 
was  sometimes  called  from  him  simply  Kain 


Wilderness  of  Kadesh. 


which  is  of  sweet  water,  issues  from  under  a 
rugged  spur  of  rock  belonging  to  the  north- 
eastern mountain  range  west  of  the  Arabah. 
The  stream  is  copious,  and  is  intercepted  in 
its  course  by  two  or  three  wells  built  round 
with  masonry.  Then  after  traversing  the 
oasis  which  it  has  created,  it  is  finally  lost  in 
the  desert  beyond.  This  identification  has 
been  generally  accepted  as  probably  correct. 
Numerous  other  sites  had  previously  been 
suggested,  especially  'Ain  el-Weibeh,  on  the 
western  side  of  the  Arabah,  northwest  of 
Petra.  Robinson  had  failed  to  discover  any 
spring  called  Kadis,  and  settled  on  the  spring 
el-Weibeh  because  of  its  copiousness  and  its 
proximity  to  the  borders  of  Edom.  Wetz- 
stein  identified  Kadesh  with  Kadus,  north 
of  Jebel  Madara ;  but  see  Kedesh  1. 

2.  The  name  is  perhaps  contained  in  "the 
land  of  Tahtim-hodshi "  (2  Sam.  xxiv.  6), 
corrected  by  means  of  Lucian's  text  to  "  the 
land  of  the  Hittites,  toward  Kadesh." 

Kad'mi-el  [God  is  of  old]. 

A  Levite,  head  of  a  tribal  house,  who  re- 
turned from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra 
ii.  40;  Neh.  vii.  43;  xii.  8).  He  helped  to 
oversee  the  workmen  engaged  in  rebuilding 
the  temple  (Ezra  iii.  9).  The  representative 
of  the  house  sealed  the  covenant  (Neh.  x.  9), 
perhaps  being  the  same  person  who  had  pre- 
viously assisted  in  the  public  confession  (ix. 
4,5). 


(R.   V.    of   Num.   xxiv.    22;    Judg.   iv.   11, 
margin). 

2.  A  village  in  Judah,  in  A.  V.  spelled 
Cain  (Jcsh.  xv.  57). 

Kallai  [swift]. 

A  priest,  head  of  the  father's  house  of 
Sallai  in  the  time  of  Joiakim,  the  high  priest 
(Neh.  xii.  20). 

Ka'mon;  in  A.  V.  Camon. 

The  place  where  the  judge  Jair  the  Gile- 
adite  was  buried  (Judg.  x.  .5).  The  site  is  un- 
known. Eusebius  and  Jerome  locate  it  in 
the  plain  of  Esdraelon,_  between  Megiddo 
and  Acre  ;  but  presumably  it  was  in  Gilead, 
as  Josephus  states  (Antiq.  v.  7,  6).  Polybius 
mentions  a  town  Kamoun  which  was  taken 
by  Antiochus  in  his  war  with  Ptolemy  Philo- 
pator,  immediately  after  he  had  cajjturcd 
Scythopolis  and  at  the  same  time  that  he 
took  Pella,  Abila,  Gadara  and  other  places 
in  Gilead  (Hist.  v.  70,  12). 

Ka'nah  [place  of  reeds]. 

1.  A  brook  which  formed  part  of  the 
boundary  line  between  Ephraim  and  Manas- 
seh  (Josh.  xvi.  8;  xvii.  9).  Robinson  identi- 
fied it  with  the  wady  Kanah,  which  rises 
south  of  Shechem,  and  joins  the  'Aujah,  the 
combined  streams  falling  into  the  Mediter- 
ranean 4  miles  north  of  Joppa.  This  seems 
too  far  south,  but  the  identity  of  the  ancient 
and  modern  names  is  in  its  favor. 


Kareah 


411 


Kenath 


2.  A  town  on  the  boundary  of  Asher  (Josh. 
xix.  28).  It  was  plausibly  identified  by 
Eobinson  with  the  modern  Kana,  about  71 
miles  southeast  of  Tyre.  It  is  a  village  with 
no  marks  of  antiquity,  but  lower  down  the 
ravine  which  comes  from  it  are  old  sculptures 
on  the  fiice  of  the  southern  clift's. 

Ka-re'ali,   in  A.  V.  once   Careah    [bald]. 
Father  of  the  captains  Johanau  and  Jona- 
than, who  came  to  Gedaliah,  the  Babylonian 
governor   of  Judah   (2   Kin.    xxv.  23;    Jcr. 
xl.  8). 

Kar'ka.  in  A.  V.  Kar'ka-a,  retaining  the 
final  syllable  which  denotes  direction  [rent, 
ravine]. 

A  place  on  the  southern  boundary  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  3).     The  name  has  the  definite 
article,  and  maybe  a  common  noun  meaning 
simply  the  ravine  (Wetzstein). 
Kar'kor  [foundation]. 
A  place  east  of  the  Jordan,  where  Zebah 
and    Zalmunna    encamped  with  their  army 
(Judg.  viii.  10).     Site  unidentified. 
Kar'tah  [city]. 

A  town  of  Zebulun  given  to  the  Merarite 
Levites  (Josh.  xsi.  31).     Not  identified. 
Ear 'tan  [perhaps  an  old  dual,  twin  towns]. 
A   town   of  Naphtali,   given    to   the   Ger- 
shonite  Levites  (Josh.  xxi.  32).     Called  in  1 
Chron.  vi.  76  Kiriathaim,  A.  V.  Kirjathaim. 
Site  unidentified. 
Kat'tath. 

A  town  of  Zebulun  (.Josh.  xix.  1.5)  ;  identi- 
fied sometimes  with  Kitron  of  Judg.  i.  30, 
and  sometimes  with  Kartah. 

Ke'dar  [probably,  mighty].  To  the  He- 
brews the  name  was  also  suggestive  of  the 
black  tents. 

A  tribe  descended  from  Ishmael  (Gen.  xxv. 
13),  children  of  the  east,  dwelling  in  black 
tents,  possessing  flocks  and  camels  (Song  i.  .5; 
Is.  Ix.  7;  Jer.  xlix.  28,  29),  and  having  vil- 
lages also  in  the  wilderness  (Is.  xlii.  11). 
Thej'  were  an  Arabian  tribe  (Is.  xxi.  13,  IC  ; 
Ezek.  xxvii.  21).  They  were  ruled  by  princes 
(ibid.),  and  were  skillful  in  archery  (Is.  x.'^i. 
l6,  17).  They  dwelt  between  Arabia  Petrsea 
and  Babylonia.  The  people  of  Kedar  were 
Pliny's  Cedrai,  and  from  their  tribe  Moham- 
med ultimately  arose. 

Ked'e-mah  [toward  the  east]. 

A  tribe  descended  from  Ishmael  (Gen.  xxv. 
1.5;  1  Chron.  i.  31).  Xot  mentioned  else- 
where. 

Ked'e-moth  [ancient  places  or  beginnings] . 

A  city  east  of  the  Jordan,  near  the  wilder- 
ness (Deut.  ii.  26),  allotted  to  the  Reubenites 
(Josh.  xiii.  18)  and  assigned  to  the  Merarite 
Levites  for  residence  (xxi.  37;  1  Chron.  vi. 
79 1.     Site  unidentified. 

Ke'desh  [sacred  place,  sanctuary]. 

1.  A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  23),  probably  different  from 
Kadesh-barnea  (ver.  3).     Its  site  is  perhaps 


Kadus,  about  GV  miles  north  of  Jebel  Madara 
near  wady  el- Yemen. 

2.  A  fortified  city  of  the  Canaanites,  whose 
king  was  slain  by  .Joshua  (Josh.  xii.  22  ;  xix. 
.37).  It  was  allotted  to  the  tribe  of  Naphtali, 
and  is  therefore  sometimes  called  Kedesh- 
naphtali  (Judg.  iv.  6).  It  was  given  to  the 
Gershouite  Levites  for  their  residence,  and 
was  made  one  of  the  cities  of  refuge  (Josh.  xx. 
7;  xxi.  .32;  1  Chron.  vi.  76).  It  was  the  resi- 
dence of  Barak  (Judg.  iv.  6).  Its  inhabitants 
were  carried  into  captivity  to  Assyria  by 
Tiglath-pileser  (2  Kin.  xv.  29).  Demetrius 
considered  it  a  strategic  point  in  his  war 
against  the  Jews  (1  Mac.  xi.  63,  73;  Antiq. 
xiii.  5,  6).  Robinson's  identification  of  it 
with  the  village  of  Kades  in  Upper  Galilee, 
about  4i  miles  northwest  from  the  waters  of 
Merom,  has  met  with  general  acceptance. 

3.  A  city  of  Issachar  given  to  the  Ger- 
shonite  Levites  (1  Chron.  vi.  72 ;  in  Josh.  xxi. 
28  Kishion,  A.  V.  Kishon).     See  Kishion. 

Ke-hel'a-thah  [an  assembly]. 

A  station  of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilder- 
ness (Num.  xxxiii.  22,  23).     Not  identified. 

Kei'lah. 

A  town  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv. 
44;  1  Chron.  iv.  19).  The  Philistines  fought 
against  it,  but  David  attacked  them  and  de- 
livered the  town.  Nevertheless  he  did  not 
remain  in  the  town  when  Saul  approached, 
lest  the  men  of  Keilah  should  surrender  him 
to  Saul  (1  Sam.  xxiii.  1-13).  The  town  was 
inhabited  after  the  captivity  (Neh.  iii.  17,  18). 
The  identification  with  Kila,  a  ruined  vil- 
lage 8i  miles  northwest  of  Hebron,  is  scarcely 
tenable ;  for  Kila  is  in  the  mountains  and 
Keilah  was  situated  in  the  lowland. 

Ke-la'iah  [perhaps,  contempt].     See  Kel- 

IT.\. 

Kel'i-ta  [dwarf]. 

A  Levite,  called  also  Kelaiah,  who  was  in- 
duced by  Ezra  to  put  away  his  foreign  wife 
(Ezra  X.  23).  He  was  employed  with  others 
by  him  to  read  and  interpret  the  law  to  the 
people  (Neh.  viii.  7),  and  with  Nehemiah 
sealed  the  covenant  (x.  10). 

Kem'u-el  [perhaps,  congregation  of  God]. 

1.  Son  of  Nahor  and  JVIilcah,  and  head  of 
a  younger  branch  of  the  Aramaeans  (Gen. 
xxii.  21). 

2.  A  prince  of  the  tribe  of  Ephraim  and  a 
commissioner  for  the  allotment  of  Canaan 
(Num.  xxxiv.  24). 

3.  A  Levite,  father  of  Hashabiah  (1  Chron. 
xxvii.  17). 

Ke'nan.     See  Cainan. 

Ke'nath  [possession]. 

A  town  on  the  western  slope  of  the  Jebel 
Hauran,  on  the  extreme  northeastern  border 
of  Israelitish  territory.  It  was  the  most 
easterly  of  the  ten  cities  of  the  Decapolis 
(Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.,  5,  16),  and  was  near  Bostra 
(.Jerome,  Onom.).  Imposing  ruins  of  it  still 
remain,    which    bear    the    name    Kanawat. 


Kenaz 


412 


Key 


There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  this 
town  is  that  referred  to  in  the  Old  Testament. 
It  was  taken  bj'  Nobah,  probably  a  Manas- 
site,  who  called  it  after  his  own  name  (Num. 
xxxii.  4:^).  The  new  name,  however,  did 
not  permanently  supplant  the  old  one.  The 
town  passed  again  into  gentile  hands  (1  Chrou. 
ii.23).  Herod  the  Great  was  defeated  here  by 
the  Arabians  (War  i.  19,  2). 

Ke'naz  [perhaps,  hunting]. 

1.  A  de.scendant  of  Esau  through  Eliphaz 
(Gen.  xxxvi.  11).  He  became  a  chieftain  in 
mount  Seir  (15),  probably  taking  his  title 
from  the  clan  which  he  ruled  (40-43).  The 
reference  in  Josh.  xv.  17;  1  Chron.  iv.  13  is 
probably  likewise  to  the  tribe.     See  Keniz- 

ZITE. 

2.  A  descendant  of  Caleb,  son  of  Jephunneh 
(1  Chron.  iv.  15).  A  name  has  evidently 
dropped  out  of  the  text  before  it. 

Ke'nez-ite.     See  Kenizzite. 

Ke'nite. 

A  tribe  of  wliich  a  branch  dwelt  in  Canaan 
or  vicinity  in  the  time  of  Abraham  (Gen.  xv. 
19),  while  another  portion  of  the  same  people 
settled  in  Midian,  and  by  the  time  of  Moses 
had  become  incorporated  with  the  Midianites 
(Judg.  i.  16;  iv.  11;  cp.  Num.  x.  29).  The 
Midianite  Kenites  may,  however,  have  been 
merely  a  tribal  family  descended  from  a  man 
of  Midian  named  Cain,  and  have  had  nothing 
in  common  with  the  Kenites  who  dwelt  in 
Canaan.  Balaam,  looking  from  the  heights 
of  Abarim  on  the  region  inhabited  by  the 
Amalekites,  prophesied  the  destruction  of 
Amalek,  and  then  looking  on  the  Kenites  of 
Canaan  in  their  rocky  fastnesses  foretold 
their  captivity  (Num.  xxiv.  20-22).  It  may 
perhaps  be  gathered  from  this  that  before  the 
conquest  of  Canaan  the  Kenites  dwelt  in  the 
rugged,  rocky  country  northeast  of  the  Ama- 
lekitesand  totheeastand  southeast  of  Hebron. 
Hobab  the  Midianite,  of  the  family  of  the 
Kenites,  accompanied  the  Israelites  on  their 
march  from  mount  Sinai  to  Canaan  to  aid 
them  with  his  knowledge  of  the  country 
(Num.  X.  29-32).  When  the  Israelites  crossed 
the  Jordan,  encamped  at  Gilgal,  and  took 
Jericho,  Hobab's  family  pitched  their  tents 
at  Jericho  ;  but  after  the  conquest  of  Canaan 
they  cast  in  their  lot  with  the  tribe  of  Judah, 
and  settled  in  the  wilderness  of  Judah,  south 
of  Arad  and  southeast  of  Hebron  (Judg.  i. 
16).  This  choice  perhaps  indicates  that  they 
were  indeed  a  branch  of  the  old  Kenite  tribe 
of  Canaan  and  sought  the  home  of  their  fore- 
fathers. One  Kenite,  however,  did  not  care 
to  dwell  with  his  brethren  in  the  south,  but 
took  up  his  abode  near  Kedesh  in  Naphtali 
(Judg.  iv.  11).  The  Kenites  who  settled  in 
the  south  of  Judah  were  still  there  in  friendly 
relations  with  the  Israelites  in  the  time  of 
Saul  and  David  (1  Sam.  xv.  6;  xxvii.  10; 
XXX.  29).  They  had  their  registry  with 
Judah  (1  Chron.  ii.  55). 


Ken'iz-zite,  in  A.  V.  Kenezite,  save  once 
(Gen.  XV.  19). 

One  of  the  tribes  in  or  near  Canaan  in  the 
time  of  Abraham  (Gen.  xv.  19).  Like  some 
other  tribes,  it  ai)pears  to  have  been  absorbed 
later  by  the  conquering  people.  Having  set- 
tled in  mount. Seir,  it  became  subject  to  the  vic- 
torious descendants  of  Esau,  when  they  took 
possession  of  the  country  (Dent.  ii.  12),  amal- 
gamated with  the  conquerors,  and  looked  to 
one  of  Esau's  descendants  as  its  head.  This 
chieftain  was  knoMm  as  Kenaz  from  tlie  tribe 
which  he  ruled  (Gen.  xxxvi.  11,  15,  40-42). 
Individuals  of  tlie  tribe,  on  the  other  hand, 
united  with  the  sons  of  Jacob,  Jephunneh 
the  Kenizzite  apparently  taking  to  wife  a 
woman  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  and  Othniel 
the  Kenizzite  becoming  the  fir.st  judge  of 
Israel  after  the  conquest.    See  Caleb  2. 

Ker-en-hap'puch  [the  horn  of  paint]. 

The  youngest  of  Job's  three  daughters 
born  after  his  great  trial  (Job  xlii.  14). 

Ke'ri-oth,  in  A.  V.  once  Kirioth  (Amos  ii. 
2)  [cities]. 

1.  A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah, 
properly  Kerioth-hezron  (Josh.  xv.  25).  The 
same  as  Hazor  2  (q.  v.).  Possibly  it  may 
have  been  the  birthplace  of  Judas  Lscariot, 
as  the  latter  half  of  the  name  means  man  of 
Kerioth. 

2.  A  town  of  Moab  (Moabite  Stone  13  ;  Jer. 
xlviii.  24),  apparently  fortified  (41).  It  pos- 
sessed palaces  (Amos  ii.  2).  It  is  supposed  to 
be  a  synonym  of  Ar,  the  ancient  capital  of 
Moab,  because  it  seems  to  be  referred  to 
as  the  capital  (ibid.),  and  because  in  enu- 
merations of  the  towns  of  Moab  when  Kerioth 
is  cited  Ar  is  omitted  (Jer.  xlviii. ;  Moabite 
Stone)  and  vice  versa  (Is.  xv.,  xvi. ;  cp.  Josh, 
xiii.  16-21).  Unidentified  ;  not  Kureiyat,  for 
which  see  Kikiathaim. 

Ke-ri-oth-liez'ron.  See  Keeioth  1  and 
Hazor  2. 

Ke'ros  [the  reed  of  a  weaver's  loom]. 

Founder  of  a  family  of  Nethinim,  members 
of  which  returned  from  captivity  (Ezra  ii. 
44  ;  Nell.  vii.  47). 

Ket'tle.     See  Pot. 

Ke-tu'rah  [incense]. 

Abraham's  wife,  whom  he  married  after 
the  death  of  Sarah  when  he  had  still  38 
years  of  life  before  him.  She  became  the 
ancestress  of  the  tribes  (.if  Zimran,  Jokshan, 
Medau,  Midian,  Lhbak,  and  Shuah  (Gen. 
XXV.  1,  2  ;  1  Cliron.  i.  32).  Her  sons  were 
not  regarded  as  on  the  same  level  with  Isaac, 
and  their  father  gave  them  gifts  and  sent 
them  away  during  his  lifetime  to  the  east 
country  (Gen.  sxv.  6).  A  tribe  Ketura  is 
mentioned  in  late  Arabian  genealogies  as 
dwelling  near  Mecca. 

Key. 

An  instrument  for  turning  bolts  (Judg.  iii. 
25).  An  oriental  key  consists  of  a  piece  (f 
wood  with  ijegs  fastened  on  it  corresponding 


Keziah 


413 


Kidron 


to  small  holes  in  a  wooden  bolt  within.  See 
Lock.  It  is  ^'onerally  carried  in  the  girdle. 
but  occasionally  it  is  fastened  to  something 
else  and  borne  over  the  shoulder  (cp.  Is.  xxii. 
2:i).  The  key  is  the  -symbol  of  authority 
(ibid.  ;  Mat.  xvi.  19 ;  Rev.  i.  18 ;  iii.  7 ;  ix. 
1;  XX.  1).  It  is  also  the  symbol  of  access  to 
that  from  which  one  would  otherwise  be  shut 
out  (Luke  xi.  5"i). 

Ke-zi'ah,  in  A.  V.  Kezia  [cassia]. 

The  second  of  Job's  daughtei-s  born  after 
his  great  trial  (Job  xlii.  14). 

Ke'ziz.     Si'c  Emkk-kp:ziz. 

Kibroth-hat-ta'a-vah  [the  graves  of  lust]. 

A  place  in  the  Sinaitic  peninsula,  between 
mount  Sinai  and  Hazeroth,  where  the  Israel- 
ites were  buried  who  were  slain  by  a  plague 
for  lusting  after  the  fiesh  pots  of  Egypt 
(Num.  xi.  33-35;  xsxiii.  KJ,  17;  Deut.  ix. 
22).  In  1870  Palmer  and  Drake  believed 
that  they  had  found  the  site  at  Erweis  el- 
Ebeirig,  iiday's  journey  from  'Ain  el-Hudera. 
It  is  an  elevated  table-land  well  adapted  for 
the  encampment  of  a  great  multitude,  and 


Kid. 

A  young  goat.  It  was  highly  esteemed  as 
an  article  of  food  (Luke  xv.  29).  The  llesh 
was  boiled  and  eaten  (Judg.  vi.  19),  being 
sometimes  cooked  iu  milk  (Ex.  xxiii.  19). 
The  law  probably  did  not  prohibit  the  use 
of  a  sucking  kid  for  food,  l)ut  forbade  that  it 
be  cooked  in  its  own  mother's  milk.  The 
relation  between  even  a  lower  animal  and 
its  ollspring  was  sacred  and  should  not  be 
disregarded  by  man.  A  kid  might  be  used 
as  a  burnt  otl'ering  (Judg.  xiii.  15,  19).  The 
Hebrew  words,  ISa'ir  and  tS''irah,  rendered 
kid  of  the  goats  in  A.  V.,  are  translated  by 
goat  and  he  goat  in  R.  V.  (Gen.  xxxvii.  31 ; 
and  wherever  kid  occurs  in  Lev.,  Num.,  and 
Ezek.).     See  Goat. 

Kid'ron,  in  A.  V.  of  1  Mac.  and  N.  T. 
Cedron  [dark,  turl)id]. 

1.  A  ravine  which  begins  about  half  an 
hour's  walk  to  the  northwest  of  Jerusalem 
near  the  so-called  tombs  of  the  judges, 
trends  for  a  mile  and  a  half  toward  the 
southeast,    turns  sharply  to  the  south  and 


i^r- 


K  " 


■^.f^. 


Valley  of  the  Kidron  at  Jerusalem. 


with  traces  for  many  miles  round  of  having 
been  so  employed.  Tradition  says  that  it 
was  the  camp  of  a  great  Hajj  caravan,  which 
in  the  distant  past  sojourned  here  and  was 
never  heard  of  again. 

Eib'za-im  [two  heap.s].    See  Jokmeam. 


continues  in  this  direction  past  the  city  as 
far  as  the  valley  of  Hinnom  and  En-rogel. 
Here  it  bends  again  to  the  southeast  and 
pursues  a  tortuous  course  to  the  Dead  Sea. 
No  stream  flows  in  it  except  during  continu- 
ous heavy  rains  in  winter,  and  there  is  no 
evidence  that  its  bed  was  ever  occupied  by  a 


Kinah 


414 


King 


perennial  brook.  Indeed,  the  word  brook, 
which  is  connected  with  it  in  the  English 
version,  represents  a  Hebrew  word  which 
commonly  either  means  a  ravine  occupied  by 
the  channel  of  a  torrent  dry  during  the  hot 
season  or  denotes  the  winter  torrent  itself. 
By  writers  who  use  Greek,  tlie  Kidron  is  ex- 
pressly called  winter  brook  (John  xviii.  1 ;  1 
Mac.  xii.  37).  The  name  may  be  derived 
from  the  turbid  water  of  the  winter  torrents 
or  from  the  gloominess  of  the  valley,  espe- 
cially in  its  lower  part.  To  speakers  of  the 
Greek  language,  the  Greek  form  of  the  name 
suggested  the  word  for  cedar  and  the  rivulet 
came  to  be  frequently  called  the  brook  of  the 
cedars  (John  xviii.  1,  R.  V.  margin  ;  2  Sam. 
XV.  23,  codex  Vat.).  The  Kidron  separates 
Jerusalem  from  the  mount  of  Olives  and  had 
to  be  crossed  by  those  going  from  the  city  to 
Bethany  or  Jericho  (2  Ham.  xv.  23).  It  was 
regarded  as  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  city 
(1  Kin.  ii.  37  ;  Jer.  xxxi.  40).  The  portion  of 
the  valley  lying  near  the  southern  part  of 
the  city  was  early  used  as  a  common  burying 
ground  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  6)  ;  and  godly  kings, 
who  from  time  to  time  found  it  necessary  to 
cleanse  the  temple  of  idolatrous  symbols, 
made  the  Kidron  valley  the  dumping  place 
for  the  ashes  of  these  abominations  (1  Kin. 
XV.  13;  2  Chron.  xxix.  16;  x.xx.  14;  2  Kin. 
xxiii.  4).  Athaliah  is  reported  to  have  been 
led  away  to  the  Kidron  for  execution  that 
the  temple  might  not  be  defiled  by  her  blood 
(Antiq.  ix.  7,  3). 

2.  A  town  near  Jamnia  and  Ashdod  (1 
Mac.  XV.  39 ;  xvi.  9, 10);  fortified  by  Cendebseus 
and  occupied  by  a  detachment  of  his  Syrian 
army  because  it  commanded  several  roads 
into  Judaea  (xv.  41).     See  Gederoth. 

Kl'nah  [song  of  mourning,  lamentation]. 

A  village  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  xv.  22).     Situation  unknown. 

Klne.     See  Cow. 

King. 

The  head  of  that  form  of  state  which  is 
specifically  called  a  kingdom.  The  title  for- 
merly implied  autocratic  power.  Nimrod 
ruled  over  a  kingdom  in  Babylonia  contain- 
ing several  cities  (Gen.  x.  10).  Chedorlaomer 
was  king  of  Elam  and  head  of  a  confederacy 
of  kings  (xiv.  1,  5).  Pharaoh  held  sway 
over  the  princes  of  Egypt  (xii.  15).  Nebu- 
chadnezzar of  Babylon  and  Artaxerxes  the 
Persian  were  each  a  king  over  kings  (Ezra 
vii.  12  ;  Dan.  ii.  37,  cp.  2  Kin.  xxiv.  17).  In 
Canaan  in  the  time  of  Abraham  the  rule  of  a 
king  was  often  over  one  town  only  (Gen.  xiv. 
2,  18;  XX.  2).  Some  centuries  later  Joshua 
enumerated  thirty-one  kings  whom  he  had 
conquered  within  the  bounds  of  Canaan 
(Josh.  xii.  7-24).  It  was  not  until  centuries 
after  the  tribes  and  nations  adjacent  to  Pal- 
estine had  been  ruled  by  kings,  that  the 
Israelites  demanded  a  visible  monarch.  Al- 
though the  demand  when  made  was  prompt-ed 
by  unbelief  and  in  so  far  was  rebellion  against 


Jehovah,  yet  it  was  not  in  itself  at  variance 
with  the  theocracy  and  the  invisible,  but  ef- 
ficient, rule  of  Jehovah  ;  for  the  theocracy  in 
its  very  institution  contemplated  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  several  offices  of  government  by 
human  agents;  see  Theockacy.  Moses  fore- 
saw the  need  that  would  arise  for  a  visible 
king  and  he  i)rovided  for  the  event,  just  as 
provision  was  made  for  prophets  and  priests 
to  make  known  the  will  or  legislation  of 
Jehovah  and  for  judges  to  represent  the 
unseen  Judge  (Deut.  xvii.  14-20).  When  the 
king  was  chosen  the  theocracy  was  not  abol- 
ished. The  nominally  uncontrolled  sovereign 
was  required  to  be  the  vicegerent  of  Jehovah  ; 
and  when  Saul,  mistaking  his  position,  sought 
to  act  independently,  another  was  chosen  to 
supersede  him  and  his  posterity  on  the 
throne.  The  same  rule  obtained  with  all 
Saul's  successors;  when  they  gave  up  fidelity 
to  Jehovah,  they  forfeited  their  title  to  the 
kingdom  (1  Kin.  xi.  31-36).  For  the  suc- 
cession of  kings  who  ruled  in  Judah  and 
Israel,  see  Chkonology. 

A  man  became  king  of  a  nation  through 
appointment  to  the  office  by  one  higher  in 
authority  (1  Sam.  ix.  16;  xvi.  1,  13;  2  Kin. 
xxiii.  33,  34;  xxiv.  17),  by  the  choice  of  the 
people  (1  Sam.  xviii.  8;  2  Sam.  v.  1-3;  1 
Kin.  xii.  20;  2  Kin.  xxiii.  30),  by  usurping  a 
throne  (1  Kin.  xv.  27,  28),  or  by  inheritance 
(xi.  36).  The  ceremony  of  coronation  among 
the  Israelites  consisted  regularly  in  plac- 
ing on  the  throne,  putting  the  crown 
upon  the  head,  anointing  with  oil,  and  proc- 
lamation (2  Kin.  xi.  12;  cp.  1  Sam.  x.  24;  2 
Sam.  ii.  4;  v.  3;  1  Kin.  i.  34;  2  Kin.  xxiii. 
30).  It  was  doubtless  regularly  accompanied 
by  sacrifice,  and  sometimes  also  by  a  solemn 
procession  (1  Sam.  xvi.  2,  5;  1  Kin.  i.  25,  43- 
46).  The  king  often  led  the  army  to  battle 
in  person  (Gen.  xiv.  5;  Num.  xxi.  23;  1  Sam. 
viii.  20;  xiv.  20),  made  treaties  in  behalf  of 
himself  and  his  people  (Gen.  xxi.  22-32;  1 
Kin.  XV.  19),  enacted  laws  and  executed 
them  (Esth.  iii.  12,  13;  viii.  7-12;  Dan.  iii. 
4-6,  29  ;  vi.  6-9),  exercised  judicial  functions 
(2  Sam.  XV.  2;  Is.  xxxiii.  22),  and  had  the 
power  of  life  and  death  (2  Sam.  xiv.  1-11  ;  1 
Kin.  i.  51,  52  ;  ii.  24-34  ;  Eslh.  iv.  11 ;  vii.  9, 
10).  The  restraints  upon  the  king  were  the 
fear  of  God  and  man.  The  popular  will 
might  not  always  be  ignored  (1  Sam.  xiv.  45; 
XV.  24).  The  endurance  of  the  people  might 
not  be  overtaxed  with  impunity  (1  Kin.  xii. 
4).  There  were  officers  of  religion,  both 
priests  and  prophets,  v\ho  in  religious  mat- 
ters were  independent  of  the  king  and  did 
not  hesitate  to  rebuke  misdemeanors  (1  Sam. 
xiii.  10-14;  xv.  10-31;  2  Sam.  xii.  1-15;  1 
Kin.  xviii.  17,  18  ;  xxi.  17-22  ;  2  Chron.  xxvi. 
16-21).  But  a  despotic  king  .sometimes  broke 
tlirough  these  restraints  (1  Sam.  xxii.  17-19; 
1  Kin.  xii.  1.3-16;  Jer.  xxvi.  20-23'.  In 
view  of  the  royal  duties  and  prerogatives, 
the  king  required  physical,  mental,  and 
moral  qualities  of  a  high  order  to  rule  well. 


Kingdom 


415 


Kings,  Books  of  the 


Physical  superiority  is  appreciated  the  mo- 
ment it  becomes  visible.  Thus,  when  Saul 
was  preseuteil  to  his  future  subjects,  and  they 
saw  him  tower  head  aud  shoulders  above  all 
the  multitude  present,  they  raised  the  shout, 
"God  save  the  king"  (1  Sam.  x.  23,  24;  cp. 
also  xvi.  7).  In  order  to  be  an  able 
judge  the  king  must  be  a  man  of  pene- 
tration, able  to  disentangle  truth  from 
falsehood,  and  punish,  not  the  innocent, 
but  the  guilty.  This  is  the  reason  why 
there  was  such  emotion  among  the  Israelites 
when  Solomon,  trying  his  first  case,  that  of 
the  two  women  aud  the  child,  so  signally 
detected  where  the  truth  aud  where  the 
falsehood  lay  (I  Kin.  iii.  28;  cp.  Is.  xi.  1-9). 
But  penetration  was  not  enough ;  the  moral 
element  was  requisite  to  make  the  sovereign 
give,  without  fear  or  favor,  the  verdict  which 
he  considered  just.  For  the  protection  of 
his  person  and  assistance  in  the  discharge  of 
his  duties  the  king  had  a  bodyguard,  the 
captain  of  which  generally  acted  as  execu- 
tioner {2  Sam.  XV.  18 ;  xx.  2.3  with  1  Kin.  ii. 
25,  29) ;  see  Guard.  Wealthy  kings  had 
magnificent  palaces,  surrounded  themselves 
with  luxury,  and  lived  in  state  (1  Kin.  x). 
See  also  Sepulcher. 

God  is  compared  to  a  king  possessed  of 
unlimited  power,  and  using  it  under  the  in- 
fluence of  supreme  beneficence  (Ps.  v.  2  ;  x. 
16).  He  is  the  King  of  kings  (1  Tim.  vi.  15). 
Christ  is  a  king.  He  called  himself  so, 
but  explained  that  his  kingdom  is  not  of  this 
world  (John  xviii.  33-38).  He  also  is  the 
King  of  kings  (Rev.  xix.  16). 

King'dom. 

1.  The  territory  or  the  people  ruled  over 
by  a  king  (2  Kin.  xv.  19), 

2.  The  sovereign  rule  of  God  over  the  uni- 
verse (1  Chron.  xxix.  11  ;  Ps.  xxii.  28  ;  cxlv. 
13;  Mat.  vi.  13). 

3.  A  sovereignty  which  Daniel  prophesied 
that  God  was  about  to  establish  on  earth,  and 
which,  once  set  up,  should  remain  forever. 
Of  this  kingdom  the  Son  of  man  should  be 
the  ruler  (Dan.  vii.  13,  14).  John  the  Bap- 
tist declared  that  in  his  day  it  was  at  hand 
(Mat.  iii.  2).  So  did  Jesus  in  the  earlier  part 
of  his  ministry  (iv.  17),  and  he  taught  his 
disciples  to  pray  for  its  coming  (vi.  10).  The 
apostles  when  first  sent  forth  were  instructed 
to  say  that  it  was  at  hand  (x.  7).  Afterwards 
the  divine  Preacher  spoke  of  it  as  having 
come  (xii.  28),  and  gave  forth  many  parables 
illustrative  of  its  nature.  It  is  sometimes 
called  the  kingdom  of  heaven,  and  at  others 
the  kingdom  of  God,  Matthew  preferring  the 
former  and  Mark  and  Luke  the  latter  desig- 
nation (cp.  Mat.  xiii.  24,  31,  33,  44,  45  with 
Mark  iv.  11,  26,  30  ;  Luke  xiv.  15;  xvii.  20, 
etc.).  The  kingdom  was  to  be  of  a  spiritual 
character,  and  no  carnal  weapons  were  to  be 
used  in  its  establishment  (John  xviii.  33-.37). 
Commenced  on  earth  with  the  royal  ministry 
of  Christ,   it  was   to  be  consummated  amid 


the  bliss  of  the  eternal  world  (Mat.  xxv.  31- 
46 ;  Luke  xxiii.  42,  43).  The  kingdom  of 
God  is  thus  the  "  invisible  church."  It  is  the 
whole  spiritual  commonwealth  of  God's  chil- 
dren, the  true  company  of  all  faithful  people. 
It  is  represented  by  the  organized  or  visible 
church,  but  is  more  comprehensive  aud 
greater  than  the  visible  church  in  any  age 
or  all  ages. 

Kings,  Books  of  the. 

The  two  Books  of  the  Kings  were  origi- 
nally one  book,  but  were  divided  in  the  Sep- 
tuagint  into  two.  They  are  placed  among 
"the  prophets  "  in  the  Hebrew  canon,  in  that 
group  of  Scriptures  which,  because  standing 
first  among  the  prophets,  were  known  as 
"  former  prophets."  The  writings  of  the  for- 
mer prophets  form  a  continuous  narrative 
which  begins  at  the  death  of  Moses  and  ends 
with  the  exile.  Joshua  is  the  first  book  in 
the  series  and  the  Books  of  the  Kings  are  the 
last.  These  were  written  to  jjoint  out  the 
religious  teaching  of  the  national  history 
during  the  period  of  the  kingdom  from  the 
accession  of  Solomon.  The  author  shows  the 
growth  and  decay  of  the  kingdom,  indicates 
the  causes  which  worked  to  etfect  these  re- 
sults, and  draws  attention  to  the  large  part 
played  by  forces  of  a  moral  and  religious 
character  (cp.  2  Kin.  xvii.).  His  narrative 
covers  a  period  of  more  than  four  hundred 
years,  and  he  is  consequently  dependent  upon 
former  historians  for  his  facts.  He  draws 
chiefly  from  the  "  book  of  the  chronicles  of 
the  kings  of  Israel  "  (1  Kin.  xiv.  19),  down 
to  the  death  of  Pekah,  and  the  "book  of 
the  chronicles  of  the  kings  of  Judah  "  (29), 
down  to  the  death  of  Jehoiakim.  It  is  gen- 
erally believed  that  these  chronicles  were 
originally,  as  the  titles  suggest,  two  separate 
works.  Probably  they  were  ultimately 
united  into  one  and  constituted  the  work 
quoted  by  the  chronicler  as  the  "  book  of  the 
kings  of  Judah  and  Israel  "  (2  Chron.  xvi. 
11).  These  two  chronicles  contained  more 
than  the  present  Books  of  the  Kings,  for  the 
writer  of  Kings  refers  his  readers  to  them 
for  further  details  (1  Kin.  xiv.  19,  29),  and 
the  chronicler  quotes  portions  which  the 
writer  of  Kings  does  not  (2  Ctiron.  xxvii.  7  ; 
xxxiii.  18).  It  is  believed  that  these  two 
chronicles  were  not  the  public  annals,  but  a 
compilation  from  several  documents.  This 
opinion  is  based  on  the  fact  that  writings  of 
various  projihets  are  mentioned  as  having 
been  inserted  in  the  book  of  the  kings  of 
Israel  (2  Chron.  xx.  34  ;  xxxii.  32),  which 
could  not  have  been  done  if  the  book  were 
the  state  annals  added  to  from  day  to  day  by 
the  royal  scribe.  The  double  chronicles  M'ere 
written  before  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  ;  for  the 
phrase  "  unto  this  day  "  refers,  so  far  as  can 
be  determined,  invariably  to  the  time  when 
the  city  and  temple  were  in  existence  (1  Kin. 
viii.  8)  ;  and  if  it  does  not  prove  that  the 
writer  of  the  present  Books  of  the  Kings  lived 


Kir 


416 


Kiriath-jearim 


before  the  exile,  it  at  least  shows  that  the 
writer  of  the  book  from  which  he  quotes  did. 
Whether  the  writer  of  the  ])resent  Books 
of  the  Kings  began  the  work  before  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem  or  not,  he  did  not 
complete  it  until  after  the  middle  years  of 
the  Babylonian  exile  (2  Kiu.  xxv.  27).  He 
perhaps  finished  it  before  the  close  of  the  ex- 
ile, since  the  work  contains  no  allusion  to  the 
deliverance  of  the  people  from  Babylon. 

The  author  is  chiefly  concerned  with  the 
history  of  the  Davidic  monarchy.  Like  the 
author  of  Genesis,  he  disposes  of  subsidiary 
matters  before  treating  his  main  theme,  lu 
following  this  method,  he  records  events  re- 
lating to  Israel  before  giving  the  contem- 
poraneous history  of  Judah.  This  leads  him 
to  sometimes  narrate  the  same  event  in  con- 
nection with  both  the  northern  and  the  south- 
ern kingdoms  (1  Kiu.  xv.  16  with  32  ;  2  Kin. 
xvii.  5,  6  with  xviii.  9). 

The  work  is  divided  into  three  parts.  I. 
The  reign  of  Solomon  (1  Kin.  i.-xi.).  II.  A 
synchronistic  account  of  the  kingdoms  of 
Judah  and  Israel  until  the  captivity  of  Is- 
rael (xii.-2  Kin.  xvii.).  III.  The  kingdom  of 
Judah  until  the  Babylonian  exile. 

Kir  [wall,  fortified  town]. 

1.  The  i)lace  from  which  the  Arampeans 
migrated  to  Syria  (Amos  ix.  7),  and  to  which 
those  of  them  living  in  Damascus  were  car- 
ried back  again  on  being  conquered  by  the 
Assyrians  (2  Kin.  xvi.  9  ;  Amos  i.  5).  Its  in- 
habitants are*  represented  as  arrayed  with 
Elam  against  Judah  (Is.  xxii.  6).  Not  iden- 
tified. Gesenius'  doubtful  identification  of 
it  with  a  region  called  Kur,  between  the 
Black  and  the  Caspian  seas,  is  groundless. 
Nor  is  Schrader's  identification  of  it  with 
Media  probable  (cp.  Is.  xxi.  2  with  xxii.  6), 
for  there  is  no  reason  for  believing  that  the 
Araniieans  came  from  Media.  I'urrer's  iden- 
tification with  the  district  Cyrrhestica,  north- 
west of  Antioch,  lacks  proof. 

Kir  of  Mo'ab. 

A  fortified  city  of  southern  Moab  (Is.  xv. 
1),  called  also  Kir-hareseth  and  Kir-heres 
(xvi.  7,  II ;  Jer.  xlviii.  31,  36 ;  in  A.  V.  some- 
times Kir-haraseth  and  Kir-haresh).  It  was 
strong  enough  to  resist  the  combined  forces 
of  Israel,  Judah,  and  Edom  (2  Kin.  iii.  25).  Its 
modern  name,  traceable  back  to  the  Targum, 
is  Kerak.  It  is  11  miles  east  from  the  south- 
ern bay  of  the  Dead  Sea,  south  of  the  Lisan 
or  tongue,  and  IK  south  of  the  Arnon  river. 
It  stands  on  a  triangular  hill,  at  an  elevation 
of  3323  feet  above  the  Mediterranean,  on  a 
rocky  platform  which  rises  at  its  southeastern 
extremity  to  3720  feet.  Except  at  one  or  two 
spots,  the  hill  is  isolated  from  the  neighboring 
hills  by  precipices  falling  sheer  down  to  the 
deep  valleys  below.  Its  weak  point  for  mili- 
tary purposes  is  that  it  is  commanded  by  adja- 
cent hills  40,")0  feet  high.  Kerak  constitutes  a 
triangle  from  2400  to  3000  feet  on  each  side. 
It  is  entered  by  two  arched  tunnels,  probably 


of  R(mian  age.  There  are  remains  of  Eoman, 
crusading,  and  Mohammedan  times.  There 
is  a  great  castle  which  was  built  by  king 
Fulco  about  A.  D.  1131,  and  which  in  1183 
defied  the  efforts  of  Saladin  to  efl'ect  its  cap- 
ture. Kerak  was  al.so  found  impregnable  by 
Ibrahim  Pasha  in  1841.  Its  present  popula- 
tion is  believed  to  be  about  8000,  of  whom 
1600  are  Christians. 

Kir-har'a-seth,  Kir-har'e-seth,  Kir-ha'- 
resh,  Kir-he'res  [city  of  bricks  or  city  of 
pottery].    See  Kir  of  Moab. 

Kir'i-atli,  in  A.  V.  Kirjath  [city]. 

A  town  of  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii.  28),  some- 
times identified  with  Kirjath-jearim. 

Kir-i-a-tha'im,  in  A.  V.  sometimes  Kir- 
ja-tha'im  [twin  cities]. 

1.  An  ancient  city  of  the  Emim  (Gen.  xiv. 
.5),  re))uilt  by  the  Eeubenites  (Num.  xxxii. 
37;  Josh.  xiii.  19),  which  afterwards  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  Moabites  (Moabite  Stone  10  ; 
Jer.  xlviii.  1,23;  Ezek.  xxv.  9).  It  is  be- 
lieved that  its  site  was  at  Kureiyat,  north  of 
the  Arnon,  and  2i  miles  south  by  east  of 
Ataroth.     The  ruins  are  on  two  hills. 

2.  The  same  as  Kartan  (q.  t.)  (1  Chron.  vi. 
76). 

Kir-i-ath-ar'ba,  in  A.  Y.  Kirjath-arba 
[city  of  Arba,  or  perhaps,  city  of  the  croucher] . 

An  old  name  for  the  city  of  Hebron,  point- 
ing to  the  fact  that  it  was  the  city  of  Arba, 
or  the  Arba,  father  of  Anak.  Perhaps  he 
was  its  founder  (Gen.  xxiii.  2  ;  Josh.  xiv.  15; 
XV.  1.3,  54  ;  XX.  7  ;  xxi.  11 ;  Judg.  i.  10).  The 
old  name  was  not  obsolete  even  in  the  time 
of  Nehemiah  (Neh.  xi.  25).     See  Hebron. 

Kir-i-ath-a'rim,  in  A.  Y.  Kirjath-arim. 
See  Kiriath-jearim. 

Kir-i-ath-ba'al,   in    A.    Y.    Kirjath-baal 

[city  of  Baal].     See  Kiriath-jearim. 

Kir-i-ath-hu'zoth,  in  A.  Y.  Kirjath-hu- 
zoth  [city  t)f  streets]. 

A  INIoabite  town  near  Bamoth-baal  (Num. 
xxii.  39,  41).  It  may  have  been  the  same  as 
Kiriatharim. 

Kir-i-atli-je'a-rim,  in  A.  Y.  Kirjath- 
jearim  [city  of  woods  or  forests]. 

A  town  belonging  originally  to  the  Gibeon- 
ites  (Josh.  ix.  17).  It  was  on  the  western  part 
of  the  boundary  line  between  the  tribes  of  Ju- 
dah and  Benjamin  (Josh.  xv.  9 ;  xviii.  14,  15), 
but  pertained  to  Judah,  being  considered  a 
town  belonging  to  the  hill  country  of  thelatter 
tribe  (xv.  48,  60  ;  Judg.  xviii.  12).  After  the 
ark  had  been  returned  to  the  Israelites  by 
the  Philistines,  it  remained  in  safe  custody 
in  Kiriath-jearim  for  the  next  twenty  years, 
until  the  second  battle  of  Ebenezer,  and 
longer  (1  Sam.  vi.  HM-ii.  2).  Some  of  its 
population  returned  from  captivity  (Neh.  vii. 
29  ;  in  Ezra  ii.  25  the  name  appears  as  Kiri- 
ath-arim).  It  was  called  also  Kiriath-baal 
(Josh.  XV.  60;  xviii.  14),  Baalah  (xv.  9,  11),' 
or  Baale  (2  Sam.  vi.  2 ;  cp.  1  Chron.  xiii.  6). 


Kiriath-sannali 


41- 


Kiss 


Euscbiiis  states  that  it  was  situated  9  or  10 
Roman  miles  from  Jeriisiilem  on  the  road 
to  Diospolis,  I.  e.  Lydda,  and  accordingly  it 
is  commonly  identified  with  Kuriet  el-'Enab, 
7  miles  west  by  north  of  Jerusalem.  Conder 
argues  for  the  ruins  "Krma,  11  miles  west  by 
south  of  Jerustilem.  and  2\  south  by  west  of 
Kesla.  But  coutrary  to  his  opinion,  Josh  xv. 
10  is  surely  against  the  location  i>roposed  by 
him.  'Krma  and  Jearim  are  also  radically 
ditt'erent,  and  the  site  is  too  remote  from  the 
other  (;ihe<inite  settlements. 

Kir-i-ath-san'nah,  in  A.  V.  Elrjath-san- 
nah.     See  Dkbik. 

Kir-i-ath-se'pher,  in  A.  V.  Kirjatli-se- 
pher.    See  Debir. 

Kir'i-oth.    See  Kerioth. 

Kir'jath.     See  Kiri.\th. 

Kir-jath-ar'ba,  etc.  See  Kiriath-arba, 
€tc. 

Kish,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Cis,  in  imitation 
-of  the  Greek. 

1.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Jeiel  (1  Chron.viii. 
30;  ix.  3."),  36). 

2.  A  Benjamite,  father  of  king  Saul  and 
son  of  Abiel  (1  Sam.  ix.  1),  but  also  registered 
as  a  son  of  Ner  and  a  descendant  of  Jeiel  of 
Gibeon  (1  Chron.  viii.  33;  ix.  3tj,  39).  This 
latter  genealogy  may  indeed  merely  register 
the  fact  that  Kish  was  a  descendant  of  Xer, 
without  implying  that  he  was  his  immediate 
son  ;  and  allow  of  the  insertion  of  Abiel  and 
others  between  Kish  and  Ner. 

Jeiel 


Jeiel  or  Abiel. 


Abdon.      Zur.      Kish.      Baal. 


Ner.  Nadab. 

Zeror. 

Abiel. 


Kish. 

Saul. 


Ner. 

I 
Abner. 


But  perhaps  only  one  Kish  and  one  Ner 
<lesceuded  from  Jeiel.  If  so.  the  explanation 
of  the  genealogy  is  that  Ner's  descendants 
became  two  tribal  houses,  those  of  Kish  and 
Ner.  The  former,  the  important  royal  family 
of  Saul,  looked  to  Xer'sson  Kish  as  its  founder; 
but  it  was  merely  a  younger  branch  of  the 
older,  but  less  distinguished,  line  of  Ner. 
Both  houses  belonged  to  the  family  of  .leiel, 
and  hence  Kish  as  well  as  Ner  is  regis- 
tered, according  to  the  familiar  principle, 
among  Jeiel's  sons  (ix.  36).  Saul's  father, 
Kish,  and  Abner's  father,  Ner.  are  mentioned 
as  sons  of  Abiel  al.so  (1  Sam.  ix.  1  ;  xiv.  .51), 
and  either  Ner  or  Abner  is  stated  to  have 
been  Saul's  uncle  (xiv.  .50).  Abiel  may  be, 
as  some  expositors  .suppose,  or  may  not  be. 
another  name  or  the  uncorrupted  form  of 
Jeiel. 

27 


I  I       :'       I  I  I  I 

Abdon.      Zur.   :  Baal.      Ner.      Nadab.     Gedor 


Kish. 
Saul. 


Abner. 


3.  A  Levite,  in  David's  time,  of  the  family 
of  Merari,  house  of  Mahli  (1  Chron.  xxiii.-21, 
22;  xxiv.  29). 

4.  A  Levite,  family  of  Merari  and  son  of 
Abdi,  who  aided  in  the  revival  under  Heze- 
kiah  (2  Chron.  xxix.  12). 

.5.  A  Benjamite,  an  ancestor  of  Mordecai 
(Esth.  ii.  5). 

Kish'i.     See  Kushaiah. 

Kish'i-on,  in  A.  V.  once  Kishon  (Josh.  xxi. 
28)  [hardness]. 

A  border  town  of  Issachar  (Josh.  xix.  20), 
given  to  the  Gershonite  Levites  (xxi.  28).  In 
1  Chron.  vi.  72  Kedesh  appears  in  its  stead, 
probably  by  a  copyist's  error.  Site  unknown. 

Ki'shon,  in  A.  V.  once  Eison  (Ps.  Ixxxiii. 
9)  [bending,  curving,  tortuous]. 

1.  The  most  important  river  of  Palestine 
next  to  the  Jordan.  "  That  ancient  river, 
the  river  Kishon"  swept  away  the  soldiers 
of  Sisera's  beaten  army  when  they  tied  north- 
ward from  Taanach  and  attempted  to  cross 
the  stream  (Judg.  v.  19-21  ;  Ps.  Ixxxiii.  9). 
The  priests  of  Baal  who  had  the  contest  with 
Elijah  were  slain  on  its  southern  bank  (1 
Kin.  xviii.  40).  It  is  now  called  the  Nahr  el- 
Mukutta'.  Conder  and  Kitchener  state  that 
its  real  source  is  near  Khurbet  el-Mezrah  and 
the  springs  called  el-Mujahiyah,  the  place  of 
bursting  forth  of  water.  From  this  spot, 
which  is  only  a  little  west  of  Beth-shean,  a 
series  of  pools  extends,  and  then  a  continuous 
stream.  As  the  name  Kishon  implies,  the 
river  is  tortuous,  making  great  curves  as  it 
proceeds  in  a  generally  northwesterly  direc- 
tion through  the  plain  of  Esdraelon.  It  looks 
an  insignificant  stream,  of  15  or  18  feet 
across,  but  has  treacherous  banks,  and  a 
muddy  bottom,  so  much  so  that  when  the 
Turks  and  Arabs  were  defeated  by  the 
French  in  the  battle  of  mount  Tabor,  on 
April  16,  1799,  the  fate  of  the  vanquished 
host  was  the  same  as  that  of  Sisera's  army. 
Toward  Harosheth  of  the  gentiles,  Jabin's 
city,  the  Kishon  runs  through  a  narrow 
gorge  under  the  cliffs  which  constitute  the 
northern  side  of  mount  Carmel,  the  water  at 
one  place  being  nearly  hidden  by  oleander 
bu.shes.  Then  the  stream  enters  the  plain  of 
Acre.  Sand  dunes,  dotted  with  palm  trees, 
interfere  with  it  in  the  latter  part  of  its 
course  ;  and  it  is  only  when  full  of  water  that 
it  can  overcome  the  obstacle,  and  make  a 
proper  entrance  into  the  Mediterranean. 

2.  A  town,  so  spelled  in  A.  V.  See  KisHiON. 
Kiss. 

A  salutation,  common  in  the  Orient  from 


Kite 


418 


Kneading  Trough 


patriarchal  times  onward,  between  persons 
of  the  same  sex  and  to  a  limited  extent  be- 
tween individuals  of  different  sexes.  Fathers 
and  mothers  kissed  their  children  and  de- 
scendants (Gen.  xxxi.  28,  55 ;  xlviii.  10  ;  2 
Sam.  xiv.  33,  etc.),  and  children  their  parents 
(Gen.  xxvii.  26,  27;  1.  1;  1  Kin.  xix.  20). 
Brother  and  sister  kissed  each  other  (Song 
viii.  1),  and  brother  kissed  brother  (Gen.  xlv. 
15 ;  Ex.  iv.  27).  So  did  other  relatives  and 
kinsfolk  (Gen.  xxix.  11  ;  Ex.  xviii.  7 ;  Euth 
1.  9).  Comrades  kissed  each  other ;  so  did 
friends  (1  Sam.  xx.  41 ;  2  Sam.  xix.  39 ;  xx. 
9  ;  Acts  XX.  37).  In  the  time  of  our  Lord,  a 
guest  invited  to  a  house  expected  on  entering 
to  be  kissed  by  his  entertainer  (Luke  vii.  45). 
It  was  in  these  circumstances  that  Christians 
were  enjoined  to  salute  each  other  with  a 
holy  kiss  (Eom.  xvi.  16;  1  Cor.  xvi.  20;  2 
Cor.  xiii.  12  ;  1  Thes.  v.  26),  or  with  a  kiss  of 
love  (1  Pet.  V.  14),  symbolical  of  Christian 
brotherhood.  As  kissing  between  friends, 
guests,  and  entertainers  lapsed,  the  salutation 
enjoined  by  the  apostle  fell  also  into  desue- 
tude. In  all  the  foregoing  cases  a  kiss  was, 
or  at  least  professed  to  be,  an  expression  of 
love.  It  therefore  added  to  the  baseness  of 
Judas'  treachery  that  he  had  not  merely  be- 
trayed his  Lord,  but  did  so  by  means  of  a 
kiss  (Mat.  xxvi.  48,  49  ;  Luke  xxii.  47,  48 ; 
cp.  Prov.  xxvii.  6).  In  all  love  there  is  a 
greater  or  less  amount  of  respect.  The  feet 
of  kings  were  kissed  in  token  of  great  respect 
and  to  tender  allegiance  (Ps.  ii.  12),  and  the 
same  idea  was  involved  in  the  kiss  given  to 
idols  (1  Kin.  xix.  18;  Hos.  xiii.  2).  A  kiss 
was  sometimes  thrown  by  the  hand  to  the 
idol  (Job  xxxi.  27).  When  women  kissed  the 
feet  of  our  Lord,  it  indicated  the  unbounded 
respect  and  affection  which  they  felt  for  his 
character  and  work  (Luke  vii.  38,  45). 


Common  Kite  of  Palestine. 


Kite. 

A  bird  of  prey  of  the  falcon  family,  with 
long,  pointed  wings  and  usually  long,  forked 
tail.     The  word  is  used  in  R.  V.  to  render 


the  Hebrew  Da'ah  and  Dayyah  (Lev.  xi.  14  ; 
Deut.  xiv.  13  ;  Is.  xxxiv.  15  ;  in  A.  V.  vul- 
ture) and  twice  in  A.  Y.  to  render  'Ai/yah 
(Lev.  xi.  14;  Deut.  xiv.  13;  in  R.  V.  falcon). 
Both  birds  were  ceremonially  unclean  (Lev. 
xi.  14).  The  Hebrew  name  of  the  former 
corresponds  to  the  Arabic  huduyyeh,  vernacu- 
lar for  the  kite.  It  is  of  various  kinds  (Deut. 
xiv.  13).  The  black  kite  {Milrus  nigrHiiti)  is 
found  in  central  and  southern  Europe,  north- 
ern Africa,  and  western  Asia.  It  appears  in 
Palestine  in  March,  gliding  noiselessly  in  the 
air,  looking  down  for  its  food,  which  consists 
of  offal,  for,  being  a  somewhat  cowardly 
bird,  it  does  not  molest  poultry.  It  breeds  in 
trees,  ornamenting  its  nest  with  rags  of  differ- 
ent colors.  The  black-winged  kite  {Elanus 
cseruleus)  also  occurs  in  Palestine,  but  is  rare. 

Kith'lish,  in  R.  Y.  CMthlish. 

A  village  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  40).     Xot  identified. 

Kit'ron. 

A  town  in  the  territory  of  Zebulun,  but 
from  which  the  Canaanites  were  not  driven 
out  (Judg.  i.  30).     Compare  Kattath. 

Kit'tim  or  Chittim,  the  latter  being  the 
more  consistent,  and  in  A.  Y.  more  frequent 
spelling  [origin  and  meaning  unknown]. 

Descendants  of  Javan,  who  inhabited  Cy- 
prus and  other  islands  and  coasts  of  the 
eastern  Mediterranean  (Gen.  x.  4  ;  1  Cliron. 
i.  7;  Is.  xxiii.  1,  12;  Jer.  ii.  10;  Ezek.  xxvii. 
6 ;  and  Dan.  xi.  30,  where  the  language  of 
Num.  xxiv.  24  is  used  ;  Antiq.  i.  6,  1).  The 
name  is  connected  definitely  with  Cyprus, 
chiefly  through  Kition.  an  ancient  town  on 
the  southern  coast  of  the  island,  and  through 
the  Kiti,  whom  Thothmes  III.  mentions  as 
possessing  the  island.  The  name  was  even- 
tually greatly  extended.  In  1  Mac.  i.  1  Alex- 
ander the  Great  is  said  to  have  come  out  of 
the  land  of  Chittim,  and  in  viii.  5  Perseus  is 
called  king  of  Chittim,  meaning  Macedonia. 


Egj'ptians  kneading  Dough  in  a  Trough. 


Knead'ing  Trough. 

A   shallow   vessel,    usually   of   wood   and 


Knife 


419 


Korah 


portable,  in  which  dough  is  worked  into  a 
well-mixed  mass  preparatory  to  baking  (Ex. 
xii.  34).  The  Egyptians  kneaded  the  dough 
with  their  feet  (Herod,  ii.  36)  or  with  their 
hands. 

Knife. 

The  Hebrews  used  a  knife  which  they 
called  ma'akeleth,  eating  instrument,  for 
slaughtering  animals  for  food  or  sacrifice, 
and  for  cutting  up  the  carcass  (Gen.  xxii.  6 ; 
Judg.  xix.  2U ;  cp.  Lev.  viii.  20 ;  ix.  13). 
Another  word,  hfrcb.  which  commonly  sig- 
nifies a  sword,  denotes  a  knife  made  of  flint 
(Josh.  V.  2),  and  perhaps  a  knife  for  shaving 
(Ezek.  V.  1 ;  in  R.  V.  sword) ;  see  Flint. 
The  Egyptians  also,  when  embalming  a  corpse, 
used  a  sharp  stone  knife  for  making  an  in- 
cision in  the  body  (Herod  ii.  8(i).  The  He- 
brew scribes  sharpened  the  stylus  with  a 
small  knife  (Jer.  xxxvi.  23).  Herod  the 
Great  was  accustomed  to  use  a  knife  for  par- 
ing fruit,  and  attempted  to  kill  himself  with 
it  (Anti(i.  xvii.  7,  1). 

Knop. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Kaphtor 
in  Ex.  XXV.  33-3(i;  xxxvii.  17-22,  where  it 
constitutes  a  part  of  the  candlestick  used 
in  the  tabernacle.  In  other  passages  the 
Hebrew  word  api>arently  denotes  the  cai)ital 
of  a  column  (Amos  ix.  1 ;  Zeph.  ii.  14,  both 
R.  v.).  It  seems  to  have  been  some  project- 
ing support  for  the  branches  of  the  candle- 
stick, and  for  the  corollas  of  the  ornamental 
flowei-s ;  but  its  precise  nature  is  unknown. 
Josephus  perhaps  states  that  it  represented 
a  pomegranate  ( Autiq.  iii.  6,  7),  but  his  words 
are  not  clear. 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  P'ka'im 
(1  Kin.  vi.  18;  vii.  24),  an  ornament  cut  in 
cedar,  and  associated  with  open  flowers  in 
the  woodwork  of  Solomon's  temple.  Since 
the  feminine  form  of  the  word  denotes  wild 
gourds,  the  R.  V.  places  gourds  on  the  mar- 
gin of  the  first  passage,  as  if  the  ornament 
was  shaped  like  a  gourd. 

Ko'a. 

A  people  named  between  Babylonians  and 
Assyrians  (Ezek.  xxiii.  23),  located  by  Fried- 
rich  Delitzsch  east  of  the  Tigris,  south  of  the 
lower  Zab. 

Ko'hath  [perhaps,  assembly]. 

A  son  of  Levi  and  founder  of  the  great 
Kohathite  family  (Gen.  xlvi.  11 ;  Ex.  vi.  16, 
18). 

Ko'hath-ite. 

A  mcml)er  of  the  great  Levite  family 
founded  by  Kohath.  This  was  subdivided 
into  the  families  or  houses  of  the  Amramites, 
the  Izharites,  the  Hebronites,  and  the  L^z- 
zielites  (Ex.  vi.  18;  Num.  iii.  27).  Moses  and 
Aaron  were  of  the  Kohathite  family  (Ex.  vi. 
20).  The  Kohathites  pitched  on  the  south 
side  of  the  tabernacle  in  the  wilderness 
(Xum.  iii.  29).  When  the  priests  had  cov- 
ered the  sanctuary  and  its  vessels,  the  Ko- 
hathites carried  them,  but  were  not  to  touch 


anv  holy  thing,  lest  they  should  die  (iv.  15, 
17-20;  2  t'hron.  xxxiv.  12).  At  the  first 
census  in  the  wilderness,  the  Kohathite  males 
from  a  month  old  and  upward  were  HfilM) 
(Num.  iii.  28),  and  those  from  thirty  to  fifty 
years  old  2750  (i v.  34-37).  In  the  sub.se(iuent 
allotment  of  cities  to  the  family,  the  priests, 
the  descendants  of  Aaron,  had  shares  with 
the  other  Kohathites,  the  former  obtaining 
thirteen  cities  out  of  the  tribes  of  .Fudah, 
Simeon,  and  Benjamin,  and  the  latter  leii 
cities  out  of  the  tribes  of  Ephraim,  Dan,  and 
JIanas.seh  (Josh.  xxi.  4,  5;  1  Chron.  vi.  61, 
66-70). 

Ko-la'iah  [voice  of  Jehovah]. 

1.  Father  of  the  false  prophet  Ahab  (Jer. 
xxix.  21). 

2.  A  Benjamite  (Neh.  xi.  7). 
Koph. 

The  nineteenth  letter  of  the  Hebrew  al- 
phabet. English  Q  comes  from  the  same 
source ;  but  in  anglicized  Hebrew  names  c  or 
k  represents  it,  as  in  Cain  and  Korah.  It 
heads  the  nineteenth  section  of  Ps.  cxix.,  in 
which  section  each  veree  of  the  original  be- 
gins with  this  letter. 

Ko'rah,  in  A.  V.  once  Kore  (1  Chron.  xxvi. 
19)  and  once  Core  (Jude  11)  [ice,  baldness]. 

1.  A  son  of  Esau  by  his  wife  Oholibamah, 
born  in  Canaan  (Gen.  xxxvi.  5,  14),  who 
founded  a  tribe  which  dwelt  in  Edom  and 
was  ruled  by  a  chieftain  (18). 

2.  A  son  of  Eliphaz  and  grandson  of  Esau 
(Gen.  xxxvi.  16).  But  the  name  has  crept 
into  the  text  erroneously,  not  being  found  in 
ver.  11,  12  or  1  Chron.  i.  36. 

3.  A  son  of  Hebron  (1  Chron.  ii.  43).  See 
Maresh.\h  2. 

4.  A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath,  house  of 
Izhar  (Num.  xvi.  1).  In  conjunction  with 
the  Reubenites  Dathan,  Abiram,  and  On  ho 
rebelled  against  Moses  and  Aaron.  He  was 
jealous  that  Aaron,  a  Levite  of  the  same 
family  as  he  and  only  his  equal  in  rank, 
should  have  the  office  of  priest  for  all  Israel. 
The  Reubenites  were  discontented  because 
the  leadership  in  Israel,  which  belonged  to 
Reuben  as  the  firstborn  of  Jacob,  was  pos- 
sessed by  the  tribe  of  Levi,  represented  by 
Moses  and  Aaron.  At  length  Korah  and  his 
company,  sons  of  Levi  (7),  who  formed  a 
large  portion  of  the  conspirators,  but  not 
all  of  them,  for  at  least  Dathan  and  Abi- 
ram were  absent  (12),  assembled  against 
Moses  and  Aaron,  publicly  charged  them 
with  usurping  the  supremacy  over  tho 
tribes,  and  claimed  that  all  the  congrega- 
tion was  holy  and  that  any  one  might 
officiate  as  a  priest  (3).  Moses  replied  that 
God  would  himself  decide  the  matter,  and  he 
bade  Korah  and  his  company  provide  them- 
selves with  censers  and  be  ready  to  offer  in- 
cense on  the  morrow  (6-11).  Moses  .sent 
word  to  Dathan  and  Abiram  to  appear  like- 
wise on  the  morrow,  but  they  refused  on  the 
ground  that  Moses  had  no  right  to  summon 


Korahite 


420 


Lachish 


them  (12-15).  Moses  then  turned  to  Korah, 
saying :  "  Be  thou  and  all  thy  company  pres- 
ent with  censers,  two  hundred  and  tifty  cen- 
sers besides  those  of  yourself  and  Aaron  "  (16- 
17).  They  did  so,  assembling  at  the  taber- 
nacle (18).  Korah  gathered  also  the  whole 
congregation  of  Israel  there  and  incited  them 
against  Moses  and  Aaron  (19).  God  directed 
Moses  and  Aaron  to  separate  themselves  from 
the  multitude  that  it  might  be  destroyed,  but 
Moses  interceded  for  the  people  (20-22). 
Moses  was  then  directed  to  bid  the  congre- 
gation remove  from  the  district  in  the  camp 
occupied  by  Korah,  Dathau,  and  Abiram  (24). 
It  will  be  remembered  that  the  division  of 
the  Levites  to  which  Korah  belonged  were 
accustomed  to  pitch  on  the  south  of  the 
tabernacle  in  immediate  proximity  to  the 
tribe  of  Reuben  ;  see  Camp.  Accordingly,  fol- 
lowed by  the  elders  of  Israel,  and  certainly 
also  by  Korah,  Moses  went  to  the  locality 
where  the  tents  of  Korah,  Dathan,  and  Abi- 
ram were  pitched  and  warned  the  congrega- 
tion to  leave  the  district  (25,  26).  The  people 
obeyed.  Dathan  and  Abiram,  together  with 
their  families,  appeared  at  the  door  of  their 
tents  (27).  The  earth  opened  and  swallowed 
them  up  with  their  households  and  Korah 
with  his  servants  (32,  33;  xxvi.  10).  The 
sons  of  Korah,  however,  were  not  destroyed 
(11).  After  the  earthquake  fire  devoured 
the  two  hundred  and  fifty  men  that  ofi'ered 
incense  (xvi.  35;  cp.  40).  See  Koehite. 
Ko'rah-ite  and  Ko'rath-ite.      See  Kor- 

HITE. 

Ko're  [a  partridge]. 

1.  The  rebellious  Levite,  founder  of  a  house 
(1  Chron.  xxvi.  19) ;  see  Kor.\h  4. 

2.  A  Levite  of  the  house  of  Korah  (1 
Chron.  ix.  19;  xxvi.  1). 

.3.  A  Levite,  son  of  Imnah,  appointed  over 
the  freewill  offerings  during  the  reign  of 
Hezekiah  (2  Chron.  xxxi.  14). 

Kor'hite,  in  R.  V.  everywhere  and  in  A.  V. 
twice  KoraMte,  and  in  A.  V.  once  Ko- 
rathite. 

A  descendant  of  that  Korah  who  was 
swallowed  up  in  the  wilderness  as  a  punish- 
ment for  his  rebellion.  The  Korhites  consti- 
tuted a  father's  house  among  the  Kohathites. 

Heman  the  singer  and  Samuel  the  prophet 
vi'ere  Korhites  (I'Chron.  vi.  33-38).  The  de- 
scendants of  Heman  were  organized  by 
David  as  singers  (xv.  17 ;  xvi.  41,  42 ;  xxv. 
4,  5).  Psalms  xlii.  (which  probably  once 
included  xliii.),  xliv.-xlix.,  Ixxxiv.,  Ixxxv., 
Ixxxvii.,  Ixxxviii.,  bear  the  name  of  the 
family  in  the  title.  Korhites  were  gate- 
keepers (1  Chron.  ix.  19  ;  xxvi.  19)  and  bakers 
lor  the  sanctuary,  preparing  the  showbread 
and  sacrificial  cakes  (ix.  31,  32). 

Koz.     See  Hakkoz. 

Ku-sha'iah. 

A  Levite  of  the  family  of  Merari,  house 
of  Mushi  (1  Chron.  xv.  17\  in  vi.  44  called 
Kishi. 


L. 


La'a-dali  [order]. 

A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Shelah.  He 
was  the  father  of  the  inhabitants  of  Mare- 
shah  (1  Chron.  iv.  21). 

La'a-dan.     See  Ladan. 

La'bau  [white]. 

1.  Son  of  Bethuel,  and  grandson  of  Nahor 
Abraham's  brother.  He  lived  at  Haran  in 
Paddan-aram  (Gen.  xxiv.  10,  15;  xxviii.  5, 
11).  He  was  the  brother  of  Rebekah.  Abra- 
ham's confidential  servant  had  met  Rebekah 
at  the  well ;  and,  regarding  her  as  a  suitable 
woman  to  become  Isaac's  wife,  had  given  her 
valuable  presents.  When  Laban  saw  the 
ring  and  bracelets  upon  his  sister's  hands, 
he  said:  "Come  in,  thou  blessed  of  the 
Lord  ;  wherefore  standest  thou  without?" 
He  readily  permitted  Rebekah  to  go  to 
Canaan  to  become  Isaac's  wife  (Gen.  xxiv. 
1-67).  When  Jacob  subsequently  fled  from 
the  vengeance  of  Esau,  it  was  to  Laban  his 
uncle  that  he  went ;  and  he  remained  with 
Laban  twenty  years,  serving  him  seven  for 
his  daughter  Rachel,  and  then,  having  Leah 
handed  over  to  him  in  a  fraudulent  way,  a 
second  seven  to  obtain  the  daughter  for 
whom  he  really  cared,  and  then  six  more 
for  cattle.  At  the  end  of  the  twenty  years, 
Jacob,  perceiving  that  his  prosperity  had  ex- 
cited the  envy  of  Laban  and  his  sons,  fled 
with  his  wives,  his  children,  and  his  cattle, 
in  the  direction  of  Canaan.  He  was  over- 
taken by  Laban  in  mount  Gilead;  but  the 
pursuer,  warned  by  God  not  to  molest  Jacob, 
made  a  covenant  with  him,  and  the  two 
parted  to  meet  no  more  (Gen.  xxix.-xxxii). 
Laban  worshiped  the  God  of  his  fathers,  the 
God  of  Nahor  (xxxi.  53),  Jehovah  (xxiv.  50; 
XXX.  27)  ;  but  he  combined  idolatry  with  his 
worship,  making  use  of  hou.seliold  gods  called 
teraphim  (xxxi.  30  ;  cp.  xxxv.  4)  and  prac- 
ticing divination   (xxx.  27,  R.  V.). 

2.  An  unidentified  place  in  the  Sinaitic 
peninsula  (Deut.  i.  1).  It  is  mentioned  with 
Hazeroth  ;  hence  some  have  thought  that  it 
may  have  been  the  same  as  Libnah,  the  sec- 
ond station  from  Hazeroth  (Num.  xxxiii.  20). 

La'chish  [perhaps,  tenacious,  difficult  to 
capture], 

A  fortified  city  in  the  lowland  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  33,  39).  At  the  time  of  the  con- 
quest of  Palestine,  its  king  was  defeated  and 
slain  by  Joshua  (x.  3-35 ;  xii.  11).  Rehoboam 
strengthened  its  defenses  (2  Chron.  xi.  9). 
Amaziah,  king  of  Judah,  having  fled  thither 
from  conspirators  at  Jerusalem,  was  pursued 
and  slain  in  the  town  (2  Kin.  xiv.  19;  2 
Chron.  xxv.  27).  Lachi.sh  was  besieged  by 
Sennacherib,  king  of  Assyria  ;  and  it  was  from 
the  camp  in  front  of  it  that  the  rabshakeh  was 
dispatched  to  demand  the  surrender  of  Jerusa- 
lem (2  Kin.  xviii.  14,  17;  cp.  xix.  8,  and  2 
Cln-on.  xxxii.  9;  Is.  xxxvi.  2;  xxxvii.  8). 
Lachish  is  charged  with  being  the  beginning 


Ladan 


421 


Lamb 


of  siu  to  the  daughter  of  Zion,  for  the  trans- 
gressions of  Israel  were  found  in  her  (Mic.  i. 
13).  Nebuchadnezzar  again  liesieged  Lachish, 
with  other  fenced  cities  of  Juthih  {Jer.  xxxiv. 
7).  It  was  inhabited  after  tlie  captivity  (Neh. 
xi.  30).  The  site  isfonnd  atTell  el-Hesy,  16 
miles  east  by  north  of  Gaza  and  11  miles 
west-southwest  of  Beit  Jibriu.  Excavation 
has  laid  bare  the  wall  of  tlu^  ancient  city,  as 
well  as  later  constructions  believed  to  belong 


La'el  [devoted  to  God]. 
A  Gershonite,  father   of  Eliasaph    (Num. 
iii.24). 

La'had  [oppressed,  oppression]. 
A  son  of  Jahath,  a  man  of  Judah  (1  Chrou. 
iv.  2). 
La-hai'-roi.     See  Beer-lahai-roi. 

Lah'mam,  in  E.  V.  margin,  Lahinas. 

A  village  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  (Josh. 


Lachish  assaulted  by  the  Army  of  Sennacherib. 


to  the  times  of  Rehoboam,  A.sa,  Jehoshaphat, 
Uzziah,  Jotham,  and  Jlana.sseh.  Ten  towns 
seem  to  have  occupied  the  place  in  succes- 
sion. The  lowest  is  called  Amorite,  and  is 
reported  to  be  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile 
square.  It  was  built  on  a  bluff,  about  60  feet 
above  the  stream  which  flowed  on  the  east, 
and  40  feet  above  the  level  country  on  the 
north.  A  ravine  protected  it  on  tlie  south, 
and  another  on  the  west.  The  northern  wall 
of  the  town  stood  on  the  edge  of  the  blutf.  It 
was  about  8  feet  thick,  with  a  great  tower  at 
the  northeastern  corner,  .")6  by  28  feet,  with 
rooms  about  10  feet  square,  enclosed  by  a  wall 
9  or  10  feet  thick.  Other  later  walls,  at  least 
twice  as  thick,  were  erected  before  the  con- 
quest of  Canaan  by  the  Hebrews.  Flint, 
copper,  bronze,  and  iron  implements,  with 
hronze  weapons  and  large  quantities  of 
pottery  have  been  unearthed.  There  were 
also  two  inscriptions  found,  one  in  old  He- 
brew characters,  the  other  in  cuneiform.  The 
latter  dates  from  about  the  fifteenth  century 
B.  c,  and  conveys  the  information  that  the 
king  then  ruling  at  Lachish  was  called  Zim- 
rida. 
La'dan,  in  A.  V.  Laadan  [well  ordered]. 

1.  An  Ephraimite  in  the  ancestry  of  Joshua 
(1  Chron.  vii.  26). 

2.  A  Gershonite  in  whom  several  fathers' 
houses  had  their  origin  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  7-9 ; 
xxvi.  21). 


XV.  40),  thought  to  be  possibly  marked  by 
the  ruined  village  of  el-Lahm,  2^  miles  south 
of  Beit  Jibrin. 

Lah'mi. 

The  brother  of  Goliath  the  Gittite.  He 
was  slain  by  Elhanan  the  son  of  .Jair  (1 
Chron.  xx.  5).  The  word  Lahmi,  however, 
corresponds  to  the  last  part  of  the  Hebrew- 
word  for  Bethlehemite  in  2  Sam.  xxi.  19. 
One  or  other  text  is  corrupt.    See  Elhanan. 

La'ish  [a  lion]. 

1.  A  manof  Gallim,  father  of  Palti  (1  Sam. 
XXV.  44). 

2.  A  Canaanite  city  in  the  extreme  north 
of  Palestine,  "  in  the  valley  that  lieth  by 
Beth-rehob."  The  Danites  captured  the  city, 
and  rebuilt  it,  altering  the  name  to  Dan 
(Judg.  xviii.  7-29).     See  Dan  3. 

3.  A  village  (Is.  x.  30).     See  Laishah. 

La'i-shah,  in  A.  V.  Laish  [a  lion]. 
A  village  in  Benjamin  between  Gallim  and 
Anathoth  iTs.  x.  .30). 

Lak'kum,  in  A.  V.  La'kum  [obstruction]. 
A  town  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  xix.  33).    Site 
unknown. 

Lamb. 

The  flesh  of  lambs  was  early  used  as  food 
(Lev.  iii.  7  with  vii.  In  ;  2  Sam.  xii.  4;  Ajnos 
vi.  4)  ;  and  lambs  and  kids  were  largely 
offered  in  sacrifice  even  before  the  promulga- 


Lamecli 


422 


Lamentations 


tion  of  the  Mosaic  law  (Gen.  iv.  4;  xxii.  7). 
Whcu  the  passover  was  instituted  in  Egypt, 
a  lamb  or  a  kid  of  the  first  year  was  sacri- 
ficed and  eaten  (Ex.  xii.  3,  5).  Under  the 
Mosaic  law  a  male  lamb  of  the  first  year  was 
oftered  for  a  burnt  offering  every  morning 
and  another  every  evening,  while  on  the 
Sabbath  there  were  two  (Ex.  xxix.  39-41 ; 
Num.  xxviii.  4).  On  the  first  day  of  each 
month  (Num.  xxviii.  11),  during  the  seven 
days  of  the  passover  (16,  19],  at  the  feast  of 
weeks  (26,  27),  on  the  day  of  blowing  of 
trumpets  (xxix.  1,  2),  and  on  the  day  of 
atonement  (7,  8),  seven  male  lambs  of  the 
first  year  formed  part  of  the  special  burnt 
offering ;  while  at  the  feast  of  tabernacles 
the  lambs  numbered  fourteen  during  each 
of  the  first  seven  days  and  seven  on  the 
eighth  day  (13-36).  For  all  the  principal 
sacrifices  of  ordinary  occasions  a  lamb  might 
be  used ;  as  a  male  lamb  for  a  burnt  oflfering 
(Lev.  ix.  3 ;  xxiii.  12,  18 ;  Num.  vi.  14 ;  vii. 
15),  a  ewe  lamb  for  a  sin  offering  for  others 
than  the  nation  or  rulers  tEev.  iv.  27,  32  ; 
Num.  vi.  14),  and  a  male  or  female  lamb  for 
a  guilt  oflering  (Lev.  v.  6;  xiv.  12,  21  ;  Num. 
vi.  12)  or  for  a  peace  offering  (Lev.  iii.  6,  7; 
xxiii.  19;  Num.  vii.  17;.  In  every  case  the 
lamb  must  be  without  blemish.  All  this 
jjoints  to  our  Lord.  He  i-esembled  a  lamb  in 
his  spotless  purity  (1  Pet.  i.  19).  He  was 
like  a  lamb  al.so  in  his  gentleness  and  in  his 
submission  to  unmerited  suflering  without 
murmur  or  complaint  (Is.  liii.  7  with  Luke 
xxiii.  25;  Acts  viii.'  32;  1  Pet.  ii.  21-23). 
Finally,  he,  like  a  lamb,  was  sacrificed  for 
guilt  not  his  own.  Hence  he  is  called  the 
Lamb  of  God,  which  taketh  away  the  sin  of 
the  world  (John  i.  29,  36),  the  Lamb  .slain 
from  the  foundation  of  the  world  (Eev.  xiii. 
8),  or  simply  the  Lamb  (Rev.  v.  6,  8,  12 ;  vii. 
14,  17;  xiv.  1,  4).  Both  in  the  O.  T.  and  in 
the  N.  T.  the  term  lamb  is  at  times  used 
figuratively  for  child  (Is.  xl.  11 ;  John  xxi.  15). 

La'mech  [possibly,  a  strong  young  man]. 

1.  A  son  of  Methusael,  of  the  race  of  Cain. 
He  had  two  wives,  Adah  and  Zillah.  By 
Adah  he  was  the  father  of  Jabal  and  Jubal, 
and  by  Zillah  he  had  a  sou,  Tubal-cain,  and  a 
daughter.  Naamah.  His  address  to  his  wives, 
in  its  Hebrew  reproduction,  is  a  fine  specimen 
of  Hebrew  poetry.  There  are  two  principal 
interi)retatious  of  Gen.  iv.  23.  1.  Lamech  de- 
clares himself  a  murderer,  saying:  "I  have 
slain  a  man."  Stung  by  remorse,  he  con- 
fesses the  rebuke  of  conscience.  He  had  slain 
another  to  his  own  wounding  and  hurt.  Or 
else  he  excuses  himself  for  a  murder  com- 
mitted in  self-defense,  having  slain  a  man 
for  wounding  him.  2.  Lamech  utters  a 
threat:  "I  will  slay  any  man  who  wounds 
me,"  his  words  being  a  song  of  exultation 
on  the  invention  of  the  sword  by  his  son 
Tubal-cain,  sung  in  anticipation  of  the  ad- 
vantage he  would  have  in  avenging  wrongs 
done  to  him.     The  attempt  has  been  Diade  to 


explain  the  poem  as  simply  an  expression  of 
Lamech' s  determination  to  put  the  new 
weapon  to  its  lawful  use ;  but  exjjositors 
quite  generally  agree  that  Lamech  is  vaunt- 
ing himself.  If  Cain,  who  slew  a  man,  is 
under  God's  protection  and  shall  be  avenged 
sevenfold  should  one  dare  to  slay  him,  surely 
Lamech  with  the  new  weapon,  a  visible  and 
surer  defense,  shall  be  avenged  seventy  and 
sevenfold  (Gen.  iv.  18-24). 

2.  An  antediluvian  patriarch  of  the  race 
of  Seth.  He  was  son  of  Methuselah  and 
father  of  Noah.  He  feared  the  Lord,  rested 
in  God's  promise  for  the  removal  of  the  curse 
of  sin,  and  on  the  birth  of  his  son  Noah  gave 
expression  to  the  hope  that  this  child  would 
lead  men  to  a  better  and  a  happier  life  under 
God's  blessing,  saying:  "  This  same  shall  com- 
fort us  for  our  work  and  for  the  toil  of  our 
hands,  because  of  the  ground  which  the 
Lord  hath  cursed"  (Gen.  v.  25,  28-31). 

La'med. 

The  twelfth  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet. 
English  L  comes  from  the  same  source,  and 
represents  it  in  anglicized  Hebrew  names.  It 
stands  at  the  head  of  the  twelfth  section  of 
Ps.  cxix.,  in  which  section  each  verse  of 
the  original  begins  with  this  letter. 

Lam-en-ta'tlons. 

Mournful  s])eeches  or  compositions,  elegies, 
such  as  the  lament  of  David  over  Saul  and 
Jonathan  (2  Sam.  i    17-27). 

The  Lamentations  of  Jeremiah  are  an  O.  T. 
book  placed  in  the  English  Bible  between 
Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel,  but  in  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures  among  the  Hagiographa  or  Sacred 
Writings,  between  Ruth  and  Ecclesiastes. 
Let  the  English  reader  take  note  of  the  fact 
that  of  the  five  chapters  of  Lamentations, 
i.,  ii.,  iv.,  and  v.  have  each  twenty-two 
verses,  and  "lii.  22  X  3  =  66.  There  are 
twenty -two  letters  in  the  later  Hebrew 
alphabet,  and  in  chapters  i.,  ii.,  and  iv.  the 
verses  are  arranged  aljihabefically,  verse  1 
beginning  with  aleph,  verse  2  with  beth, 
verse  3  with  gimel,  and  verse  4  with  daleth, 
and  so  on  to  the  end.  In  chap.  iii.  the  first 
three  verses  begin  with  aleph,  the  second 
three  with  beth,  and  so  on  to  the  end.  The 
fifth  chapter  has  not  an  alphabetical  ar- 
rangement. The  theme  of  the  whole  five 
elegies  or  lamentations  is  the  capture  and 
destruction  of  the  Jewish  capital,  with  dread- 
ful suffering  to  its  defenders  by  famine,  the 
sword,  and  outrage  of  every  kind.  The 
catastrophe,  it  is  admitted,  was  brought  on 
by  the  sins  of  the  people,  not  omitting  even 
the  prophets  and  the  priests.  In  various 
places  the  Jewish  state  is  personified  as  a 
man,  and  bemoans  its  hard  fate  (i.  9  ;  ii.  1, 
11,  22;  iii.  1-51,  etc.).  In  one  pas.sage  the 
writer  recalls  what  he  himself  had  suffered 
from  the  persecution  of  his  countrymen  (iii. 
52-66).  Notwithstanding  that  this  book  is 
anonymous,  in  the  Hebrew  being  named 
only  by  its  first  word  '"How,"  notwithstand- 


Lamp 


423 


Lappidoth 


ing  also  that  it  is  arranged  among  the  Hagiog- 
rapha,  critics,  even  of  rationalistic  tenden- 
cies, attribute  the  first  four  chajjters  to 
Jeremiah ;  the  fifth  or  non-alphabetical 
chapter  may,  they  think,  possibly  have  come 
from  another  author.  In  the  Septuagint 
the  following  statement  is  prefixed  to  the 
hook  :  "  And  it  came  to  pass  after  Israel  was 
led  into  captivity  and  Jerusalem  laid  waste, 
that  Jeremiah  sat  weeping  and  lamented 
this  lamentation  over  Jerusalem,  and  said." 
The  ascription  of  the  book  to  the  prophet 
is  thus  ancient ;  and  it  has  been  commonly, 
though  not  without  exception,  assigned  to 
him  by  both  ancient  and  modern  scholars, 
the  admission  being  general  that  the  elegies 
must  have  been  written  in  or  near  the  times 
of  Jeremiah.  The  prophet  lamented  for 
Josiah  (2  Chron.  xxxv.  25).  If  his  elegies  on 
the  subject  were  committed  to  writing,  they 
have  been  lost,  and  are  not  our  present  book 
of  Lamentations. 

Lamp. 

A  vessel  designed  to  contain  an  inflamma- 
ble liquid,  which  it  is  proposed  to  burn  for 
illuminating  purposes,  and  a  wick  to  lift  the 
liquid  by  capillary  attraction  to  feed  the 
flame  (Herod,  ii.  t)2).  The  seven  lamps  of 
the  golden  candlestick  of  the  tabernacle  and 
temple  were  made  of  gold  (Ex.  xxxvii.  23;  1 
Kin.  vii.  49)  and  burned  olive  oil  (Ex.  xxvii. 
20).  Tongs  wei'e  u.sed  to  trim  the  wick,  and 
dishes  to  receive  the  snufl"  (xxv.  38).  The  or- 
dinary lamp  for  domestic  use  was  made  of 
earthenware.     It  might  have  a  cover  which 


Ancient  Lamps. 

was  either  removable  or  made  of  one  piece 
with  the  rest  of  the  lamp.  Near  the  cen- 
ter of  the  cover  or  top  was  a  hole  for  in- 
troducing the  oil.  There  was  another  open- 
ing at  the  margin  of  the  cover,  or  else  a 
spout,  for  the  wick. 

The    Hebrew    word     regularly    rendered 


lamp  is  Ner.  It  is  translated  light  in  2  Sara, 
xxi.  17,  A.  v.,  and  candle  in  Jer.  xxv.  10 
and  Zeph.  i.  12.  In  the  latter  passage,  R.  V. 
places  lamp  on  the  margin  ;  and  everywhere 
else  in  both  O.  and  N.  T.,  except  in  these 
two  passages,  R.  V.  substitutes  the  word 
lamp  in  the  text  where  A.  Y.  has  candle. 
The  Hebrew  word  Lappid  is  also  often  ren- 
dered lamp  in  O.  T.  ;  for  example,  Judg.  vii. 
16,  20,  A.  V.  ,and  Is.  Ixii.  1 ;  Dan.  x.  6.  But 
it  is  of  more  general  meaning.  It  is  trans- 
lated firebrand  in  Judg.  xv.  4  ;  and  torch  ia 
Xah.  ii.  4;  Zech.  xii.  6 ;  and  in  R.  V.  of  Gen. 
XV.  17;  Judg.  vii.  16,  20;  and  lightning  in 
Ex.  XX.  18.  The  Greek  word  rendered  lamp 
in  Mat.  xxv.  1  and  Rev.  iv.  5  is  translated 
lights  in  Acts  xx.  8,  and  torches  in  John 
xviii.  3  and  margin  of  R.  V.  of  Mat.  xxv.  1. 
The  extinction  of  the  lamp  of  any  one 
means  figuratively  the  destruction  of  his 
family  (Prov.  xiii.  9). 
Lan'cet.  See  Spear. 
Lan'guage.  See  Tongue. 
Lan'tern. 

Lanterns  were  carried  by  the  band  of 
Roman  soldiers  who  were  sent  with  Judas  to 
arrest  Jesus  (John  xviii.  3).  The  Romans 
made  the  sides  of  lanterns  out  of  bladder  or 
plates  of  translucent  horn. 

La-od-i-ce'a  [pertaining  to  Laodice]. 
A  city  called  originally  Diospolis,  city  of 
Zeus,  which  was  enlarged  and  improved  by 
Antiochus  II.,  and  named  by  him  Laodicea, 
after  his  wife  Laodice.  It  was  the  chief  city 
of  Phrygia  Pacatiana,  in  Asia 
Minor,  and  was  situated  a  little 
south  of  Colossffi  and  Hierapolis, 
on  the  river  Lycos,  a  tributary 
of  the  Meander.  It  numbered 
many  Jews  among  its  inhab- 
itants (Antiq.  xiv.  10,  20). 
Epaphras  labored  there  (Col. 
iv.  12,  13),  and  is  regarded  as 
the  founder  of  its  Christian 
church.  Paul  felt  greatly  de- 
sirous of  spiritually  benefiting 
the  Laodiceans  (ii.  1).  He  sent 
them  salutations  ;  and  he  wrote 
them  a  letter,  now  lost  (iv.  1.5, 
16).  Laodicea  was  one  of  the 
seven  churches  in  Asia  ad- 
dressed in  the  book  of  Reve- 
lation. It  is  sharply  rebuked 
for  lukewarmness  (Rev.  i.  11 ; 
iii.  14-22).  About  the  year  65 
of  the  Christian  era,  Laodicea, 
Colossje,  and  Hierapolis  were 
destroyed  by  an  earthquake. 
Laodicea  was  rebuilt  by  Mar- 
cus Aurelius.  Its  ruins  still  exist  at  a  place 
called  Eski  Hi.ssar,  near  Denizlu,  about  56 
niiles  east-southeast  of  Smyrna. 

Lap'pi-doth,  in  A.  V.  Lapidoth  [torches]. 
Husband  of  Deborah  the  iu'o])hetess  (Judg. 
iv.  4). 


Lapwing 


424 


Laver 


Lap 'wing. 

The  reudering  of  the  Hebrew  DuMphath  in 
A.  V.  of  Lev.  xi.  19;  Deut.  xiv.  18.  The 
lapwing  {Vanellus  cristatus),  a  member  of  the 
sub-family  Charadriinse,  or  true  plovers,  is 
found  in  flocks  in  winter  in  Palestine.  E.  V., 
following  the  Septuagint  and  Vulgate,  sub- 


Hoopoe. 

stitntes  the  hoopoe  {Upupa  epops),  the  type 
of  the  Upupidse,  a  family  of  fissirostral  birds 
(birds  with  deeply  cleft  bills).  The  hoopoe  is  a 
bird  about  a  foot  long,  grayish-brown  above, 
with  the  wings  and  shoulders  black,  barred 
with  white,  and  a  large  crest  of  feathers  upon 
the  head.  It  is  found  in  central  and  southern 
Europe,  in  Asia,  and  in  northern  and  central 
Africa.  Tristram  saj'^  that  it  apj)ears  in  Pal- 
estine in  March,  spreading  in  small  parties 
over  the  whole  country.  On  the  approach  of 
winter  it  makes  a  short  migration  to  Egypt 
and  the  Sahara. 

La-se'a. 

A  seaport  of  Crete,  near  the  Fair  Havens, 
passed  by  the  vessel  which  carried  Paul  (Acts 
xxvii.  8).  In  ISiiG  the  Rev.  G.  Brown  dis- 
covered ruins  which  mark  the  supposed  site 
on  the  southern  coast  about  5  miles  east  of 
the  Fair  Havens. 

La'sha  [a  fissure]. 

A  place  mentioned  with  the  cities  of  the 
plain  (Gen.  x.  19).  Jerome  says  it  was  at 
Callirrhoe,  a  ravine  east  of  the  Dead  Sea, 
notable  for  its  hot  springs,  which  were  visited 
by  Herod  the  Great  during  his  last  illness. 
The  gorge  in  which  they  rise  is  so  narrow 
that  it  may  quite  appropriately  be  called  a 
fissure.  There  is  not  room  enough  in  it  for 
a  village  of  ordinary  size.  The  stream  from 
Callirrhoe,  now  called  the  Zerka  Ma'in,  en- 
ters the  Dead  Sea  at  the  eastern  side,  about 
11  miles  in  a  direct  line  from  the  mouth  of 
the  Jordan.  The  springs  are  about  3  miles 
lip  the  stream. 

Las-sha'ron,  in  A.  V.  Lasharon  [probably* 
to  Sharon]. 

A  town  whose  king  was  one  of  those  slain 
by  Joshua  (Josh.  xii.  18).  The  Hebrew  test 
may,  however,   be  read  king  over  Sharon. 


The  indications  of  the  Septuagint  are  that  the 
original  text  of  the  verse  was  "the  king  of 
Aphek  [which  belongs]  to  Sharon." 

Las'the-nes  [probably,  very  strong]. 

A  Cretan  who  raised  an  army  of  mercenary 
soldiers  for  Demetrius  11.,  by  which  the  latter 
effected  a  landing  in  Cilicia  and  set  up  the 
standard  of  revolt  against  Alexander  Balas 
(Antiq.  xiii.  4,  3).  He  was  rewarded  with 
high  oflice,  perhaps  the  governorship  of  Coele- 
syria.  Demetrius  calls  him  kinsman  and 
father  (1  Mac.  xi.  31,  in  A.  V.  cousin;  32). 
The  latter  title  implies  that  he  was  a  man  of 
considerable  age ;  the  former  means  either 
that  he  was  related  to  Demetrius,  or  that  he 
held  a  high  position  at  court.  He  was  noti- 
fied by  letter  of  the  terms  of  peace  agreed 
upon  between  Demetrius  and  Jonathan  Mac- 
cabseus,  and  of  the  concessions  made  to  the 
Jews  (32-37). 

Latch'et. 

The  thong  with  which  the  sandal  was 
bound  to  the  foot  (Is.  v.  27 ;  Mark  i.  7 ;  cp. 
Gen.  xiv.  23). 

Lat'in. 

The  language  spoken  by  the  Eomans. 
Though  from  the  first  century  B.  c.  on  for 
some  hundred  years  the  supreme  power  in 
Palestine  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Eomans, 
whose  vernacular  language  was  Latin,  yet  it 
did  not  root  itself  in  that  country.  A  few 
words  only  were  adopted,  as  prsetorinm  and 
cenfnrio,  which  are  written  in  Greek  letters 
in  Mark  xv.  16,  39,  45.  But  since  Latin  was 
the  language  of  the  Eoman  officials,  the  in- 
scription over  the  cross  of  Christ  was  written 
in  Latin  as  well  as  in  Greek  and  Aramaic 
(John  xix.  20). 

Lat'tice. 

A  network  formed  of  crossed  laths  and 
covering  a  window  (Judg.  v.  28;  Prov.  vii. 
6,  in  A.  V.  casement ;  2  Kin.  i.  2  ;  Song  ii.  9.) 

La'ver. 

A  basin  or  trough  in  which  to  wash.  A 
laver  of  brass  or  copper  was  used  in  connec- 
tion with  the  tabernacle  services.  It  stood 
upon  a  base  of  brass  in  the  court  between 
the  altar  and  the  door  of  the  tabernacle. 
Both  laver  and  base  were  made  of  the  mir- 
rors given  by  the  women  who  assembled  to 
minister  at  the  door  of  the  tent  of  meeting 
(Ex.  xxxviii.  8  ;  cp.  xxxiii.  7).  Women  served 
at  the  door  of  the  tabernacle  (1  Sam.  ii.  22, 
E.  v.),  as  did  the  Levites  (Num.  iv.  23;  viii. 
24).  They  probably  came  at  stated  intervals, 
as  did  the  Levites  and  priests  (Deut.  xviii.  6 : 
Luke  i.  8, 23),  to  render  various  kinds  of  serv- 
ice, such  as  the  performance  of  sacred  dances 
and  instrumental  and  vocal  music  (Ex.  xv. 
20;  Judg.  xxi.  21 ;  Ps.  Ixviii.  25).  The  priests 
washed  their  hands  and  their  feet  in  the  laver 
before  ministering  at  the  altar  or  entering  the 
sanctuary  (Ex.  xxx.  17-21 ;  Lev.  viii.  11).  This 
ceremony  symbolized  the  holiness  that  is  re- 
quired in  the  service  of  God.      In  Solomon's- 


Law 


425 


Law 


temple  there  were  a  molten  sea  aud  ten  lav- 
ors  iuritead  of  one  (1  Kin.  vii.  23-2(),  38-40, 
43).  Some  of  the  arrangements  were  after- 
wards altered  by  Ahaz  (2  Kin.  xvi.  17). 

Law. 

Of  tlie  several  meanings  which  the  word 
law  possesses,  two  are  employed  in  Scripture. 

1.  A  uniformly  acting  force  which  deter- 
mines the  regular  sequence  of  events;  any 
uniformly  acting  influence  or  motive  which 
controls  the  will  (Rom.  vii.  23). 

2.  A  rule  of  conduct  enjoined  by  a  comyie- 
tent  authority  and.  if  need  be,  enforced  by 
penalties.  This  is  the  principal  meaning  of 
the  word  in  Scripture.  Manj-  laws  have  com- 
menced as  customs,  which,  arising  naturally 
in  the  intercoui-se  between  members  of  the 
siime  society,  ultimately  gained  such  accept- 
ance that  the  community  tinally  resolved  to 
enforce  them  as  laws.  But  a  law  may  be  im- 
jtosed  by  a  ruler,  human  or  divine,  without 
any  reference  to  previous  custom  or  legisla- 
tion. In  the  English  version  law  is  mainly 
the  rendering  of  Hebrew  Torah,  insti'uction, 
Aramaic  Dath,  perhaps  meaning  established, 
and  Greek  Nomos,  custom,  law ;  and  it  de- 
notes, except  as  noted  under  1,  an  authorita- 
tive rule  of  conduct  whether  revealed  from 
within  or  from  without.  It  may  be  imposed 
by  the  constituted  authorities  of  the  state, 
which  are  ordained  of  God  (Ezra  vii.  26; 
Esth.  i.  19;  Dan.  vi.  8),  or  proceed  immedi- 
ately from  God,  being  revealed  in  a  super- 
natural manner  audibly  as  at  Sinai  or  through 
the  Spirit  to  prophets  (Zech.  vii.  12)  or  made 
known  in  tUe  constitution  of  our  nature 
(Rom.  ii.  14,  15).  They  who  fear  God  and 
keep  his  commandments  are  wise  ;  and  the 
godly  wisdom  which  thej-  have  acquired  from 
the  study  of  the  written  law,  from  observa- 
tion of  the  human  heart,  and  from  a  life  of 
holiness,  when  given  forth  in  instruction  is 
the  law  of  the  wise  which  is  a  fountain  of 
life  (Prov.  xiii.  14),  and  when  taught  by 
l)areuts  to  children  is  the  law  of  father  aud 
mother  which  to  them  that  obey  is  a  chaplet 
of  grace  about  the  head  (Prov.  i.  8,  9).  The 
term  law  with  the  definite  article,  but  with- 
out other  qualifying  word,  occasionally  refers 
to  the  whole  O.  T.  in  general  ( John  xii.  .34  ;  1 
C"or.  xiv.  21  ;  cp.  .John  x.  34 ;  xv.  2.5),  but  it 
is  employed  much  more  frequently  as  the 
title  of  the  Pentateuch  (Josh.  i.  8;  Xeh.  viii. 
2.  .3,  14;  Mat.  v.  17;  John  i.  17).  The  law 
of  Moses  was  given  bv  God  through  Moses 
(Ex.  XX.  19-22 ;  Mat.  xv.  4  ;  John  i.  17).  It 
is  the  law  of  God  (Josh.  xxiv.  26 ;  2  Chron. 
xxxi.  3).  It  was  written  in  a  book  (Josh.  i. 
7,  8),  included  the  legislation  contained  in 
Exodus,  Leviticus,  Numbers,  and  Deuteron- 
omy (Mark  xii.  26  with  Ex.  iii.  6 ;  Mark  vii. 
10  with  Ex.  XX.  12  ;  xxi.  17  ;  Luke  ii.  22  and 
John  vii.  22.  23  with  Lev.  xii.  2.  3  ;  Mat.  viii.  4 
with  IjCV.  xiv.  3 ;  Mat.  xix.  8  and  xxii.  24  with 
Dent.  xxiv.  1  and  xxv.  5),  and  was  the  title 
of  the  Pentateuch,  constituting  the  first  di- 


vision of  the  canon  (Luke  xxiv.  44) ;  see 
Pkntateuch.  The  legal  portion  consists  of 
the  ten  commandments,  which  form  the  fun- 
damental law  of  tlie  theocracy,  aud  statutes 
based  on  them.  It  was  given  at  Sinai.  The 
fundamental  law  was  uttered  audibly  in  the 
hearing  of  the  whole  congregation.  The 
body  of  statutes  controlled  the  general  form 
of  worship,  protected  human  rights,  regulated 
personal  conduct,  and  prescribed  sacred  sea- 
sons and  sacrifice.  It  was  given  at  the  same 
time  as  the  ten  commandments,  but  through 
Moses.  See  Theocracy.  When  the  taber- 
nacle was  erected,  the  legislation  was  enacted 
which  in  detail  regulated  approach  to  God. 
See  Leviticus.  Thirty  and  eight  years  later 
Moses  rehearsed  the  law  publicly  before  the 
new  generation,  placed  the  emphasis  where 
the  experience  of  a  third  of  a  century  had 
taught  him  to  be  advisable,  and  introduced 
modifications  which  the  prospective  change 
in  the  circumstances  of  the  people  rendered 
necessary.  See  Deuteronomy.  It  is  gen- 
erally held  that  when  all  that  is  local  and 
temporary  is  put  away  the  remaining  portion 
of  the  commandments,  constituting  the  es- 
sential part,  was  designed  for  the  Christian 
as  well  as  the  Jewish  dispensation,  and  will 
not  become  obsolete  at  any  future  time  (cp. 
Ex.  XX.  12  or  Deut.  v.  16  with  Eph.  vi.  2,  3). 
The  ten  commandments,  being  the  funda- 
mental law  and  a  summary  of  the  whole 
moral  code,  endure.  They  are  founded  in 
the  immutable  nature  of  God  and  in  the  per- 
manent relations  of  men  on  earth.  Of  the 
fourth  commandment  Christ  said  :  "  The  Sab- 
bath was  made  for  man,"  hence  its  principles 
remain  in  force  while  man  continues  on  earth. 
Regarding  the  fifth  commandment,  the  apos- 
tle Paul  evidently  considers  both  the  precept 
and  the  essential  part  of  the  promise  still  in 
force,  though  the  local  or  temporary  portion, 
"the  land"  of  Canaan,  disappears,  and  "the 
earth  "  takes  its  place  (Eph.  vi.  2,  3).  The 
ceremonial  law  apparently  referred  to  in  Heb. 
viii.  7  as  the  first  covenant,  is  there  described 
as  decaying  and  waxing  old,  and  being  ready 
to  vanish  away  (13;  cp.  also  chapters  viii. 
-X.).  Hence  the  apostles  declined  to  im- 
pose it  on  the  gentile  converts  (Acts  xv.  23- 
29,  etc.).  Its  function  has  been  to  point,  by- 
means  of  its  priesthood,  its  .sacrifices,  its  cere- 
monies, and  its  symbols  to  Christ,  our  great 
High  Priest,  and  his  atoning  sacrifice  for  sin. 
When  the  antitype  came,  the  tM)cs  were  no 
longer  needful,  though  the  memory  of  what 
they  had  been  rendered  them  objects  of  in- 
terest, and  will  do  so  through  all  future  ages. 
The  enactments  constituting  the  civil  and 
criminal  code  of  the  Israelites  were  admira- 
bly adapted  to  the  state  of  civilization  which 
the  people  had  then  reached ;  but  these  laws 
were  freely  modified  as  the  circumstances 
contemplated  by  them  changed.  Moses  him- 
self was  the  first  to  introduce  modifica- 
tions, and  David  and  others  made  addi- 
tions. 


Lawyer 


426 


Lead 


Law'yer. 

Oue  versed  in  the  law  of  Moses,  of  which 
he  was  the  professidiial  iuterpreter,  a  scribe 
(Mat.  xxii.  35  with  Mark  xii.  28)  ;  see  Sckibe. 
In  Luke  xi.  44  tlic  words" scribes aud  Phari- 
sees" are  omitted  iu  R.  V.,  and  there  is  no 
contrast  between  scribes  and  lawyers  (45). 
The  lawyers  joined  the  Pharisees  in  rejecting 
the  preaching  of  John  the  Bajitist  (Luke  vii. 
30).  They  considered  themselves  above  the 
need  of  instruction  from  Jesus;  and  when 
one  of  them  did  condescend  to  hold  communi- 
cation with  him,  it  was  to  try  to  puzzle  him 
by  means  of  a  difficult  question  (Mat.  xxii. 
35  ;  Luke  x.  25  ;  cp.  Luke  xiv.  3).  Jesus  de- 
nounced them  at  last  in  severe  language  for 
laying  heavy  burdens  on  the  people,  and 
keeping  back  from  them  the  key  of  knowl- 
edge (Luke  xi.  45-52). 

Lay'ing  on  of  Hands. 

An  act  symbolizing  dedication  to  a  special 
purpose.  The  Israelites  placed  their  hands 
on  the  heads  of  the  Levites,  dedicating  them 
to  the  service  of  the  Lord  at  the  tabernacle 
in  the  stead  of  the  firstborn  of  all  the  tribes. 
They  pressed  down  their  hands  upon  the 
heads  of  the  Levites,  doubtless  with  the  in- 
tention of  signifying  thereby  that,  with 
God's  permission  and  by  his  authority,  they 
transferred  their  own  obligation  to  service  to 
the  Levites  (Num.  viii.  5-20).  The  Israelite, 
who  brought  an  animal  to  the  sacrificial  altar, 
placed  his  hands  upon  the  victim's  head, 
thereby  dedicating  it  to  God  and  making  it 
his  own  representative  and  substitute  (Lev. 
i.  4  ;  xvi.  21).  The  aged  Jacob  laid  his  hands 
on  the  heads  of  Joseph's  sons,  giving  them  a 
place  among  his  own  sons,  and  bestowing 
upon  them  the  covenant  blessing,  transfer- 
ring it  from  himself  as  its  past  possessor  to 
them  (Gen.  xlviii.  5-20).  The  hands  of  pres- 
bytery were  laid  upon  the  head  of  Timothy. 
The  young  man  was  thereby  set  apart  to  of- 
ficial service  and  grace  was  bestowed  (1  Tim. 
iv.  14).  Imposition  of  the  hands  of  presby- 
tery denoted  not  only  commission,  but  also 
the  bestowal,  by  those  divinely  authorized, 
of  official  spiritual  grace  ;  or  at  least  it  signi- 
fied the  authoritative  recommendation  of  the 
candidate  to  God  as  a  recipient  of  grace. 

Laz'a-rus  [from  Hebrew  'El'asar,  God 
hath  helped]. 

1.  The  name  of  the  beggar  in  the  parable  of 
the  rich  man  and  Lazarus.  He  was  laid  at  the 
gate  of  the  rich  man  desiring  to  be  fed  with 
the  crumbs  which  fell  from  the  sumptuously 
furnished  table.  He  was  also  afflicted  with 
ulcers.  Yea,  even  the  dogs  licked  his  sores. 
Nothing  is  said  of  his  and  nothing  of  the  rich 
man's  character ;  but  when  they  died  Laz- 
arus was  carried  by  angels  into  Abraham's 
bosom,  while  the  rich  man  went  to  the  place 
of  woe.  At  first  sight  it  might  appear  that 
the  one  was  rewarded  simply  for  being  poor, 
and  the  other  punished  for  lieing  rich  ;  but 
the  hint  that  the  rich  man's  brothers,  who 


evidently  lived  exactly  as  he  had  done,  did 
not  believe  Moses  and  the  prophets,  and 
as  to  their  life  needed  repentance,  shows  that 
a  moral  element  entered  into  the  case,  and 
that  conduct,  not  ijosition,  decided  their  ul- 
timate destiny  (Luke  xvi.  lii-31). 

2.  A  member  of  the  family  of  Bethany, 
and  brother  of  Martha  and  Mary.  He  was 
an  object  »f  deej)  afl'ection  not  only  to  his 
sisters,  but  to  Jesus,  which  speaks  well  for 
his  character.  He  was  chosen  for  the  signal 
honor  of  being  raised  from  the  dead,  and 
when  he  fell  sick  with  a  grievous  disease 
the  sisters  .sent  word  to  Jesus,  who  was  be- 
yond the  Jordan,  but  he  did  not  respond  at 
once.  Two  days  later,  when  Lazarus  was 
j  dead,  Jesus  went  to  Bethany.  Being  met  by 
Martha  outside  the  village,  he  had  an  im- 
portant conversation  with  her  in  which  he 
called  forth  an  expression  of  her  faith  in  the 
resurrection  and  in  his  power  to  do  all 
things,  and  declared  himself  to  be  the  resur- 
rection aud  the  life.  When  Mary  had  come, 
Jesus  went  with  the  sisters  and  their  friends 
to  the  sepulcher,  which  was  of  the  usual  kind 
then  in  use  among  the  Jews,  namely,  a  cave 
either  natural  or  artificial  iu  the  face  of  a  rock. 
After  the  stone  had  been  rolled  away,  Jesus 
prayed  to  the  Father.  He  did  this  for  the 
sake  of  the  people  that  stood  by,  that  in  the 
miracle  they  might  discern  proof  that  the 
Father  had  sent  him.  Then  he  said  in  the 
hearing  of  all  present:  "Lazarus,  come 
forth  ! "  and  the  clead  awoke  to  life  and  came 
forth  (John  xi.  1-44).  The  eflect  of  this 
miracle  was  jirofound.  It  was  the  cause  of 
the  enthusiastic  reception  of  Jesus  at  Jeru- 
salem. It  also  brought  the  sanhedrin  to  their 
decision  to  put  him  to  death  ;  for  the  people 
were  hailing  him  as  king,  and  if  they  should 
accept  him  and  his  undisguised  doctrine  of 
the  spiritual  nature  of  Christ's  kingdom,  all 
hope  of  their  rising  against  the  Eomans 
and  endeavoring  to  restore  the  theocracy 
would  vanish.  The  rulers  decided  that  it 
•was  better  for  one  man  to  perish,  Avhether 
he  were  guilty  or  not,  rather  than  for  the 
whole  nation  to  be  lost  (xi.  45-53  ;  xii.  9-19). 
Lazarus  was  present  at  a  supper  given  in 
honor  of  his  great  benefactor  by  Simon  the 
leper  at  Bethany  six  days  before  the  pass- 
over  (xii.  1,  2).  The  extent  to  which  his 
restoration  to  life  tended  to  bring  new  fol- 
lowers to  Jesus  so  irritated  the  Jewish 
authorities  that  they  plotted  to  put  him 
also  to  death  (10,  11).  This  is  the  last 
mention  of  Lazarus  in  Scripture.  The  plot 
to  take  his  life  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
carried  out,  and  indue  time  he  doubtless  died 
a  second  death,  the  time,  the  place,  and  the 
circumstances  of  which  are  all  unknown. 

Lead. 

One  of  the  metals  known  to  the  ancients, 
in  Hebrew  'Ophereth.  It  was  taken  as  spoil 
from  the  Moabites  (Num.  xxxi.  22),  was  used 
by  the  Egyptians  (con.  Apion.  i.  34),  was  ob- 


Leaf 


427 


Lebanon 


taiued  in  large  quantities  in  the  peninsula 
of  Sinai,  was  found  in  Egypt,  and  was  im- 
ported from  Tarshisli  ( Ezek.  xxvii.  12).  It 
was  used  for  weights  (Zeeh.  v.  7),  for  sinkers 
on  fish  lines  (Iliad  xxiv.  80),  and  for  tablets 
on  which  inscriptions  were  written  (Tacitus, 
Annal.  ii.  tJ9;  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  xiii.  21 ;  Pau- 
sanias  ix.  31.  4).  .lob  xix.  24  has  been  under- 
stood to  refer  to  such  tablets;  but  the  words 
probably  mean  that,  since  a  book  (23)  is  liable 
to  perish,  .lob  desires  the  letters  to  be  cut  in 
the  rock  and  then,  to  render  them  more  dis- 
tinct and  dural)le,  to  be  filled  with  molten  lead. 
It  is  questionable  whether  it  was  consciously 
employed  for  cupellation  (Ezek.  xxii.  20). 

Leaf. 

1.  Foliage  of  a  tree  (Gen.  iii.  7  ;  viii.  11). 

2.  Part  of  the  wing  of  a  folding  door,  when 
each  of  the  two  wings  was  divided  either 
lengthwise  or  crosswise  (1  Kin.  vi.  34;  Ezek. 
xli.  24).  The  leaf  as  well  as  the  entire  door 
is  called  tJeleth,  because  it  turns  on  hinges  or 
pivots.  In  the  former  passage,  the  door  of 
the  holy  place  in  Solomon's  temple  is  re- 
ferred to.  It  was  the  fourth  part  of  the  wall 
(1  Kin.  vi.  33) ;  and  was  probably  oblong  like 
tlie  wall  itself,  and  measured  5  cubits  in 
width  by  7i  in  height  (cp.  2).  The  measure- 
ment presumably  includes  the  two  doorposts 
and  the  lintel,  leaving  an  opening  at  least  4 
cubits  wide  by  7  high.  This  was  closed  by  two 
doors,  each  of  which  was  divided  perpendicu- 
larly or  horizontally  into  halves.  If  divided 
horizontally  through  the  middle,  the  leaf 
measured  2  by  3i  cubits,  or  3  by  oj  feet,  and 
was  quite  ample  to  afford  ingress  and  egress 
to  the  priests  in  their  daily  ministrations, 
without  requiring  the  entire  door  to  be  opened. 

3.  The  page  or  column  of  a  roll  (Jer. 
xxxvi.  23  :  cp.  2). 

Le'ah  [wild  cow]. 

The  elder  daughter  of  Laban.  She  was 
less  attractive  than  her  younger  sister, 
Rachel,  one  chief  defect  being  that  her  eyes 
were  tender.  By  a  trick  she  was  passed  off 
on  Jacob  as  his  bride,  when  he  had  served 
seven  years  for  Rachel.  Leah  became  the 
mother  of  Reuben,  Simeon.  Levi,  Judah, 
Issiichar,  Zebuluu,  and  their  sister  Dinah 
(Gen.  xxix.  16-3.5  ;  xxx.  17-21). 

Leas'ing. 

Lying,  falsehood  (Ps.  iv.  2;  v.  6,  A.  V.). 
As  the  word  is  now  obsolete.  R,  V.  substitutes 
falseliood  and  lies. 

Leath'er. 

The  art  of  tanning  and  dying  skins  was 
understood  by  the  Hebrews  (Ex.  xxv.  5; 
Acts  ix.  43).  Leather  was  used  by  them  and 
other  nations  of  antiquity  for  numerous  pur- 
poses :  for  articles  of  clothing  (Lev.  xiii.  4S ; 
Xum.  xxxi.  20),  coverings  of  tents  (Ex. 
xxvi.  14),  bottles  (.Tudith  x.  .5),  shields.  The 
leather  of  the  shield  was  oiled  to  keep  it  soft 
and  shining  (2  Sam.  i.  21 :  Is.  xxi.  .5).  Seal 
or  porpoise  skin  was  used  for  making  a  su- 
perior kind  of  sandal  (Ezek.  xvi.  10 ;  in  A. 


V.  badgers'  skin).  Elijah  and  John  the  Bap- 
tist wore  leathern  girdles  (2  Kin.  i.  8;  Mat. 
iii.  4). 

Leav'en. 

A  substance  used  to  produce  fermentation 
in  dough  and  make  it  rise  (Ex.  xii.  l.j,  19; 
xiii.  7).  In  Scripture  times  leaven  generally 
consisted  of  a  little  old  dough  in  a  high  state 
of  fermentation.  Its  disadvantages  were  that 
the  bread  thus  produced  had  a  disagree- 
ably sour  taste  and  smell.  To  obviate  these 
defects  yeast  or  barm  is  now  employed  as 
leaven.  The  use  of  leaven  was  forbidden  in 
all  ofleriugs  made  by  fire  to  the  Lord  (Lev. 
ii.  11).  But  when  the  ottering  was  to  be  con- 
sumed by  man,  leaven  might  be  used  (vii.  13  ; 
xxiii.  17).  The  principal  reason  for  the  pro- 
hibition was  that  fermentation  is  incipient 
corruption,  and  was  emblematic  of  corrup- 
tion. It  is  used  for  corrupt  doctrine  (Mat. 
xvi.  11 ;  Mark  viii.  1.5)  and  for  wickedness  in 
the  heart  (1  Cor.  v.  6-8)  ;  and  it  symbolized 
moral  influence  generally,  whether  good  or 
bad,  as  when  the  kingdom  of  heaven  is  com- 
pared to  leaven  which  a  woman  hid  in  three 
measures  of  meal  till  the  whole  was  leavened 
(ilat.  xiii.  33).  The  Israelites  were  forbidden 
to  eat  leavened  bread  or  to  have  any  leaven 
in  their  houses  during  the  passover  festival. 
The  absence  of  leaven  symbolized  the  incor- 
ruptness  of  life  which  God's  service  requires, 
reminded  them  of  the  haste  in  which  they 
had  fled  out  of  Egypt,  their  dough  in  their 
troughs,  and  suggested  the  affliction  of  Egypt 
bv  the  iusipiditv  of  the  bread  (Ex.  xii.  39  ; 
Dent.  xvi.  3  ;  1  Cor.  v.  7,  8). 

Leb'an-a  and  Lebanah  [white  (this  being 
a  poetic  designation  for  the  moon)]. 

Founder  of  a  family,  members  of  which  re- 
turned from  cairtivity  (Ezra  ii.  45 ;  Neh. 
vii.  48). 

Leb'a-non  [white]. 

A  snow-clad  mountain  range  (Jer.  xviii. 
14),  with  hills  of  less  elevation  running  from 
it  in  every  direction  (Hos.  xiv.  5).  Itsstreams 
rendered  the  rich  soil  of  the  valleys  ex- 
tremely productive.  The  lower  zone  was 
covered  with  vines  (6,  7),  but  the  mountains 
were  most  noted  for  their  forests  of  gigantic 
cedars.  Fir  trees  or  cvpresses  also  abounded 
(1  Kin.  v.  6-10;  2  Kin.  xix.  23;  Is.  xl.  16; 
Ix.  13;  Zech.  xi.  1).  Lions  and  leopards 
roamed  in  the  woods  (2  Kin.  xiv.  9  ;  Songiv. 
8).  The  trees  were  felled,  and  the  timber 
was  used  not  only  in  the  construction  of  i)al- 
aces  and  temples,  but  also  by  the  Phwuicians 
for  the  masts  of  ships  (Ezra  iii.  7 ;  Ezek. 
xxvii.  5).  Lebanon  was  the  northwestern 
boundary  of  the  promised  land  (Dent.  i.  7  ; 
xi.  24  ;  Josh.  i.  4  ;  xi.  17  :  xii.  7  ;  xiii.  5).  It  is 
of  limestone  formation.  The  mountains  con- 
sist of  two  ranges,  running  north  and  south, 
separated  by  the  valley  of  the  Litany  and 
the  Orontes.  In  the  Grecian  period  the  name 
Lebanon  became  restricted  to  the  western 
range,  while  the  eastern  received  the  name 


Lebaoth 


428 


Legion 


Anti-Lebanon.  This  distinction  still  exists. 
The  intervening  valley  is  called  Coelesyria, 
that  is  hollow  Syria,  or  the  Bekaa.  The 
chain  may  be  considered  to  commence  about 
15  miles  southeast  of  Sidon,  and  to  run  to 
about  12  miles  northeast  by  north  of  Tripoli, 
a  distance  of  about  100  miles.  The  greatest 
elevation  of  Lebanon  is  at  its  northern  end  ; 
of  Anti-Lebanon,  at  its  southern  end  in 
mount  Hermon.  "  For  10  miles  the  north- 
ern end  of  this  ridge  [of  Lebanon]  is  over 
10,000  feet  above  the  sea.  For  another  10 
miles  it  is  between  7500  and  8000  feet.  Then 
for  20  miles  it  sinks  to  an  average  of  from 
6500  to  7000  feet.  Then  it  rises  in  the  grand 
truncated  cone  of  Jebel  Sunnin  to  over  8500 
feet.  Again  it  sinks  to  the  plateau  between 
Sunnin  and  Keniseh,  to  about  6000  feet.  The 
highest  peak  of  Keniseh  rises  again  to  nearly 
7000  feet.  Then  comes  the  pass  of  the  Da- 
mascus road  at  Khan  Muzhir,  5022  feet. 
Then  the  ridge  of  Jebel  Baruk  and  Jebel 
Niha,  over  40  miles  long,  abt)ut  6500  feet,  the 
latter  ending  in  tbe  pirtures(|ue  Twins 
(Tomat  Niha).  Finallj',  Jebel  Kihau,  which 
sinks  gradually  to  the  level  of  the  plateau 
of  Mei'j  'Ayun.  Jebel  Keniseh,  and  Jebel 
Sunnin,  at  the  center  of  the  chain,  although 
not  the  highest,  are  from  their  isolation  far 
the  most  imposing  peaks  "  (Post,  Qnar.  State. 
Exp.  Fund,  1892).  The  highest  peaks  are 
Jebel  Makmal  and  Kurnat  es-Sauda,  each 
about  10,200  feet.  The  present  population 
of  Lebanon  is  estimated  by  Dr.  Post  at  200,- 
000.  The  people  live  mostly  in  villages  ro- 
mantically situated  on  rocky  platforms  or 
on   the  mountain  slopes. 

Leb'a-oth  [lionesses]. 

A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  32).     See  Beth-lebaoth. 

Leb-bae'us.     See  Judas  8. 

Le-bo'nah  [incense,  frankincense]. 

A  town  north,  of  Shiloh  (Judg.  xxi.  19). 
It  has  long  been  identified  with  Lubban,  on 
the  road  between  Shechem  and  Jerusalem,  3 
miles  west  by  north  of  Shiloh. 

Le'cah  [perhaps,  going,  a  journey] 

A  village  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  iv.  21),  to 
judge  from  the  context.     Site  unknown. 

Leek. 

The  rendering  in  Num.  xi.  5,  of  the 
Hebrew  Hasir.  which  commonly  denotes 
grass.  The  leek  (Allium  porruin)  is  probably 
intended  in  this  passage  :  for  it  is  mentioned, 
along  with  onions  and  garlic,  as  eaten  in 
Egypt;  the  word  is  so  rendered  by  the 
Targum  of  Onkelos,  Septuagint,  Vulgate,  and 
Syriac ;  and  h'sir  is  used  in  Aramaic  for  the 
leek. 

Lees. 

Dregs  or  sediment  deposited  from  wine  or 
other  liquor  (Is.  xxv.  6).  The  liquor  was 
allowed  to  stand  on  the  lees  that  its  color 
and  body  might  be  better  preserved  (Is. 
xxv.  6). 


To  settle  on  their  lees  is  to  settle  down  in 
contentment  with  one's  character  and  cir- 
cumstances (Jer.  xlviii.  11 ;  Zeph.  i.  12).  To 
driuk  the  lees  of  the  cup  of  wrath  means  to 
drain  the  cup,  enduring  the  punishment  to 
the  utmost  (Ps.  Ixxv.  8,  rendered  dregs). 

Le'gion. 

The  chief  subdivision  of  the  Roman  army 
(War  iii.  4,  2).  It  originally  contained  3000 
foot  soldiers  wdth  a  contingent  of  cavalry. 


'^J-"  -'|/^^ 


Soldiers  of  the  Roman  Legion. 
From  the  Arch  of  Constaiitine. 

From  100  B.  c.  to  the  fall  of  the  empire  the 
number  varied  from  5000  to  6200,  while  from, 
Augustus  to  Hadrian  or  during   the  N.  T. 


Lehabim 


42!) 


Leopard 


period  6000  seems  to  have  beeu  the  regular 
complement  and  the  cavalry  was  not  con- 
sidered as  forming  a  constituent  part  of  the 
legion.  At  this  time  the  legion  consisted  of 
ten  cohorts,  each  cohort  of  three  mani])les, 
and  each  maniple  of  two  centuries  (cp.  Mat. 
xxvii.  27,  R.  V.  margin) ;  and  was  officered 
by  tribunes  and  centurions  (War  iii.  5,  3; 
Acts  xxi.  31,  3-2,  R.  V.  margin  ;  xxiii.  23), 
numbering  ten  and  sixty  respectively.  In 
Scripture  legion  is  used  to  denote  any  large 
ho.st  (Mat.  xxvi.  .53;  Mark  v.  9). 

The  military  standard  of  the  Romans  was 
at  first  a  bunch  of  straw  attached  to  a  pole. 
Later  an  eagle  and  four  other  animals  formed 
the  standards  of  a  legion,  but  after  104  B.  c. 
the  eagle  alone  was  employed  (Pliny,  Hist. 
Nat.  X.  4).  It  was  committed  to  the  custody  of 
the  chief  centurion.  In  addition  to  the  eagle, 
the  standard  also  commonly  bore  a  small  im- 
age of  the  emperor,  and  the  introduction  of 
these  images  into  Jerusalem  by  Pontius  Pilate 
caused  an  insurrection  of  the  Jews  (Antiq. 
xviii.  3,  1  ;  War  ii.  9,  2).  But  while  the  great 
standard  of  the  whole  legion  was  the  eagle, 
each  cohort  and  century  had  its  own  standard, 
and  these  minor  ensigns  assumed  a  variety 
of  forms. 

Le'ha-bim. 

A  tribe  sprung  from  or  incorporated  with 
the  Egyptians  (Gen.  x.  13  ;  1  Chron.  i.  11), 
probably  the  same  as  the  Lubim  (q.  v.). 

Le'M  [cheek,  jawbone]. 

A  place  in  Judali  (.Tudg.  xv.  9),  elevated 
(11,  13),  where  the  Philistines  spread  them- 
selves when  they  advanced  into  Judah  to 
seize  Samson.  It  may  have  been  a  ridge. 
It  received  its  name  either  from  a  series  of 
jagged  crags  resembling  a  jawbone,  or  from 
Samson's  exploit  with  the  jawbone  of  an  ass. 
At  any  rate,  that  part  of  it  where  Samson 
beat  down  the  Philistines,  who  seem  to  have 
been  fleeing,  and  cast  aside  the  jawbone  which 
had  served  him  as  a  weapon,  was  remembered, 
and  it  was  pointed  out  as  Ramath-lehi,  height 
of  the  jawbone  (17).  Guerin  locates  Lehi  at 
'Ain  el-Lehi,  northwest  of  Bethlehem,  about 
2  miles  west-southwest  of  Malhah,  and  hence 
not  far  from  Etam  (cp.  11).  But  the  exist- 
ence of  'Ain  el-Lehi  appears  doubtful.  The 
survey  map  does  not  indicate  it.  Moreover, 
Lehi  is  best  sought  near  the  southern  Etam, 
for  Samson  went  from  Timnah  down,  not  up, 
to  the  rock  at  Etam. 

Lem'u-el  [devoted  to  God]. 

The  royal  author  of  Prov.  xxxi.,  who  re- 
produces what  was  taught  him  bv  his  mother 
<ver.  1). 

Len'tll. 

A  plant  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  11),  boiled  as  pottage 
(Gen.  XXV.  29.  34)  and  in  times  of  scarcity 
made  into  bread  (Ezek.  iv.  9).  The  modern 
Arabic  name  is  identical  with  its  Hebrew 
designation  '"fJnshim.  The  lentil  (Ervnm 
leu.i:)  is  a  papilionaceous  plant,  allied  to  the 
vetches.     It  has  compound  leaves,  with  five 


to  six  pairs  of  oblong  leaflets,  white  flowers 
striped  with  violet,  and  small  broad  legumes. 
Pottage  made  from  it  is  red.  It  was  this  which 
was  given  to  Esau  when  he  was  famishing,  and 
it  was  from  it  that  his  second  name  Edom  was 


Lentils. 


derived.  The  plant  is  wild  in  Moab,  and  is 
cultivated  in  all  parts  of  Palestine.  The  seeds 
when  boiled  are  thoroughly  wholesome.  It 
is  from  them  that  Revalenta  nrahica  is  made, 
and  they  are  of  late  quite  familiar  at  most 
vegetarian  restaurants  and  in  many  house- 
holds. 

Leop'ard. 

A  wild  animal ;  in  Hebrew  Name);  spotted 
beast,  in  Greek  Pardalix.  It  was,  as  its  name 
implied,  a  spotted  animal  (Jer.  xiii.  23).  It 
was  very  swift  (Hab.  i.  8).  Its  appropriate 
food  was  the  kid  (Is.  xi.  6),  but  it  sometimes 
attacked  man  (Hos.  xiii.  7,  8) ;  lurking  for 
the  purpose  in  the  vicinity  of  cities  or  vil- 
lages (Jer.  V.  6),  though  its  ordinary  habita- 
tion was  among  the  mountains  (Song  iv.  8). 
The  leopard  {Felis  pardus  or  Leopardns)  was 
believed  by  the  ancients  and  some  moderns 
to  be  a  hybrid  between  the  lion  and  the 
panther ;  hence  its  name,  which  is  com- 
pounded of  leo  and  pardiis.  lion  and  panther. 
Now  it  is  generally  held  that  these  are 
merely  varieties  of  the  same  species.  The 
appropriate  habitat  of  the  leopard  or  panther 
is  Africa  and  southern  Asia.  In  Palestine  it 
now  occurs  chiefly  in  the  region  east  of  the 
Jordan  ;  but  it  was  evidently  more  common 
in  Scripture  times  than  at  present,  in  the 
country  west  of  the  river. 

In  Dan.  vii.  6  it  symbolizes  a  fierce  nation 
and  its  king,  doubtless  Greece  (viii.  21) ;  and 
in  Rev.  xiii.  2  the  composite  creature,  which 
combines  the  four  beasts  of  Daniel  and 
typifies  the  united  powers  of  this  world,  has 
the  body  of  a  leopard. 


Leper 


430 


Leprosy 


Lep'er. 

A  person  affected  with  the  disease  of  lep- 
rosy (2  Kiu.  vii.  8 ;  Mat.  x.  8).  The  leper  was 
excluded  from  intercourse  with  his  fellow- 
men  and  from  the  sanctuary,  was  required  to 
exhibit  the  usual  signs  of  mourning  and  to 
give  the  warning  cry  to  all  that  approached, 
"Unclean!  unclean!"  (Lev.  xiii.  45;  Luke 
xvii.  12,  13),  and  he  was  regarded  as  a  dead 
man  (Num.  xii.  12).  Strangely  enough,  if 
the  leprosy  was  spreading,  the  sult'erer  was 
unclean ;  but  if  it  overspread  the  whole 
man,  he  was  adjudged  clean  (Lev.  xiii.  6, 
12,  13).  Some  expositors  understand  this  to 
mean  that,  while  the  disease  manifested 
activity,  the  law  imputed  pollution ;  but 
when  it  might  be  regarded  as  having  run 
its  course,  it  lost  its  character  as  a  curse 
from  God.  Others  undenstand  the  mean- 
ing to  be  that  only  when  the  lepei'  was 
acknowledged  to  be  defiled  in  every  part  by 
this  disease,  which  typified  sin,  could  he  be 
admitted  to  the  privileges  of  atonement. 
Yet  other  interpreters  believe  that  the  rapid 
eruption  over  the  whole  body  was  a  sign 
that  the  crisis  had  been  passed  and  recovery 
had  set  in.    See  Pueification. 

Lep'ro-sy. 

1.  A  dreadful  disease,  in  Hebrew  Sara'ath, 
scourge.  The  symptoms  are  described  in 
Lev.  xiii.  1-46.  There  were  skin  diseases 
from  which  it  required  to  be  carefully 
distinguished.  It  was  not  a  superficial, 
but  was  a  deep-seated  malady.  It  often 
began  as  a  rising,  or'  a  scab,  or  a  bright 
spot,  which  tended  to  spread,  turning  white 
the  hair  covering  the  parts  affected  (xiii.  2,  3, 
7,  8,  10,  24,  25,  27,  35,  36).  Eaw  flesh  tended 
to  appear  (10,  14-16,  24).  Among  the  parts 
of  the  body  specially  liable  to  attack  were 
the  scalp  of  the  head,  the  beard,  the  top  of 
the  head,  or  the  forehead,  after  these  had 
become  bald  ;  also  any  spot  which  had  been 
accidentally  injured  by  fire  (24,  29,  30,  42). 
A  leper  was  to  be  excluded  from  the  camp ; 
was  required  to  let  the  hair  of  his  head  go 
loose  and  his  clothes  be  rent ;  while  he  was 
to  cover  his  upper  lip,  and  cry,  "  Unclean  ! 
unclean!"  (45,  46).  He  had  to  appear  re- 
peatedly before  the  priest,  who  was  to  pro- 
nounce on  the  character  of  the  disease  (1-44) ; 
and  in  the  event  of  the  malady  departing,  he 
was  to  go  through  an  elaborate  process  of 
cleansing  and  sacrifice  (xiv.  1-32).  Iia  the 
description  of  the  disease  given  in  Lev.  xiii. 
there  is  no  mention  of  the  leper's  hue  chang- 
ing to  a  snowy  white,  as  was  the  case  with 
Miriam  (Num.  xii.  10)  and  Gehazi  (2  Kin.  v. 
27),  and  momentarily  with  Moses  (Ex.  iv.  6). 
Not  even  those  whose  circumstances  were 
comfortable  were  exempt  from  this  disease. 
Thus,  it  affected  Naaman,  when  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  army  of  Syria  (2  Kin.  v.  1-14), 
and  Lfzziah  during  the  later  years  of  his 
reign  over  Judah  (xv.  5;  2  Chron.  xxvi.  21). 
The  regulations  about  excluding  the  leper 


from  society  were  carried  out  among  the  He- 
brews (Num.  V.  1-4  ;  xii.  10, 15  ;  2  Kin.  vii.  3,  8, 
10 ;  XV.  5 ;  2  Chron.  xxvi.  21 ;  cp.  also  Luke  xvii. 
12) ;  but  the  fact  that  the  king  of  Syria  seems 
to  have  leaned  on  Naaman's  hand,  even  when 
he  was  a  leper,  and  that  Naaman  dwelt  with 
his  family  and  was  accompanied  by  servants, 
shows  that  leprosy,  though  loathsome,  was 
not  actually  contagious  (2  Kin.  v.  18).  The 
disease  to  which  the  English  word  leprosy  is 
now  confined  is  a  formidable  malady,  techni- 
cally called  Elephantiasis  Grxcorum,  elephant 
disease  of  the  Greeks.  It  appears  under  two 
forms.  The  tuberculated  or  black  leprosy  is 
at  ])resent  the  more  common,  and  the  name 
is  restricted  to  it  by  some  authorities.  It 
affects  primarily  the  skin  and  mucous  mem- 
branes. The  antesthetic  or  white  leprosy 
affects  the  nerves  principally,  and  produces 
numbness.  The  symptoms  of  the  two  forms 
are  often  united,  and  one  form  frequently 
passes  into  the  other.  The  coming  of  the 
disease  is  preceded  by  lassitude  for  months 
or  years.  Then  circular  spots  or  blotches  of 
irregular  form  and  varying  extent  appear 
on  the  forehead,  the  limbs,  and  the  body. 
After  a  time,  the  central  portion  of  the  spots 
and  blotches  becomes  white,  and  the  parts 
affected  contract  a  certain  numbness.  In  the 
worst  cases  the  joints  of  the  fingers  and  toes 
fall  off  one  by  one,  and  injuries  to  tlie  other 
parts  produce  mutilation  and  deformity. 
Thomson  says:  "'The  'scab'  comes  on  by 
degrees  in  difierent  parts  of  the  body ;  the 
hair  falls  from  the  head  and  eyebrows;  the 
nails  loosen,  decay,  and  drop  off;  joint  after 
joint  of  the  fingers  and  toes  shrink  up  and 
slowly  fall  away.  The  gums  are  absorbed, 
and  the  teeth  disappear.  The  nose,  the  eyes, 
the  tongue,  and  the  palate  are  slowly  con- 
sumed." Again,  he  says,  that  when  approach- 
ing the  Jaffa  gate  of  Jerusalem  he  was  start- 
led by  the  sudden  apparition  of  a  crowd  of 
beggars,  without  eyes,  nose,  or  hair.  They 
held  up  handless  arms,  and  unearthly  sounds 
gurgled  through  throats  without  palates.  This 
loathsome  and  fatal  disease  is  popularly  be- 
lieved to  he  identical  with  that  of  Leviticus 
and  the  other  books  of  the  Bible  (cp.  Num. 
xii.  12).  But  the  disease  mentioned  in  Scrip- 
ture seems  to  have  been  curable  (Lev.  xiv.  3), 
whereas  EJephavtiasis  Grxcorum  is  not,  except 
in  the  early  stages.  If  not  elephantiasis, 
what  was  it?  Sir  Eisdon  Bennett  (Diseases 
of  the  Bible,  15-52)  and  others  believe  prob- 
ably Lepra  t-iihiaris.  now  merged  in  the  genus 
Psoriasis,  and  called  Psorinnis  vulgaris,  the 
dry  tetter.  It  is  a  non-contagious,  scaly  dis- 
ease, generally  commencing  about  the  elbows 
and  knees,  as  small  circular  patches  of  silvery- 
white  scales,  which  spread  till  they  become 
the  size  of  a  quarter  or  a  half  dollar,  by 
which  time  the  scales  have  fallen  from  the 
central  portion  of  the  circle,  leaving  it  red  ; 
other  circles  arising  coalesce.  Afterwards 
the  abdomen,  the  chest,  and  the  hack  become 
affected,  and  in  rare  cases  the  disease  extends 


Leshem 


431 


Levites 


at  last  also  to  the  bead,  face,  and  bands.  Tbe 
constitutional  disturbance  is  trifling,  and  tbe 
disease  is  curable,  though  it  is  liable  to  recur. 
It  is  simply  a  skin  disease,  in  nu  way  endan- 
gering life.  Or  the  white  leprosy  of  tbe  (). 
T.  may  have  been  Ptiorianix  (juttata,  in  which 
the  scattered  patches  are  said  to  give  an  ap- 
pearance to  the  skin  as  if  it  had  been  splashed 
with  mortar.  Perbai)s  the  Hebrew  term 
fani'dth  was  a  generic  one,  and  the  elephan- 
tiasis and  tbe  psoriasis  two  of  its  species ; 
and  it  is  quite  jtossible  that  ditl'ereut  varieties 
have  i)revailcd  at  different  times.  If  the 
leprosy  of  tbe  Old  and  that  of  tbe  New  Tes- 
tament were  identical,  then  confirmation  is 
given  to  the  o])inion  that  the  former  was 
psoriasis,  for  Luke  (v.  12,  13),  himself  a  phy- 
sician, employs  tbe  Greek  word  lepni,  which 
was  technically  used  of  psoriasis.  With  this 
Josephns'  description  of  leprosy  agrees,  for 
(Antitj.  iii.  11,  4)  he  defines  a  leper  to  be  a 
man  who  has  a  misfortune  in  tbe  color  of  his 
skin,  and  makes  no  allusion  to  graver  symp- 
toms. He  mentions  also  that  among  the 
gentiles  lepers  were  not  excluded  from  so- 
ciety, but  were  competent  to  discbarge  im- 
portant functions  in  the  body  politic. 

2.  The  same  word  sara'ath  was  a])plied  to 
a  greenish  or  reddish  appearance  in  a  gar- 
ment and  to  hollow  greenish  or  reddish 
strakes  in  tbe  wall  of  a  bouse  (Lev.  siii.  47- 
59 ;  xi\^  33-37).  It  may  he  some  minute 
cryptogamous  plant,  an  algal  or  a  fungal, 
which  has  grown  upon  the  garment  or  wall 
after  it  has  become  wet  in  the  rainy  season. 

Le'shem.     See  Dan  3. 

Le-tu'sMm. 

A  tribe  descended  from  Dedan  (Gen.  xxv. 
3).     They  doubtless  settled  in  Arabia. 

Le-uin'mim  [peoples,  nations]. 

A  tribe  descended  from  Dedan  (Gen.  xxv. 
3).     They  doubtless  settled  in  Arabia. 

Le'vi  [adhesion,  associate]. 

1.  Third  son  of  Jacob  and  Leah  (Gen.  xxix. 
34).  He  took  part  with  Simeon,  Leah's  sec- 
ond son,  in  massacring  Hamor,  Shechem,  and 
the  men  of  their  city,  in  revenge  for  tbe  in- 
jury done  by  Shechem  to  their  sister  Dinah 
(xxxiv.  2.5-31).  Jacob  on  bis  deathbed  re- 
membered with  fresh  abhorrence  this  deed 
of  blood,  and,  referring  to  Simeon  and  Levi, 
said,  "  Cursed  be  their  anger,  for  it  was  fierce  ; 
and  their  wrath,  for  it  was  cruel :  I  will  di- 
vide them  in  Jacob,  and  scatter  them  in  Is- 
rael"  (xlix.  7).  Levi  had  three  sons  :  Ger- 
shon  or  Gersbom,  Kobath,  and  Merari  (Gen. 
xlvi.  11),  and  died  in  Egypt  at  the  age  of  137 
(Ex.  vi.  16).     See  Levites. 

2  and  3.  Two  ancestors  of  Christ,  one  tbe  son 
of  Svmeon,  and  tbe  other  a  son  of  Melchi 
(Luke  iii.  24,  29,  30). 

4.  Another  name  for  the  apostle  Matthew 
(cp.  Mat.  ix.  9-13 ;  Mark  ii.  14-17 ;  Luke  v. 
27-32). 

Le-vi'a-than  [one  spirally  wound]. 

A  great  aquatic  animal  mentioned  only  in 


poetic  passages.  He  was  formed  by  God  to 
play  in  the  sea  (Ps.  civ.  26).  He^  has  limbs, 
head,  neck,  eyes,  no.se,  jaw,  mouth,  teeth, 
and  tongue  (Job  xli.  1,  2,  7,  12,  14,  IH,  19,  22), 
and  is  covered  with  scales  and  an  impenetra- 
ble bide  (7,  15-17,  26-29).  He  lieth  upon  the 
mire  or  maketh  tbe  sea  to  boil  like  a  jxit  (30, 
31).  He  is  too  large  to  be  taken  by  fisii  hook 
or  harpoon  (1,  26),  is  terrible  of  aspect  (9), 
and  mighty  in  strength,  i)ut  comely  of  pro- 
portion (12).  He  is  poetically  described  as 
breathing  fire  and  smoke  (19-21),  as  is  God 
in  Ps.  xviii.  8  and  as  are  the  horses  in  Rev. 
ix.  17.  When  God  worked  salvation  l)j-  di- 
viding the  sea,  he  destroyed  the  sea  monstei's 
which  inhabited  it,  broke  the  beads  of  levia- 
than and  left  his  carcass  to  be  eaten  by  the 
l)eople  of  the  desert  (Ps.  Ixxiv.  14).  As  the 
sea  is  tbe  tyi)e  of  tbe  restless,  surging  nations 
of  the  earth,  so  leviathan  which  dwells  there- 
in, leviathan  the  flying  serpent,  leviathan 
the  swift  serpent,  leviathan  the  crooked  ser- 
pent, and  the  dragon  symbolize  the  fierce 
and  terrible  powers  of  the  world  which  have 
afHicted  the  peojjle  of  God,  but  whom  God 
will  ultimately  destroy  (Is.  xxvii.  1).  Le- 
viathan is  commonly  regarded  as  tbe  croco- 
dile (Job  xli.  1,  R.  V.  margin).  As  such  the 
imagery  is  apt.  Egypt,  its  habitat,  is  tbe 
typical  oppressor  of  the  kingdom  of  God, 
and  Egypt's  power  was  broken  and  its  king 
thwarted  when  God  divided  the  Red  Sea  for 
tbe  deliverance  of  his  people.  Leviathan 
may,  however,  be  merely  a  creation  of  the 
popular  fancy,  an  imaginary  sea  monster; 
the  inspired  poets  and  prophets  of  Israel  sub- 
sidizing fable  to  serve  in  the  illustration  of 
truth.  In  Job  iii.  8  leviathan  may  be  a  fabu- 
lous dragon  which  caused  eclipses  by  swal- 
lowing sun  and  moon,  and  the  cursors  of  the 
day  may  be  conjurers  who  claimed  the  power 
to  produce  eclipses  by  his  aid.  Or  in  this 
passage  leviathan  may  be  the  untamable,  ter- 
rible crocodile  which  only  conjurers  of  high- 
est skill  claimed  ability  to  summon  to  their 
aid. 

Le'vites. 

1.  The  descendants  of  Levi,  the  .son  of 
Jacob.  He  had  three  sons  :  Gersbon  or  Ger- 
sbom, Kobath,  and  Merari,  each  of  whom 
founded  a  tribal  family  (Gen.  xlvi.  11 ;  Ex. 
vi.  16;  Num.  iii.  17;  1  Cbron.  vi.  16-48). 
Moses  and  Aaron  were  Levites  of  the  house 
of  Amram  and  family  of  Kobath  (Ex.  vi.  16, 
18,  20,  26). 

2.  The  men  of  the  tribe  of  Levi  charged 
with  the  care  of  the  sanctuary.-  Aaron  and 
his  sons  were  set  apart  for  tbe  priesthood  and 
tbe  office  was  made  hereditary.  But  the 
tabernacle  and  its  service  bad  been  projected 
on  a  noble  scale.  Tbe  care  and  transporta- 
tion of  the  costly  sanctuary  and  the  prepara- 
tion of  materials  for  the  elaborate  service  en- 
tailed labors  which  no  one  man  and  no  one 
family  was  equal  to.  Helpers  were  needed. 
Tbe  charge  of  the  tabernacle  was  an  honor- 


Levites 


432 


Leviticus 


able  work.  Who  should  undertake  it  ?  The 
firstborn  belonged  to  God.  This  conviction 
was  deepened  by  the  circumstances  connected 
with  the  deliverance  from  Egypt.  When  the 
firstborn  of  the  Egyptians  were  slain,  blood 
on  the  lintel  and  side  door  posts  was  needed 
to  protect  the  Israelite  firstborn  males  from  a 
similar  fate.  They  had  then  become  the 
special  property  of  Jehovah,  and  hence- 
forth were  consecrated  to  him  as  a  memorial 
(Ex.  xiii.  11-lH).  But  instead  of  the  first- 
born of  all  the  tribes,  the  Levites  were  chosen 
for  service  in  connection  with  the  sanctuary  ; 
and  the  choice  was  made  because,  when  the 
people  had  broken  the  covenant  with  Jehovah 
by  making  the  golden  calf,  the  Eevites  alone 
had  voluntarily  returned  to  their  allegiance 
and  shown  zeal  for  God's  honor  (xxxii.  26-29 ; 
Num.  iii.  9,  11-13,  40,  41,  45  seq. ;  viii.  16-18). 
It  was  their  duty  to  transport  the  tabernacle 
and  its  furniture  when  the  camp  moved  ;  and 
when  the  camp  rested  to  erect  the  tent,  have 
care  of  it,  and  assist  the  priests  in  their  work 
(Num.  i.  50-53 ;  iii.  6-9,  25-37 ;  iv. ;  1  Sam. 
vi.  15  ;  2  Sam.  xv.  24).  The  age  at  which  the 
obligation  of  service  began  was  thirty  years 
as  carriers  of  the  tabernacle  (Num.  iv.  3)  ; 
and  twenty-fiveasassistants  to  the  priests  (viii. 
24).  As  the  sons  of  Aaron  were  Levites 
as  well  as  priests,  they  are  frequently  in- 
cluded under  the  designation  Levite  (Dent, 
xxxiii.  8-10;  Josh.  xiv.  3;  xxi.  1,  4;  Mai. 
iii.  3) ;  and  also,  either  as  higher  oflScials  or 
as  Levites,  they  might,  if  they  saw  fit,  dis- 
charge any  service  that  pertained  to  the  Le- 
vites. No  otficial  dress  was  prescribed  for 
Levites,  but  on  great  occasions  they  drew  on 
festal  raiment  (1  Chron.  xv.  27  ;  2  Chron.  v. 
12).  It  was  an  innovation  when  the  Ijevitical 
singers  in  the  first  century  A.  D.  obtained  per- 
mission from  king  Agrippa,  with  the  sanction 
of  the  sanhedrin  to  wear  linen  garments 
as  constantly  as  did  the  priests  (Antiq. 
XX.  9,  6).  They  were  not  required  to  de- 
vote their  entire  time  to  the  sanctuary 
nor  to  dwell  continually  near  it ;  but  on  the 
allotment  of  Canaan  they  were  distributed  to 
various  towns  (Josh.  xxi.  20-40).  Exclusive 
of  the  towns  allotted  to  the  Levites  who  were 
priests,  all  of  which  were  in  Judah,  Simeon 
and  Benjamin,  the  Levitical  towns  numbered 
thirty-five  and  were  situated  among  the  re- 
maining tribes  on  the  north  and  east  (Josh. 
xxi.  5-7).  Since  the  Levites  as  a  tribe  were 
"wholly  given  unto  the  Lord  in  behalf  of 
the  children  of  Israel,"  and  were  appointed 
to  service  at  the  tabernacle,  it  was  natural 
that  in  the  northern  districts,  where  no  Le- 
vitical priests  dwelt,  the  lower  order  of  the 
Levites  should  be  drawn  upon  by  the  idol- 
ater Micah  and  after  him  by  the  idolatrous 
migrating  Danites  to  furnish  a  man  for 
priestly  services  (Judg.  xvii.  8-13  ;  xviii.  18- 
20,  30,  31).  In  David's  reign  the  Levites 
were  divided  into  four  classes  :  1.  Assistants 
to  the  priests  in  the  work  of  the  sanctuary ; 
2.  Judges  and  scribes ;   3.  Gate  keepers  ;  4. 


Musicians.  Each  of  these  classes,  with  the 
possible  exception  of  the  second,  was  subdi- 
vided into  twenty-four  courses  or  families  to 
serve  in  rotation  (1  Chron.  xxiv.-xxvi.  ;  cp. 
XV.  16-24  ;  2  Chron.  xix.  8-11  ;  xxx.  16,  17  ; 
Ezra  vi.  18  ;  Neh.  xiii.  5).  On  the  disrup- 
tion of  the  monarchy,  many  Levites  and 
priests  (out  of  Benjamin)  quitted  the  north- 
ern kingdom  and  came  to  Judah  and  Jerusa- 
lem (2  Chron.  xi.  13-15). 

Le-vit'i-cus  [relating  to  the  Levites]. 

The  third  book  of  the  Pentateuch.  When 
the  tabernacle  had  been  erected  and  a  priest 
appointed  to  minister  at  the  altar,  the  next 
step  was  to  open  and  regulate  access  to  God. 
This  is  the  object  of  the  ordinances  con- 
tained in  Leviticus.  In  order  to  approach 
Jehovah :  1.  Sacrifice  is  required ;  hence, 
laws  concerning  various  kinds  of  sacrifice 
(i.-vii.).  2.  The  ministration  of  a  priest  is 
required  who  has  been  ordained  by  God  and 
to  whom  it  pertains  to  offer  sacrifice  ;  hence, 
consecration  of  Aaron  and  his  sons,  and  ac- 
count of  the  punishment  of  Nadab  and 
Abihu  for  illegal  approach  (viii.-x.).  3.  In- 
tercourse with  God  requires  the  attainment 
and  maintenance  of  purity,  both  ceremonial 
and  moral ;  hence,  (n)  Laws  concerning  foods 
that  defile,  diseases  or  natural  functions 
that  render  unclean,  and  ceremonial  national 
purification  (xi.-xvi.):  and  (6)  Laws  con- 
cerning holiness  of  life  (xvii.-xxvi.) ;  fol- 
lowed by  an  appendix  on  vows,  tithes,  and 
things  devoted  (xsvii.).  The  legislation  is 
dated  at  the  tabernacle  (i.  1);  and  in  each 
section  the  place  assigned,  explicitly  or  im- 
plicitly, is  in  the  wilderness  at  mount  Sinai 
(vii.  38  with  iv.  12,  21 ;  and  viii.  17  ;  x.  4 ; 
and  XXV.  1 ;  xxvi.  46  with  xiii.  46 ;  xiv.  8, 
34;  xvi.  1;  xvii.  3;  xviii.  3;  xix.  .23;  xx. 
22;  xxiii.  10  ;  xxiv.  10  ;  and  xxvii.  34).  Oc- 
casionally a  law  is  repeated  in  a  new  connec- 
tion and  for  a  diflerent  purpose.  At  times 
also  the  legislation  is  interrupted  by  the  nar- 
rative of  events  (viii.,  ix. ;  x.  1-7,  12-20; 
xxi.  24  ;  xxiv.  10-23).  It  would  thus  appear 
that  the  regulations  for  the  worship  and  life 
of  the  jieople  were  written  down  in  detail 
just  as  they  were  enacted,  and  no  attempt 
was  made  to  codify  them  as  a  whole. 

Throughout  the  book  but  one  sanctuary 
(xix.  21  et  passim)  and  one  altar  for  all  Israel 
are  recognized  (i.  3  ;  viii.  3  ;  xvii.  8,  9),  and 
the  sons  of  Aaron  are  the  sole  priests  (i.  5). 
The  Levites  are  only  incidentally  mentioned 
(xxv.  32,  33).  Variations  in  the  laws  or 
their  statement  as  found  in  Leviticus  and 
Deuteronomy  are  intelligible  when  it  is 
remembered  that  1.  Leviticus  is  a  man- 
ual for  the  priests,  to  guide  them  through  the 
technicalities  of  the  ritual ;  while  Deuteron- 
omy is  primarily  not  a  law  book  at  all,  but  a 
popular  address  to  instruct  the  people  in  their 
own  duties  and  to  exhort  them  to  fidelity. 
Deuteronomy  omits  matters  of  detail  which 
concern  priests  only.     2.    The  laws  of  Le- 


Libertines 


Lily 


viticus  are  dated  at  Sinai  an  entire  generation 
before  the  addresses  contained  in  Denterou- 
omy  were  delivered  at  Sliittiin.  Accordingly 
the  legislation  of  Leviticus  is  presupposed  iu 
Deuteronomy.  This  is  the  standpoint  of  the 
Bible. 

The  essentials  of  the  legislation  of  Leviti- 
cus are  reflected  in  the   history  iu  the  early 
recognition  of  the  Aaronic  priesthood.  So  far 
as  the  evidence  reaches,  the  priests  were  sons 
of  .A.aron  exclusively  (Deut.  x.  (5;  Josh.  xiv. 
1  ;  xxi.  4  and   IS  with  1  Kin.  ii.   26  ;  Judg. 
XX.   27,  2S  ;  1  Sam.  i.   3  ;  ii.  27,  28  ;  xiv.  3  ; 
xxi.  6  with   1  Chron.    xxiv.  3 ;  1  Sam.  sxii. 
10,  11.  20  ;  xxiii.  (5 :  and  2  Sam.  viii.   17  with 
Ezra  vii.  3  and  1  Chron.   xxiv.  3).     The  Le- 
vites  are  sojourners  and  subordinate    (Judg. 
xvii.  7-9 ;  xix.  1  ;  1  Sam.  vi.  l.i ;  2  Sam.  xv. 
24).     Compare  also  the   one   house   of    the 
Lord  (Judg.  xviii.  31 ;  xix.  13 ;  1  Sam.  i.  7, 
24;  iii.  3 ;  iv.  3),  and  the  feast  of  the  Lord, 
at  the  tabernacle  visited  bv  all  Israel  (Judg. 
xxi.  19  ;  1  Sam.  i.  3  ;  ii.  14,  22,  29) ;  see  fur- 
ther the  articles  Prie-st,  High  Priest,  Le- 
viTES,  Altar,  Deuteronomy. 
Lib'er-tines  [freedmen]. 
A  section  of  the  Jewish  community  who 
had   a   synagogue   at   Jerusalem,    and   were 
among  the  foes  of  the  first  martyr,  Stephen 
(Acts  vi.   9).      Tiiey    wei-e    probably    Jews, 
who.   having  been    taken  prisoners  in  bat- 
tle by  Pompey  and  other   Roman   generals, 
Lad  been  bondsmen  at  Rome,  but  were  after- 
wards restored  to  liberty. 

Lib'nah  [whiteness,  pellucidness]. 

1.  An  encampment  of  the  Israelites  in  the 
•wilderness  (Num.  xxxiii.  20).  Situation  un- 
known. 

2.  A  city  in  the  lowland  between  Mak- 
kedah  and  Laohish  (Josh.  x.  29-31),  captured 
by  Joshua  (30,  39 ;  xii.  15).  It  was  situ- 
ated in  the  territory  allotted  to  Judah  (xv. 
42),  and  was  subsequently  assigned  to  the 
descendants  of  Aaron  (xxi.  13;  1  Chron.  vi. 
57).  When  Jehoram,  son  of  Jehoshaphat, 
was  king,  Libnah  revolted  against  Judah  (2 
Kin.  viii.  22  ;  2  Chron.  xxi.  10).  .Sennach- 
erib, king  of  Assj'ria,  warred  against  it  (2 
Kin.  xix.  8;  Is.  xxxvii.  8).  The  father  of 
Hamutal,  the  mother  of  Jehoahaz  and  Zede- 
kiah,  was  from  this  place  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  31  ; 
xxiv.  18  ;  Jer.  Iii.  1).  Exact  situation  is  un- 
known. 

Lib'ni  [white,  pure]. 

1.  Son  of  Gershon,  and  grandson  of  Levi. 
He  was  founder  of  a  minor  tribal  familv  or 
father's  house  (Ex.  vi.  17;  Num.  iii.  18,' 21 ; 
xxvi.  58). 

2.  A  Levite,  familv  of  Merari,  house  of 
Mahli  (1  Chron.  vi.  29). 

Lib'y-a  and  Libyans. 

A  rendering  of  P>it  (Jer.  xlvi.  9 ;  Ezek. 
XXX.  5;  xxxviii.  5  in  A.  V.)  and  Lnbim  (Dan. 
xi.  43).  A  country  and  its  inhabitants  in  the 
western  part  of  Lower  Egypt  or  on  its  bor- 
ders. The  people  are  said  to  be  distinguished 
28 


by  the  Egyptians  as  Tehenit ;  later  Pit,  Phninit, 
probably  equivalent  to  the  Hebrew  Put ;  and 
Jiebii  or  Lcbii.  that  is  in  Helirew  Lubim,  and 
others.  The  Libya  of  the  Romans  was  an 
immense  and  vaguely  defined  tract  extend- 
ing from  the  Xile  delta  and  valley  westward 
across  the  entire  African  continent.  It  com- 
prised all  north  Africa  west  of  Egypt,  ex- 
cept the  small  Greek  settlements  of  C^rene 
and  Barca,  and  the  Phcenieian  colonies  of 
Carthage,  Utica,  and  Hippo.  It  was  nearly 
all  a  sandy  desert,  studded  here  and  there 
with  oases,  on  which  palms  grew.  Its  tribes 
were  brave,  but  were  not  very  formidable, 
owing  to  their  being  scattered  and  unable  to 
unite.  The  Romans  divided  the  African  re- 
gion bordering  the  Mediterranean  into  two 
provinces,  Libya  Marmarica  and  Libya 
Cyrenaica  or  Pentapolis.  The  capital  of  the 
latter  was  Cyrene,  and  it  was  from  this  west- 
ern province  that  representatives  were  pres- 
ent at  Jerusalem  on  Pentecost  (Acts  ii.  10  ;  cp. 
Antiq.  xvi.  6,  1). 

Lice. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Kinnum  or 
Kinnim  (Ex.  viii.  16-18  ;  Ps.  cv.  31),  referring 
to  some  small  insect  noxious  to  man.  Jo- 
sephus  understood  the  word  to  mean  lice 
(Antiq.  ii.  14,  3).  The  Septuagint  renders  it 
by  skuips,  an  aphis  or  other  small  insect  that 
sucks  or  gnaws.  R.  Y.  margin  translates  it 
sandflies  or  fleas. 

Lieu-ten'ant.    See  Satrap. 
Lign-al'oes    [wood    or   tree    aloes].     See 
Aloes. 

Lig'iire. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Leshem.  a 
gem,  the  first  stone  in  the  third  row  of  the 
high  priest's  brea.stplate  (Ex.  xxviii.  19). 
This  translation  is  derived  from  the  Sep- 
tuagint, Vulgate  and  Josephus  (War  v.  5,  7)  ; 
but  it  is  impossible  to  identify  the  ligurium 
of  the  ancients  with  any  known  gem. 

Lik'hi  [characterized  by  knowledge]. 
A  Manassite,  familv  of  Shemida  (1  Chron. 
vii.  19). 

LU'y. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  words 
Shoshnn,  Slioshannah.  and  Shi(sh(ni.  The  ])lant 
so  designated  is  found  in  pastures  where 
.sheep  and  gazelles  feed  (Song  ii.  16;  iv.  5; 
vi.  3),  and  among  thorns  (ii.  2).  besides  being 
cultivated  in  gardens  (vi.  2).  It  was  so  much 
at  home  in  valleys  that  it  was  designated  the 
lily  of  the  valleys  (Song  ii.  1).  It  was  a 
sweet-scented  plant,  dropping  a  myrrh-like 
perfume  (v.  13).  The  Hebrew  word  was  ren- 
dered kriiion  by  the  Greek  translators.  The 
krinon  is  a  plant  which  grows  be.side  the 
water  (Ecclus.  1.  8)  and  among  the  gra.ss  of 
the  field  (Mat.  vi.  28).  It  is  often  mentioned 
in  connection  with  frankincense  and  the  rose 
(Ecclus.  xxxix.  13,  14).  It  is  the  type  of  a  life 
of  beautiful  deeds.  The  high  priest,  coming 
forth  from  the  sanctuarj^  is  compared  with 


LUy 


434 


Linen 


it  (1.  8).     It  excels  Solomon  in  his  glorious 
array  (Mat.  vi.  29). 

The  words  shushan  and  krinon  were  not 
always  used  with  reference  to  the  lily  in  its 
modern  scientitic  sense;  but  included  with 


Scarlet  Turk's  Cap  {Lilium  chalcedonicum). 

the  true  lily  various  plants  that  resemble  the 
lily.  The  lotus  was  known  to  the  ancient 
Egyptians  by  .the  name  of  seshnin,  and  is 
called  by  Herodotus  krinon  (ii.  92).  The 
ordinary  word  for  a  lily  in  Arabic  is  still 
silsan ;  l3ut  it  is  used  generically  rather  than 


Red  Anemone  {Anemone  coronaria). 

specifically,  including  the  tulip  and  even  the 
anemone  and  ranunculus.  What  varieties 
of  lily  were  anciently  cultivated  in  the  gar- 
dens of  Palestine  is  not  known.  In  the 
fields  the  scarlet  Turk's  cap  {Lilium  chalce- 
dotucnm)  grows  sparingly.  Besides  the  true 
lily,   other  genera  of  the  order  Liliacese,  as 


hyacinths  and  tulips,  grow  in  profusion  in 
the  spring.  A  fine,  dark  violet  flower, 
known  as  silsan,  is  found  far  and  wide 
in  the  Hauran.  Thomson  describes  a 
splendid  iris,  which  he  calls  the  Huleh  lily, 
growing  among  the  oak  woods  around  the 
northern  base  of  Tabor  and  on  the  hills  of 
Nazareth.  The  flower  is  dark  purple  and 
white.  He  believes  that  it  is  the  lily  re- 
ferred to  by  Jesus.  Eed  anemones  are  so 
marked  a  feature  of  the  valleys  of  Palestine 
in  the  spring  that  various  travelers,  Tristram 
included,  have  suggested  that  Anemone  coro- 
naria, the  red  variety  of  which  is  very  com- 
mon, was  probably  the  lily  of  the  N.  T., 
while  others  M'ould  identify  the  anemone 
with  the  rose  of  Sharon.     See  Eose. 

Lime. 

A  material  prepared  by  burning  limestone, 
shells,  and  other  calcareous  substances  (Is. 
xxxiii.  12;  Amos  ii.  1),  and  used  for  making 
mortar  and  plaster,  and  for  whitewashing 
walls  (Deut.  xxvii.  2,  in  E.  V.  plaister ;  Mat. 
xxiii.  27  ;  Acts  xxiii.  3).     See  Mortar. 

Lin'en. 

1.  Fine  linen  is  the  rendering  of  the  Hebrew 
word  Shesh,  white,  applied  to  a  stufi"  of 
which  vestments  were  made.  It  was  in  it 
that  Joseph  was  arrayed  by  Pharaoh's  order 
(Gen.  xli.  42).  Of  this  material  also  were 
made  the  curtains,  vail,  and  door  hang- 
ings of  the  tabernacle  (Ex.  xxvi.  1,  31,  36), 
and  the  hangings  for  the  gate  of  the  court 
and  for  the  court  itself  (xxvii.  9,  16,  18). 
The  distinguishing  attire  of  the  high  priest 
consisted  of  the  ephod,  breastplate,  robe  of 
blue,  and  the  gold  plate  on  the  miter;  and 
of  these  the  ephod  and  breastplate  contained 
fine  linen  (Ex.  xxviii.  6,  1.5).  Other  official 
garments  were  common  to  the  high  priest 
and  the  ordinary  priest,  the  tunic,  girdle, 
breeches,  and  headdress  (Ex.  xxviii.  40-42  ; 
xxxix.  27-29  ;  cp.  Lev.  xvi.  4).  The  head- 
dress, however,  of  the  high  priest  was  a 
miter  or  turban,  while  a  simple  cap  appears 
to  have  been  worn  by  the  ordinary  priest. 
Of  these  four  articles  of  priestly  dress,  the 
girdle  was  embroidered,  consisting  largely 
of  linen  (Ex.  xxxix.  29).  The  three  other 
garments  were  made  of  fine  white  linen  ex- 
clusively (xxviii.  39;  xxxix.  27,  28).  On 
the  margin  of  Gen.  xli.  42  and  of  Ex.  xxv.  4 
the  R.  V.  substitutes  cotton.  On  the  margin 
of  Ex.  xxviii.  39  the  E.  V..  referring  to  the 
coat  and  miter  of  the  high  priest,  substitutes 
silk.  The  same  Hebrew  word  is  translated 
marble  in  Esth.  i.  6  and  Song  v.  15  (where 
the  reference  is  to  pillars),  and  silk  in  Prov. 
XX xi.  22. 

2.  The  Hebrew  word  Bad  is  a  synonym  for 
s/ics7),  but  is  more  general  in  its  meaning, 
hence  it  is  rendered  merely  linen  (Ex.  xxviii. 
42  with  xxxix.  28).  It  sufficiently  described 
the  material  of  the  priest's  raiment,  when 
there  was  no  need  to  explicitly  state  the 
quality  of  the  stuff  (ibid. ;  Lev.  vi.  10;  xvi. 


Linen 


435 


Lizard 


4).  Of  it  was  made  the  plain  cphod  worn  by 
the  boy  SamiU'l,  by  the  priests  at  Nob,  and 
by  David  on  the  occasion  of  removing  the 
ai-k  (1  Sam.  ii.  18;  xxii.  IS;  2  Sam.  vi.  14). 
In  it  the  man  with  the  inkstand  in  Ezekiel's 
vision,  and  Daniel's  heavenly  comforter  were 
clothed  (K/ek.  ix.  2;   Dan.  x.  5). 

3.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Pishteh, 
flax,  the  material  of  which  the  goods  are 
made  being  thonght  of  (Jer.  xiii.  1).  It  is 
used  in  contrast  to  woolen  clothing  (Lev.  xiii. 
47 ;  Deut.  xxii.  11).  It  describes  the  material 
of  the  priestly  garments,  the  headtires, 
breeches,  and  girdles  (Ezek.  xliv.  17,  18). 

4.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Bus,  which 
occui-s  only  in  the  later  books,  and  of  the 
Greek  Btissos.  Of  this  material  were  made 
the  robe,  not  the  ephod,  which  David  wore 
at  the  removal  of  the  ark  (1  Chron.  xv.  27), 
the  vail  of  the  temple  in  part,  the  other 
stuffs  employed  being  blue,  purple,  and  crim- 
son (2  Chron.  iii.  14),  the  clothing  of  the  Le- 
vites  who  were  musicians  at  the  dedication 
of  the  temple  (v.  12),  the  cords  which  fas- 
tened the  hangings  in  Ahasuerus'  palace 
(Esth.  i.  6),  the  state  dress  of  Mordecai 
(viii.  15),  the  garments  of  the  rich  man  at 
wlio.se  gate  Lazarus  .sat  (Luke  xvi.  19),  and 
of  the  luxurious  city  of  Bal)ylon  (Rev.  xviii. 
16),  and  the  bright  and  pure  raiment  of  the 
Lamb's  wife  (xix.  8). 

Shesh  is  originally  an  Egyptian  word,  in 
old  Egyptian  nhentl :  &».?  is  the  Aramaic  equiv- 
alent (cp.  Targ.  Ouk.  Gen.  xli.  42),  and  bussos 
is  etymologically  the  same  word  as  bus.  It 
is  interesting  to  note  that  Ezekiel  uses  shesh 
for  goods  imported  from  Egypt,  and  bus  for 
stuffs  that  came  from  Syria.  Whether  the 
words  denote  linen  or  fine  cotton  cloth,  or 
comprehend  both,  is  much  debated.  Linen 
and  cotton  were  cmploj'ed  in  Egypt  from  the 
earliest  times  for  mummy  cloths. 

5.  The  renderingof  the  Hebrew  word  '£■((?», 
from 'at«)i,  to  bind  (Prov.  vii.  16;  in  R.V.  yarn). 
It  was  imported  from  Egypt,  where  the  most 
skillful  manufacturers  of  linen  lived. 

6.  Linen  yarn  is  the  rendering  of  the  He- 
brew word  Mikveh  in  A.  V.  of  1  Kin.  x.  28 ; 
2  Chron.  i.  16.  R.  V.  renders  it  a  drove. 
Septuagint  and  Vulgate  regarded  the  Hebrew 
word  as  composite,  and  rendered  it  "and 
out  of  Koe,"  which  was  a  place  near  Egypt, 
according  to  Eusebius. 

7, 8.  The  rendering  of  the  Greek  word 
F^indoH,  a  fine  Indian  cloth,  muslin,  later 
linen.  A  tunic  or  perhaps  a  sheet  might  be 
made  of  it  (Mark  xiv.  51),  and  in  this  ma- 
terial the  body  of  Jesus  was  wrapped  for 
burial  (Mat.  xxvii.  59).  It  is  a  synonym  of 
othouiui,  though  more  special  in  meaning 
(Luke  xxiii.  53  with  xxiv.  12;  John  xix.  40; 
XX.  5,  7).  In  classical  Greek  the  latter  word 
means  either  genuine  linen  or  sail  cloth. 

9.  The  rendering  of  the  Greek  Lhwn,  linen 
(Rev.  XV.  6,  A.  V.  and  margin  of  R.  V.).  The 
text  of  R.  y.  has  precious  stones,  from  another 
reading  lithon. 


Lin'tel. 

The  transvei"se  piece  of  wood  or  other 
material  constituting  the  upper  part  of  a 
doorway  or  casement  (Ex.  xii.  22),  called  in 
Hebrew  Mashkoph. 

1.  Lintel  is  also  the  rendering  of  the  He- 
brew 'Ayil,  a  ram,  in  1  Kin.  vi.  31.  It  may 
denote  a  projecting  lintel  or  i)ost.  The  He- 
brew word  occurs  eighteen  times  in  an  archi- 
tectural sense  in  Ezek.  xl.  and  xli.,  where  it 
is  rendered  post  (ver.  9,  etc.),  with  jamb  on 
the  margin  of  R.  V. 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Kaphtur, 
in  A.  V.  of  Amos  ix.  1  and  Zeph.  ii.  14,  which 
is  translated  chajiiter  in  R.  V.  In  Ex.  xxv. 
and  xxxvii.,  where  it  occurs  sixteen  times,  it 
is  rendered  knop  in  both  versions. 

Li'nus. 

A  Christian  at  Rome  who  joined  Paul  in 
sending  salutations  to  Timothy  (2  Tim.  iv. 
21).  According  to  Irenseus  and  Eusebius,  he 
was  the  first  bishop  of  Rome.  See  Bishop. 
No  lofty  preeminence  was  attached  to  the 
office,  for  he  is  mentioned  without  distinction 
between  two  other  members  of  the  church  at 
Rome. 

Li'on. 

The  Fells  leo  of  naturalists.  The  lion  is 
difl'used  over  the  whole  of  Africa  and  portions 
of  southern  Asia,  as  far  east  as  the  province 
of  Guzerat  in  India.  It  was  formerly  found 
in  Greece,  but  does  not  now  occur  wild  in 
that  country  or  anywhere  in  Europe.  In 
Scripture  times  it  was  common  in  Palestine. 
The  Hebrews  had  no  fewer  than  six  words 
to  designate  it  in  different  states  or  at  suc- 
cessive stages  of  growth.  The  ordinary  words 
were  'ari/eh  and  '"ri,  which  occur  eighty  times 
in  the  O.  T.  Allusion  is  made  to  the  lion's 
strength  (2  Sam.  i.  23 ;  Prov.  xxx.  30)  and 
courage  (2  Sam.  xvii.  10;  Prov.  xxviii.  1),  to 
his  teeth  (Joel  i.  6),  to  his  tendency  to  crouch 
before  springing  on  his  victim  (Gen.  xlix.  9), 
to  his  tendency  to  prey  on  sheep,  calves,  and 
other  beasts  (1  Sam.  xvii.  34  ;  Is.  xi.  6,  7),  or 
upon  man  (1  Kin.  xiii.  24;  Jer.  ii.  30),  and  to 
his  roaring  (Job  iv.  10;  Prov.  xx.  2;  1  Pet. 
V.  8).  He  is  represented  as  lurking  in  thick- 
ets (Jer.  iv.  7),  forests  (v.  6),  or  other  coverts 
(xxv.  38).  A  special  haunt  of  his  appears  to 
have  been  among  the  trees  and  bushes  fring- 
ing the  Jordan  (xUx.  19).  Of  the  living 
creatures  .seen  by  Ezekiel  in  vision  one  had 
the  face  of  a  lion  (Ezek.  i.  10;  x.  14).  The 
first  of  the  four  living  creatures  seen  by  John 
was  like  a  lion  (Rev.  iv.  7).  Our  Lord  is 
called  the  Lion  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  (v.  5 ; 
cp.  Gen.  xlix.  9). 

Llz'ard. 

Any  small  larertilian  reptile.  It  was  called 
J'ta'oh  by  the  Hebrews,  and  was  regarded  as 
unclean  ( Lev.  xi.  30).  The  R.  Y.  understands 
the  four  animals  associated  with  it  to  be  the 
gecko,  the  land  crocodile,  the  sand  lizard,  and 
the  chameleon  ;  but  states  on  the  margin  that 
the  words  are    of   uncertain   meaning,    but 


Loaf 


436 


Lock 


liiobably  denote  four  kinds  of  lizards.  Liz- 
ards abound  iu  Palestine  and  the  adjacent 
countries.  The  number  of  species  is  very 
great.  In  the  woods  and  on  cultivated  ground 
the  green  lizards  are  the  most  beautiful,  es- 
pecially Lacerta  viridis  and  L.  Isevis.  Of  the 
same  family  {Lacertidas),  but  of  a  difterent 
genus  iZootica),  are  the  wall  lizards,  which 
appear  in  warm  weather  in  multitudes,  crawl- 
ing over  walls,  rocks,  and  stony  ground. 
Other  families  of  eriglossate  lacertilians  are 
represented  in  Palestine,  as  the  Scincidw, 
Zonuridse,  Agamidse,  and  Monitoridse.  The 
first  of  these  contains  the  skinks  or  sand 
lizards  (Lev.  xi.  30;  in  A.  V.  snail).  They 
chiefly  inhabit  desert  districts,  are  generally 
small  and  of  the  yellowish  color  of  the  desert, 
are  as  common  as  the  true  lizard,  but  unlike 
it  do  not  climb,  and  hide  themselves  under 
stones  or  by  burrowing  rapidly  in  the  ground. 
The  family  of  Zonundx  is  represented  by 
the  glass  snake  [Psendopus  pallasi).  Its  hind 
legs  are  rudimentary,  so  that  it  looks  much 
like  a  snake.  It  is  black,  and  attains  a 
length  of  two  or  two  and  a  half  feet,  of 
which  the  tail  forms  two-thirds.  Closely  re- 
lated to  this  family  are  the  Aijamidie,  con- 
taining Uromastix  spinipes.  This  reptile  in- 
habits the  sandy  deserts  of  Africa  and  Arabia, 
and  is  common  in  the  wilderness  of  Judsea. 
It  attains  a  length  of  two  feet.  Its  body  is 
green  in  color,  spotted  with  brown.  It  has  a 
powerful  tail,  encircled  with  roM's  of  strong 
spines,  which  it  uses  as  a  weapon  of  defense. 
The  Hebrew  name  <vas  sah,  rendered  great 
lizard  (Lev.  xi.  29;  in  A.  V.  tortoise).  The 
Arabs  still  call  it  dabh.  The  family  of  Moni- 
ioridx  or  Varanidx  contains  the  monitors,  of 
which  the  land  crocodile  of  the  ancients 
(Lev.  xi.  30 ;  in  A.  V.  chameleon),  commonly 
known  as  the  land  monitor,  the  iimran  el-'nrd 
of  the  Arabs  (Psammosaums  scincns),  is  com- 
mon in  southern  Jndsea,  the  peninsula  of 
Sinai,  and  the  sandy  parts  of  Egypt.  It 
attains  a  length  of  four  or  five  feet,  and  has 
a  long  snout,  sharp,  pointed  teeth,  and  a  long, 
tapering  tail.  The  water  monitor,  warai}  el- 
babr  (Hi/drosatirns  niloticus),  is  slightly  larger 
than  its  congener  of  the  land,  and  is  readily 
distinguished  from  it  by  the  high  keel  along 
the  whole  length  of  its  tail.  Both  reptiles 
are  extremely  rapid  in  their  movements,  and 
are  strong,  fully  justifying  their  supposed 
Hebrew  name  koah,  strength.  They  feed  on 
small  lizards  and  jerboas,  and  devour  the 
eggs  and  young  of  the  crocodile  with  avidity. 
They  are  eaten  by  the  natives. 

Loaf. 

A  mass  of  bread.  It  was  made  of  the  flour 
of  barley  (2  Kin.  iv.  42;  John  vi.  9)  or  wheat 
(Lev.  xxiii.  17  with  Ex.  xxxiv.  22),  round  in 
shape  (Ex.  xxix.  23  ;  Judg.  viii.  5,  in  Hebrew 
Icihl-ar,  disc),  and  of  a  size  convenient  for 
l)aking  and  carrying  with  one  (1  Sam.  x.  3; 
Mat.  xiv.  17 ;  John  vi.  9).  See  Bread  and 
Showbeead. 


Lo-am'mi  [not  my  people] . 

The  symbolic  name  of  the  prophet  Hosea's 
second  son  by  his  wife  Gomer  (Hos.  i.  8,  9). 

Loan. 

Anything,  especially  money,  that  is  lent. 
In  the  early  ages  of  the  Hebrew  nation  loans 
were  not  sought  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining 
capital,  but  for  the  necessaries  of  life.  The 
Israelites  were  commanded  to  ojien  their 
heart  to  their  brother,  who  had  fallen  into 
poverty,  and  to  lend  him  sufficient  for  bis 
need  (Deut.  xv.  7-11).  They  were  forbidden 
to  charge  interest  for  any  loan  to  a  poor  Isra- 
elite (Ex.  xxii.  25  ;  Lev.  xxv.  35-37).  But 
unto  a  foreigner  they  might  lend  on  interest 
(Deut.  xxiii.  20),  and  the  poor  Israelite  might 
sell  himself  as  a  servant  (Lev.  xxv.  39;  2 
Kin.  iv.  1).  If  a  pledge  was  asked  from  a 
poor  Israelite  for  a  loan,  the  creditor  was  not 
to  go  into  the  debtor's  house  to  obtain  it,  but 
to  remain  outside  and  allow  it  to  be  brought 
out  to  him.  If  the  i)ledge  was  a  garment,  it 
was  to  be  returned  to  the  owner  before  the 
evening,  as  probably  it  might  be  ]iart  of 
his  sleeping  attire  (Ex.  xxii.  26,  27).  No  one 
was  to  take  the  upjier  or  nether  millstone  as  a 
pledge,  thus  preventing  the  debtor  and  his 
family  from  grinding  corn  for  their  daily 
food  (Deut.  xxiv.  6).  Nor  could  anyone  take 
a  widow's  garment  (17).  Finally,  when  the 
seventh  year,  called  the  year  of  release,  came, 
the  debt  was  to  be  forgiven  (xv.  1-11).  The 
practice  of  suretyship,  however,  unfortu- 
nately grew  up  (Prov.  vi.  1),  and  in  later 
times  interest  was  sometimes  exacted  for 
loans,  although  the  practice  was  condemned 
by  the  prophets  (Jer.  xv.  10  ;  Ezek.  xviii.  13). 
The  benefice  ut  regulations  of  the  law  were 
systematically  ignored  after  the  exile,  and 
Nehemiah  took  vigorous  measures  to  termi- 
nate the  abuse  (Neh.  v.  1-13).  The  Eoman  law 
was  a  marked  contrast  in  its  severity  to  that 
of  Moses.  By  a  law  of  the  twelve  tables  a 
creditor  could  put  his  insolvent  debtor  in 
fetters  and  cords.  Doubtless  with  allusion 
to  the  ordinary  procedure  Jesus  describes  the 
lord  of  a  debtor  as  commanding  that  he,  his 
wife,  his  children,  and  all  that  he  had,  be 
sold  in  liquidation  of  the  debt  (Mat.  xviii. 
25),  and,  when  he  had  abused  leniency 
which  was  shown  him  on  his  appeal  for 
mercy,  be  delivered  to  the  torturers  till 
he  should  pay  all  that  was  due  (34).  In 
the  time  of  Christ  banking  was  a  regular  in- 
stitution (Mat.  xxv.  27:  Luke  xix.  23).  A 
public  building  was  jtrovided  in  Jeru.salem, 
where  documents  relating  to  loans,  whether 
interest-bearing  or  not,  might  be  deposited 
(War  ii.  17,  6). 

Lock. 

A  fastening  for  a  door  (J\idg.  iii.  23),  evi- 
dently in  ancient  as  in  modern  times,  con- 
sisting of  a  short  bolt  of  wood,  which  .slides 
through  a  groove  in  an  upright  piece  attached 
to  the  door  and  enters  a  socket  in  the  door- 
post.    Above  the  groove  in  the  upright  are 


Locust 


437 


Lord's  Day 


holes  containing  small  iron  or  wooden  pins. 
When  the  bolt  is  thrust  into  the  socket,  these 
pins  drop  into  corres]>oudinf;  holes  in  the  bolt 
and  hold  it  in  jjlace.  The  key  is  furnished  with 
II  like  number  of  jirojectious,  and,  when  intro- 
duced into  a  hollow  in  the  bolt  underneath  the 
pins,  raises  them  and  allows  the  bolt  to  be 
shoved  back.  When  the  lock  is  inside,  a  hole 
through  the  door  admits  the  baud  with  the 
key,  and  even  the  hollow  in  the  bolt  is  often 
large  enough  to  admit  the  hand  (Song  v.  5). 

Lo'cust. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  'Arbeh 
and  the  Greek  Akris.  The  insect  referred  to 
is  evidently  the  migratory  locust  ((Edipoda 
mujratoria],  or  in  some  cases  possibly  au  allied 
insect,  G^dijioda  cinere^cens,  Acridiam  peregri- 
ntim,  or  other  species.  The  locust  is  two  inches 
or  more  in  length.  It  is  a  winged,  creep- 
ing thing.  Like  other  insects  of  the  order 
Orthoptera,  it  has  four  wings.  Those  of  the 
anterior  pair  are  narrow,  while  those  of  the 
posterior  pair  are  broader,  folded  up  when 
not  in  use,  and  transparent.  It  has  six  legs, 
on  four  of  which  it  walks,  while  the  hind- 
most pair,  which  are  much  longer  than  the 
others  and  equal  to  the  body  in  length,  it  uses 


Locust. 

for  springing  (Lev.  xi.  21,  22).  The  mouth 
is  furnished  with  cutting  jaws,  by  means  of 
which  it  nips  otf  leaves  and  blades  of  grass. 
They  were  clean  insects  (ibid.),  and  John 
the  Baptist  ate  them,  as  many  Orientals  did 
before  him  and  still  do  (Mat.  iii.  4).  They 
are  prepared  by  being  slightly  roasted,  dried 
in  the  sun,  and  salted.  When  used  the  head, 
wings,  legs,  and  intestines  are  commonly  re- 
moved, and  only  the  fleshy  portion  is  eaten. 
The  locust  is  exceedingly  destructive  to  veg- 
etation, and  locusts  blown  into  the  valley  of 
the  Nile  by  the  east  wind,  constituted  the 
eighth  Egyptian  plague  (Ex.  x.  4,  5,  12,  15, 
19).  In  some  passages,  as  Judg.  vii.  12  and 
Jer.  xlvi.  23,  the  A.  V.  renders  'arbeh  grass- 
hopper;  the  E.  V.  uniformly  translates  it 
locust.  The  locust  is  distinguished  from  the 
grasshopper  by  the  shortness  of  its  antennae. 
It  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  harvest 
fly,  which  is  commonly  called  locust  in  the 
United  States. 

Many  other  words  refer  to  different  species 
of  locusts  difiicult  to  identify,  or  some  of 
them  may  mean  the  migratory  locust  in  dif- 
ferent stages  of  development  (Lev.  xi.  22 ; 
Joel  i.  4).  The  egg  of  the  various  species  of 
locust  is  deposited  in  April  or  May,  in  a  cy- 
lindrical hole  excavated  in  the  ground  l)y  the 
female,  and  it  is  hatched  in  June.    The  young 


iu.sect  emerges  from  the  egg  a  wingless  larva. 
It  enters  the  pupa  state,  when  it  has  rudi- 
mentary wings  enclosed  in  cases.  It  is  more 
voracious  in  this  stage  of  its  development 
than  at  any  other  period.  In  another  mouth 
it  casts  the  pupa  or  nymph  .skin,  and  has  be- 
come the  imago  or  perfect  insect. 

Lod  [perhaps,  strife,  contest]. 

A  town  of  Benjamin,  built  by  the  sons  of 
Elpaal,  a  man  of  Benjamin  (1  Chron.  viii. 
12),  and  generally  mentioned  in  connection 
with  Ono  (Neh.  xi.  35).  It  was  inhabited 
after  the  Babylonian  captivity  (Ezra  ii. 
33  ;  Neh.  vii.  37),  and  is  believed  to  have 
been  the  Lydda  of  the  Greek  period  (1  Mac. 
xi.  34) ;  see  Lydda.  It  still  exists  as  Ludd, 
about  11  miles  southeast  of  Joppa.  In  it  are 
the  remains  of  the  church  of  St.  George,  the 
Christian  martyr  of  Nicomedia  and  adopted 
in  the  fourteenth  century  as  the  patron  saint 
of  England,  who  was  said  to  have  been  a 
native  of  the  place. 

Lo-de'bar  [perhaps,  without  pasture]. 

A  place  in  Gilead  (2  Sam.  ix.  4,  5 ;  xvii. 
27),  probably  the  same  as  Lidebir  (josh.  xiii. 
26,  E.  V.  margin).     See  Debik  4. 

Lodge. 

A  shelter  erected  for  the  watchman  of  a 
garden  for  occupation  during  the  time  of 
ripe  fruit  (Is.  i.  8 ;  in  xxiv.  20,  A.  V.  cottage, 
E.  V.  hut).  Not  improbably  the  structure 
intended  is  the  kind  built  among  the  branches 
of  a  tree  or,  where  trees  are  lacking,  upon 
posts,  and  consisting  of  a  rude  floor,  a  roof 
of  mats  or  branches,  and  sides  of  branches. 

Log  [depth]. 

A  Jewish  measure  of  capacity  used  spe- 
cially for  oil  (Lev.  xiv.  10,  12,  15,  21,  24). 
The  rabbins  believe  it  to  have  contained 
twelve  bins,  so  that  it  equaled  the  720th 
part  of  an  homer  or  about  three  gills. 

Lo'is. 

Timothv's  grandmother,  a  woman  of  un- 
feigned faith  (2  Tim.  i.  5). 

Look'ing-glass.     See  Mirror. 

Lord. 

When  used  of  God  and  printed  in  small 
letters  with  only  the  initial  a  capital,  it 
is  usually  the  rendering  of  the  Hebrew 
'Adon,  master  (Ex.  xxiii.  17;  Ps.  cxiv.  7), 
much  more  frequently  of  '"donay,  properly 
my  master  (Ex.  iv.  10;  Is.  xl.  10),  or  of  the 
Greek  Knrios,  master,  sir  (Mat.  i.  20).  When 
printed  in  small  capitals,  it  represents  the 
Hebrew  yhvh,  Jehovah,  the  most  .sacred 
and  incommunicable  name  of  God,  used  of 
himself  alone  (Gen.  ii.  4)     See  Jehovah. 

Lord  of  Hosts.     See  Host. 

Lord's  Day. 

The  daj'  specially  associated  with  the  Lord 
Jesus  Chri.st.  The  expression  occurs  but  once 
in  the  N.  T.,  where  John  says,  "  I  was  in  the 
Spirit  on  the  Lord's  day"  (Rev.  i.  10).  Vari- 
ous   interpretations    have  been   ofiered.     1. 


Lord's  Day 


438 


Lord's  Supper 


John,  it  is  said,  is  speaking  of  the  Sabbath 
or  seventh  day  of  the  week,  which  God  liiui- 
self  has  called  "My  holy  day".  (Is.  Iviii. 
13).  But  if  he  intended  the  seventh  day,  it 
is  strange  that  he  did  not  use  the  customary 
designation.  2.  It  is  held  to  be  the  day  of 
Christ's  birth.  But  that  day  is  unknown, 
and  it  was  not  known  or  observed  by  the 
primitive  church.  3.  It  is  contended  that 
the  expression  Lord's  day  is  the  same  as 
the  day  of  the  Lord  in  2  Pet.  iii.  10,  where 
it  undoubtedly  means  the  day  of  the  second 
advent,  and  John  would  state  that  he  was 
rapt,  in  vision,  to  the  day  of  judgment.  But 
John  is  apparently  dating  his  vision.  In  the 
preceding  sentence  he  mentions  the  place 
where  he  was  at  the  time  he  received  the 
revelation,  the  isle  of  Patmos ;  and  declares 
the  cause  of  his  being  on  that  island.  In 
this  sentence  he  states  the  day  when  he  had 
the  vision.  It  is  also  to  be  noticed  that  he 
does  not  speak  of  the  day  of  the  Lord,  which 
is  tlie  constant  designation  of  the  day  of  the 
second  advent,  but  uses  the  adjective 
kuiiake :  a  distinction  which  was  observed 
ever  afterwards  between  the  day  of  the 
second  advent  and  the  first  day  of  the  week 
when  Christ  rose  from  the  dead.  4.  It  has 
been  thought  possible  that  John  means  the 
anniversary  of  the  resurrection.  But  none 
of  the  early  fathers  can  be  quoted  either  for 
this  interpretation  or  for  this  use  of  the 
designation  Lord's  day.  5.  Friday  or  cruci- 
fixion day,  which,  however,  seems  to  have 
had  no  special  honor  from  the  apostles, 
this  being  reserved  for  6.  Sunday  or  resurrec- 
tion day.  On  the  resurrection  day  itself 
our  Lord  appeared  to  his  disciples  (Mat. 
xxviii.  1-15;  Mark  xvi.  1-14;  Luke  xxiv. 
13-49;  John  xx.  1-26).  After  eight  days 
(John  XX.  2()),  which  according  to  the  or- 
dinary usage  meant  a  week  later,  our  Lord  a 
second  time  honored  the  first  day  of  the 
week.  The  pentecostal  festival  being  on  the 
day  after  a  Sabbath  (Lev.  xxiii.  11,  15),  it 
is  at  least  probable  that  the  effusitm  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  took  place  on  the  first  day  of  the 
week  (Acts  ii.  1).  The  Christians  at  Assos  in 
Paul's  time  seem  to  have  regarded  that  day 
as  the  stated  one  on  which  they  were  accus- 
tomed to  assemble  to  break  bread  (Acts  xx. 
7).  On  the  same  day  of  the  week  the  Chris- 
tians were  to  lay  by  them  in  store  the  money 
which  they  designed  to  give  in  charity  (1 
Cor.  xvi.  2).  These  jiassages.  aided  by  reason- 
ings on  more  general  i)iiiiiiples,  have  led  the 
great  majority  of  Christians  to  consider  the 
Lord's  day  a  day  set  apart  by  the  example 
of  our  T.,ord  and  his  apostles  for  sacred  pur- 
poses, and  standing  in  a  certain  relation  to 
the  Sabbath  of  the  ten  commandments :  see 
Sabbath.  It  may  be  added  that  some  mem- 
bers of  the  primitive  church  made  no  dis- 
tinction between  days,  including  Jewish 
festivals  and  Sabbaths  and  ])ossibly  the 
first  day,  rightly  or  wi'ongly  esteeming 
every   day    alike.     They   were    not    to    be 


harshly  judged,  they  were  acting  out  of  the 
fear  of  God  (Kom.  xiv.  5).  Some  of  the 
Jewish  converts  continued  to  keep  the  sev- 
enth day  and  the  Jewish  festivals.  It  was  a 
matter  of  liberty  (Col.  ii.  16),  so  long  as  the 
convert  did  not  regard  the  observance  as 
necessary  to  salvation  (Gal.  iv.  10). 

Lord's  Sup'per. 

The  name  gi%'eu  by  Paul  to  the  com- 
memorative ordinance  instituted  by  our  Lord 
on  the  evening  preceding  his  crucifixion  (1 
Cor.  xi.  20).  Paul's  account  is  the  earliest 
record  of  the  institution  of  the  supper  by  at 
least  twenty-seven  years.  It  was  written 
probably  early  in  A.  D.  57,  just  twenty-seven 
years  after  the  supper  was  instituted.  The 
apostle  had  introduced  it  five  years  earlier, 
when  he  organized  the  Corinthian  church 
and  "  delivered  unto  them  "  the  ordinance 
(23).  He  pledges  his  own  truthfulness  and 
authority  for  the  correctness  of  liis  account 
by  saying,  "I  received  and  I  delivered"; 
and  he  refers  to  the  source  of  his  information  : 
he  had  not  been  an  ej'ewitness  of  the  event, 
he  had  not  been  present  at  the  institution  of 
the  supper,  but  he  had  received  from  the  Lord 
what  he  had  delivered  unto  them.  These 
words  are  capable  of  two  interpretations : 
either  Paul  had  been  granted  a  special  com- 
munication direct  from  the  risen  Lord,  or 
else  he  had  received  the  account  from  the 
Lord  through  the  Lord's  apostles,  participants 
in  the  first  supper.  Matthew  an  eyewitness 
and  Mark,  the  companion  of  Peter  who  was 
present  at  the  institution  of  the  supper,  also 
record  the  circumstances  ;  and  so  does  Paul's 
companion,  Luke.  Wishing  to  fulfill  all  right- 
eousness and  to  honor  the  ceremonial  law 
whilst  yet  it  continued.  Jesus  made  arrange- 
ments to  eat  the  passover  with  his  disciples 
(Mat.  xxvi.  17-19).  As  the  paschal  lamb  was 
killed  in  the  evening,  and  its  flesh  eaten  the 
same  evening,  the  paschal  feast  necessarily 
took  place  in  the  evening  (Mat.  xxvi.  20). 
Wine  mixed  with  water  had  come  into  use  on 
such  occasions,  because  that  was  regarded  as 
the  best  way  of  using  the  best  wine  (cp.  2  Mac. 
XV.  39).  When,  thei-efore,  our  Lord  was 
about  to  follow  up  the  supper  by  the  com- 
nuinion,  there  was  wine  mixed  with  water 
on  the  table.  So  also  was  there  unleavened 
bread.  He  and  his  disciples  were  sitting 
(Mat.  xxvi.  20),  by  which  is  meant  that, 
after  the  custom  of  that  time,  they  half  sat, 
half  reclined  on  couches  (Mark  xiv.  18,  E.  V. 
margin).  When  the  paschal  feast  was  fin- 
ished, Jesus  took  bread  and  blessed  it,  at  the 
same  time  rendering  thanks  for  it,  and, 
giving  it  to  the  discii)les,  .said  :  "  This  is  my 
body  which  is  given  for  you  :  this  do  in  re- 
membrance of  nie.''  And  the  cup  in  like  man- 
ner after  .supper,  saying  :  "  This  cup  is  the  new 
covenant  in  my  blood,  even  that  which  is 
poured  out  for  you  "  (Luke  xxii.  19,  20, 
R.  v.),  "which  is  shed  for  many  unto  remis- 
sion of  sins"   (Mat.  xxvi.  28,  R.  V.).     The 


Lo-ruhamah 


439 


Love  Feasts 


object  for  which  the  Lord's  Supper  was  in- 
stituted was  to  keep  him  in  reuienihrance 
(Luke  sxii.  19).  It  was  to  show  forth  the 
Lord's  death  till  he  come  (1  Cor.  xi.  2o,  26). 
The  feast  was  not  con  fined  to  the  apostles 
nor  to  the  Jewish  Christians,  but  was  cele- 
brated in  the  churches  of  the  gentiles  also, 
for  instance  at  Corinth  (1  Cor.  x.  15-21).  It 
was  understood  to  be  the  privilege  of  the 
•church  for  all  time.  The  table  on  which  the 
bread  was  placed  was  known  as  the  Lord's 
table  (X.  21)  ;  the  cup  of  wine  retained  the 
old  name  which  it  bore  at  the  Jewish  pass- 
over,  cup  of  blessing  (x.  16),  and  was  also 
called  the  cup  of  the  Lord  (21 ;  xi.  27). 

Lo-ru'lia-inali  [not  having  obtained 
mercy] . 

The  symbolic  name  of  the  prophet  Hosea's 
daughter  by  his  wife  Gomer  (Hos.  i.  6,  8). 

Lot,  I. 

The  use  of  the  lot  to  determine  doubtful 
questions  was  much  in  vogue  among  the  na- 
tions of  antiquity  (Esth.  iii.  7;  Jon.  i.  7; 
Mat.  xxvii.  35).  Stones  or  inscribed  tablets 
or  the  like  were  put  into  a  vessel  and,  having 
been  shaken,  were  drawn  out  or  cast  forth. 
The  act  was  commonly  preceded  by  prayer, 
and  was  an  appeal  to  God  to  decide  the  mat- 
ter (Acts  i.  23-26;  Iliad  iii.  316-325;  vii. 
174-181).  In  the  early  history  of  the  Jewish 
people  God  was  pleased  to  use  the  lot  as  a 
method  of  making  known  his  will,  so  that 
the  weighty  statement  was  made  in  Prov. 
xvi.  33,  "  The  lot  is  cast  into  the  lap  ;  but  the 
whole  disposing  thereof  is  of  the  Lord." 
The  land  of  Canaan  was  divided  among  the 
twelve  tribes  bj^  lot  (Josh.  xiv.  2 ;  xviii.  6)  ; 
for  the  method,  see  Canaan.  On  one  occa- 
sion Saul  and  Jonathan  stood  on  one 
side  and  Jonathan  cast  lots  against  the 
people.  The  king  and  his  son  being  thus 
singled  out,  they  cast  lots  with  each  other, 
Jonathan  being  finally  pointed  out  by  this 
method  of  inquiry  (1  Sam.  xiv.  40-45).  The 
courses  of  the  priests,  etc.,  were  settled  by 
lot  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  5,  seq.).  By  casting  lots 
after  prayer  the  question  was  decided 
whether  Joseph  Barsabbas  or  Matthias  should 
be  Judas  Iscariot's  successor  in  the  apostle- 
ship  (Acts  i.  15-26).  This  method  of  selec- 
tion was  not  repeated  by  the  apostles  after  the 
descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 

Lot,  II.  [covering,  or  myrrh]. 

Son  of  Haran,  Abraham's  brother,  and 
consequently  nephew  to  the  patriarch  him- 
self, whom  he  accompanied  from  Mesopo- 
tamia to  Canaan  (Gen.  xi.  31 ;  xii.  5),  and  to 
and  from  Egypt  (xiii.  1).  Like  his  uncle,  he 
became  prosperous,  on  which  his  herdsmen 
and  those  of  Abraham  began  to  quarrel  over 
the  pasturage.  Abraham  proposed  that  he 
and  Lot  separate,  and  with  characteristic 
generosity  invited  Lot  to  choose  first.  Lot 
did  what  he  thought  best  for  his  own  inter- 
est.    Seeing  that  the  hills  were  less  fertile 


than  the  valley  of  the  Jordan,  he  chose  the 
latter,  and  became  a  resident  in  Sodom.  He 
did  not  take  into  account  the  character  of 
the  people  among  whom  he  was  going  to  set- 
tle, and  the  probable  elJ'ect  of  their  evil 
example  on  his  family,  though  he  main- 
tained his  own  integrity  among  them  and 
was  distressed  at  seeing  and  hearing  from 
day  to  day  lawless  deeds  (2  Pet.  ii.  8). 
Dui'ing  the  invasion  of  Chedorlaonier  and 
his  confederate  kings.  Lot  was  made  pris- 
oner, and  owed  his  release  to  the  courage 
and  skill  of  Abraham  (Gen.  xiii.  2-xiv.  16). 
When  two  angels  were  sent  to  Sodom  to  warn 
him  of  its  approaching  destruction,  the  con- 
duct of  the  ruffianly  mob  when  they  knew 
he  had  guests  was  such  as  to  show  how  ripe 
the  city  was  for  destruction.  He  was  saved 
from  its  overthrow  ;  but  his  wife,  looking 
back,  was  involved  in  the  destruction  and 
became  a  pillar'  of  salt,  and  his  married 
daughters,  deluded  by  their  Sodomite  hus- 
bands, remained  behind,  and  perished  (xix. 
1-29;  Wisd.  x.  7).  A  cloud  rests  on  Lot's 
later  years.  Drink  on  two  consecutive  eights 
rendered  him  unconscious,  so  that  he  became 
a  participant  in  deeds  which  he  would  have 
abhorred  had  he  been  sober.  The  Moabites 
and  Ammonites  were  his  descendants  (30- 
38). 

Lo'tan. 

A  tribe  of  Horites,  dwelling  in  mount  Seir 
(Gen.  xxxvi.  20)  and  governed  by  a  chieftain 

(29). 

Love'  Feasts. 

The  rendering  of  the  Greek  Aqapni  in  2 
Pet.  ii.  13,  E.  V.  (on  margin  and  in  A.  V. 
deceivings).  In  Jnde  12  the  rendering  is 
feasts  of  charity.  They  were  entertainments 
held  in  churches  in  connection  with  the 
Lord's  Supper.  Chrysostom  states  that  after 
the  early  community  of  goods  had  ceased,  the 
wealthier  members  brought  contributions  of 
food  and  drink  to  the  church,  of  which,  at 
the  conclusion  of  the  services  and  after  the 
celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  all  partook, 
the  poorest  not  excepted,  by  this  means  help- 
ing to  promote  the  principle  of  love  among 
Christians.  As  the  purity  of  the  church  de- 
clined and  ceremony  increased,  scandals 
arose  in  connection  with  these  feasts.  The 
council  of  Laodicea,  a.  d.  320,  and  that  of 
Carthage,  A.  D.  397,  forbade  them  to  be  held 
in  churches ;  so  did  the  council  of  Orleans, 
A.  D.  541,  that  of  Trullo  A.  D.  692,  and  that 
of  Aix-la-chapelle  a.  d.  816 ;  but  all  these 
councils  together  did  not  quite  succeed  in 
extinguLshing  the  love  feasts'  excessive 
tenacity  of  life  in  the  western  church, 
while  in  the  Greek  church  they  still 
continue  to  exist.  Of  more  modern  reli- 
gious denominations,  love  feasts  were  revived 
by  the  Moravians.  John  Wesley  introduced 
them  into  the  great  organization  which  he 
founded.  They  exist  also  among  the  San- 
demanians. 


Lowland 


440 


Luke 


Low'land  or  Sheph'e-lah  ;  variously  reud- 
ered  iu  A.  V.  by  the  vale,  the  valley,  the  low 
country,  the  plain. 

The  region  of  low  hills  between  the  plain 
of  Philistia  and  the  high  t-eutral  range  of 
Palestine.  It  is  described  by  Eusobius  (in 
his  Onomasticon  under  Sephela)  as  "all  the  low 
countiy  about  Eleutheropolis  [the  modern 
Beit  Jibriu]  toward  the  north  and  west :  " 
but  in  O.  T.  times  the  term  comprehended 
the  low,  hilly  country  lying  to  the  east  and 
south  as  well.  The  hills  rise  to  a  height  of 
from  500  to  800  feet,  with  a  few  higher  sum- 
mits. On  their  slopes  the  olive  flourishes. 
The  district  is  separated  from  the  central 
Judseau  range  by  a  series  of  valleys  which 
run  north  and  south  from  Aijalou  to  near 
Beer-sheba  ;  and  it  is  itself  cut  by  several 
wide,  fertile  valleys  which  lead  from  the 
Judsean  ridge  to  the  sea.  It  was  assigned,  as 
part  of  their  inheritance,  to  the  tribe  of 
Judah  ;  and  when  they  found  that  they  had 
too  much  territory,  a  small  portion  of  it  in 
the  north  was  allotted  to  Dan  (Josh.  xv.  33 
seq.  ;  xix.  40  seq. ).  It  included  such  notable 
plac'es  as  Adullam,  Beth-shemesh,  Gezer,  Eg- 
lon,  Lachish,  and  part  of  the  valleys  of 
Aijalou,  Sorek,  and  Elah  (33  seq. :  1  Sam. 
xvii.  1,  2  ;  2  Chrou.  xxviii.  18). 

Lu'bim. 

An  African  people  fi'om  whom  Shishak, 
king  of  Egypt,  drew  part  of  his  army  for  the 
invasion  of  Palestine  (2  Chron.  xii.  3;  xvi. 
8;  cp.  Dan.  xi.  43;  Nah.  iii.  9),  doubtless  the 
primitive  Libyans., 

Lu'cas.     See  Luke. 

Lu'ci-fer  [the  light  bearer  or  bringer]. 

The  planet  Venus,  as  the  morning  star. 
With  the  exception  of  the  sun  and  moon, 
Venus  is  the  brightest  object  in  the  sky. 
It  appears  as  a  morning  or  an  evening 
star  according  as  it  is  west  or  east  of  the 
sun,  returning  to  the  same  position  about 
every  nineteen  months.  As  the  former, 
Venus  is  the  harbinger  of  daylight.  The 
prophet  likened  the  splendor  of  the  king  of 
Babylon  to  Lucifer,  son  of  the  morning  (Is. 
xiv.  12),  and  Jesus  calls  himself  the  bright, 
the  morning  star  (Eev.  xxii.  16).  The  appli- 
cation of  the  name  Lucifer  to  Satan,  the 
rebel  angel  hurled  from  heaven,  has  existed 
in  the  church  from  the  third  century, 
especially  among  poets.  It  is  based  on  the 
erroneous  supposition  that  Luke  x.  18  is  an 
explanation  of  Is.  xiv.  12. 

Lu'ci-us. 

1.  A  Roman  oflScial  who  in  the  year  174  of 
the  Seleucidan  era,  139-8  B.  c,  issued  letters 
in  favor  of  the  Jews  to  various  kings  .subject 
to  Eome  (1  Mac.  xv.  16).  He  is  entitled  a 
consul,  which  identifies  him  with  Lucius 
Calpurnius  Piso,  one  of  the  consuls  for  the 
year  139  b.  c.  It  is  possible,  however,  that 
he  was  the  praetor  Lucius  Valerius  who  con- 
ducted the  proceedings  in  the  Eoman  senate 
which   led  to  their   making    a    league    of 


friendship  with  the  Jews,  to  the  issuance  of 
the  aforementioned  letters,  and  in  the  days 
of  Hyrcanus  II.  to  action  favorable  to  the 
Jews  (Antiq.  xiv.  8,  5). 

2.  A  Christian  from  Cyrene,  who  was  a 
teacher  in  the  church  at  Antioch  (Acts  xiii. 
1).  He  is  commonly  supposed  to  have  beer* 
the  kinsman  of  Paul,  who  at  Corinth  joined 
with  the  apostle  in  sending  salutations  to  the 
brethren  at  Rome  (Eom.  xvi.  21). 

Lud. 

1.  A  people  classed  among  the  Semites 
(Gen.  X.  22)  ;  believed  to  be  the  Lydians. 
(Antiq.  i.  6,  4  ;  compare  order  of  enumeration 
in  Gen.),  occupying,  however,  a  wider  terri- 
tory than  Lydia  in  western  Asia  Minor.  It 
is  not  yet  clear  in  what  manner  the  Lydians 
were  related  to  the  Semites.  According  to 
Herodotus  (i.  7),  their  first  king  was  a  son 
of  Ninus  and  grandson  of  Belus,  that  is  he 
was  descended  from  the  Assyrians. 

2.  A  people  related  to  the  Egyptians  (Gen. 
X.  13),  also  the  country  which  they  inhabited. 
They  are  mentioned  as  boM'men  in  the 
armies  of  Egypt  and  Tyre  (Jer.  xlvi.  9  ; 
Ezek,  xxvii.  10  ;  xxx.  5).  Libyans  is  too 
broad  a  translation  (Jer.  xlvi.  9,  A.  V.) ; 
though  the  Ludim  are  doubtless  to  be  sought 
in  northern  Africa,  west  of  the  Nile. 

Lu'dim  [plural  of  Lud] ;  see  LuD  2. 

Lu'hith  [perhaps,  made  of  planks]. 

A  Moabite  town  approached  by  an  ascent 
(Is.  XV.  5 ;  Jei\  xlviii.  5) :  according  to  Eu- 
sebius  and  Jerome,  Loueitha,  between  Are- 
opolis,  that  is  Rabbath  Moab,  and  Zoar. 

Luke,  in  A.  V.  once  Lucas  (Philem.  24) 
[N.  T.  Greek  Lotikas,  probably  an  abbrevi- 
ation of  Latin  Lncnnus  or  perhaps  LuciUus]. 

A  friend  and  companion  of  St.  Paul,  who 
joined  him  in  sending  from  Rome  salutations 
to  the  Colossian  church  (Col.  iv.  14)  and  to 
Philemon  (Philem.  24).  In  the  former  place 
he  is  described  as  "the  beloved  physician" 
and  in  the  latter  place  as  one  of  the  apos- 
tle's fellow-laborers.  He  was  also  with 
Paul  in  Eome  at  a  later  time  when  2  Timothy- 
was  written  (2  Tim.  iv.  11),  and  then  the 
apostle  gives  a  touching  tribute  to  his  friend's 
fidelity  in  the  words  "Only  Luke  is  with 
me."  These  are  all  the  notices  of  Luke  by 
name  in  the  N.  T.,  for  he  must  not  be  iden- 
tified with  the  Lucius  of  Acts  xiii.  1  nor 
with  the  one  mentioned  in  Eom.  xvi.  21 ; 
see  Lucius.  We  find,  however,  in  the  sec- 
ond century  the  tradition  already  estab- 
lished that  Luke  was  the  author  of  the  Third 
Go.spel  and  of  The  Acts,  both  of  which  were 
certainly  written  by  the  same  hand  (Acts  i. 
1).  Accordingly  we  may  learn  more  of  him 
from  The  Acts,  in  which  he  intimates  his 
presence  with  Paul  during  certain  portions 
of  the  latter's  missionary  journeys  by  the 
use  of  "we"  or  "us"  in  the  narrative  (Acts 
xvi.  10-17;  XX.  5-xxi.  18;  xxvii.  1-xxviii 
16).  From  these  passages  it  appears  that 
Luke  joined  Paul  on  the  second  missionary 


Luke 


441 


Luke 


journey  at  Troas  aud  weut  with  him  to 
Philippi.  Again  on  the  third  journey  Luke 
rejoined  the  apostle  at  Philippi  and  went 
with  him  to  Jenis;ileni.  He  api)ears  to  have 
remained  in  Palestine  during  the  two  years 
in  whieli  Paul  was  ini])risoned  at  Ciesarea, 
for  he  sailed  with  the  apostle  from  Csestirea  to 
Rome ;  see  Acts.  In  Col.  iv.  14  Luke  is 
plainly  distinguished  from  Paul's  Jewish 
comi)anions  (cp.  ver.  11).  He  was  therefore 
a  gentile.  Early  tradition  made  him  a 
native  of  Antioch  in  Syria,  and  this  is  quite 
probable.  At  any  rate,  his  interest  in  and 
familiarity  with  the  ehurch  of  Antioch  is 
evident  (Acts  vi.  5  ;  xi.  19-27  ;  xiii.  1-3  ;  xiv. 
26-28 ;  XV.  1, 2,  30-40  ;  xviii.  22,  23).  Ramsay, 
however,  considers  him  a  Philippian  {St. 
Paul  the  Traveler,  p.  202).  The  time  and 
manner  of  his  death  are  unknown. 

The  Gospel  according  to  St.  Luke  is  the 
Third  Gospel  according  to  the  order  of  the 
books  of  the  N.  T.  as  usually  arranged.  It 
is  addressed  to  a  certain  Theophilus,  probably 
a  gentile  Christian  ;  claims  to  be  based  upon 
careful  investigation  of  the  apostolic  testi- 
mony ;  and  was  intended  to  furnish  The- 
ophilus, as  well  as  other  readers,  with  assured 
knowledge  of  the  truth  in  which  he  had 
been  instructed.  Its  narrative  may  be 
divided  as  follows:  1.  Introductory  verses 
(i.  1-4).  2.  The  immediate  preparation  for 
the  appearance  of  Jesus,  consisting  of  the 
annunciations  and  births  of  John  the  Baptist 
and  Jesus,  with  some  significant  events  from 
the  latter's  infancy  and  boyhood  (i.  5-ii.  52). 
3.  The  inauguration  of  Christ's  ministry, 
including  («)  the  ministry  of  John  the  Bap- 
tist, (6)  the  baptism  of  Jesus,  to  which  is 
appended  his  genealogy,  and  (c)  the  tempta- 
tion of  Jesus  (iii.  1-iv.  13).  4.  The  Lord's 
ministry  in  Galilee  (iv.  14-ix.  50).  In  this 
part  of  his  Gospel  Luke  often  follows  the 
same  order  as  Mark,  but  not  always.  He 
also  introduces  more  of  the  teaching  of  Jesus 
than  Mark  does,  in  this  often  corresponding 
with  Matthew.  He  is,  however,  independent 
of  both  Mark  and  Matthew  even  where  he 
covers  the  same  ground,  and  he  has  some 
material  peculiar  to  himself.  Tlie  following 
analysis  will  bring  out  the  progress  of  this 
portion  of  his  narrative  :  (a)  Introductory 
desc-ription  (iv.  14,  15).  (6)  Opening  of  the 
Galilsean  work,  including  the  first  visit  to 
Nazareth,  miracles  in  Capernaum  and  tour 
through  Galilee,  the  call  of  four  disciples 
and  the  healing  of  the  leper  (iv.  IH-v.  16). 
(c)  Rise  of  opposition,  in  the  face  of  which 
Christ  vindicated  his  teaching,  including  the 
cure  of  the  paralytic.  Levi's  call  and  feast, 
discourse  about  fasting,  and  the  Sabbath  con- 
troversy (v.  17-vi.  12).  id)  Organization  of 
the  disciples,  including  the  appdintment  of 
the  twelve  and  Christ's  discourse  on  the 
characteristics  of  true  discipleship  (sermon 
on  the  mount)  (vi.  1.3-49).  (e)  Incidents 
illustrative  of  the  gracious  ministry-  of  Jesus, 
including  the  healing  of  the  centurion's  ser- 


vant, the  raising  of  the  widow  of  Nain's  son, 
the  inquiry  of  John  the  Ba])tist,  and  Christ's 
reply  and  di.scourse  concerning  John,  the 
anointing  of  Jesus  by  a  sinful  woman  (vii.  1- 
50).  (/)  The  extension  of  Christ's  work,  in- 
cluding his  tours  through  Galilee  with  a  com- 
pany of  disciples;  his  teaching  by  parables; 
the  visit  of  his  mother  and  brethren  ;  the  four 
great  miracles  of  stilling  the  tempest,  healing 
the  Gadareiie  demoniac,  and  the  woman  witli 
the  issue  of  blood,  and  raising  Jairus'  daugh- 
ter; the  sending  out  of  the  ajjostles;  Herod's 
desire  to  see  Jesus  and  the  latter's  subsequent 
retirement,  followed  by  the  feeding  of  the 
5000(viii.  1-ix.  17).  (y)  Christ's  instructions 
to  his  disciples  in  view  of  the  close  of  the 
Galilsean  ministry  and  his  coming  death,  in- 
cluding Peter's  confession,  Christ's  prediction 
of  his  death  and  resurrection,  the  transfigu- 
ration aud  the  cure  of  the  demoniac  boy,  warn- 
ings against  pride  (ix.  18-50).  5.  Tlie  jour- 
neyings  of  Jesus  to  Jerusalem  (ix.  51-xix. 
48).  This  part  of  Luke  contains  a  large 
amount  of  material  peculiar  to  him.  It  is 
probably  not  arranged  in  exact  chronological 
order,  but  rather  in  accordance  with  certain 
topics.  Some  of  the  material  given  here 
really  belongs  in  the  Galihean  ministry  (ix. 
57-60;  xiii.  18-21;  i)robably  xi.  14-xiii.  5). 
But  the  section  describes  in  the  main  a  series 
of  journeys  toward  Jerusalem,  ending  in  the 
final  ascent,  with  discourses  appropriate  to 
the  situation.  It  may  be  subdivided  as  fol- 
lows:  ia)  The  departure  from  Galilee  and  in- 
structions concerning  the  true  spirit  of  dis- 
ciples, including  Christ's  rejection  by  a  Sa- 
maritan village,  his  replies  to  three  inquirers, 
the  mission  of  the  seventy,  and  their  return, 
the  lawyer's  question  and  the  parable  of  the 
good  Samaritan,  Christ  in  the  house  of 
Martha  and  Mary,  instructions  about  prayer 
(ix.  51-xi.  13).  (6)  Denunciation  of  the 
Pharisees  and  instructions  concerning  the 
duty  of  confessing  him,  against  covetousness, 
and  concerning  watchftilness,  etc.  (xi.  14- 
xiii.  5).  (<•)  Discourses  illustrative  of  the 
true  Israel  and  of  the  true  service ;  the 
former  including  the  parable  of  the  barren 
fig  tree,  the  woman  with  the  spirit  of  in- 
firmity, the  parables  of  the  mustard  seed 
and  leaven,  the  warning  against  self-decep- 
tion and  the  lamentation  over  Jerusalem  ; 
the  latter  including  the  healing  of  the  drop- 
sical man,  and  the  beautiful  parables  of  the 
wedding  feast,  the  great  supper,  the  lost 
sheep,  the  lo.st  coin,  the  lost  son,  the  unjust 
steward,  the  rich  man  and  Lazarus,  the  im- 
portunate widow,  interspersed  with  incidents 
and  teachings  on  the  same  general  subject 
(xiii.  6-xviii.  30).  id)  The  final  ascent  to 
Jerusalem,  including  a  renewed  prediction 
of  death  and  resurrection,  the  healing  of 
Bartimseus,  the  conversion  of  Zacchseus,  the 
parable  of  the  pounds,  and  the  triumphal 
entry  (xviii.  31-xix.  48).  6.  The  last  week 
in  Jerusalem,  including  the  final  teachings 
of  Jesus  in  the  temple  and  to  his  disciples, 


Luke 


442 


Lycaonia 


his  arrest,  trials,  crucifixion,  and  burial 
(xx.-xxiii.  5H).  7.  ApiJcarauces  of  Jesus 
after  his  resurrection,  his  last  directions  to 
his  disciples  to  jireach  his  gospel,  and  his 
final  departure  (ascension)  from  them  (xxiv.)- 

St.  Luke  states  (i.  3)  that  his  narrative  is 
written  "in  order.''  This  use  of  this  phrase 
elsewhere  (Acts  xi.  4 ;  xviii.  23 ;  and  Greek 
text  of  Luke  viii.  1  and  Acts  iii.  24) 
shows  that  he  does  not  necessarily  mean 
exact  chronological  order.  While  chrono- 
logical in  general  outline,  his  arrangement  is 
often  topical.  The  book,  however,  is,  like  The 
Acts,  a  careful  and  systematic  presentation 
of  the  life  of  the  Founder  of  Christianity. 
Luke  also  expressly  disclaims  personal  ac- 
quaintance with  Je-sus,  and  bases  his  work 
on  the  testimony  of  eyewitnesses  (apostles) 
whose  reports  he  had  accurately  studied. 
His  Gospel  shows  a  truly  historical  spirit. 
This  appears  e.  g.  in  the  personal  account  of  the 
origin  of  John  the  Baptist  and  of  Jesus,  in 
his  dating  by  secular  events  the  birth  of 
Jesus  and  the  public  appearance  of  John 
(ii.  1,  2;  iii.  1,  2),  and  his  presentation  of  the 
ministry  of  Christ  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
bring  out  its  leading  religious  ideas,  its  tri- 
umph over  opposition,  and  the  historical 
foundation  which  it  laid  for  Christianity  (see 
the  analysis  above).  It  shows  also  the  evan- 
gelist's fondness  for  those  aspects  of  the 
Lord's  teaching  and  Avork,  whereby  he  re- 
vealed himself  as  the  divine-human  Saviour 
of  men.  Christ's  gospel  is  here  described 
as  universal  in  its  mission  (ii.  32;  iii.  6;  iv. 
24-27;  xxiv.  47,  etc.),  a  gospel  for  the  lost 
and  tlie  lowly  (vii.  36-50;  xv. ;  xix.  1-9,  etc.), 
a  message  of  salvation  to  the  poor  and  dis- 
tressed (vi.  20-26;  vii.  11-18;  ix.  56;  xii.  32, 
etc. ) .  It  delineates  the  graciousuess  of  Christ's 
personal  character — his  piety,  compassion, 
charity,  prayerfulness,  holiness,  tenderness. 
In  recording  the  Lord's  utterances  about  the 
rich.  Luke  uses  more  unqualified  language 
than  the  other  evangelists  do  (i.  52,  53 ;  vi. 
24,  25;  xvi.  25,  etc.),  though  he  also  makes  it 
clear  that  he  did  not  understand  Christ  to 
denounce  rich  men  as  such,  but  only  so  far 
as  they  put  trust  in  riches  and  were  not  rich 
toward  God  (xii.  21).  In  what  he  reports 
about  Samaritans  also  (x.  33  ;  xvii.  16)  he 
doubtless  wished  to  illustrate  the  destruction 
of  national  jirejudices  by  the  gospel.  In 
short  this  Gospel  presents  Christ  as  establish- 
ing a  religion  whfch  seeks  to  uplift  and  save 
s'llfering  and  sinful  humanity.  The  writer's 
medical  vocabulary  also  occasionally  ap])ears 
and  confirms  the  belief  that  he  was  Luke. 
See  iv.  35,  "  when  the  devil  had  throtm  him  ; '' 
iv.  38,  "holden  with  a  (treat  fever;"  v.  18, 
"  taken  with  a  palsy  ;  "  vi.  19,  "  healed  them  ;  " 
viii.  44,  "the  iissue  of  her  blood  stanched;'' 
X.  34,  "bound  up  his  wounds,  ponvhuj  in  oil 
and  wine"  (see  Hobart,  Medical  Languaae  of 
St.  Lvl-e). 

The  date  of  the  composition  of  this  Gos])el 
depends  on  that  of  The  Acts.     1  Tim.  v.  18, 


however,  seems  to  contain  a  quotation  from 
it.  If  so,  it  was  certainly  written  before 
A.  D.  66.  It  xnay  have  been  composed  during 
the  two  years  (.58-60)  during  which  Luke  was 
in  Palestine  while  Paul  was  imprisoned  in 
Csesarea.  Or  the  materials  may  then  have 
been  gathered  and  the  book  written  after- 
wards in  Rome.  It  is  best  to  assign  it,  some- 
what vaguely,  to  the  years  58-65.  The  author 
apparently  intended  it  to  be  the  first  of  a 
series  of  works  on  the  origin  of  Christianity, 
for  the  preface  evidently  contemi)lated  the 
work  of  the  apostles  as  well  as  the  life  of 
Christ  (i.  1,  2),  and  the  brevity  of  the  report 
of  Christ's  parting  instructions  in  the  last 
chapter  was  j)robably  due  to  the  author's  in- 
tention to  resume  the  subject  as  he  does  in 
the  fir.st  chapter  of  The  Acts.  There  is  abun- 
dant evidence  for  its  use  in  the  churches  of 
the  second  century  as  an  authoritative  gospel ; 
see  Gospel.  It  was  mutilated  and  then 
used  by  the  Gnostic  Marcion,  in  the  second 
quarter  of  the  second  century,  as  the  only 
true  gospel,  which  at  least  shows  its  authority 
before  that  time.  The  first  formal  mention 
of  Luke  as  its  author,  so  far  as  our  extant 
literature  shows,  occurs  about  A.  D.  170  (in  the 
Muratorian  Fragment),  but  there  is  no  reason 
to  doubt  that  the  tradition  had  been  long  es- 
tablished and  rested  on  good  grounds. 

G.  T.  P. 

Lu'na-tic  [insane,  with  lucid  intervals]. 

The  Greek  word  is  derived  from  selene, 
moon,  as  the  English  word  is  from  the  Latin 
liiita,  moon,  for  it  was  believed  that  the  dis- 
ease is  affected  by  the  light  or  by  the  jieriodic 
changes  of  the  moon.  Lunacy  is  distinguished 
from  demoniacal  possession  (Mat.  iv.  24),  for 
it  was  often  due  to  other  causes.  Yet  posses- 
sion by  a  demon  might  give  rise  to  lunacy 
(Mat.  xvii.  15  with  Mark  ix.  17).  A  com- 
parison of  these  two  passages  has  led  to  the 
opinion  that  the  Greek  word  denotes  epilepsj-. 
Hence  R.  Y.  uses  epileptic  instead  of  lunatic. 

Luz  [almond  tree]. 

1.  A  Canaanite  town,  afterwards  Bethel 
(Gen.  xxviii.  19;  xxxv.  6;  xlviii.  3;  Josh, 
xviii.  13;  Judg.  i.  23).  In  Josh.  xvi.  2  it  is 
distinguished  from  Bethel  and  located  to  the 
west.     See  Bethel. 

2.  A  town  in  the  Hittite  country,  built  by 
an  inhabitant  of  Luz  in  mount  Ephraim,  who 
betrayed  that  town  to  the  Israelites  and  was 
allowed  by  them  to  depart  with  his  family 
uninjured  (Judg.  i.  22-26).  Site  unknown. 
About  12  miles  southeast  by  east  of  Sidon  is 
the  town  Luezeh,  and  4'  miles  west  by  north 
of  Banias  is  the  ruin  Luweiziyeh. 

Lyc-a-o'ni-a  [popularly  interpreted  as  per- 
taining to  king  Lycaon  or  abounding  in  were- 
wolves]. 

An  elevated,  rugged,  inland  district  of 
Asia  Minor,  bounded  on  the  north  by  Gala- 
tia,  on  the  south  by  Cilicia  and  Isauria.  on 
the  east  by  Cappadocia,  and  on  the  west  by 
Phrygia.     It  was  mainly  suitable  for  pastur- 


Lycia 


443 


Lysias 


age  only.  Its  peculiar  dialect,  probably 
mingled  (ireok  and  Syriac,  was  still  spoken 
when  Paul  visited  the  district  and  preached 
in  three  of  its  cities,  Iconium,  Deibe,  and 
Lystra  (Acts  xiii.  51-xiv.  23,  especially  11). 

Ly'ci-a  [explained  as  pertaining  to  Lycus, 
son  of  Fandiou  (Herod  i.  173)]. 

A  i)roviuce  of  Asia  Minor,  jutting  south- 
ward into  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Caria,  Phrygia, 
and  Paiuphylia.  Paul  on  his  last  voyage  to 
Jerusalem  passed  Khodes,  an  island  oti"  its 
western  coast,  and  lauded  at  Patara,  within 
its  limits,  where  he  took  ship  for  Phoenicia 
{Acts  xxi.  1,  2).  On  his  voyage  to  Kome  he 
landed  at  Myra,  another  city  of  Lycia, 
whence  he  sailed  in  an  Alexandrian  vessel 
bound  for  Italj'  (xxvii.  o,  6). 

Lyd'da. 

A  village  of  considerable  size  near  Joppa 
(Acts  ix.  33;  Antiq.  xx.  G,  2),  probably  the 
town  called  Lod  in  the  O.  T.  The  gospel 
€arly  took  root  in  it  (Acts  ix.  32).  Shortly 
before  153  B.  c.  the  town  with  the  district 
about  it  formed  a  distinct  government  in 
connection  with  Samaria,  but  in  145  B.  C.  it 
was  transferred  to  .Tudaea  (1  Mac.  xi.  34  ;  cp. 
28;  X.  30,  38).  Peter  visited  it,  and  his  cure 
of  .lEneas  through  the  name  of  Jesus  re- 
sulted in  a  large  increase  of  disciples  (Acts  ix. 
33-35).  It  was  burnt  by  Cestius  in  the  time 
of  Nero,  but  was  soon  rebuilt  (War  ii.  19,  1). 
See  Lod. 

Lyd'i-a  [nominally  from  Ludos,  its  reputed 
founder  (Herod  i.  7)]. 

1.  A  region  on  the  western  coast  of  Asia 
Minor,  with  Sardis  for  its  capital.  Thyatira 
and  Philadelphia  were  within  its  limits.  It 
was  very  fertile  and  had  a  mild  climate,  and 
consequently  it  was  densely  populated.  The 
customs  of  its  inhabitants  were  Semitic  in 
character,  and  their  religion  was  apparently 
a  mingling  of  Syrian  and  Phrygian  worship 
(Duncker).  The  state  rose  to  power  about 
689  B.  c,  under  Gyges,  when  the  Greeks  on 
the  coast  and  the  tribes  of  Asia  Minor  were 
subdued.  In  549  B.  c.  Crcesus,  the  last  king, 
was  defeated  by  Cyrus,  and  Lydia  became  a 
Persian  province.  It  never  regained  inde- 
pendence. Antiochus  III.,  of  Syria,  was 
forced  to  cede  it  to  the  Romans  (cp.  1  Mac. 
viii.  8).  Many  Jews  dwelt  there  (Antiq.  xii. 
3,  4),  and  Christian  churches  were  founded 
(Rev.  i.  11). 

2.  A  woman  of  Thyatira,  a  town  of  Lydia, 
though  it  is  not  known  whether  this  was  the 
origin  of  her  name.  Thyatira  was  noted  for 
its  dyeing,  and  Lydia  made  her  living  in 
Philippi,  to  which  she  had  removed,  by  sell- 
ing purple  dyes  or  dyed  goods.  She  was  a 
"worshiper  of  God  before  Paul  arrived  at 
Philippi.  She  received  the  gospel  of  Christ 
gladly,  and,  though  by  birth  an  Asiatic,  be- 
came Paul's  first  convert  in  Macedonia  and 
Europe.  When  Paul  and  Silas  were  released 
from  prison,  to  which  they  had  been  con- 


signed after  a  riot  of  which  they  were  the 
innocent  cause,  they  were  received  into  the 
house  of  Lydia,  who  seems  to  have  been  a 
woman  of  some  wealth,  and  who  doubtless 
showed  them  all  needed  care  (Acts  xvi.  14, 
15,  40). 

Ly-sa'ni-as  [ending  sadness]. 

A  tetrarch  of  Abilene  in  the  fifteenth  year 
of  Tiberius  (Luke  iii.  1).  Some  critics  have 
thought  that  Lysauias,  son  of  Ptolemy,  who 
ruled  Chalcis  in  Ccelesyria  during  the  years 
40  to  34  B.  c.  (Antiq.  xiv.  13,  3;  xv.  4,  1), 
gave  name  to  this  tetrarchy,  and  that  Luke 
is  in  error.  But  the  highest  authorities  ex- 
plain the  facts  in  a  veiy  diflerent  manner. 
Ly.sauias  who  ruled  Chalcis  is  never  called 
tetrarch,  and  Abila  nowhere  appears  in  his 
dominions.  From  Antiq.  xv.  10,  1-3,  it  ap- 
pears that  the  house  or  territory  of  Lysanias 
was  hired  by  Zenodorus  about  25  B.  c,  be- 
came known  as  the  country  of  Zenodorus, 
lay  between  Trachonitis  and  Galilee,  chiefly 
about  Paneas  and  Ulatha,  and  hence  appar- 
ently did  not  include  Chalcis  in  Cujlesyria, 
and  strictly  speaking  was  distinct  from  Ba- 
tanea,  Trachonitis,  and  Auranitis.  These 
districts  were  bestowed  on  Hei'od  the  Great 
and  passed  to  his  S(m  Philip  the  tetrarch, 
Augustus  confirming  to  him  Batanea,  Tra- 
chonitis, Auranitis,  and  part  of  the  house  of 
Zenodorus  (xvii.  11,  4)  which  included  Paneas 
(8, 1).  In  A.  D.  37  the  emperor  Caligula  made 
Herod  Agrippa  king  of  the  tetrarchy  of 
Philip  and  added  the  tetrarchy  of  Lysanias 
(xviii.  6,  10).  This  latter  tetrarchy  had  its 
capital  at  Abila,  some  eighteen  miles  north- 
west of  Damascus,  and  was  distinct  from  the 
kingdom  of  Chalcis  (xix.  5,  1 ;  xx.  7,  1  ;  War 
ii.  11,  5).  Although  far  north,  it  may  have 
been  the  remaining  part  of  the  country  of 
Zenodorus,  which  after  his  death  and  the 
division  of  bis  land,  as  before  mentioned, 
had  been  formed  into  a  tetrarchy  or  kingdom 
under  a  younger  Lysanias,  perhaps  of  the 
same  line  as  the  former  ruler  of  Chalcis. 

Ly'si-as. 

1.  A  general  of  the  army  of  Syria  during 
the  reigns  of  Antiochus  Epiiibanes  and  An- 
tiochus Eupator.  When  Antiochus  Epiphanes 
went  to  Persia  about  165  b.  c,  he  appointed 
Lysias,  who  was  of  royal  blood,  viceroy  dur- 
ing his  absence,  with  the  duty  of  quelling 
the  .Jewish  insurrection  under  the  Maccabees 
(1  Mac.  iii.  32-37).  After  operating  through 
others,  Lysias  found  it  necessary  to  take  the 
field  himself;  but  he  was  defeated  by  Judas 
with  great  loss  (.38-40  ;  iv.  1-22,  2R-35).  When 
the  news  of  Antiochus'  death  arrived  in  163 
B.  C,  Lj'sias  seized  the  reins  of  government 
and  ruled  in  the  name  of  the  young  Antio- 
chus, although  the  late  king  had  named 
Philip  for  regent  during  the  minority  of  the 
heir  to  the  throne  (vi.  14-17).  In  this  capacity 
Lysias  undertook  another  campaign  against 
the  Jews.  He  gained  a  victory  over  Judas 
and  laid  siege  to  Jerusalem ;  but  the  news 


Lystra 


444 


Maaseiah 


that.  Philip  was  on  his  way  from  Persia  to 
claim  the  regency,  compelled  him  to  make 
terms  of  peace  with  the  Jews  and  return  to 
Antioch  (vi.  28-(J3).  He  maintained  himself 
successfully  against  Philip,  but  was  put  to 
death  in  162  b.  f.  by  Demetrius  I.  (vii.  1-4). 
2.  Roman  commandant  at  Jerusalem,  who 
rescued  Paul  from  the  mob  of  Jews  (Acts 
xxii.  24).    See  Claudius  Lysias. 

Lys'tra. 

A  city  of  Lycaonia,  where  Paul  cured  an 
impotent  man,  and  would  have  been  wor- 
shiped as  a  god  had  he  not  refused.  It  was 
there  also  that  he  was  stoned  and  left  for 
dead  (Acts  xiv.  6-21 ;  2  Tim.  iii.  11).  Either 
at  Lystra  or  Derbe  he  first  met  Timothy 
(Acts  xvi.  1,  2).  The  site  is  Khatyn  Serai, 
east  of  Icouium,  as  proven  by  an  inscription 
(Wolfe's  Expedition,  142  ;  Eamsay,  Historical 
Geography,  332). 


M. 


Ma'a-cah,  iu  A.  V.  often  Maachah,  and  in 
E.  V.  of  Josh.  xiii.  13  Maacath,  the  archaic 
(Canaauite)  spelling  [compression,  oppres- 
sion]. 

1.  A  place  in  Syria  (2  Sam.  x.  6,  8),  some- 
times called  Aram-maacah  or  Syria-maachah 
(1  Chron.  xix.  6,  7) ;  see  Aeam  2  (4).  Its 
inhabitants  were  descended  from  Nahor  (Gen. 
xxii.  24). 

2.  Wife  of  Machir,  the  son  of  Manasseh  (1 
Chron.  vii.  15,  16). 

3.  A  concubine  of  Caleb,  the  son  of  Hezron 
(1  Chron.  ii.  48). 

4.  Wife  of  Jehiel  and  ancestress  of  king 
Saul  (1  Chron.  viii.  29  ;  ix.  35). 

5.  Daughter  of  Talmai,  king  of  Geshur. 
She  became  one  of  David's  wives  and  mother 
of  Absalom  (2  Sam.  iii.  3). 

6.  Father  of  Hanan,  one  of  David's  mighty 
men  (1  Chron.  xi.  43). 

7.  Father  of  the  ruler  of  the  Simeonites  in 
David's  reign  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  16). 

8.  Father  of  Solomon's  royal  contemporary 
Achish  of  Gath  (1  Kin.  ii.  39) ;  see  Achish. 

9.  Wife  of  Eehoboam,  and  daughter,  or  in 
view  of  2  Chron.  xiii.  2  perhaps,  the  grand- 
daughter, of  Absalom  (1  Kin.  xv.  2;  2  Chron. 
xi.  20-22),  and  mother  of  king  Abijah.  After 
the  death  of  the  latter,  she  remained  queen- 
mother  (g'birah)  ;  but  her  grandson  Asa  took 
this  position  from  her  because  she  had  made 
an  abominable  image  for  an  Asherah  (2  Chron. 
XV.  16  R.  v.).  She  is  called  Michaiah  in  2 
Chron.  xiii.  2  ;  but  this  is  probably  a  textual 
corruption,  for  in  the  seven  other  places 
where  her  name  occurs  it  is  Maacah. 

Ma-ac'a-thite  in  A.  V.  Maachathite,  but 
in  Deut.  iii.  14  Maachathi,  the  Hebrew  form 
instead  of  the  English. 

A  descendant  of  a  person  named  Maacah, 
or  a  native  or  inhabitant  of  the  Syrian  king- 


dom of  Maacah  or  of  the  town  of  Beth-maa- 
cah  in  Naphtali  (Josh.  xii.  5 ;  2  Sam.  xxiii. 
34). 

Ma'a-chah.     See  Maacah. 

Ma-ach'a-thi.     See  Maacathite. 

Ma'a-dai  [perhaps,  wavering]. 

A  son  of  Bani,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  34). 

Ma-a-di'ah  [ornament  of  Jehovah]. 

A  chief  of  the  priests  who  returned  from 
the  Babylonian  captivity  (Neh.  xii.  5,  7).  In 
the  next  generation,  a  father's  house  among 
the  priests,  which  occupies  the  same  position 
in  the  corresponding  catalogue,  bears  the 
name  Moadiah  (ver.  17).  The  reason  for  this 
traditional  variation  is  not  yet  clear.  Per- 
haps the  name  should  always  be  pronounced 
Moadiah. 

Ma'ai. 

A  priest  who  blew  a  trumpet  at  the  dedi- 
cation of  the  second  temple  (Neh.  xii.  36). 

Ma'a-leh-a-crab'bim.     See  Akrabbim. 

Ma'a-rath  [a  place  bare  of  trees]. 

A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  59),  doubtless  north  of  Hebron  and  near 
Halhul. 

Ma'a-reh-ge'ba  [place  destitute  of  trees 
at  Geba]. 

A  place  adjacent  to  Geba  (Judg.  xx.  33, 
E.  v.).  On  the  margin  it  is  translated  the 
meadow  of  Geba  or  Gibeah  ;  in  the  text  of 
A.  v.,  the  meadows  of  Gibeah. 

Ma-a-se'iah  [work  of  Jehovah]. 

1.  A  Levite  of  the  second  degree,  who 
acted  as  porter  in  the  reign  of  David  (1  Chron. 
XV.  18),  and  played  a  psaltery  (ver.  20). 

2.  One  of  the  captains  of  hundreds,  who 
cooperated  with  the  high  priest  Jehoiada  in 
overthroM'ing  Athaliah  and  placing  Joash  on 
the  throne  of  Judah  (2  Chron.  xxiii.  1). 

3.  An  officer  who  seems  to  have  acted  with 
Jeiel  the  Levite  in  keeping  a  list  of  the  mili- 
tary men  in  Uzziah's  reign  (2  Chron.  xxvi. 

11). 

4.  A  prince  of  the  royal  house,  a  son  of 
Jotham  more  probably  than  of  Ahaz,  since 
the  latter  was  too  young  to  have  adult  chil- 
dren. He  was  slain  during  Pekah's  invasion 
of  Judah  (2  Chron.  xxviii.  7). 

5.  The  governor  of  Jerusalem  in  Josiah's 
reign  (2  Chron.  xxxiv.  8). 

6.  Ancestor  of  Seraiah  and  Baruch  (Jer. 
xxxii.  12;  Ii.  59,  A.  V.).  The  name  is  radi- 
cally diflerent  from  that  which  is  elsewhere 
represented  by  Maaseiah.     Sec  Mahseiah. 

7.  Father  of  the  false  prophet  Zedekiah 
(Jer.  xxix.  21). 

8.  A  priest,  father  of  the  temple  official 
Zephaniah  (Jer.  xxi.  1  ;  xxix.  25). 

9.  Son  of  Shallum  and  doorkeeper  of  the 
temple  (Jer.  xxxv.  4).  He  was  doubtless  a 
Levite  (1  Chron.  xxvi.  1).     See  Shallum. 

10.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Shelah. 
He  lived  at  Jerusalem  after  the  captivity 
(Neh.  xi.  5). 


Maasai 


445 


Maccabee 


11.  A  Benjaraite,  whose  descendants  lived 
at  Jurusalem  after  the  captivity  (Xeh.  xi.  7). 

12-15.  A  man  of  the  house  of  Pahath- 
nioab  and  three  priests,  one  a  member  of  the 
liouse  of  tlie  high  priest  Jeshua,  one  of  the 
house  of  Harim,  and  the  third  of  the  house 
of  Pashhur,  each  of  vvliom  put  away  his  for- 
eign wife  (Ezra  x.  18,  21,  22,  30). 

l(j.  Father  of  that  Azariah  who  repaired 
the  wall  of  Jerusalem  beside  his  house  (Neh. 
iii.  23). 

17.  A  chief  of  the  people  who  signed  the 
covenant  with  Nehemiah  (Xeh.  x.  25). 

18.  A  priest  who  marched  in  the  pro- 
cession at  the  dedication  of  the  wall  of  Jeru- 
salem (Neh.  xii.  41),  perhaps  one  of  the  six 
who  stood  by  Ezra  when  he  read  the  law  to 
the  people  (viii.  4). 

19.  A  Levite,  probably,  who  marched  in 
the  procession  at  the  dedication  of  the  wall 
(Neh.  xii.  42),  perhaps  one  of  the  thirteen 
who  expounded  the  law  as  it  was  read  to  the 
people  (viii.  7). 

Ma'a-sai,  in  A.  V.  Ma-as'i-ai  [perhaps, 
work  of  Jehovah]. 

A  priest  of  the  family  of  Immer  (1  Chron. 
ix.  12).  The  name  may  be  an  abbreviation 
of  Maaseiah  by  curtailment  or  possibly 
another  form  of  that  word  ;  or  perhaps  it 
is  an  accidental  transposition  of  the  letters 
of  Amasai. 

Ma'atli. 

An  ancestor  of  Christ,  who  lived  after  the 
time  of  Zerubbabel  (Luke  iii.  26). 

Ma'az  [anger]. 

A  descendant  of  Judah  through  Jerahmeel 
(1  Chron.  ii.  27). 

Ma-a-zi'ah  [consolation  of  Jehovah]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Aaron.  His  family 
had  grown  to  a  father's  house  by  the  time 
of  David  and  was  made  the  last  of  the 
twenty-four  courses  into  which  the  priests 
■were  divided  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  1,  6,  18). 


2.  A  priest  who,  doubtless  in  behalf  of  a 
father's  house,  sealed  the  covenant  in  the 
days  of  Nehemiah  (Neh.  x.  8). 

Mac'ca-bee.* 

A  family,  also  called  Asmoua;an  from  one 
of  its  ancestors,  which  ruled  Judaui  from 
166  B.  c.  to  37  B.  c. ;  see  Asmon^an.  The 
title  Maccabaeus,  in  A.  V.  Maccabeus,  was 
first  given  to  Judas,  third  son  of  Matta- 
thias  (1  Mac.  ii.  4),  but  at  an  earlj'  date  it 
was  transferred  to  the  entire  family  and  to 
others  who  had  a  part  in  the  same  events. 
The  origin  and  meaning  of  the  term  have 
eluded  research.  It  is  usually  derived  from 
makkabah,  a  hammer,  in  allusion  to  the 
crushing  blows  inflicted  by  Judas  and  his 
successors  upon  their  enemies.  It  has  also 
been  explained  as  composed  of  the  initials 
of  the  Hebrew  words  in  the  sentence,  "Who 
is  like  to  thee  among  the  gods,  Jehovah  ?", 
or  in  the  sentence,  "  What  is  like  my 
father?",  or  as  being  the  Hebrew  Avord 
makhi,  extinguisher.  None  of  these  inter- 
pretations is,  however,  more  than  a  con- 
jecture. The  first  of  the  family  mentioned 
is  Mattathias,  an  aged  pi-iest,  who,  driven 
to  desperation  by  the  outrages  of  Anti- 
ochus  Epiphanes,  raised  a  revolt  against  him 
and  fled  to  the  mountains,  followed  by  those 
who  were  zealous  for  the  faith  of  Israel. 
Mattathias  died  about  two  years  afterwards, 
but  the  revolt  was  carried  on  by  his  five 
sons.  Judas,  the  third  son,  was  the  firt-t 
military  leader,  166  B.  c.  By  avoiding 
pitched  battles,  and  harassing  the  Syrians  by 
vigorous  and  per.sistent  guerilla  warfare,  he 
and  his  devoted  band  defeated  and  routed 
every  detachment  of  the  Syrian  army  sent 
against  them.  He  retook  Jerusalem,  purified 
the  temple,  and  restored  the  daily  sacrifice. 
A  feast  to  celebrate  this  restoration  was  in- 
stituted and  was  kept  annually  thereafter. 
This  was  the  winter  feast  of  dedication  al- 


*The  Maccab.i:.4.n  Family. 

Mattathias. 

1 

L 

Simon, 
143-135. 

1 

1 
Judas, 
166-160. 

Eleazar.                         Jonathan, 
160-143. 

Judas. 

John  Hyrcanus, 
135-105. 

1 

Mattathias.           Daughter. 

1 

jstobu 

104. 

us. 

1 
Antigonus. 

1                                                                1               1 
Alexander  .Tannaeus  married  Alexandra,       Son.        Son. 

104-78.                      1              78-69. 

Hvrcanus, 

"63-10. 

1 

Aristobulus, 

69-63. 

1 

'                                       1 
Alexandra  married  .\lexander 

1 

1 

Antigonus, 

40-37. 

Mariamne,  wife  of  Herod  the  Great.              Aristobulus. 

Macedonia 


446 


Machir 


luded  to  in  John  x.  22.  Judas  fell  in  battle 
160  B.  c,  whereupon  his  younger  brother 
Jonathan,  who  was  already  high  priest,  as- 
sumed command  of  the  army.  About  this. time 
John  the  eldest  brother  was  captured  and 
killed  by  the  children  of  Jambri  (1  Mac.  xi. 
36)  ;  and  shortly  before  this  another  brother, 
Eleazar,  had  been  crushed  to  death  under- 
neath an  elephant  which  he  had  wounded  in 
battle.  During  the  leadership  of  Jonathan 
the  Syrians  were  occupied  with  civil  war,  so 
that  not  only  was  Judiea  left  in  peace,  but  the 
favor  of  the  Jews  was  sued  for,  and  Jonathan 
was  able  to  strengthen  his  position.  He 
made  a  treaty  with  the  Romans  and  also 
with  the  Spartans.  He  was  treacherously 
slain  by  Tryphon,  a  Syrian  general,  in  143 
B.  c.  On  his  death  the  leadership  fell  to 
Simon,  the  last  remaining  son  of  Mattathias. 
The  most  important  event  that  fell  under 
his  rule  was  the  granting  of  Jewish  in- 
dependence by  the  Syrian  king  Demetrius 
II.  Coins  were  struck  bearing  the  name  of 
Simon,  and  contracts  were  dated  "  in  the 
first  year  of  Simon  high  priest  and  gover- 
nor." Simon  and  two  of  his  sons  were 
treacherously  slain  by  his  son-in-law  Ptol- 
emy, in  Dok  near  Jericho  133  B.  c.  The 
one  son  who  escaped,  John,  assumed  the 
power  and  was  known  as  John  Hyrcanus. 
He  was  a  shrewd  and  vigorous  ruler  and 
enlarged  his  province.  He  conquered  the 
Edomites  and  merged  them  in  the  Jewish 
people.  After  a  long  and  pro.sperous  reign  he 
died  a  natural  death,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  son  AristobuUis,  a  cruel  and  unprincipled 
man  who  killed  his  mother  and  brother. 
He  changed  the  theocracy  into  a  kingdom, 
calling  himself  king,  but  retained  at  the 
same  time  the  high-priesthood.  After  a 
reign  of  one  year  he  was  succeeded  by  a 
brother,  Alexander  Jannseus,  during  whose 
reign  the  country  was  torn  by  the  dissen- 
sions of  the  Sadducees  and  Pharisees.  He 
had  a  troubled  reign  of  27  years,  and  was 
followed  by  his  widow  Alexandra,  who 
reigned  for  9  years.  She  left  two  sons,  Hyr- 
canus and  Aristobulus,  who  quarreled  about 
the  succession.  Hyrcanus  was  established  as 
high  priest  while  Aristobulus  seized  the  civil 
authority.  Civil  war  broke  out.  The  Romans 
interfered,  and  at  first  upheld  Aristobulus,  but 
later  deposed  him  and  carried  him  to  Rome. 
Hyrcanus  was  nominally  king,  but  the  real 
ruler  was  Antipas,  or  Antipater,  an  Idumfean. 
who  had  been  appointed  procurator  of  Judfea 
under  Hyrcanus  by  the  Romans.  A  period 
of  quarrels  and  dissensions  among  the  mem- 
bers of  the  reigning  family  followed,  during 
which  time  Antipater  steadily  grew  in  influ- 
ence and  power  with  the  Romans,  until,  the 
Maccabseans  falling  into  disfavor,  the  crown 
of  Judiea  was  given  to  Antipater'sson,  Herod. 

For  1, 2. 3.  and  4  ISIaccabees,  see  Apocrypha. 

Mac-e-do'ni-a. 

A  country  lying  immediately  to  the  north 
of  Greece.     Little  is  known  of  it  prior  to  560 


B.  c,  and  for  more  than  200  years  afterwards 
it  possessed  no  special  interest.  But  under 
Philip  of  Macedon  (359-336  B.  c.)  and  his 
yet  more  celebrated  son  Alexander  the  Great 
(336-323  B.  c),  it  rose  to  world-wide  power 
and  imperial  importance  ;  see  Philip  1  and 
Alexander  1.  Under  his  successors  the  em- 
pire was  divided,  and  the  country  declined, 
till  in  16b  B.  C.  it  was  conquered  by  the 
Romans,  and  in  142  b.  c.  became  a  Roman 
province.  Macedonia  is  not  mentioned  by 
name  in  the  O.  T.  ;  but  the  Macedonian  em- 
pire is  referred  to  in  Dan.  ii.  39  ;  vii.  6  ;  viii. 
5,  8.  In  1  Mac.  i.  1  Chittini  is  Macedonia. 
Paul,  summoned  in  a  vision  by  a  man  of 
Macedonia,  on  his  second  journey,  passed 
from  Asia  into  Europe,  and  jjreached  the 
gospel  in  that  continent  fir.st  on  Macedonian 
soil.  At  this  time  he  passed  through  the 
Macedonian  towns  of  Neapolis,  Philippi, 
Amphipolis,  Apollonia,  Thessalonica,  and 
Bercea  (Acts  xvi.  9-xvii.  14).  When  Paul  de- 
parted, Silas  and  Timothy  continued  the  work 
(xvii.  14,  15  ;  xviii.  5).  Paul  revisited  the 
region  (xix.  21,  22  ;  xx.  1-3  ;  cp.  2  Cor.  ii. 
13 ;  vii.  5 ;  1  Tim.  i.  3).  Gaius  and  Aris- 
tarchus,  Macedonians,  were  Paul's  com- 
panions in  travel,  and  were  in  danger  on 
his  account  during  the  riot  at  Ephesus 
(Acts  xix.  29).  Secundus,  also  a  Mace- 
donian, was  one  of  those  who  waited  for 
him  at  Troas,  when  for  the  last  time  he 
was  to  leave  Philippi  on  his  way  to  Jerusa- 
lem (xx.  4).  Paul's  converts  in  Macedonia 
made  a  collection  for  the  poor  Christians  of 
the  Jewish  capital  (Rom.  xv.  26).  They  also 
ministered  to  the  wants  of  the  apostle  him- 
self (2  Cor.  viii.  1-5),  the  Philippians  being 
the  most  prominent  in  the  work  of  charity 
(Phil.  iv.  15). 

Mach-ban'nai,  in  A.  V.  Mach'ba-nai  [per- 
haps, clothed  with  a  cloak]. 

One  of  the  Gadite  heroes  who  joined 
David  at  Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.   13). 

Mach'be-na,  in  A.  V.  Machbenah  [a  bond 
or  cloak]. 

A  town  of  Judah,  to  judge  from  the  con- 
text (1  Chron.  ii.  49).     See  Cabbox. 

Ma'cM. 

Father  of  the  spy  from  the  tribe  of  Gad 
(Num.  xiii.  15). 

Ma'cMr  [sold]. 

1.  The  firstborn  and  only  son  of  Manasseh 
(Gen.  1.  23  ;  Josh.  xvii.  1).  His  mother  was 
an  Aramitess  (1  Chron.  vii.  14).  He  was  the 
founder  of  the  family  of  the  Machirites, 
which  would  have  been  the  sole  family  of 
Manasseh.  But  as  posterity  increased,  new 
families  were  set  apart  from  the  main  line 
through  the  firstborn  ;  and  thus  Machir  be- 
came one  among  the  families  of  Manasseh 
(Num.  xxvi.  29).  The  family,  called  col- 
lectively Machir,  was  a  man  of  war,  and 
sul)jugated  Gilead.  This  district  was  ac- 
cordingly as.signed  to  the  family  for  its  in- 
heritance (Num.  xxxii.  39,  40 ;  Josh.  xvii.  1). 


Machmas 


447 


Magdala 


and  was  given  by  Moses.  The  name  of 
Machir  was  once  used  poetically  for  the 
whole  tribe  of  Manasseh,  west  as  well  as  east 
of  the  Jordan  {.Tudg.  v.  14). 

2.  A  son  of  Ammiel,  in  Lo-debar,  east  of 
the  Jordan  (2  Sam.  is.  4,  5),  who  brought  pro- 
visions to  David  during  the  rebellion  of  Ab- 
salom (xvii.  27 >. 

Machmas.    See  MicHMASH. 

Mach-na-de'bai. 

A  son  of  Bani,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  40). 

Mach-pe'lah  [duplication,  doubling]. 

A  i)lace  before  Mamre,  where  was  a  field 
with  trees  and  a  cave  belonging  to  Ephron, 
a  Hittite  (Gen.  xxiii.  9.  17.  19).  The  place 
was  purchased  by  Abraham  for  400  shekels 
of  silver  in  order  to  use  the  cave  as  a  sepul- 
cher  for  Sarah,  his  wife.  He  himself  was 
buried  there  by  his  sons,  Isaac  and  Ishmael 
(xxv.  9,  10).  There  also  Isaac  and  Rebekah 
were  buried,  so  likewise  were  Leah  and 
Jacob  (xxxv.  29;  xlvii.  28-31;  xlix.  29-33; 
1. 12, 13),  and  perhaps  others  of  whom  we  have 
no  record.  ■  The  cave  is  probably  correctly 
identified  as  that  beneath  the  great  mosque 
at  Hebron.  Christians  have  all  along  been 
excluded  from  the  mosque  and  the  cavern 
beneath ;  but  the  Prince  of  Wales  on  April 
7th,  1862,  the  Crown  Prince  of  Prussia  in 
November,  1869,  and  the  sons  of  the  Prince 
of  Wales  in  1 882,  were  permitted  to  make  an 
imperfect  examination  of  the  sepulchral 
vault.  Not  everything  there  is  genuine,  for 
a  shrine  sacred  to  Joseph  exists,  whereas  we 
learn  from  Scripture  that  he  was  buried  at 
Shechem  (Josh.  xxiv.  32). 

Ma'dai. 

A  people  descended  from  Japheth  (Gen.  x. 
2  ;  1  Chron.  i.  5),  doubtless  the  inhabitants  of 
Media. 


(Josh.  XV.  31 ;  1  Chron.  ii.  49)  ;  perhaps  iden- 
tical with  Beth-marcaboth  (q.  v.). 

Mad'men  [dunghill]. 

A  town  in  Moab  (Jer.  xlviii.  2).  Not  iden- 
tified. 

Mad-me'nah  [dunghill]. 

A  town  near  Jerusalem  and  on  the  north 
(Is.  X.  31).     Not  identified. 

Mad'ness. 

1.  Weakness  or  disorder  of  the  intellect, 
rendering  a  person  void  of  right  reason 
(Deut.  xxviii.  28).  David,  when  feigning  to  be 
mad,  made  marks  on  the  doors  of  the  gate 
and  let  the  spittle  fall  down  upon  his  beard 
(1  Sam.  XXI.  13,  14,  where  the  two  principal 
Hebrew  synonyms  are  used).  It  may  mani- 
fest itself  in  hallucinations  (Acts  xii.  1.5),  or 
in  wild  raving  (1  Cor.  xiv.  23),  or  even  in 
violence,  such  as  hurling  about  firebrands 
and  arrows  (Prov.  xxvi.  18).  Its  symptoms 
are  temporarily  produced  by  drink  (Jer.  xxv. 
16;  li.  7). 

2.  A  state  of  uncontrollable  emotion,  as  in- 
fatuation ( Jer.  1.  38)  or  fury  (Ps.  cii.  8 ;  Luke 
vi.  11  ;  Acts  xxvi.  11). 

Ma'don  [contention,  strife]. 

A  town  of  northern  Canaan,  whose  king 
was  in  confederacy  with  the  king  of  Hazor 
(Josh.  xi.  1-12  ;  xii.  19).  Site  unknown.  On 
the  survey  map  it  stands  with  a  query  at 
Mad  in,  5  miles  west  by  north  of  Tiberias. 

Mag'a-dan. 

A  locality  into  the  borders  of  which  Jesus 
went  after  crossing  the  sea  of  Galilee  (Mat. 
XV.  39,  in  A.  V.  Magdala).  It  seems  to  have 
been  on  the  western  shore  of  the  lake 
and  may  have  included  Magdala  (cp.  Mark 
viii.  10).' 

Mag'toish  [congregating]. 

A  person  or  town,  it  is  uncertain  which 
(Ezra  ii.  30).     If  a  place,  its  site  is  unknown. 


Mejdel  and  the  Plain  of  Gt-nnesart't,  looking  North. 


Ma'di-an.     See  Midi.\n. 

Mad-man'nah  [dunghill]. 

A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 


Mag'da-la  [probably,  a  towerj. 
A  town  which,  according  to  the  Talmud, 
stood  on  the  western   shore  of  the   sea    of 


Magdalene 


448 


Mahalath 


Galilee,  near  Tiberias  and  Hammath,  and 
within  less  than  a  Sabbath  day's  journey  of 
the  water.  It  exists  in  the  wretched  village 
€l-Mejdel,  scarcely  3  miles  north  of  Tiberias. 
In  Mat.  XV.  39  the  R.  V.,  following  the  best 
manuscripts,  substitutes  Magadan  (q.  v.).  See 
also  Magdalene. 

Mag-da-le'ne  [of  Magdala].  Mag-da-le'ne 
is  the  Greek  pronunciation,  like  Abilene; 
Mag'da-lene  is  the  English  pronunciation, 
like  Damascene,  Gadareue,  Nazarene. 

A  designation  of  one  of  the  Marys,  imply- 
ing that  she  came  from  some  Magdala,  prob- 
ably from  the  village  now  called  el-Mejdel, 
on  the  western  shore  of  the  sea  of  Galilee, 
about  3  miles  north-northwest  of  Tiberias. 
The  word  Magdalene  makes  no  such  imputa- 
tion on  the  moral  character  of  Mary  as  is  now 
conveyed  by  the  term  Magdalen. 

Mag'di-el  [honor  of  God]. 

A  duke  descended  from  Esau  (Gen.  xxxvi. 
43  ;  1  Chron.  i.  .54). 

Ma'gi  [Greek  3fafioi,  the  plural  of  Magos ; 
in  Behistun  in.scription  Magnxhii?^. 

The  religious  caste  to  which  the  wise  men 
l)elonged,  as  their  title  indicates,  who  came 
from  the  ea.st  to  worship  the  infant  Jesus 
(Mat.  ii.  1,  E.  V.  margin).  The  Magi  were  a 
priestly  caste,  numerous  enough  to  be  re- 
garded as  one  of  the  six  tribes  of  Media 
(Herod,  i.  101).  When  the  Persians  con- 
([uered  the  Medes,  the  Magi  retained  their 
influence  in  the  new  empire.  An  attempt 
on  their  part  to  seize  the  crown  led  to  a 
dreadful  slaughter  of  them,  notwithstanding 
which  their  power  soon  revived  (iii.  79). 
They  worshiped  the  elements,  fire,  air,  earth, 
and  water,  especially  the  first.  The  only 
temples  they  had  were  fire  temples,  generally 
on  house  tops,  where  they  kept  the  sacred 
element  burning  night  and  day.  What  to  do 
with  the  dead  was  a  question  which,  with 
their  views,  involved  much  perplexity.  The 
corpse  could  not  be  burned,  buried,  cast  into 
water,  or  left  to  decay  in  the  air  without  de- 
filing an  element.  It  was  therefore  exposed 
to  be  devoured  by  carrion-loving  birds  or 
beasts  (Herod,  i.  140,  who  probably  errs  in 
speaking  of  its  after-burial ;  Strabo  xv.  3,  20). 
To  do  this  in  the  least  offensive  manner  they 
erected  towers  called  towers  of  silence,  with 
transverse  bars  at  the  top,  on  which  vultures 
and  ravens  might  stand  while  they  did  their 
melancholy  work.  The  Magi  wore  as  sacer- 
dotal vestments  a  white  robe,  with  a  head- 
dress consisting  of  a  tall  felt  cap,  with  lap- 
pets at  the  side  which  concealed  the  jaws. 
The}'  claimed  to  be  mediators  between  God 
and  man,  intervening  in  all  sacrifices  (Herod, 
i.  132;  vii.  43).  They  interpreted  dreams 
and  omens  and  claimed  the  gift  of  prophecy 
(i.  107,  120;  vii.  19,  37,  113).  They  were 
diligent  in  killing  such  animals  as  were  re- 
garded as  belonging  to  the  bad  creation  (i. 
140).  The  foreigner  was  apt  to  observe  the 
religious  doctrine  and  priestly  functions  of 


the  Magi  less  attentively  than  their  incanta- 
tions ;  and  in  process  of  time  the  Greeks  be- 
stowed the  epithet  Magos  on  any  sorcerer 
who  employed  the  methods  and  enchant- 
ments of  the  East.  The  Jew  Bar-jesus  was 
a  Magus  (Acts  xiii.  G,  Greek  text  and  R.  V. 
margin),  and  so  was  Simon,  often  called 
Magus,  of  Samaria  (viii.  9). 

Ma-gi'cian  [remotely  from  Greek  Magoi, 
Magi]. 

A  man  who  pretends  to  have  preternatural 
powers,  which  he  has  obtained  by  the  study 
of  an  occult  science  or  the  practice  of  a  black 
art  in  connivance  with  evil  spirits,  and  which 
he  calls  magic  (cp.  Acts  xix.  19) ;  see  Sor- 
cerer. In  the  Bible  magician  is  the  render- 
ing of  hartom,  one  of  the  class  of  sacred 
scribes,  who  were  skilled  in  writing  and  ac- 
quired vast  information  (Dan.  i.  20),  and  who 
often  claimed  occult  knowledge,  practiced 
magic  (Ex.  vii.  11),  and  undertook  to  inter- 
pret dreams  (Gen.  xli.  8;  Dan.  ii.  10).  The 
Egyptian  magicians  who  withstood  Moses 
were  two  in  number,  and  their  names  were 
Jannes  and  Jambres  (2  Tim.  iii.  8). 

Ma'gog. 

A  people  descended  from  Japheth  (Gen.  x. 
2),  at  one  period  inhabiting  a  northern  land 
(Ezek.  xxxviii.  2,  15).  Jo.sephus  identified 
them  with  the  Scythians  (Antiq.  i.  fi,  1),  and 
his  identification  is  commonly  accepted.  The 
final  struggle  of  heathenism  with  the  king- 
dom of  God  is  pro])hetically  portrayed  by 
Ezekiel  under  the  ligure  of  an  invasion  of 
the  land  of  Israel  by  the  hordes  of  the  king 
of  Magog  and  their  overthrow.  Ezekiel's 
description  is  referred  to  and  its  imagery  is 
borrowed  by  John  (Kev.  xx.  8,  9).     See  Gog. 

Ma-gor-mis'sa-bib  [fear  round  about]. 

A  pro])hetic  name  given  to  Pashbnr,  a 
priest  and  governor  of  the  temple  who  ill- 
treated  the  prophet  Jeremiah  (.Ter.  xx.  3). 

Mag'pi-ash  [apparently  moth  slayer]. 

One  of  the  chiefs  of  the  people  who  with 
Nehemiah  sealed  the  covenant  (Neh.  x.  20). 

Ma'ha-lah.     See  Mahlah  2. 

Ma-ha'la-lel,  in  A.  V.  and  in  N.  T.  of  R. 
y.  Ma-ha'la-le-el,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Ma-le'- 
le-el  [praise  of  God]. 

1.  An  antediluvian  patriarch  in  the  line  of 
Seth  (Gen.  v.  12-17;  Luke  iii.  37). 

2.  One  of  the  tri])e  of  Judah,  family  of 
Perez,  who  lived  in  Jerusalem  after  the  cap- 
tivity (Neh.  xi.  4). 

Ma'ha-lath  [sickness,  anxiety,  grief]. 

1.  A  nuisical  term  (Ps.  liii. ;  Ixxxviii. 
titles) ;  which,  judged  by  Hebrew  etymology, 
refers  to  sadness.  The  words  al  mah''Iaih 
I'ouvoih  (Ps.  Ixxxviii.  title)  then  mean 
"mournfully  to  chant." 

2.  Daughter  of  Ishmael  and  a  wife  of 
Esau  ((Jen.  xxviii.  9).  Called  also  Bashe- 
math  {q.  v.). 

3.  Daughter  of  Jerimoth  and  one  of  Re- 
hoboam's  wives  (2  Chron.  xi.  18). 


Mahali 


449 


Malachi 


Ma'ha-li.     See  Maiili. 

Ma-ha-na'im  [two  camps]. 

The  iiaim-  given  by  Jacob  to  a  place  east 
of  Jordan  where  the  angels  of  God  met  him, 
aitpareutly  in  two  detachments,  just  after  he 
had  finally  i)arted  from  Laban  and  before  he 
crossed  the  Jabbok  (Gen.  xxxii.  2).  It  was 
on  the  boundary  line  between  the  tribes  of 
Gad  and  Mauasseh  (Josh.  xiii.  26,  30).  It 
was  afterwards  assigned  to  the  Merarite 
Levites  (xxi.  38;  1  Chron.  vi.  80).  Com- 
mencing as  a  sacred  spot,  it  ultimately  be- 
came a  fortified  city.  It  was  Ish-bosheth's 
capital  (2  Sam.  ii.  ti,  12,  29).  David  retired 
thither  while  his  rebellious  son  Absalom  was 
in  possession  of  Jerusalem  (xvii.  24,  27; 
xviii.  24,  33;  xix.  32;  1  Kin.  ii.  8).  Ahin- 
adab  the  son  of  Iddo  was  Solomon's  purveyor 
in  the  region  (iv.  14).  The  site  has  not  been 
identified.  Robinson  and  long  before  him 
the  Jewish  traveler  Moses  hap-Parchi,  about 
1315,  suggested  Mahneh,  about  4  miles  east 
of  ed-Deir.  Tristram  prefers  Birket  Mahneh, 
which  he  locates  about  21  miles  southeast  of 
Gadara  and  22  southwest  of  Edrei. 

Ma'ha-neli-daii  [camp  of  Dan]. 

A  place  behind,  that  is  west  of,  Kirjath- 
jearim  (Judg.  xviii.  12),  between  Zorah  and 
Eshtaol  (xiii.  25),  so  named  when  the  Danite 
spies  encamped  at  the  spot. 

Ma'ha-rai  [impetuous]. 

A  Netophathite,  one  of  David's  mighty 
men  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  28;  1  Chron.  xi.  30).  He 
was  David's  captain  for  the  tenth  month 
(xxvii.  13). 

Ma'hath  [seizing  or  instrument  of  seizing]. 

1.  A  Kohathite  Levite,  descended  by  the 
line  of  Zephaniah,  Tahath,  and  Abiasaph  (1 
Chron.  vi.  35). 

2.  Another  Levite,  one  of  the  overseers 
who  looked  after  the  tithes  and  freewill 
offerings  in  Hezekiah's  reign  (2  Chron.  xxxi. 
13). 

Ma'ha-vite. 

A  designation  of  unknown  meaning  ap- 
pended to  the  name  of  Eliel,  one  of  David's 
mighty  men  (1  Chron.  xi.  46).  The  passage 
is  probably  corrupt,  for  the  word  is  plural 
and  yet  joined  to  the  singular. 

Ma-ha'zi-oth  [perhaps,  vision  of  signifi- 
cance]. 

A  Levite,  a  descendant  of  Heman  (1 
Chron.  xxv.  4).  He  obtained  the  twenty- 
third  lot  among  the  singers  (30). 

Ma'her-sharal-hash'baz  [spoil  speedeth, 
prey  hasteth]. 

The  words  which  Isaiah  was  directed  to 
display  on  a  public  tablet  and  have  duly 
witnessed,  and  a  year  later  was  told  to  give 
as  a  name  to  his  second  son.  They  predicted 
the  speedy  conquest  of  Damascus  and 
Samaria  by  the  king  of  Assyria  (Is.  viii. 
1-4).  The  preliminary  formality  drew  pub- 
lic attention  to  the  enigmatical  words  and 
29 


attested  that  God  was  preparing  and  i-eveal- 
ing  the  event  a  year  before  its  occurrence. 

Mali'lah,  in  A.  V.  once  Mabalah  (1  Cliron. 
vii.  18)  [disea.se]. 

1.  Daughter  of  Zelophehad  (Num.  xxvi. 
33;  xxvii.  1). 

2.  Another  Manassite,  whose  mother  was 
Hammoleketh  (1  Chron.  vii.  18). 

Mah'li,  in  A.  V.  once  Mahali  (Ex.  vi.  19) 
[sick,  weak]. 

1.  A  Levite,  son  of  Merari  and  brother  of 
Mushi.  He  founded  a  tribal  family  or 
house  (  Exod.  vi.  19 ;  Num.  iii.  20,  33  ;  xxvi. 
58). 

2.  A  Levite,  family  of  Merari,  house  of 
Mushi  (1  Chron.  vi.  47;  xxiii.  23;  xxiv.  30). 

Mah'lon  [sickly]. 

Elder  son  of  Elimelech  and  Naomi,  and 
husband  of  Orpah,  a  Moabitess. 

Ma'hol  [dancing,  joy]. 

Father  of  Heman,  Chalcol,  and  Darda, 
three  noted  wise  men  (1  Kin.  iv.  31). 

Mah-se'iali,  in  A.  V.  Maaseiah  [Jehovah 
is  a  refuge] . 

An  ancestor  of  Jeremiah's  friend,  Baruch, 
and  of  the  chief  chamberlain,  Seraiah  (Jer. 
xxxii.  12;  Ii.  59). 

Ma'kaz  [an  end]. 

A  town  whence  one  of  Solomon's  purvey- 
ors drew  supplies  (1  Kin.  iv.  9).  Site  un- 
known. 

Ma'ked,  in  A.  V.  once  Maged. 

A  town  of  Gilead,  in  which  Jews  were 
shut  up  by  the  heathen  (1  Mac.  v.  26).  It 
was  captured  by  Judas  Maccabfeus,  and  the 
Jews  were  released  (36).  Hitzig  identifies  it 
with  Makad,  a  town  which  he  locates  on  the 
border  of  the  Hauran,  near  Edrei. 

Mak-he'loth  [assemblies,  especially  for  the 
worship  of  God]. 

An  encampment  of  the  Israelites  in  the 
wilderness  (Num.  xxxiii.  25,  26).  Site  un- 
known. 

Mak-ke'dah  [perhaps,  a  place  of  shep- 
herds]. 

A  Canaanite  town  in  the  lowland,  taken 
by  Joshua  (Josh.  xv.  41).  Near  it  was  a  cave 
(x.  16).  The  site  has  not  been  identified.  Eu- 
sebius  located  it  8  Eoman  miles  east  of  Elou- 
theropolis.  But  as  this  location  would  be  in 
the  mountains,  his  statement,  if  correct,  must 
be  interpreted  as  meaning  northeast  or  south- 
east. 

Mak'tesh  [a  mortar,  a  trough,  a  hollow]. 

A  locality  at  Jerusalem  (Zeph.  i.  11).  The 
Targum  identifies  it  with  theKidron  valley  ; 
another  supposition  is  that  it  was  the  valley 
separating  the  temple  from  the  city. 

Mal'a-cM  [my  messenger,  or  messenger 
(of  Jehovah)]. 

A  prophet,  the  M'riter  of  the  last  book  of 
the  O.  T.  (Mai.  i.  1).  Nothing  is  known  of 
his  history  except  what  may  be  learned  from 
his  book.     As  the  name  means  my  messen- 


Malcam 


450 


Mallothi 


ger  (so  in  iii.  1),  some  have  supposed  it  to 
be,  not  the  proper  name,  but  the  title  of  a 
prophet,  perhaps  of  Ezra.  But  as  each  of  the 
eleven  preceding  minor  prophecies  has  its 
author's  name  prefixed,  there  is  a  strong 
presumption  that  it  is  so  in  the  present  case 
also,  and  that  Malachi  was  the  actual  name 
of  the  prophet  who  j)enned  the  book.  It  may 
be  divided  into  the  following  sections:  1.  God's 
special  love  for  Israel,  shown  in  his  choice  of 
Jacob  instead  of  Esau  (i.  2-5),  was  not  re- 
quited: a.  The  priests  and  people  (6,14)  dis- 
honored God  by  presenting  blemished  offer- 
ings (G-14)  ;  j)unishment  threatened  for  this 
departure  from  the  norm  established  by  God 
for  the  priesthood  and  once  realized  (ii.  1-9)  ; 
b.  The  people  dealt  treacherously  against 
their  brethren,  intermarrying  with  the 
heathen  (11)  and  putting  away  their  own 
wives  (14,  16)  and  doing  deeds  of  violence 
(ii.  10-17).  2.  Judgment  imminent.  God's 
messenger  is  about  to  prepare  the  way,  the 
Lord  himself  will  suddenly  come  to  his  tem- 
ple, the  messenger  of  the  covenant  shall  come 
as  .judge  and  purify  Levi  from  dross  and 
visit  evil  doers  (iii.  1-6;  cp.  Ex.  xxiii.  20- 
23;  Mat.  xi.  10).  3.  Call  to  repentance  ;  for 
then  the  Lord  will  come  in  blessing  and 
judgment,  putting  to  nought  the  complaint 
that  he  makes  no  distinction  between  the 
good  and  the  evil.  Those  who  have  turned 
from  sin  to  God  will  be  his  peculiar  treasure, 
but  the  wicked  shall  be  burned  as  stubble 
(iii.  7-iv.  3).  Exhortation  to  remember  the 
law  of  Moses,  and  announcement  of  the 
mission  of  Elijah  to  prepare  for  the  terrible 
day  of  the  Lord  (iv.  4-6 ;  Mat.  xvii.  10-13  ; 
Luke  i.  17). 

When  the  prophecy  was  delivered  the  Jew- 
ish people  were  not  under  a  king,  but 
under  a  governor  (Mai.  i.  8),  doubtless  one 
appointed  by  the  Persian  emperor  (Neh.  v. 
14).  Zerubbabel's  temple  was  standing,  as 
•was  the  altar,  and  sacrifices  were  being  of- 
fered as  in  the  olden  time  (i.  7-10) ;  hence 
Malachi  is  later  than  Haggai  and  Zecliariah. 
But  the  outburst  of  religious  life  which  had 
immediately  followed  the  return  from  Baby- 
lon, and  had  resulted  in  the  rebuilding  first 
of  the  sanctuary  and  then  of  the  fortifica- 
tions of  Jerusalem,  had  had  time  to  expend 
its  force.  Priests  and  people  were  corrupt. 
This  condition  suits  the  time  of  Nehemiah 
(Neh.  xiii.).  The  generally  accepted  date, 
which  originated  with  Vitringa,  is  420  B.  c. 
Davidson  prefers  460  to  450  b.  c. 

Mal'cam,  in  A.  V.  Malcham  [regnant, 
rule]. 

1.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Shaharaim  and 
Hode-sh  (1  Chron.  viii.  9). 

2.  The  chief  deity  of  the  Ammonites  (Jer. 
xlix.  1,  3,  in  A.  V.  their  king  ;  Zeph.  i.  5 ; 
perhaps  Amos  i.  15,  where  it  is  rendered  their 
king).     See  Molech. 

Mal-chi'ah,  in  A.  V.  once  Melchiah  (Jer. 
xxi.  1)  [Jehovah  is  king]. 


A  royal  prince,  into  whose  dungeon  the 
prophet  Jeremiah  was  cast  (Jer.  xxxviii.  6). 
It  is  natural  to  identify  him  with  the  father 
of  the  official  Pashhur  mentioned  in  ver.  1  and 
xxi.  1. 

For  others,  see  Malchijah. 

Mal'chi-el  [God  is  king]. 

A  son  of  Beriah  and  grandson  of  Asher, 
and  founder  of  a  tribal  family  (Gen.  xlvi. 
17;  Num.  xxvi.  45). 

Mal-chi'jah,  in  A.  V.  often  Malchiah 
[Jehovah  is  king]. 

1.  A  Levite,  family  of  Gershom,  house  of 
Shimei  (1  Chron.  vi.  40). 

2.  A  descendant  of  Aaron.  His  family 
had  grown  to  a  father's  house  in  the  time  of 
David,  and  became  the  fifth  course  when 
David  distributed  the  priests  into  divisions 
(1  Chron.  xxiv.  1,  6,  9).  Apparently  mem- 
bers of  a  subdivision  of  his  family,  viz.,  the 
house  of  Pashhur,  returned  with  Zerubbabel 
fiom  Babylon  (Ezra  ii.  38).  He  is  also  prob- 
ably referred  to  in  1  Chron.  ix.  12  and  Neh. 
xi.  12,  where  a  priestly  line  is  traced  back 
through  Pashhur  to  one  of  this  name.  The 
royal  prince  Malchiah  of  Jeremiah  xxxviii. 
6  (and  hence  probably  of  ver.  1)  is  a  different 
person. 

3.  A  royal  prince  (Jer.  xxxviii,  6).  See 
Malchiah. 

4.  5.  Two  sons  of  Parosh,  both  induced  by 
Ezra  to  put  away  their  foreign  wives  (Ezra 
X.  25). 

6.  A  son  of  Harim,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  31).  He 
joined  with  another  Hebrew  in  repairing 
part  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  and  the 
tower  of  the  furnaces  (Neh.  iii.  11). 

7.  A  son  of  Rechab.  He  also  repaired 
part  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  14). 

8.  A  goldsmith  who  repaired  part  of  the 
wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  31). 

9.  A  priest  who  with  others  officiated  at 
the  dedication  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem 
(Neh.  xii.  42);  perhaps,  one  of  those  who 
assisted  Ezra  when  the  law  was  explained 
to  the  people  (Neh.  viii.  4). 

10.  A  priest  who,  doubtless  in  behalf  of  a 
father's  house,  signed  the  covenant  (Neh.  x.  3). 

Mal-chi'ram  [the  king,  i.  e.  God,  is  ex- 
alted]. 

A  son  of  king  Jehoiachin  (1  Chron.  iii.  18). 

Mal-cM-shu'a,  in  A.  V.  Melchi-shua  in 
1  Samuel   [the  king,  i.  e.  God,  is  salvation]. 

A  son  of  king  Saul  (1  Sam.  xiv.  49 ;  1 
Chron.  viii.  33 ;  ix.  39).  He  was  killed  at 
the  battle  of  Gilboa  (1  Sam.  xxxi.  2). 

Mal'chus  [Greek  of  Semitic  malku,  king]. 

The  high  priest's  servant  whose  ear  Peter 
cut  ofl'  (.John  xviii.  10). 

Ma-le'le-el.     See  Mahalalel. 

Mal'lo-thi. 

A  son  of  Heman  (1  Chron.  xxv.  4).  He 
obtained  by  lot  the  leadership  of  the  nine- 
teenth course  of  singers  (26), 


Mallows 


451 


Manasseh 


Mai 'lows. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  MaUuah, 
salt  plant  (Job  xxx.  4,  A.  V.).  Since  genuine 
mallows  are  nuicilaginous  and  not  saline,  the 
R.  V.  alters  the  name  of  the  plant  to  salt- 
wort;  sec  Saltwort. 

Mal'luch  [reigning  or  counselor]. 

1.  A  Levite,  family  of  Merari,  house  of 
Mushi  (1  Chron.  vi.  44). 

2.  A  chief  of  the  priests,  who  returned  from 
Babylon  with  Zeruhbabel  (Neh.  xii.  2,  7).  A 
father's  house  bore  his  name  in  the  next  gen- 
eration (ver.  14,  R.  V.).  In  the  latter  passiige 
the  form  Malluchi,  in  itself  an  unessential  va- 
riation, is  probably  due  to  dittography.  The 
final  letter  of  Malluchi  is  the  initial  letter  of 
the  following  word,  and  moreover  is  not  found 
in  the  Septuagint.  The  consonants  of  Mal- 
luchi are  written  in  the  Hebrew  text,  but  were 
read  Melicu  (A.  V.  and  margin  of  R.  V.). 

3.  4.  A  son  of  Bani  and  a  son  of  Harim, 
each  of  whom  was  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  29,  32). 

5,  6.  A  priest  and  a  chief  of  the  people 
who  signed  the  covenant  (Neh.  x.  4,  27). 

Mal'lu-cM.     See  Malluch  2. 

Mam'mon  [Greek  from  Aramaic  niamon, 
mamona',  wealth,  riches]. 

A  personification  of  wealth  (Matt.  vi.  24; 
Luke  xvi.  9,  11,  13). 

Mam 're  [fiituess,  strength]. 

1.  The  town  or  more  probably  district  of 
Hebron  (Gen.  xxiii.  19;  xxxv.  27),  to  the 
west  of  Machpelah  (xxiii.  17).  A  grove  was 
there,  near  Hebron,  where  Abraham  several 
times  resided  (xiii.  18  ;  xiv.  13 ;  xviii.  1, 
etc.).  In  Jo.sephus'  time  an  aged  terebinth 
was  pointed  out  as  Abraham's  tree,  6  stades 
or  §  of  a  mile  from  Hebron  (War  iv.  9,  7)  ;  in 
the  fourth  century,  one  at  Ramet  el-Khulil, 
2  Roman  miles  north  of  Hebron,  which  Con- 
stantine  enclo.sed  within  the  walls  of  a  basilica. 
The  remains  of  this  building  are  called  the 
house  of  Abraham.  The  tree  which  now 
claims  the  honor  of  being  Abraham's  oak, 
and  which  was  already  celebrated  as  such 
in  the  sixteenth  century,  is  a  genuine  oak 
{Quercus  pseiidococcifera).  Its  trunk  has  a 
girth  of  26  feet  at  the  ground,  and  its  branches 
extend  over  an  area  of  93  feet  in  diameter 
(Thomson).  It  stands  a  little  more  than  a 
mile  northwest  of  Hebron,  near  the  head  of 
the  wady  Sebta. 

2.  An  Amorite  chieftain  who  dwelt  at 
Mamre  and  who  with  his  brothers,  Eshcol 
and  Aner,  helped  Abraham  to  retake  the 
captives  and  the  spoil  carried  off  by  Chedor- 
laomer  (Gen.  xiv.  13,  24).  He  was  probably 
designated  by  the  name  of  the  district  over 
which  he  ruled. 
Man.     See  Adam. 

Man'a-en  [Greek  form  of  Menahem,  con- 
soler, comforter] .  Manahem  is  another  Greek 
form  of  the  Hebrew  name. 

A  Christian  prophet  or  teacher  in  the 
church  at  Antioch.     He  had  been  brought 


up  with  Herod  the  tetrarch  as  his  companion 
(Acts  xiii.  1,  A.  V.),  or  was  his  foster  brotlier, 
brought  up  at  the  same  mother's  breast  (R. 
v.).  He  may  have  been  a  descendant,  or  at 
least  a  relative  of  Manahem,  the  Esscne,  who 
predicted  to  Herod  the  Great,  when  yet  a 
schoolboy,  that  he  would  obtain  the  king- 
dom. When  the  prophecy  was  fulfilled, 
Herod  held  him  and  his  sect  in  high  esteem 
(Antiq.  xv.  10,  5). 

Man'a-hath  [rest]. 

1.  A  son  of  the  Horite,  Shobal  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  23) ;  perhaps  even  a  place  inhabited  by 
a  branch  of  the  trii>e  of  Shobal  (1  Ghron.  i.  40). 

2.  A  place  to  which  Benjamitcs  of  Geba 
were  carried  captive  by  their  fellow-tribos- 
men  (1  Chron.  viii.  6).  Descendants  of  Sal- 
ma,  of  the  family  of  Caleb,  tribe  of  Judah, 
probably  formed  half  the  population  of  it  or 
of  another  place  of  the  name  (ii.  54)  ;  .see 
Manahathites. 

Ma-na'hath-ites,  in  A.  V.  Manahethites. 

The  inhabitants  of  a  place  or  the  descend- 
ants of  a  man  Manahath  (1  Chron.  ii.  rA).  To 
judge  by  the  context,  a  place  is  intended.  For 
Manahethites  in  ver.52,  A.V.,  seeMENUHOTH. 

Ma-nas'seh,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Manasses, 
the  Greek  form  [making  to  forget]. 

1.  The  elder  son  of  Joseph.  He  was  born 
in  Egypt,  his  mother  being  Asenath,  daugh- 
ter of  Poti-phera,  priest  of  On.  In  race, 
therefore,  he,  like  his  brother  Ephraim,  was 
half  Hebrew,  half  Egyptian  (Gen.  xli.  ,^)0,  .^l). 
When  Jacob  desired  to  bless  the  two  boys, 
Joseph  took  Ephraim  in  his  right  hand,  to- 
ward Jacob's  left,  and  Manasseh  in  his  left, 
toward  Jacob's  right ;  but  the  dying  ])atriarch 
crossed  his  arms,  so  as  to  lay  his  riglit  hand 
on  Ephraim's  head  and  his  left  on  that  of 
Manasseh,  intimating  prophetically  that  while 
both  sons  should  become  ancestors  of  great 
peoples,  Ephraim  should  excel  (xlviii.  8-21). 

2.  The  tribe  which  descended  from  Ma- 
nasseh. It  consisted  of  seven  tribal  families, 
of  which  one  was  founded  by  his  son  Machir 
and  the  remaining  six  sprang  from  his  grand- 
son Gilead  (Gen.  1.  23;  Num.  xxvi.  28-34; 
Josh.  xvii.  1,  2).  At  the  first  census  in  the 
wilderness  the  tribe  numbered  32,200  fighting 
men  (Num.  i.  34,  35) ;  at  the  second,  which  was 
taken  thirty-eight  years  later,  52,700  (xxvi. 
34).  After  Moses  had  defeated  Sihon  king 
of  Heshbon,  and  Og  king  of  Bashan,  one- 
half  the  tribe  of  Manasseh  joined  with  the 
tribes  of  Reuben  and  Gad  in  requesting  per- 
mission to  settle  east  of  the  Jordan,  and  ob- 
tained the  leave  they  sought,  on  condition 
of  going  armed  before  their  brethren,  who 
had  not  yet  obtained  settlements,  and  aiding 
in  the  war  west  of  the  Jordan  (xxxii.  33-42; 
cp.  1-32  ;  xxxiv.  14, 15;  Deut.  iii.  12,  13  ;  xxix. 
8;  Josh.  xii.  4-6;  xviii.  7).  They  observed  the 
conditions  laid  down  (Josh.  i.  12-18;  iv.  12) ; 
and  when  the  war  had  been  successfully 
fought  out,  were  honorably  dismissed  to  the 
territory  they  had  chosen.    A  temporary  mis- 


Manasseh 


452 


Mandrake 


iinderstandiag  about  the  buildiug  of  an  altar 
at  one  time  threatened  unpleasant  conse- 
quences ;  but  on  explanation  being  given, 
matters  were  amicably  arranged  (xxii.  1-34). 
The  region  given  to  the  half-tribe  of  Manas- 
seh  east  of  tbe  Jordan  comprehended  part  of 
Gilead  and  all  Bashan  (Deut.  iii.  13-15),  Ma- 
hanaim  in  one  direction  being  on  its  bound- 
ary line  (Josh.  xiii.  29-33).  It  is  between  65 
and  70  miles  from  east  to  west,  by  40  or  more 
from  north  to  south.  It  is  mostly  a  table-land 
of  2500  feet  elevation,  one  of  the  richest 
parts  of  Palestine,  and  to  this  day  the  gran- 
ary of  a  large  part  of  Syria.  It  is  studded 
with  ruined  towns.  The  other  half  of  the 
tribe  crossed  the  Jordan  and  had  their  in- 
heritance in  central  Palestine,  west  of  the 
river.  It  was  bounded  on  the  south  by  Ephra- 
im,  on  the  northwest  by  Asher,  and  on  the 
northeast  by  Issachar.  Its  southern  boundary 
ran  through  the  town  of  Asher,  near  Tap- 
puah,  and  along  the  northern  bank  of  the 
brook  Kanah  to  its  entrance  into  the  Medi- 
terranean (Josh.  xvii.  5-10).  But  the  children 
of  Ephraim  had  cities  in  the  midst  of  the  in- 
heritance of  the  children  of  Manasseh  (xvi. 
9),  and,  on  the  other  hand,  Manasseh  had 
various  towns,  viz.,  Beth-shean,  Ibleam,  Dor, 
En-dor,  Taanach,  and  Megiddo,  within  the 
territories  of  Issachar  and  Asher  (xvii.  11 ; 
cp.  1  Chron.  vii.  29).  The  Manassites,  how- 
ever, failed  to  expel  the  Canaanite  inhabi- 
tants of  the  cities  just  named,  but  eventually 
put  them  to  tribute  (Josh.  xvii.  12,  13  ;  Judg. 
i.  27,  28).  Levitical  cities  were  allotted  from 
Manasseh  as  from  the  other  tribes,  including 
Golan  in  Bashan  in  the  region  east  of  the 
Jordan,  one  of  the  six  cities  of  refuge  (Josh. 
XX.  8  ;  xxi.  27).  The  hero  and  judge  Gideon 
"was  a  Manassite,  and  the  most  eminent  man 
the  tribe  produced  (Judg.  vi.  15 ;  cp.  35  ;  vii. 
23).  Some  Manassites  joined  David  at  Zik- 
lag  (1  Chron.  xii.  19,  20).  No  fewer  than 
18,000  offered  him  their  services  during  his 
reign  at  Hebron  (31  ;  cp.  37).  The  eastern 
Manassites,  in  conjunction  with  the  two 
tribes  east  of  the  Jordan,  waged  war  with 
the  Hagarites  and  took  ])Ossession  of  their 
country.  They  were  themselves  carried  into 
exile  by  Tiglath-pileser  (v.  18-26).  Some 
Manassites  came  to  Asa  when  they  saw  that 
the  Lord  was  with  him  (2  Chron.  xv.  9) ;  men 
of  the  same  tribe  also  attended  the  great  pass- 
over  in  Hezekiah's  reign  and  also  in  Josiah's 
reign  (xxx.  1,  10, 11,  18  ;  xxxi.  1 ;  xxxiv.  6,  9). 

3.  An  intentional  modification  of  the  name 
Moses  (Judg.  xviii.  30,  A.  V.) ;  see  Jona- 
than 1. 

4.  Son  and  successor  of  good  king  Heze- 
kiab.  He  ascended  the  throne  about  the 
year  698  b.  c,  when  he  was  only  twelve  years 
of  age.  He  undid  the  work  of  reformation 
W^hich  had  been  carried  out  in  the  former 
reign.  He  established  the  high  places,  built 
an  altar  to  Baal,  and  reared  an  Asherah  ; 
made  altars  for  the  worship  of  the  host  of 
heaven  within  the  two  courts  of  the  temi)le, 


and  caused  one  of  his  sons  to  pass  through 
the  fire.  Prophets  warned  him,  but  he  paid 
no  attention  to  their  threatenings.  Instead 
of  listening,  he  shed  much  innocent  blood 
throughout  every  part  of  Jerusalem.  The 
victims  were  doubtless  chiefly  those  who,  re- 
taining their  fidelity  to  Jehovah,  opposed 
Manasseh's  reactionary  religious  measures  (2 
Kin.  xxi.  1-16).  Tradition  makes  Isaiah  one  of 
these,  which  is  possible  but  doubtful.  As  a  pen- 
alty for  his  wickedness,  God  left  him  to  his  ene- 
mies. Two  kings  of  Assyria,  Esarhaddon  and 
Ashurbauipal,  report  receiving  tribute  from 
him.  The  Assyrian  king  by  whom  he  was 
carried  captive  to  Babylon  (2  Chron.  xxxiii. 
11)  was  probably  Ashurbauipal,  who  crushed 
his  rebellious  brother  Shamash-shumukin, 
king  of  Babylon,  about  647  B.  c.  and  placed 
the  forfeited  crown  on  his  own  head.  Ma- 
nasseh repented,  and  was  after  a  time  re- 
stored to  his  kingdom.  He  put  away  the 
idols  which  had  been  his  ruin,  and  restored 
the  worship  of  Jehovah.  He  also  added  to 
the  fortifications  of  Jerusalem  (2  Chron. 
xxxiii.  12-19).  After  a  reign  of  fifty-five 
years,  a  longer  one  than  any  other  king  of 
Judah  had  enjoyed,  he  died  about  the  year 
642  B.  c,  leaving  his  son  Amon  to  ascend  the 
throne  (2  Kin.  xxi.  17,  18 ;  2  Chron.  xxxiii. 
20).  For  the  Prayer  of  Manasseh,  see  Apoc- 
IJYPHA  12. 

5  and  6.  A  son  of  Pahath-moab  and  a  son 
of  Hashum,  each  of  whom  was  induced 
by  Ezra  to  put  awav  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra 
X.  30,  33). 


Mandrake  {Mandragora  officinalis). 


Man 'drake. 

The  rendering   of  the   Hebrew   Duda'im, 


Maneh 


453 


Maon 


amatory  plants.  They  were  supposed  to  act 
as  a  love  philter  (Gcii.  xxx.  It  Hi;  on  mar- 
gin of  R.  V.  love  apples).  They  are  odorif- 
erous (Song  vii.  13).  The  niaiulrake  {^[(lnd>■a- 
gora  officiixiUs)  is  a  handsome  phiiil  <>f  the 
Solanaceous  i  night  shade)  order.  It  has  wavy 
leaves  and  pale  violet,  white,  or  deep  blue 
flowers.  Its  fruit  is  small  and  yellow.  The 
forked  root  bears  a  slight  resemblance  to  the 
human  body.  It  is  found  in  the  Jordan 
valley  and  along  the  rivers  running  into  it, 
in  the  plains  of  Moab  and  Gilead,  and  in 
Galilee. 

Ma'neh.     See  Weights. 

Man'ger. 

A  feeding  place  for  cattle,  a  crib  or  trough, 
in  Greek  Phatne  (Luke  ii.  7,  12;  in  xiii.  15 
rendered  stall ;  cp.  Is.  i.  3).  Mangers  are 
ancient  (Iliad  x.  568  ;  xxiv.  280  ;  Herod,  ix. 
70).  In  Palestine  the  stable  is  usually  in 
the  owner's  house,  a  portion  of  the  interior 
being  set  apart  for  the  cattle  and  furnished 
with  mangers  built  of  small  stones  and  mor- 
tar in  the  shape  of  a  box. 

Man'na  [what  is  it?  or  rather,  it  is  manna, 
since  an  article  called  mniuin  was  already 
known  to  the  Egyptians  and  was  imported 
from  the  peninsula  of  Sinai]. 

A  food  on  which  the  Israelites  mainly  sub- 
sisted during  the  forty  years'  sojourn  in  the 
wilderness.  It  was  first  bestowed  in  the 
wilderness  of  Sin,  in  the  second  half  of  the 
second  month,  when  the  people  murmured, 
owing  to  the  deficiency  of  food.  The  descent 
of  manna  was  described  as  a  raining  of  bread 
from  heaven  (Ex.  xvi.  1-4,  12  ;  Ps.  Ixxviii. 
24  ;  cv.  40).  In  the  morning,  when  the  dew 
was  gone  up,  there  lay  upon  the  face  of  the 
wilderness  a  small  round  flake,  small  as  the 
hoarfrost  on  the  ground.  When  the  children 
of  Israel  first  saw  it  they  said  one  to  another : 
"What  is  ii?"  or  "It  is  manna,"  for  they 
wist  not  what  it  was.  And  Mo.'jes  said  unto 
them :  "  It  is  the  bread  which  the  Lord  hath 
given"  (Ex.  xvi.  13-15;  Xum.  xi.  9).  It  was 
white  like  coriander  seed,  with  a  yellowish 
tinge  and  resinous  appearance  like  bdellium, 
and  tasted  like  wafers  made  with  honey  or 
like  fresh  oil  (Ex.  xvi.  31 ;  Num.  xi.  8).  It 
was  ground  in  mills,  beaten  in  mortars, 
boiled  in  pots,  and  made  into  cakes  (Num. 
xi.  8).  The  people  were  directed  to  gather 
an  omer  a  day  (about  5.8  pints)  for  each 
member  of  their  households,  and  not  to  at- 
tempt to  keep  any  till  the  morrow.  Some 
of  the  people  disobeyed  this  injunction,  but 
the  hoarded  manna  decayed  and  stank.  On 
the  sixth  day  two  omers  were  gathered  for 
each  person,  as  none  descended  on  the  Sab- 
bath (Ex.  xvi.  22-30).  An  omerful,  which 
evidently  was  preserved  from  decay,  was 
kept  by  Aaron  and  his  successors  to  show 
future  generations  the  nature  of  the  food  on 
which  the  Israelites  had  sub.sisted  in  the 
wilderness  (32-34) ;  see  Hi(;h  Priest.  A  year 
after  it  was  first  given,  at  the  same  season,  the 


people  are  mentioned  as  having  it,  and  again 
toward  the  eiul  of  the  forty  years.  It  is  re- 
ferred to  because  the  people  were  murniuriug 
against  the  food  (Num.  si.  4-9  ;  xxi.  5),  but 
tlie  boon  which  they  failed  to  appreciate  was 
not  withdrawn.  It  was  continued  during  the 
whole  of  the  forty  years'  desert  wanderings 
(Ex.  xvi.  35;  Dent.  viii.  3,  Hi;  Neh.  ix.  20  ; 
Ps.  Ixxviii.  24),  and  did  not  cease  till  the 
day  after  the  Israelites  had  crossed  the  Jor- 
dan, encami>ed  at  Gilgal,  and  begun  to  eat 
i  of  the  })roduce  of  Oanaau  (Josh.  v.  10- 
I  12).  The  question  has  been  mooted.  Was 
manna  a  substance  for  the  first  time  created 
!  in  the  wilderness,  or  was  it  a  natural  product 
I  miraculously  multiplied?  Various  plants  ex- 
ude a  manna-like  substance,  either  emaua- 
I  ting  spontaneously  from  the  plant  itself  or 
produced  by  the  puncture  of  an  insect.  The 
Tamarix  mannifera,  a  variety  of  the  Tamurix 
gallica,  does  so,  and  grows  in  the  peninsula 
of  Sinai.  The  exudation  is  dirty  yellow  in 
color,  but  white  when  it  falls  on  stones.  It 
melts  in  the  heat  of  the  sun.  It  is  produced 
during  a  period  of  from  six  to  ten  weeks,  the 
height  of  the  season  being  June.  Athagi 
mauronim  and  A.  deserturuni,  two  species  of 
camel's  thorn,  also  exude  a  manna-like  s\ib- 
stance,  and  there  are  other  manna-bearing 
plants.  The  Arabs  use  plant  manna  of 
different  kinds  as  butter  and  honey.  But 
the  present  yield  of  the  entire  peninsula 
is  less  than  half  a  ton  in  the  best  years.  It 
is  never  made  into  bread.  Moreover,  if 
taken  in  more  than  the  most  limited  quanti- 
ties it  is  purgative.  So  that  even  if  it  were 
produced  abundantly,  there  would  be  great 
difficulty  in  identifjnng  it  with  the  manna 
of  Scripture. 

Ma-no 'ah  [rest,  quiet]. 
A  Danite  belonging  to  the  village  of  Zorah, 
and  father  of  Samson  (Judg.  xiii.  1-25). 

Man'slay-er.    See  Murder. 

Man 'tie. 

The  large,  sleeveless,  outer  garment  or,  as 
a  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  M'^il,  an  occa- 
sional garment  worn  between  the  tunic  and 
the  outer  garment.     See  Clothing. 

Ma'och  [oj)pression]. 

Father  of  Achish,  king  of  Gath  (1  Sam. 
xxvii.  2).     See  Achish. 

Ma'on  [dwelling,  habitation,  abode]. 

1.  A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  .55),  the  residence  of  Nabal  (1  Sam. 
XXV.  2).  now  Ma'in.  about  a  mile  and  a  half 
south  from  Carmel  of  Judah.  and  8J  south 
of  Hebron.  In  the  wilderness  in  the  vicinity 
of  Maon  David  and  his  men  for  a  time  took 
refuge  (1  Sam.   xxiii.  24,  25). 

2.  Son  of  Shamniai,  of  the  tribe  of  .Tndah, 
and  ancestor  of  the  inhabitiints  of  Beth-zur 
(1  Chron.  ii.  45).  Maon  may  indeed  in  tliis 
passage  possibly  be  used  collectively  for  the 
inhabitants  of  the  town  of  this  name  (cp. 
Bethlehem,  ver.  54),  and  that  Maon  is  immedi- 


Maonites 


454 


Mark 


ately  called  the  father  of  Beth-zur  may  be 
paralleled  by  1  Chrou.  i.  8,  9.  11,  13. 

3.  A  people  that  oppressed  Israel  (Judg.  x. 
12).  The  English  versions  translate  Maon- 
ites.    See  Meunim. 

Ma'o-nites.     See  Maon  3  and  Meunim. 

Ma'ra  [bitter,  sad  of  spirit]. 

The  name  chosen  by  Naomi  to  express  her 
bereavements  (Kuth  i.  20). 

Ma 'rah  [bitter,  bitterness]. 

A  fountain  of  bitter  water  in  the  wilder- 
ness of  Shur  on  the  route  to  Sinai,  at  which 
the  Israelites  halted  when  three  days  or  a  little 
more  had  elapsed  after  their  passage  of  the  Red 
Sea.  The  badness  of  the  water,  and  perhaps  its 
scantiness,  opened  their  eyes  to  the  hardships 
which  they  might  expect ;  and  they  mur- 
mured. Moses  was  directed  by  God  to  cast  a 
certain  tree  into  the  waters,  whereby  they 
were  rendered  palatable,  either  miraculously 
or  through  the  chemical  and  medicinal 
properties  of  the  tree  (Exod.  xv.  23-26 ; 
Num.  xxxiii.  8, 9).  Since  the  days  of  Burck- 
hardt,  Marah  has  been  generally  located  at 
'Ain  Hawarah,  about  47  miles  from  Suez, 
and  a  few  miles  inland  from  the  Red  Sea, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  range  of 
hills.  The  well  measures  about  20  feet 
across,  but  is  much  wider  at  the  bottom. 
Its  depth  is  perhaps  25  feet.  The  soil  of  the 
region  abounds  in  soda,  and  the  water  of  the 
well  is  consequently  salty  and  bitter.  The 
principal  rival  claimant  to  Hawarah  has  been 
wady  Ghurundel,  which,  however,  is  gen- 
erally regarded  as  Elim.  The  recent  identi- 
fication of  the  site  of  Pithom  with  Tell  el- 
Maskhuta  leads  to  the  inference  that  Marah 
may  be  'Ayun  Musa,  the  wells  of  Moses,  a 
group  of  springs  "I  miles  south-.southeast  of 
Suez  and  52  south-southeast  of  Pithom.  The 
water  of  some  of  these  springs  is  drinkable, 
but  of  others  very  bitter  and  nauseous.  The 
Arabs  do  not  like  their  camels  to  partake 
of  it. 

Mar'a-lah  [trembling,  reeling], 

A  frontier  village  of  Zebulun  toward  the 
sea  (Josh.  xix.  11).     Not  identified. 

Mar-an  ath'a,  in  A.  V.  Maran-atha.  See 
Anathema  Maran-atha. 

Mar'ble. 

Limestone,  especially  in  a  crj^stalline  con- 
dition, which  is  capable  of  taking  polish.  It 
was  called  in  Hebrew  shayish  and  shesh, 
from  its  brightness,  and  in  Greek  marynaros. 
It  was  used  for  columns  and  costly  pave- 
ments {Esth.  i.  6;  Song  v.  15),  and  was  em- 
ployed in  Solomon's  temple  (1  Chron.  xxix. 
2).  Josephus,  in  describing  the  walls  of  this 
edifice,  mentions  that  they  were  built  of 
white  stone,  but  does  not  specify  the  kind 
of ■  stone  (Antiq.  viii.  3,  2).  White,  yellow, 
and  red  marble  is  obtained  in  Lebanon,  but 
a  choicer  variety  came  from  Arabia.  Red 
and  white  marble  was  employed  in  the 
Greco-Roman  period  for  palatial  buildings  in 


Palestine,  both  east  and  west  of  the  Jordan. 
In  Herod's  temple  the  pillars  of  the  cloisters 
were  monoliths  of  white  marble,  twenty-five 
cubits  high  (War  v.  5,  2). 
Mar'cus.     See  Mark. 

Ma-re'shah  [at  the  head]. 

1.  A  town  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  44;  cp.  1  Chron.  iv.  21).  Rehoboam 
strengthened  its  fortifications  (2  Chron.  xi. 
8).  The  great  battle  between  king  Asa  and 
Zerah  the  Ethiopian  was  fought  in  its  vicinity 
(xiv.  9,  10).  In  the  Grecian  period  it  was 
an  important  town,  inhabited  by  Edomltes, 
and  known  as  Marissa  (Antiq.  xiii.  9,  1 ;  xiv. 
1, 3,  9).  It  was  plundered  by  Judas  Maccabseus 
(1  Mac.  V.  66 ;  2  Mac.  xii.  35  ;  Antiq.  xii.  8, 
6).  John  Hyrcanus  planted  a  Jewish  colony 
there  (Antiq.  xiii.  9,  1 ;  10,  2)  ;  but  Pompey 
made  the  town  free  in  63  (xiv.  4,  4).  Gabinius 
fortified  it  (xiv.  5,  3).  It  was  finally  de- 
stroyed by  the  Parthians  in  40  B.  c.  (xiv.  13, 
9).  According  to  Eusebius,  its  ruins  ex- 
isted 2  Roman  miles  from  Eleutheropolis  ;  and 
Robinson  located  them  at  Mer'ash,  on  a  hill 
about  a  mile  .southwest  of  Beit  Jibrin. 

2.  The  father  of  Hebron  (1  Chron.  ii.  42). 
The  form  of  expression,  in  the  light  of  its 
context,  suggests  that  Mareshah  was  the 
progenitor  of  the  inhabitants  of  Hebron ; 
but  the  mention  of  Hebron's  sons  in  the  fol- 
lowing verse  makes  it  probable  that  Hebron 
was  a  man.  If  so,  he  is  not  mentioned  else- 
where. 

Mark,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  thrice  Marcus 
(Col.  iv.  10 ;  Philem.  24 ;  1  Pet.  v.  13)  [Latin 
marcus,  a  large  hammer]. 

The  evangelist  to  whom  is  traditionally 
assigned  the  Second  Gospel.  Mark  was  his 
surname  (Acts  xii.  12,  25;  xv.  37);  his  first 
name  was  John,  by  which  alone  he  is  desig- 
nated in  Acts  xiii.  5,  13.  His  mother,  Mary, 
was  in  comfortable  circumstances,  and  her 
house  in  Jerusalem  was  one  of  the  meeting 
places  of  the  Christians  (Acts  xii.  12-17) ; 
see  Mary.  There  are  several  instances  in 
the  N.  T.  of  Jews  with  Latin  surnames  (Acts 
i.  23  ;  xiii.  9),  so  that  the  addition  of  Marcus 
to  John  does  not  imply  a  mixed  Jewish  and 
gentile  descent.  Mark  was  also  the  cousin 
of  Barnabas  (Col.  iv.  10,  R.  V.,  in  A.  V.  sis- 
ter's son).  He  accomjianied  Barnabas  and 
Paul  from  Jerusalem  to  Antioch  of  Syria 
(Acts  xii.  25)  and  afterwards  on  their 
missionary  journey  (xiii.  5) ;  but,  for  some 
unstated  reason,  he  left  them  at  Perga 
(13)  and  returned  to  Jerusalem.  Whatever 
was  the  reason  of  Mark's  conduct  on  that 
occasion,  Paul  disapproved  of  it  so  much 
that  he  refused  to  take  him  with  them  when 
a  second  journey  was  proposed  (xv.  38). 
This  caused  a  contention  between  the  two 
missionaries,  so  that  they  separated  and 
Barnabas,  with  Mark,  sailed  to  Cyprus  to 
resume  his  evangelistic  work.  After  this 
Mark  disappears  from  the  history  for  about 
ten  years.     We  next  find  him  in  Rome  with 


% 


Mark 


455 


Mark 


Paul  and  joining  with  the  aimstle  iu  sending 
salutations  (Col.  iv.  10;  Phileni. -24).  It  thus 
appears  that  the  former  cause  of  variance  be- 
tween the  two  men  had  been  removed  ;  and, 
at  a  still  later  jjcriod,  Paul  speaks  of  Mark  iu 
highly  commendatory  terms :  "Take  Mark, 
and  bring  him  with  thee :  for  he  is  useful  to 
me  for  ministering"  (2  Tim.  iv.  11,  K.  V.). 
This  last  reference  further  implies  that  JEark 
had  been  in  the  east,  certainly  iu  Asia  Minor 
and  perhai>s  still  further  east  With  this 
corresponds  1  Pet.  v.  i;5,  according  to  which 
he  was  with  Peter  iu  Babylon,  i)rovided 
that  Babylon  is  there  to  be  understood  lit- 
erally. Peter  calls  Mark  his  sou,  which, 
if  not  a  mere  term  of  eudearment,  may  mean 
that  Mark  had  been  one  of  Peter's  converts. 
The  fact  that  Peter,  when  released  by  the 
angel  from  pri.son,  went  to  the  house  of 
Mark's  mother  (Acts  xii.  12)  may  indicate 
his  intimacy  with  the  family.  Tradition 
varies  on  the  point  whether  Mark  had  beeu 
an  immediate  follower  of  Jesus.  Many 
think,  however,  that  the  youug  man  who 
was  present  at  the  time  of  Christ's  arrest 
(Mark  xiv.  51,  52)  was  Mark  himself.  The 
incident  is  mentioned  by  no  other  evangelist, 
and  there  would  seem  to  be  no  motive  for 
recording  it  except  the  wish  to  give  a  per- 
sonal reminiscence.  The  time  and  place  of 
Mark's  death  are  unknown.  Early  tradition 
represented  him  as  "  the  interpreter  of 
Peter,'"  which  may  mean  that  he  accom- 
panied Peter,  in  the  later  years  of  the  apos- 
tle's life,  on  his  missionary  journeys  and 
acted  as  his  spokesman  when  addres.sing 
gentile  audiences;  or  the  phrase  may  merely 
describe  Mark's  work  in  writing  down  the 
preaching  of  Peter  in  the  Gospel  which  goes 
by  his  name.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that 
Mark  was  in  Eome  with  both  Paul  and 
Peter.  Tradition  also  made  him  the  founder 
of  the  church  in  Alexandria,  but  the  value 
of  the  tradition  is  uncertain.  The  main 
point  to  be  observed  is  that  Mark's  early  his- 
tory and  his  later  association  with  the  chief 
apostles  fitted  him  to  become  the  writer  of  a 
gospel. 

The  Gospel  according  to  St.  Mark  is  the  sec- 
ond of  our  four  gospels,  though  not  neces- 
sarily the  second  in  order  of  composition.  It 
is  the  shortest  of  the  four,  and  its  narrative 
moves  rapidly  without  special  division  into 
sections.  It  may.  however,  be  divided  as 
follows :  1.  Beginning  of  the  gospel  of  Jesus 
Christ,  including  the  ministry  of  John  the 
Baptist  and  the  baptism  and  temptation  of 
Jesus  (i.  1-13).  2.  The  opening  of  the  Galilaean 
ministry  ;  giving  the  place  and  the  message, 
the  call  of  the  first  four  apostles,  miracles  in 
Capernaum  and  Galilee  (i.  14-45).  3.  Christ's 
triumph  over  rising  opposition,  including  the 
cure  of  the  paralytic,  Levi's  feast  and  the 
discourse  on  fasting,  and  the  Sabbath  contro- 
versy (ii.  1-iii.  6).  4.  Extensiou  of  Christ's 
work  amid  increasing  opposition,  including 
the  description  of  the  multitudes  who  fol- 


lowed him  ;  the  appointment  of  the  twelve  ; 
replies  to  the  Pharisees;  the  visit  of  his 
mother  and  brethren ;  the  jiarables  of  the 
sower,  the  seed  growing  secretly,  and  the 
mustard  seed,  with  remarks;  the  great  mira- 
cles of  stilling  the  waves,  the  Gadarenc  do-, 
moniacs,  the  woman  with  a  bloody  issue, 
and  the  raising  of  Jairus'  daughter ;  the 
(secoud)  rejection  at  Nazareth  ;  the  sending 
out  of  the  twelve;  Herod's  iiuiuiry  about 
Jesus  together  with  au  account  of  the  death 
of  Johu  the  Baptist;  the  feeding  of  the 
5000;  the  walking  on  the  sea;  and  Christ's 
deuuuciatiou  of  Pharasaic  traditionalism  (iii. 
7-vii.  23).  5.  A  period  of  coni]iarative  re- 
tirement, embracing  the  later  Galilseau  min- 
istry (see  Gospel)  :  including  the  healing 
of  the  Syrophoeuiciau's  daughter  in  the  bor- 
ders of  Tyre  and  Sidon  and  of  a  deaf-mute 
in  Decapolis ;  the  feeding  of  the  4000 ;  the 
refusal  to  give  the  Pharisees  a  sign  and  the 
warning  of  the  disciples  against  them  ;  heal- 
ing of  a  blind  man  near  Bethsaida,  followed 
by  incidents  near  Csesarea  Philippi,  in- 
cluding the  prediction  by  Christ  of  his  death, 
Peter's  confession,  etc.,  the  transfiguration, 
the  cure  of  the  demoniac  boy,  a  renewed 
prediction  of  Christ's  death  and,  on  return- 
ing to  Capernaum,  special  instructions  to  the 
disciples  (vii.  24-ix.  50).  This  period  is 
specially  complete  in  Mark.  (j.  Christ's 
closing  ministry  in  Perpea  :  including  the 
question  of  the  Pharisees  about  divorce  ;  the 
blessing  of  the  children ;  the  rich  young 
ruler ;  and  explanations  to  the  disciples ;  the 
ascent  to  Jerussilem.  including  a  third  pre- 
diction of  his  death,  the  request  of  James  and 
John,  the  healing  of  Bartimjeus  (x.).  7. 
The  last  week,  including  the  triumphal 
entry ;  the  blasting  of  the  barren  fig  tree ; 
the  (second)  cleansing  of  the  temple  ;  the 
visit  of  the  deputation  from  the  .sauhedriu  ; 
the  i)arable  of  the  wicked  husbandmen  ;  the 
questions  of  the  Pharisees  and  Herodians, 
of  the  Sadducees,  and  of  the  scribe  i  law;s'er) ; 
Christ's  question  about  the  son  of  David  :  a 
brief  report  of  his  denunciations  of  the 
Pharisees  and  scribes  (cp.  Mat.  xxiii)  ;  the 
widow's  gift;  the  discourse  on  the  mount  of 
Olives;  Judas' treachery  and,  in  connection 
with  it,  the  supper  at  Bethany ;  a  brief  ac- 
count of  the  last  evening  with  the  disciples 
and  the  institution  of  the  Lord's  Supper; 
the  agony  in  Gethsemane  ;  the  arrest :  the 
trial  of  Jesus  at  night  before  the  sanhedrin  ; 
Peter's  denials ;  the  trial  before  Pilate,  and 
the  crucifixion  ;  the  burial  :  the  announce- 
ment of  Christ's  resurrection  to  certain 
women  by  an  angel  seated  in  his  empty 
tomb  (xi.  1-xvi.  8). 

The  last  twelve  verses  of  Mark's  Gospel,  as 
found  in  A.  V.,  are  believed  by  most  scholars 
not  to  have  formed  the  original  close  of  the 
book.  Hence  in  E.  V.  they  are  separated 
by  a  space  from  the  preceding  verses.  They 
were  certainly  added  at  a  very  early  time, 
perhaps  at  the  beginning  of  the  second  cen- 


Mark 


456 


Marriage 


tury.  They  seem  to  have  been  formed  in 
part  out  of  the  other  gospels  aud  they  truth- 
fully describe  the  beliefs  of  the  apostolic 
churches  on  the  subjects  with  which  they 
deal.  Chap.  xvi.  8,  however,  is  tooabru])t  an 
ending.  The  original  close  mnst  have  been 
lost  at  a  very  early  time,  soon  after  the  book 
was  finished.  Some  have  su])posed  that  Mark 
was  prevented  from  finishing.  The  last 
twelve  verses  of  our  Mark,  when  regarded 
as  an  ancient  addition  to  and  completion  of 
the  book,  are  powerful  evidence  for  the  ex- 
istence and  circulation  of  the  other  gospels 
as  well  as  for  the  reception  of  Mark's  own 
narrative. 

Ancient  and  trustworthy  tradition  repre- 
sents Mark's  Gospel  as  in  some  degree  con- 
nected with  Peter's  preaching  about  Christ. 
This  is  confirmed  by  the  many  vivid  particu- 
lars which  it  contains,  which  seem  to  be 
due  to  the  reminiscences  of  an  evewitness 
(e.  (J.  i.  40;  ii.  1-4;  iii.  5;  v.  4-6;  vi.  39,  40; 
vii.  34;  viii.  33;  x.  21  ;  xi.  20),  This  must 
not  be  pres.sed,  however,  to  the  exclusion  of 
other  sources  of  information.  Its  narrative 
consists  of  a  series  of  descriptive  scenes,  and 
these  proceed  in  a  more  chronological  order 
than  in  Matthew  or  Luke.  The  story  moves 
forward  rapidly  and  with  much  pictorial 
power.  While  Mark's  is  the  shortest  gospel, 
this  is  not  usually  due  to  condensation  of 
material.  What  he  does  give,  is  generally 
de.scribed  with  much  detail.  He  lays  espe- 
cial stress  on  the  deeds  of  Christ  rather  than 
on  his  teaching.  He  relates  only  four  para- 
bles, but  eighteen  miracles.  He  depicts  Christ 
as  the  mighty  Son  of  God,  the  conquering 
Saviour.  Unlike  Matthew,  he  says  nothing 
of  Christ's  relation  to  the  IMosaic  law,  and 
but  few  allusions  to  the  fulfillment  of  proph- 
ecy are  noted.  Tradition  states  that  Mark 
wrote  his  Gospel  at  Eome  either  shortly  be- 
fore or  shortly  after  Peter's  death.  If  so,  it 
must  be  dated  A.  D.  6.5-fi8,  On  other  grounds 
also  mo.st  scholars  now  assign  it  to  about  that 
period.  In  the  ancient  church  Mark  was 
supposed  by  some  to  have  abbreviated 
Matthew.  But  this  is  impossi])le  since  he 
adds  many  details  which  are  not  in  Matthew. 
Others  believe  that  Matthew  and  Luke  drew 
from  Mark,  and  so  make  Mark  the  oldest  of 
our  gospels.  The  most  probable  view  is  that 
all  three  of  the  synoptic  gospels  were  inde- 
pendent of  one  another,  and  that  their  verbal 
agreements  are  to  be  explained  by  their  all 
using  very  largely  the  language  in  which 
the  apostolic  reports  of  Christ's  words  and 
deeds  were  circulated  among  the  churches. 
Mark's  Gospel  was  evidently  written  pri- 
marily for  gentiles.  This  appears  e.  q.  in 
his  explanations  of  places  and  customs  and 
terms  (i,  9;  iii.  17;  v.  41;  vii.  3,  4,  11,  34; 
xii.  42;  xiv.  13;  xv.  22,  42,  etc.).  He  uses 
also  a  good  many  Latin  words  in  Greek 
form  which  may  indicate  that  his  book  was 
originally  published,  as  tradition  states,  at 
Eome.  G.  T.  p. 


Ma 'roth  [bitterness,  bitter  fountains]. 
A  town   of  Judah  (Mic.  i.   12).     Site  un- 
known. 

Mar'riage. 

Marriage  is  a  divine  institution,  constituted 
at  the  beginning  before  the  origin  of  human 
society.  The  Creator  made  man  male  and 
female,  and  ordained  marriage  as  the  indis- 
pensable condition  of  the  continuance  of  the 
race  (Gen.  i.  27,  28).  He  implanted  social 
affections  and  desires  in  man's  nature.  He 
made  marriage  an  ennobling  influence,  pow- 
erfully contributing  to  the  development  of  a 
complete  life  in  man  and  woman.  He  de- 
clared it  to  be  not  good  for  man  to  be  alone 
and  provided  a  help  meet  for  him  (Gen.  ii. 
18).  Abstinence  from  marriage  is  commend- 
able at  the  call  of  duty  (Mat,  xix.  12 ;  1  Cor. 
vii.  8,  26),  but  its  ascetic  prohibition  is  a  sign 
of  departure  from  the  faith  (1  Tim.  iv.  3). 

Monogamy  is  the  divine  ideal.  The  Crea- 
tor constituted  marriage  as  a  union  between 
one  man  and  one  woman  (Gen.  ii  18-24; 
Mat.  xix.  5 ;  1  Cor.  vi.  16).  He  preserves 
the  number  of  males  practically  equal  to  the 
number  of  females  in  a  nation. 

Marriage  is  a  permanent  relation  (-Mat.  xix. 
6).  The  Creator  has  indicated  the  perma- 
nence of  the  relation  by  making  the  growth 
of  aflfection  between  husband  and  wife,  as 
the  years  pass,  to  be  a  natural  process,  in- 
variable under  normal  conditions.  Moral 
ends  require  that  the  relation  be  permanent : 
the  disciplining  of  husband  and  wife  in 
obedience  to  the  obligations  which  spring 
from  their  relations  to  each  other,  and  the 
adequate  training  of  children  to  obedience 
and  virtue.  It  cannot  be  dissolved  by  any 
legitimate  act  of  man.  It  is  dissolved  by 
death  (Rom.  vii.  2,  3).  It  may  be  dissolved 
on  account  of  adultery  (Mat.  xix,  3-9).  Prot- 
estants, following  Paul,  teach  that  it  may 
be  dissolved  by  willful,  deliberate,  final  de- 
sertion (1  Cor.  vii.  15).  It  is  probable, 
however,  that  in  those  times  desertion  was 
accompanied  by  adulterous  or  marital  con- 
sorting with  another  person.  The  marriage 
of  persons  divorced  on  improper  grounds  is 
forbidden  (Mat.  v.  32  ;  xix.  9;  1  Cor.  vii.  10, 
11).  In  the  sight  of  God,  a  civil  tribunal 
cannot  annul  a  marriage ;  it  declares  whether 
the  marriage  has  been  sinfully  annulled  by 
one  or  both  of  the  persons  concerned. 

Among  the  antediluvians,  Adam,  Cain, 
Noah,  and  his  three  sons  appear  each  as  the 
husband  of  one  wife.  But  polygamy  was 
already  practiced,  Lamech  having  two  wives 
(Gen.  iv.  19) ;  and  the  purity  of  marriages 
was  impaired  by  men  allowing  themselves  to 
be  governed  by  low  motives  in  the  choice  of 
wives  (vi.  2).  Polygamy  was  unwisely  adopted 
by  Abraham,  when  he  thought  that  he  must 
needs  help  God  to  fulfill  his  promise  (Gen. 
xvi.  4).  Isaac  had  one  wife.  Jacob  took 
two  wives  and  their  maids.  Moses,  who  was 
correcting  abuses,   not  suddenly  abolishing; 


1 


Marriage 


457 


Marriage 


them,  permitted  the  Israelites,  on  account  of 
their  dullness  of  sjdritiial  perception  and  their 
enslavement  to  the  customs  of  the  age,  to 
put  away  their  wives  for  a  less  fault  than 
the  gravest  breach  of  marital  fidelity ;  and 
he  did  not  forbid  polygamy,  but  discouraged 
it.  He  regulated  what  he  found ;  but  the 
recoi'd  of  the  primitive  period  showed  that 
the  state  of  things  among  the  Israelites  was 
not  the  ordination  of  the  Creator.  Moses' 
service  to  the  cause  of  matrimony  consisted 
in  setting  a  higher  ideal  by  establishing  the 
degrees  of  consanguinity  and  affinity  within 
which  marriage  is  proper  (Lev.  xviii.),  dis- 
couraging polygamy  (Lev.  xviii.  18;  Deut. 
xvii.  17),  securing  the  rights  of  inferior 
wives  (Ex.  xxi.  2-11  ;  Deut.  xxi.  10-17),  re- 
stricting divorce  (Deut.  xxii.  19,  29  ;  xxiv. 
1),  and  requiring  purity  in  the  married  life 
(Ex.  XX.  14,  17  ;  Lev.  xx.  10;  Deut.  xxii.  22). 
Polygamy  continued  to  be  practiced  more  or 
less  by  wealthy  individuals  after  the  time  of 
Moses,  as  by  Gideon,  Elkanah,  Saul,  David, 
Solomon,  Rehoboam,  and  others  (Judg.  viii. 
30 ;  1  Sam.  i.  2  ;  2  Sam.  v.  i:^  ;  xii.  8  ;  xxi.  8 ; 
1  Kin.  xi.  3).  The  evils  of  polygamy  are 
exhibited  in  Scripture  by  the  record  of  the 
jealousies  of  the  wives  of  Abraham  and 
Elkanah  (Gen.  xvi.  6 ;  1  Sam.  i.  6),  and  beau- 
tiful pictures  are  presented  of  the  felicity  of 
marriage  between  one  man  and  one  woman 
(Ps.  cxxviii.  3;  Prov.  v.  18;  xxxi.  10-29; 
P^cc.  ix.  9;    cp.    Ecclus.   xxvi.   1-27). 

In  the  family  to  which  Abraham  belonged 
marriage  was  permitted  with  a  half-sister 
and  with  two  sisters  (Gen.  xx.  12  ;  xxix.  26). 
Marriage  with  a  full  sister  was  not  rare  in 
Egypt,  and  was  allowed  in  Persia  (Herod. 
iii.  31).  Marriage  with  a  half-sister  by  the 
same  father  was  permitted  at  Athens,  and 
with  a  half-sister  by  the  same  mother  at 
Sparta.  The  Mosaic  law  prohibited  alliance 
with  persons  so  closely  related  by  blood  as 
these  and  with  others  less  near  of  kin  (Lev. 
xviii.  6-18)  ;  but  in  case  a  man  died  childless, 
his  brother  took  the  widow  (Deut.  xxv.  5). 
Such  marriage  was  ordained,  but  it  was  not 
compulsory.  The  Roman  law  was  not  unlike 
the  Hebrew.  It  declared  marriages  to  be 
incestuous,  "  when  the  parties  were  too  nearly 
related  by  consanguinity — that  is,  by  being 
of  the  same  blood,  as  brother  and  sister ;  or 
by  affinity— that  is,  by  being  connected 
through  marriage,  as  father-in-law  and  daugh- 
ter-in-Liw." 

The  selection  of  a  wife  for  a  young  man 
devolved  on  his  relations,  especially  on  his 
father  (Gen.  xxi.  21  ;  xxiv. ;  xxxviii.  6  ;  2 
Esd.  ix.  47),  though  sometimes  the  son  made 
known  his  preference  and  the  father  merely 
conducted  the  negotiations  (Gen.  xxxiv.  4,8; 
Judg.  xiv.  1-10).  Only  under  extraordinary 
circumstances  did  the  young  man  make  the 
arrangements  (Gen.  xxix.  LSI.  Likewise  it 
was  the  consent  of  the  maid's  father  and 
eldest  brother  that  was  sought,  it  not  being 
necessary  to    consult    her   (Gen.   xxiv.  51 ; 


xxxiv.  11).  Occasionally  a  parent  looked 
out  an  eligible  husband  for  a  daughter  or 
otlered  her  to  a  suitable  person  in  marriage 
(Ex.  ii.  21;  Jo.sh.  xv.  17;  Ruth  iii.  1,  2  ;  1 
Sam.  xviii.  27).  Presents  were  given  to  the 
parents,  and  sometimes  to  the  maiden  (Gen. 
xxiv.  22,  53  ;  xxix.  18,  27  ;  xxxiv.  12 ;  1  Sam. 
xviii.  25).  Between  betrothal  and  marriage 
all  communication  between  the  alfianced  par- 
ties was  carried  on  through  a  friend  de}iuted 
for  the  purpose  and  termed  the  friend  of  the 
bridegroom  (John  iii.  29). 

The  marriage  itself  was  a  purely  domestic 
affair,  without  definite  religious  services, 
though  probably  the  espousal  was  ratified  by 
an  oath  (Prov.  ii.  17 ;  Ezek.  xvi.  8 ;  Mai.  ii. 
14).  After  the  exile  it  became  customary  to 
draw  up  and  seal  a  written  contract  (Tob. 
vii.  14).  When  the  day  appointed  for  the 
wedding  arrived,  the  bride  bathed  (cp.  Judith 
X.  3;  Eph.  v.  26,  27),  put  on  white  robes,, 
often  richly  embroidered  (Rev.  xix.  8 ;  Ps. 
xlv.  13,  14),  decked  herself  with  jewels  (Is. 
Ixi.  10 ;  Rev.  xxi.  2),  fastened  the  indispen- 
sable bridal  girdle  about  her  waist  (Is.  iii.  24  ; 
xlix.  18 ;  Jer.  ii.  32),  covered  herself  with  a 
veil  (Gen.  xxiv.  65),  and  placed  a  garland  on 
her  head.  The  bridegroom,  arrayed  in  his 
best  attire,  with  a  handsome  headdress  and  a 
garland  on  his  head  (Song  iii.  11  ;  Is.  Ixi.  10), 
set  out  from  his  home  for  the  house  of  the 
bride's  parents,  attended  by  his  friends  (Judg. 
xiv.  11  ;  Mat.  ix.  15),  accompanied  by  musi- 
cians and  singers  and,  if  the  procession  moved 
at  night,  by  persons  bearing  torches  (1  Mac. 
ix.  39;  Mat.  xxv.  7;  cp.  Gen.  xxxi.  27;  Jer. 
vii.  34).  Having  received  his  bride,  deeply 
veiled,  from  her  parents  with  their  blessing 
and  the  good  wishes  of  friends  (Gen.  xxiv. 
59;  Ruth  iv.  11;  Tob.  vii.  13),  he  conducted 
the  whole  party  back  to  his  own  or  his 
father's  house  with  song,  music,  and  dancing 
(Ps.  xlv.  15;  Song  iii.  6-11;  1  Mac.  ix.  37). 
On  the  way  back  they  were  joined  by  maid- 
ens, friends  of  the  bride  and  groom  (Mat. 
xxv.  6).  A  feast  was  served  at  the  house  of 
the  groom  or  of  his  parents  (Mat.  xxii.  1-10; 
John  ii.  1,  9)  ;  but  if  he  lived  at  a  great  dis- 
tance the  feast  was  spread  in  the  house  of 
the  bride's  parents  (Mat.  xxv.  1),  either  at 
their  expense  or  the  groom's  (Gen.  xxix.  22; 
Judg.  xiv.  10;  Tob.  viii.  19).  The  groom 
now  associated  with  his  bride  for  the  first 
time  (John  iii.  29).  In  the  evening  the  bride 
was  escorted  to  the  nuptial  chamber  by  her 
parents  (Gen.  xxix.  23;  Judg.  xv.  1;  Tob. 
vii.  16,  17),  and  the  groom  by  his  companions 
or  the  bride's  parents  (Tob.  viii.  1).  On  the 
morrow  the  festivities  were  resumed,  and 
continued  for  one  or  two  weeks  (Gen.  xxix. 
27;  Judg.  xiv.  12:  Tob.  viii.  19,  20). 

■The  spiritual  relation  between  Jehovah 
and  his  people  is  figuratively  spoken  of  as  a 
marriage  or  betrothal  (Is.  Ixii.  4,  5;  Hos.  ii. 
19).  The  apostasy  of  God's  people  through 
idolatry  or  other  form  of  sin  is  accordingly 
likened  to  infidelity  on  the  part  of  a  wife 


Marsena 


458 


Mary 


(Is.  i.  21;  Jer.  iii.  1-20;  Ezek.  xvi. ;  xxiii. ; 
Hos.  ii.),  and  leads  to  divorce  (Ps.  Ixxiii.  27; 
Jer.  ii.  20;  Hos.  iv.  12).  The  figure  is  con- 
tinued in  the  N.  T. ;  Christ  is  the  bridegroom 
(Mat.  ix.  15;  John  iii.  29).  and  the  church  is 
the  bride  (2  Cor.  xi.  2;  Eev.  xix.  7;  xxi.  2, 
9 ;  xxii.  17).  The  love  of  Christ  for  the 
church,  his  solicitude  for  her  perfection,  and 
his  headship  are  held  uj)  as  the  standard  for 
imitation  by  husbands  and  wives  (Eph.  v. 
23-32). 

Mar'se-na. 

One  of  the  seven  princes  of  Persia  who 
were  permitted  to  see  the  king's  face  (Esth. 
i.  14). 

Mars'  Hill.     See  Areopagus. 

Mar'tha  [lady,  mistress]. 

Sister  of  Mary  and  Lazarus  of  Bethany 
(John  xi.  1,  2).  The  three  were  tenderly  at- 
tached to  Jesus.  Martha  loved  him  and  de- 
sired to  make  him  comfortable  and  show  him 
respect  in  her  house.  Mary  gave  evidence 
of  a  deeper  api)reciatiou  by  her  hunger  for 
the  words  of  truth  that  fell  I'rom  his  lips; 
and  when  Martha  would  have  him  rebuke 
Mary  for  not  assisting  her  to  attend  to  his 
external  wants,  Jesus  taught  that  he  himself 
regarded  the  inward  craving  of  his  followers 
for  spiritual  fellowship  with  him  as  more 
essential  than  their  concern  for  his  external 
honor  (Luke  x.  38-42}.  Both  sisters  were 
sincere  believers  (John  xi.  21-32).  The  house 
Avhcre  Jesus  was  received  is  called  Marthii's 
(Luke  X.  38) ;  and  the  supper  which  was  given 
to  him  at  Bethany,  at  which  Lazarus  was 
]irescnt  and  Martha  again  served,  where 
Mary  anointed  his  feet  (John  xii.  1-3)  was  at 
the  house  of  Simon  the  leper  (Mat.  xxvi.  6 ; 
Mark  xiv.  3).  From  these  facts  it  has  been 
inferred  that  Martha  was  probably  the  wife 
or  widow  of  Simon. 

Ma'ry  [N.  T.  Greek  Maria  and  Mariam, 
from  Hebrew  Mh-yum,  Miriam.  Also  Latin 
Mari<C\ . 

Six  women  mentioned  in  the  N.  T. 

1.  Mary  the  (wife)  of  Clopas  or  Cleophas, 
a  Mary  so  designated  in  John  xix.  25.  "Wife  " 
is  not  in  the  original  Greek,  but  is  properly 
sup])lied  both  by  A.  V.  and  E.  V.  Clopas  of 
the  E.  v.,  Cleojihas  of  the  A.  V.,  is  apparently 
to  be  identified  with  Aljihseus  (Mat.  x.  3  ; 
Mark  iii.  18;  Luke  vi.  15),  the  two  names 
being  variant  forms  of  the  same  Aramaic 
original.  He  and  Mary  were  thus  the  parents 
of  the  apostle  James  the  Less,  who  had  also 
a  brother  Joses  (Mat.  xxvii.  56;  Mark  xv. 
40;  Luke  xxiv.  10).  Those  who  understand 
the  Lord's  "  brethren "  to  have  been  his 
cousins  on  his  mother's  side,  suppose  that 
this  Mary  was  a  sister  of  the  Virgin,  and  that 
John  (xix.  25)  mentions  only  three  women 
at  the  cross.  But  it  is  unlikely  that  two 
sisters  should  have  had  the  same  name,  and 
other  considerations  make  the  cousin  theory 
im])robable ;  see  Bkkthken  of  the  Lord. 
In  that  case  John  mentions  four  women  at 


the  cross.  One  of  them  was  Mary  the  wife 
of  C!lopas ;  but,  beyond  the  fact  that  her 
husband  and  sons  were,  like  herself,  disciples 
of  Jesus  and  that  probably  one  of  her  sons 
was  an  apostle,  M^e  know  nothing  more  of 
her.  Besides  being  at  the  cross,  Mary  was 
one  of  the  women  who  followed  the  body  of 
Jesus  to  the  tomb  (JIat.  xxvii.  Gl),  and  on 
the  tliird  day  took  sjnces  to  the  sepulcher, 
and  to  whom  the  risen  Saviour  appeared 
(Mat.  xxviii.  1  ;  Mark  xv.  47 :  xvi.  1 ;  Luke 
xxiv.  10).  See  No.  2  of  this  article;  also 
AlphvEus,  James. 

2.  Mary  the  Virgin  ;  the  Virgin  Mary.  All 
the  authentic  information  about  her  comes 
from  Scri])ture.  We  are  told  that,  in  the 
sixtli  month  after  the  conception  of  John 
the  Bajitist,  the  angel  Gabriel  was  sent  from 
God  to  Nazareth,  a  city  or  village  of  Gali- 
lee, to  a  virgin  named  Mary,  who  was  resid- 
ing there  and  who  was  betrothed  to  a  car- 
])enter  named  Jose])li  (Luke  i.  28,  27).  Joseph 
is  explicitly  declared  to  have  been  a  de- 
scendant of  David.  Mary  is  not  so  described ; 
but  many  believe  that  she  too  was  of  Davidic 
lineage,  because  she  was  told  that  her  child 
should  receive  "the  throne  of  his  father 
David,"  also  because  our  Lord  is  said  to  have 
been  of  "the  seed  of  David  according  to  the 
flesh"  (Eom.  i.  3 ;  2  Tim.  ii.  8;  cp.  Acts  ii. 
30),  and  again  because,  in  the  opinion  of 
many  scholars,  the  genealogy  of  Christ  given 
by  I^uke  (iii.  23-38)  is  through  his  mother, 
in  wiiich  case  Maiy's  father  is  supposed  to 
have  been  Heli.  However  this  may  be, 
Gabriel  hailed  Mary  as  a  highly  favored 
one,  and  announced  to  her  that  she  should 
have  a  sou  whose  name  she  should  call  Jesus. 
"He,"  said  the  angel,  "shall  be  great,  and 
shall  be  called  the  Son  of  the  Most  High : 
and  the  Lord  God  shall  give  unto  him  the 
throne  of  his  father  David  :  and  he  shall 
reign  over  the  house  of  Jacob  forever ;  and 
of  his  kingdom  there  shall  be  no  end  "  (Luke 
i.  32,  33,  E.  v.).  When  Mary  asked  how  this 
could  be,  since  she  was  a  virgin,  she  was  told 
that  it  would  be  wrought  by  the  jiower  of 
the  Holy  Ghost,  "  wherefore  also  that  which 
is  to  be  born  shall  be  called  holy,  the  Son  of 
God  "  (Luke  i.  35,  E.  V.).  These  expressions 
revealed  to  Mary  that  she  was  chosen  to  be 
the  mother  of  Messiah,  and  with  humble 
piety  she  accejited  the  honor  which  God  was 
mysteriously  to  confer  upon  her.  For  her 
comfort  she  was  informed  by  the  angel  that 
her  kinswoman  Elisabeth  was  also  to  become 
a  mother,  whereupon  Mary  hastened  to  the 
village  of  Judah  where  Zacharias  and  Elisa- 
beth lived.  At  her  coming  p]lisabeth  was 
made  aware  of  the  honor  intended  for  Mary, 
and  broke  out  into  an  inspired  song  of  praise. 
Thereupon  Mary  also  gave  voice  to  a  hymn 
of  thanksgiving  ("  The  Magnificat,"  Luke  i. 
46-55).  We  learn  from  all  this  the  profound 
])iety  and  solenni  joy  with  which  the.se  holy 
women  contemplated  the  power  and  grace  of 
God  which  was  through  their  offspring  to 


Mary 


459 


Mary 


fiiltill  the  autient  promises  to  Israel  and 
bring  salvation  to  the  world.  Mary  remained 
nnder  the  i)niteetion  of  Elisabeth  until  just 
before  the  liirth  of  John,  when  she  returned 
to  Nazareth.  Soon  after  the  eause  of  her 
condition  was  revealed  in  a  dream  to  Joseph, 
who  at  first  had  thought  of  quietly  putting 
her  away  from  him  (Mat.  i.  18-21).  He  was 
directed  to  marry  her  and  to  call  the  name 
of  tiie  child  Jesus,  "  for  it  is  he  that  shall 
.save  his  people  from  their  sins."  It  was 
pointed  out  also  to  him  that  Isaiah  had  pre- 
dicted that  Jlessiah  would  be  born  of  a  vir- 
gin. Jo.seph  reverently  obeyed.  He  "took 
unto  him  his  wife  ;  and  knew  her  not  till  she 
had  brought  forth  a  son :  and  he  called  his 
name  Jesus"'  (Mat.  i.  24,  2.3,  E.  V.).  By  this 
marriage  Mary  was  protected,  her  mysterious 
secret  was  guarded,  and  her  child  was  born 
as  the  legal  son  of  Joseph,  and  therefore 
through  him  heir  of  David.  The  birth,  how- 
ever, took  place  at  Bethlehem.  A  decree  of 
Augustus  that  all  the  world  should  be  en- 
rolled was  being  carried  out  in  Palestine, 
and  compelled  Jose])h,  being  of  Davidic  de- 
scent, to  repair  to  David's  city  to  be  enrolled, 
^lary  accompanied  him.  Finding  no  room 
in  the  inn,  or  khan,  they  were  compelled  to 
lodge  in  a  stable,  perhaps,  however,  one  that 
was  then  not  being  used  by  cattle.  There 
Jesus  was  born,  and  his  mother  "  wrapped 
him  in  swaddling  clothes,  and  laid  him  in  a 
manger"  (Luke  ii.  7).  With  reverent,  trust- 
ful awe  Mary  heard  the  shepherds  relate  the 
vision  of  angels  which  they  had  seen  and  the 
song  of  peace  which  they  had  heard  herald- 
ing the  Saviour's  birth.  Of  course,  she  did 
not  know  that  her  child  was  Clod  made  flesh. 
She  only  knew  that  he  was  to  be  Messiah, 
and  with  true  piety  she  waited  for  God  to 
make  his  mission  clear.  On  the  fortieth  day 
after  the  birth  Mary  went,  with  Joseph  and 
Jesus,  to  Jerusalem  to  present  the  child  to 
the  Lord  and  to  oflTer  in  the  temple  the  offer- 
ing required  by  the  law  (Lev.  xi.  2,  6,  8) 
from  women  after  childbirth.  The  fact  that 
her  offering  is  said  to  have  been  that  required 
of  poor  people — a  pair  of  turtle  doves  or  two 
young  pigeons— indicates  the  humble  cir- 
cumstances of  the  family.  When,  however, 
the  parents  brought  in  the  child,  they  were 
met  by  the  aged  Simeon  who  rejoiced  over 
the  birth  of  Messiah,  but  foretold  to  Mary 
that  she  should  have  great  sorrow  because  of 
what  would  happen  to  him  (Luke  ii.  35). 
After  this  Joseph  and  Mary  appear  to  have 
returned  to  Bethlehem  and  to  have  lived  in 
a  house  (Mat.  ii.  11).  There  Mary  received 
the  wise  men  from  the  east  who  came  to 
worship  .Jesus  (Mat.  ii.  1-11).  Soon  after  she 
fled  with  Joseph  and  the  child  to  Egy))t,  and 
afterwards  by  divine  direction  they  returned 
to  Nazareth.  There  she  must  have  devoted 
herself  especially  to  the  rearing  of  the  child 
of  promise  who  had  been  committed  to  her 
care  and  of  whose  future  she  must  have 
thought  continually.    One  glimpse  of  Mary's 


character  is  given  ns  when  Jesus  was  twelve 
years  old.  She  was  in  the  hal)it  piously  of 
attending  with  Joseph  the  yearly  passover 
(Luke  ii.  41),  though  this  was  not  specifically 
reipiired  of  .Jewish  wonuMi  (Ex.  xxiil.  17). 
With  like  piety  .Joseph  and  Mary  took  Jesus 
with  them,  as  soon  as  he  reached  the  age 
wlien  it  was  customary  for  children  to  attend, 
and  his  delay  in  the  temple  and  his  words 
when  his  parents  found  him  with  the  drx'tors, 
were  the  occasion  of  increased  awe  to  his 
parents.  "  His  mother  kept  all  tlu'se  sayings 
in  her  heart"  (Luke  ii.  51).  JIary  did  not 
understand  how  great  her  child  really  was 
nor  how  he  was  to  fulfill  his  mission.  It  was 
hers  reverently  and  trustfully  to  rear  him 
for  God's  service,  and  this  she  did  so  long  as 
he  was  under  her.  If  the  "  l)rethren  of  the 
Lord"  (see  Brethren  of  the  Lord)  were,  as 
is  probal)le,  the  children  of  Josejjh  and  Mary, 
born  after  Jesus,  Mary  was  the  mother  of  a 
large  family.  We  read  also  of  t.'hrist's  sisters 
(Mark  vi.  3).  But  nothing  further  is  re- 
corded of  Mary  until  the  beginning  of  Christ's 
public  ministry.  She  then  appears  at  the 
marriage  in  (Jana  (.John  Ii.  1-10).  She  evi- 
dently rejoiced  in  her  sou's  assumption  of 
Messianic  office  and  fully  believed  in  him. 
But  she  ventured  improperly  to  direct  his 
actions,  and  thus  elicited  from  him  a  re- 
spectful but  firm  rebuke.  Mary  must  under- 
stand that  in  his  work  she  could  share  only 
as  a  follower.  While  as  her  son  he  gave  her 
reverence,  as  the  Messiah  and  Saviour  he 
could  only  regard  her  as  a  disciple,  needing 
as  much  as  others  the  salvation  he  came  to 
bring.  A  similar  truth  was  brought  out  on 
the  next  occasion  on  which  she  appears  (Mat. 
xii.  46-.50;  Mark  iii.  31-35;  Luke  viii.  19- 
21).  While  .Jesus  was  teaching  on  tlie  great 
day  of  parables,  Mary  witJi  his  brethren  de- 
sii'ed  to  see  him.  Perhaps  they  wished  to 
restrain  him  from  a  course  which  seemed  to 
be  bringing  upon  him  opposition  and  peril. 
His  reply  again  declared  that  the  spiritual 
bond  between  him  and  his  disciples  was  more 
important  than  any  human  tie.  "  For  whoso- 
ever shall  do  the  will  of  my  Father  which  is 
in  heaven,  he  is  my  brother,  and  sister,  and 
mother"  (Mat.  xii. "-50,  R.  V.).  While  Christ 
pursued  his  miuistrj%  Mary  and  his  ))rethreu 
appear  to  have  still  lived  in  Nazareth.  As 
no  mention  is  made  of  Joseph,  it  is  natural 
to  sui)]K)se  that  he  had  died.  But  at  the 
crucifixion  Mary  appears  with  otlier  women 
at  the  cross.  Unlike  his  brethi-en  (John  vii. 
5)  she  had  always  believed  in  her  .son's  Mes- 
siahship,  and  therefore  it  is  not  strange  to 
find  that  she  followed  him  on  the  last  fatal 
journey  to  .Jerusalem.  With  a  mother's  love, 
as  well  as  with  a  di.sciple's  sorrow,  she  beheld 
his  crucifixion,  and  to  her  .Jesus  spoke  in  the 
hour  of  his  suffering.  He  gave  her  to  the 
care  of  Iiis  beloved  disciple  .John,  and  "  from 
that  hour  that  disciple  took  her  unto  his  own 
home"  (John  xix.  25-27).  After  the  ascen- 
.sion  she  was  with  the  apostles  in  the  upper 


Mary 


460 


Maschil 


room  in  Jerusalem  (Acts  i.  14),  and  tliis  is  the 
last  notice  of  her  in  Scripture.  We  do  not 
know  tlie  time  or  manner  of  her  death.  Tlie 
tomb  of  the  Virgin  is  shown  in  the  valley 
of  the  Kidron,  hut  there  is  no  reason  to  be- 
lieve in  its  genuineness.  Later  legends  were 
busy  with  her  name,  but  none  contain  trust- 
worthy information.  As  presented  in  Scrip- 
ture, she  is  simply  a  beautiful  example  of  a 
devoted  and  pious  mother. 

13.  Mary  Magdalene.  The  designation  given 
to  this  Mary  (Mat.  xxvii.  5(i,  61 ;  xxviii.  1 ; 
Mark  xv.  40,  47;  xvi.  1,  9;  Luke  viii.  2; 
xxiv.  10;  John  xix.  2.5;  xx.  1,  18)  doubtless 
indicates  that  she  was  a  resident  of  Magdala, 
oti  the  .southwestern  coast  of  the  sea  of  Gali- 
lee. Out  of  her  .Tesus  had  cast  seven  devils 
(Mark  xvi.  9  ;  Luke  viii.  2),  and  she  became 
one  of  his  most  devoted  disciples.  The  old 
belief  that  she  had  been  a  woman  of  bad 
character,  from  which  the  current  use  of  the 
word  Magdalen  has  arisen,  rests  merely 
on  the  fact  that  the  first  mention  of  her 
(Luke  viii.  2)  follows  closely  upon  the  a(;count 
of  the  sinful  woman  who  anointed  the  Sav- 
iour's feet  in  a  city  of  Galilee  (Luke  vii.  3(3- 
50).  This,  however,  is  hardly  sufficient  proof. 
What  form  her  terril)le  malady  had  taken 
we  do  not  know.  She  became  a  disciple 
during  the  early  Galilaian  ministry,  and  was 
one  of  those  who  joined  the  little  company 
of  Christ's  immediate  followers,  and  minis- 
tered to  him  of  her  substance  (Luke  viii.  1-3). 
She  was  one  of  the  women  at  the  cross  (Mat. 
xxvii.  5(J ;  Mark  xv.  40 ;  John  xix.  25)  and 
observed  the  Lord's  burial  (Mat.  xxvii.  (il). 
Early  on  the  third  day  she,  with  Maiy 
the  wife  of  Clopas  and  Salome,  went  to 
the  sepulcher  to  anoint  the  body  of  Jesus 
(Mark  xvi.  1).  Finding  the  stone  rolled 
away  she  quickly  returned  to  the  city  and 
told  Pet(!r  and  John  that  the  body  of  Jesus 
had  been  taken  away  (John  xx.  1,  2).  Then, 
following  the  apostles,  she  returned  again  to 
the  garden  and  lingered  there  after  they  had 
gone.  To  her  first  Jesus  appeared  (Mark 
xvi.  9;  John  xx.  11-17),  and  she  reported 
his  resurrection  to  the  otiier  disciples  (xx. 
18).  Nothing  further  is  known  of  her  his- 
tory. 

4.  Mary  of  Bethany.  A  woman  who,  with 
lier  sister  Martha,  lived  in  "a  certain  vil- 
lage" (Luke  X.  38)  which  John  reveals  to 
have  been  Bethany  (John  xi.  1;  xii.  1),  about 
a  mile  east  of  the  summit  of  the  mount  of 
Olives.  On  the  first  oc(;asion  when  Jesus  is 
recorded  to  have  visited  their  house  (Luke 
X.  38-42),  Mary  appears  as  eager  to  receive 
his  instruction.  Martha  requested  Jesus  to 
bid  Mary  help  her  in  serving  the  entertain- 
ment, but  he  replied  :  "  But  one  thing  is 
needful  :  for  Mary  hath  chosen  the  good 
part,  which  shall  not  be  taken  away  from 
her"  (Luke  x.  42,  R.  V.).  John  (xi.)  further 
relates  that  Mary  had  a  brother  named  Laza- 
rus whom  the  Lord  raised  from  the  dead. 
When  Jesus  reached  the  house,  after  Lazarus 


had  been  four  days  dead,  Mary  at  first  "still 
sat  in  the  house"  (John  xi.  20,  R.  V.),  but 
afterwards  was  summoned  by  Martha  to  meet 
the  Lord  who  had  called  for  her  (ver.  28). 
As  Martha  had  done,  Mary  exclaimed,  "  Lord, 
if  thou  hadst  been  here,  my  brother  had  not 
died,"  and  the  grief  of  the  sisters  deeply 
moved  the  sympathetic  Saviour.  Afterwards, 
six  days  before  his  last  passover  (John  xii.  1), 
Jesus  came  to  Bethany,  and  a  sujiper  was 
made  in  his  honor  in  the  house  of  Simon  the 
leper  (Mark  xiv.  3).  While  it  was  in  progress 
Mary  brought  an  alabaster  box  of  pure  oint- 
ment, very  costly,  and,  breaking  the  box, 
I)oured  the  ointment  on  the  head  of  Jesus 
(ibid.),  and  anointed  his  feet,  wiping  them 
with  iaer  hair  (John  xii.  3).  It  was  an  act 
of  rare  devotion,  testifying  both  to  her 
gratitude  and  to  her  sense  of  the  high  dig- 
nity of  him  whom  she  honored.  Judas,  and 
some  other  of  the  disciples,  were  disposed  to 
find  fault  with  the  waste ;  but  Jesus  com- 
mended the  act  and  declared  that  "whereso- 
ever the  gospel  shall  be  preached  through- 
out the  whole  world,  that  also  which  this 
woman  hath  done  shall  be  spoken  of  for  a 
memorial  of  her"  (Mat.  xxvi.  6-13;  Mark 
xiv.  3-9).  He  looked  upon  her  act  also  as  a 
loving,  though  doubtless  unintentional,  con- 
secration of  him  to  his  approaching  sacrifice 
(John  xii.  7,  8). 

5.  Mary  the  mother  of  Mark.  The  Chris- 
tian woman  in  Mdiose  house  the  disciples  had 
met  to  pray  for  the  release  of  Peter,  when 
he  was  imprisoned  by  Herod  Agrippa,  and  to 
whi(;h  Peter  at  once  went  when  delivered  by 
the  angel  (Acts  xii.  12).  Her  son  was  the 
author  of  our  Second  Gospel ;  see  Mark.  She 
was  evidently  in  comfortable  circumstances, 
and  her  house  is  supposed  to  have  been  one 
of  the  principal  meeting  places  of  the  early 
Jerusalem  Christians.  According  to  A.  V.  in 
Col.  iv.  10  she  was  the  sister  of  Barnabas; 
but  R.  V.  correctly  translates  "cousin"  in- 
stead of  "  sister's  son,"  and  it  does  not  apjjear 
whether  Mark's  relationship  to  Barnabas  was 
on  his  father's  or  his  mother's  side.  Nothing 
is  told  us  of  Mary's  husband. 

6.  Mary  of  Rome.  A  Christian  woman  at 
Rome  to  whom  Paul  sent  his  salutation  (Rom. 
xvi.  6).  The  A.  V.  reads  "who  bestowed 
much  labor  on  vs,"  implying  that  Mary  at  one 
time  had  greatly  assisted  the  apostle.  Tlie 
R.  v.,  however,  properly  reads  "  who  be- 
stowed much  labor  on  you."  Mary  had  thus 
been  an  active  worker  in  the  Christian  cause 
at  Rome.  Beyond  this  reference  Me  know 
nothing  of  her. 

G.  T.  P. 

Mas'a-loth.     See  Mesaloth. 

Mas'chil  [attentive,  intelligent,  or  render- 
ing intelligent]. 

A  Hebrew  word  occurring  in  the  titles  of 
Ps.  xxxii.,  xlii.,  xliv.,  xiv.,  Hi.,  liii.,  liv.,  Iv., 
Ixxiv.,  Ixxviii,,  Ixxxviii.,  Ixxxix.,  and  cxlii. 
It  doubtless  means  either  a  didactic  poem 


Mash 


461 


Mattattah 


(cp.  Ps.  xxxii.  8,  "  I  will   instruct,"    same 
word  radically),  or  else  a  reflective  poem. 
Mash. 

A  brauch  of  the  Aramaeans  (Gen,  x.  23). 
Called  in  1  Chron.  i.  17  Meshech,  and  essen- 
tially so  in  the  Septuagint  of  Gen.  x.  23.  This 
is  due  to  its  confusion  by  copyists  with  the 
more  familiar  name  ;  or  else,  if  the  original 
text,  it  points  to  an  intermingling  of  Japhetic 
and  Semitic  people  in  Meshech. 

Ma'shal.    See  Misheal. 

Ma'son. 

A  workman  skilled  to  hew  and  saw  stones 
into  shape  for  building  purposes  and  erect 
walls  (2  Sam.  v.  II  ;  1  Kin.  vii.  9;  1  Chron. 
xxii.  2 ;  2  Chron.  xxiv.  12).  The  art  made 
great  progress  among  the  ancient  Egj'ptiaus ; 
as  the  pyramids,   built    under    the    fourth 


Masons  at  Work  in  Ancient  Egypt. 

dynasty,  and  numerous  temples  show.  The 
Hebrews  served  in  brick  and  mortar  while 
they  were  in  bondage  in  Egypt  (Ex.  i.  11, 
14)  ;  but  there  is  no  mention  of  their  being 
employed  in  shaping  and  laying  stones.  In 
Solomon's  time  the  Phoenicians  had  more 
skill  in  the  art  than  the  Hebrews,  who  as 
yet  had  not  had  occasion  to  erect  great  struc- 
tures of  stone,  and  Phcenician  masons  were 
accordingly  hired  to  build  the  temple  and 
Solomon's  palace.  They  managed  blocks  of 
stone  12  and  15  feet  in  length  and  even 
longer,  and  proportionately  broad  and  high 
(1  Kin.  vii.  lOj.  But  they  were  doubtless 
Hebrew  workmen  who  afterwards  erected 
walls  and  fortresses,  built  aqueducts  and 
reservoirs,  arches  and  bridges,  and  fashioned 
columns  (2  Chron.  xxxiii.  14 ;  Ezra  iii.  10  ; 
Song  V.  15  ;  Antiq.  xv.  11,  2).  They  also  un- 
derstood the  use  of  the  plummet  (Amos  vii. 
7;  Zech.  iv.  10;  Is.  xxviii.  17i. 
Mas'o-retes  and  Masorites.   See  Old  Tes- 

T.VMENT. 

Mas'pha.     See  Mizpeh  2  and  5. 


Mas're-kah  [a  vineyard]. 
An  Edomite  city  (Gen.  xxxvi.  36  ;  1  Chron. 
i.  47).     Exact  site  unknown. 
Mas'sa  [carrying,  a  load,  a  burden]. 
A  tribe  descended  from  Ishmael  (Gen.  xxv. 

14  ;  1  Chron.  i.  30  ;  cp.  Prov.  xxx.  1  and  xxxi. 
1,  K.  V.  margin)  ;  generally  identified  with 
the  Masani,  a  tribe  of  the  Arabian  desert 
near  the  Persian  (lulf  (Ptol.  v.  19,  2),  north- 
east of  Dumah.  The  Assyrian  inscriptions 
mention  Mas'u,  as  the  name  may  be  read, 
with  Tem'u  and  Niba'atu,  cp.  Gen.  xxv.  13, 

15  (Delitzsch,  Puradies,  301  seq.). 
Mas'sah  [testing,  temptation]. 

A  name  given  by  Moses  to  the  place  at 
Horeb  where  the  smitten  rock  yielded  water, 
because  the  Israelites  there  in  unbelief  put 
Jehovah  to  a  test  (Ex.  xvii.  7  ;  Deut.  vi.  16  ; 
ix.  22;  xxxiii.  8).  Called  al.so  Meribah  (q.v.). 

Ma-thu'sa-la.    See  Methuselah. 

Ma'tred  [driving  forward]. 

The  mother-in-law  of  Hadar,  king  of  Edom 
(Gen.  xxxvi.  39 ;  1  Chron.  i.  50). 

Ma'tri  [rainy]. 

A  Benjamite  family,  from  which  sprang 
Kish  and  his  son  king  Saul  (1  Sam.  x.  21). 

Mat'tan  [a  gift] . 

1.  A  priest  of  Baal  slain  before  the  altar 
of  that  god  during  the  revolution  which  led 
to  the  death  of  Athaliah  and  the  elevation  of 
Joash  to  the  throne  of  Judah  (2  Kin.  xi.  18  ; 
2  Chron.  xxiii.  17). 

2.  Father  of  Shephatiah  (Jer.  xxxviii.  1). 
Mat'ta-nah  [a  gift]. 

One  of  the  stations  of  the  Israelites  in  or 
near  theMoabite  territory  (Num.  xxi.  18, 19). 
Exact  situation  unknown. 

Mat-ta-ni'ah  [gift  of  Jehovah]. 

1.  A  singer,  son  of  Heman,  in  David'stime 
(1  Chron.  xxv.  4,  16). 

2.  A  Levite,  of  the  sons  of  Asaph,  and 
founder  of  a  branch  of  the  family  (2  Chron. 
XX.  14).  Probably  he  himself  is  mentioned  in 
1  Chron.  ix.  15,  and  Neh.  xiii.  13 ;  and  the 
representative  of  the  house  in  Neh.  xii.  8 ; 
cp.  Ezra  ii.  41 ;  Neh.  xi.  17,  22 ;  xii.  25. 

3.  A  Levite  descended  from  Asaph.  He 
was  one  of  tho.se  who  aided  king  Hezekiah 
in  his  work  of  religious  reformation  (2  Chron. 
xxix.  13). 

4.  A  son  of  king  Josiah.  He  was  placed 
on  the  throne  and  his  name  was  altered  to 
Zedekiah  by  Nebuchadnezzar  (2  Kin.  xxiv. 
17)  ;  see  Zedekiah. 

5-8.  Four  Hebrews,  a  son  of  Elam,  a  son  of 
Zattu,  a  son  of  Pahath-moab,  and  a  son  of 
Bani,  who  were  induced  by  Ezra  to  put  away 
their  foreign  wives  (Ezra  x.  26,  27,  30,  37). 

Mat'ta-tha  [gift  of  Jehovah]. 

A  son  of  Nathan  and  grandson  of  king 
David  (Luke  iii.  31). 

Mat-tat'tah,  in  A.  V.  Mat'ta-thah  [gift  of 
Jehovah]. 

A  son  of  Hashum,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  33). 


Mattathias 


462 


Matthew 


Mat-ta-thi'as  [Greek  form  of  Mattithiah, 
gift  of  Jehovah]. 

1  and  2.  A  name  borne  by  two  ancestors  of 
Christ,  separated  from  each  other  by  five 
generations,  who  lived  after  the  time  of 
Zerubbabel  (Luke  iii.  25,  26). 

3.  A  priest,  founder  of  the  Maccabee  family 
(1  Mac.  ii.  1-70).     See  Maccabee. 

4.  Son  of  Absalom,  and  a  captain  in  the 
armj'  of  Jonathan  Maccabseus.  He  distin- 
guished himself  at  the  battle  of  Hazor  by  re- 
maining at  the  side  of  Jonathan  when  all  the 
other  captains  save  one  had  fled  (1  Mac.  xi. 
70).  He  was  perhaps  a  brother  of  Jonathan, 
son  of  Absalom  (xiii.  11). 

5.  Son  of  Simon  Maccabseus.  His  father, 
his  brother,  and  he  were  treacherously  mur- 
dered by  his  brother-in-law  in  the  castle  of 
Dok  (1  Mac.  xvi.  14).    See  Judas. 

Mat'te-nai  [bestowment]. 
1.    A    priest,  head  of  the  father's  house 
Joiarib  in  the  time  of  Joiakim  (Neh.  xii.  19). 

2  and  3.  Two  Hebrews,  a  son  of  Hashum 
and  a  son  of  Bani,  each  of  whom  was  in- 
duced to  put  awav  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x. 
33,  37). 

Mat'than  [gift]. 

A  near  ancestor  of  Joseph,  and  in  law  of 
Christ  (Mat.  i.  15). 

Mat'that  [gift]. 

A  name  borne  by  two  ancestors  of  Christ ; 
the  one  near,  the  other  quite  remote  (Luke 
iii.  24,  29). 

Mat'thew  [N.  T.  Greek  Mntldhaios  or 
Matthaios,  from  either  Aramaic  Midiay, 
manly,  or  Hebrew  Mattithyah,  gift  of  Jeho- 
vah]. 

A  publican  or  taxgatherer,  in  the  service 
either  of  the  Eoman  or  Herodian  govern- 
ment, stationed  at  Capernaum.  While  sitting 
at  "  the  place  of  toll  "  (E.  V.)  he  was  called 
by  Jesus  to  become  his  follower  and,  leaving 
his  business,  he  immediately  obeyed  (Mat. 
ix.  9 ;  Mark  ii.  14 ;  Luke  v.  27).  He  was 
afterwards  appointed  one  of  the  twelve  apos- 
tles (Mat.  X.  3;  Mark  iii.  18;  Luke  vi.  15). 
Mark  and  Luke  give  his  name  as  Levi  and 
state  that  his  father  was  named  Alphseus. 
Either  he  had  originally  two  names,  as  was 
not  uncommon  among  the  Jews,  or  he  re- 
ceived the  name  Matthew  when  he  became  a 
Christian,  as  Simon  did  that  of  Peter.  He  is 
always  called  Matthew  in  the  lists  of  apostles 
and  as  the  author  of  our  First  Gospel.  The 
acceptance  by  Jesus  of  a  publican  as  a  dis- 
ciple evidently  led  others  of  the  outcast 
classes  to  follow  him  and  increased  the  oppo- 
sition of  the  Pharisees.  This  appears  at  the 
feast  which  Matthew  gave  to  Jesus  soon  after 
his  conversion,  when  many  "  publicans  and 
sinners"  were  present,  and  when,  in  answer 
to  the  criticism  of  the  Pharisees,  the  Lord 
made  the  famous  reply,  "  I  am  not  come  to  call 
the  righteous  but  sinners  to  repentance" 
(Mat.  ix.  10-13  ;  Mark  ii.  15-17  ;  Luke  v.  29- 
32).     Matthew  himself  does  not  say  that  the 


feast  was  in  his  house  (Mat.  ix.  10),  but  Mark 
(ii.  15)  and  Luke  (v.  29)  do,  and  Luke  adds 
that  it  was  a  great  feast.  Some  have  identi- 
fied Matthew's  father  Alphseus  with  the 
father  of  James  the  less;  but  Matthew  and 
James  are  not  joined  together  in  the  lists 
of  apostles  as  other  pairs  of  brothers  are. 
The  identification  is  therefore  to  be  rejected. 
Matthew  finally  appears  among  the  apostles 
after  (Christ's  resurrection  (Acts  i.  13),  but  the 
N.  T.  gives  no  further  information  about 
him.  Tradition  states  that  he  first  preached 
among  the  Jews,  and  from  the  character  of 
his  Gospel,  this  is  not  improbable. 

The  Gospel  according  to  St.  Matthew  is  the 
first  of  our  four  gospels.  It  was  from  the 
beginning  of  the  first  apostolic  age  univer- 
sally ascribed  to  this  apostle.  Its  contents 
may  be  arranged  as  follows : 

1.  The  descent,  birth,  and  infancy  of  the 
royal  Messiah  (i.  and  ii.).  The  special  object 
of  this  section  is  to  set  forth  Jesus  as  the  son 
of  David  and  the  Christ  of  prophecy. 

2.  Introduction  to  the  public  ministry  of 
Christ  (iii.  1-iv.  17),  relating  the  preparatory 
work  of  the  Baptist,  the  baptism  and  temp- 
tation of  Jesus,  and  thelatter's  settlement  in 
Capernaum  iir  accordance  with  prophecy. 

3.  TheGalilsean  ministry  of  Christ  (iv.  18- 
ix.  35).  This  important  section  begins  with 
Christ's  call  of  the  four  leading  disciples  (iv. 
18-22),  and  a  summary  description  of  his 
teaching  and  healing,  and  of  his  fame 
throughout  Palestine  (iv.  19-25).  Then  fol- 
lows, as  an  example  of  his  teaching,  the  ser- 
mon on  the  mount  (v.-vii.),  to  which  is  ap- 
pended a  collection  of  incidents,  mostly 
miracles,  which  illustrated  his  teaching  (viii. 
1-ix.  34). 

4.  The  mission  of  the  apostles  (ix.  36-x.  42)  ; 
beginning  with  an  account  of  Christ's  com- 
passion on  the  shepherdless  people,  his  ap- 
pointment of  the  twelve,  and  his  instructions 
to  them. 

5.  Christ  in  conflict  with  increasing  oppo- 
sition (xi.  1-xv.  20),  comprising  the  inquiry 
of  the  Baptist  and  Christ's  discourse  concern- 
ing John,  together  with  other  remarks  occa- 
sioned by  popular  unbelief;  the  opposition 
of  the  Pharisees,  beginning  with  the  Sabbath 
controversy  and  culminating  in  the  charge 
that  Jesus  was  in  league  with  Beelzebub,  to- 
gether with  Chri.sfs  reply  and  his  refusal  to 
give  them  a  sign  ;  the  visit  of  his  mother  and 
brethren ;  a  collection  of  the  parables  of 
Jesus  spoken  at  this  time;  his  (second)  rejec- 
tion at  Nazareth  ;  Herod's  inquiry  and  the 
death  of  the  Baptist;  the  feeding  of  the  5000 
and  walking  on  the  water  ;  Christ's  final  rup- 
ture with  the  Pharisees  in  Galilee  and  his  de- 
nunciation of  their  formalism. 

6.  Christ's  retirement  from  Capernaum  and 
instruction  of  his  disciples  (xv.  21-xviii.  35) ; 
comprising  the  healing  of  the  daughter  of 
the  woman  of  Canaan,  the  feeding  of 
4000,  refusal  of  a  sign  and  warning  against 
the  leaven  of  the  Pharisees  and  Sadducees, 


Matthew 


463 


Matthias 


the  confession  and  rebuke  of  Peter,  Christ's 
first  prediction  of  his  death,  the  transfigura- 
tion and  tlie  cure  of  the  demoniac  boy  ;  the 
return  to  (."apernauni,  the  provision  of  tribute 
money,  and  instruction  of  the  disciples  con- 
cerninu;  the  humble,  self-denying,  loving, 
and  forgiving  spirit  of  true  discipleship. 

7.  The  closing  ministry  of  Christ  in 
Perj¥a  and  Judaea  (xix.,  xs.) ;  comprising  in- 
structions about  divorce,  blessing  the  chil- 
dren, the  rich  young  ruler,  the  parable  of 
the  laborers  in  the  vineyard,  the  ascent  to  Je- 
rusalem, with  another  prediction  of  his  death, 
the  request  of  James  and  John,  and  the  heal- 
ing of  Bartimaeus  at  Jericho. 

8.  The  last  week  of  Christ's  ministry  (xxi. 
-xxviii.),  comprising  the  triumphal  entry 
and  the  cleansing  of  the  temple  ;  the  wither- 
ing of  the  barren  tig  tree  ;  the  deputation 
from  the  sanhedrin;  the  parables  of  the  two 
sons,  the  wicked  husbandmen,  and  the  mar- 
riage of  the  king's  son  ;  the  questions  of  the 
Pharisees,  Sadducees,  and  a  lawyer,  with 
Christ's  question  in  reply  concerning  the  son 
of  David ;  woes  against  the  scribes  and 
Pharisees ;  the  eschatological  discourse  on 
Olivet,  followed  by  the  parables  of  the  vir- 
gins and  of  the  talents  and  a  description  of 
the  last  judgment.  Then  follow  the  treach- 
ery of  Judas,  the  last  passover,  the  agony  in 
Gethsemane,  the  arrest  and  trial  of  Jesus  be- 
fore the  sanhedrin,  Peter's  denials,  the  re- 
morse of  Judas,  the  trial  before  Pilate,  and 
the  crucifixion  and  burial.  The  last  chapter 
relates  the  appearance  of  .lesus  to  the 
women,  the  report  of  the  Roman  watch,  and 
the  gathering  of  Christ  with  his  disciples  on  a 
mountain  in  Galilee,  when  he  gave  them  the 
commission  to  preach  his  gospel  to  the  world 
and  promised  to  be  always  with  them. 

The  arrangement  of  this  Gospel  is  chrono- 
logical only  in  general  outline.  In  the  sec- 
ond half,  indeed,  it  follows  what  is  probably 
the  true  order  of  events,  but  this  is  because 
that  order  naturally  agreed  with  the  evange- 
list's object.  His  primary  motive  was  to  ar- 
range his  matter  topically.  He  wished  espe- 
cially to  present  the  teaching  of  Christ  con- 
cerning the  nature  of  the  kingdou  of  heaven 
and  the  character  of  its  disciples,  the  mira- 
cles by  which  he  illustrated  his  teaching  and 
revealed  his  authority,  and  the  fruitless  op- 
position to  him  of  the  Pharisees,  represent- 
ing current  Judaism.  Hence  the  large  place 
which  he  gives  to  the  teaching  of  Jesus. 
Hence,  too,  his  habit  of  grouping  together 
both  instructions  upon  certain  subjects  and 
incidents  which  illustrated  the  teaching.  He 
sets  forth  Jesus  as  the  royal  Messiah,  who 
brought  about  the  fulfillment  of  law  and 
prophecy,  and  established  in  the  church,  by 
his  redeeming  work  and  spiritual  teaching, 
the  true  kingdom  of  God,  which  is  meant  to 
embrace  all  nations.  The  fulfillment  of 
prophecy  is  frequently  noted  (i.  22,  23 ;  ii.  o, 
6,  15,  17.  18.  23;  iii.  3;  iv.  14-16;  viii.  17; 
xi.  10 ;  xii.  17-21  ;  xiii.  14,  15,  35  ;  xxi.  4,  5  ; 


xxvi.  24,  31,  50  ;  xxvii.  !),  35),  and  there  are 
about  a  hundred  quotations,  more  or  less  for- 
mal, from  the  O.  T.  While  Matthew  wrote 
from  the  Hebrew  point  of  view,  he  brings 
out  the  destination  of  the  gospel  for  the  gen- 
tiles (e.  g.  viii.  10-12  ;  x.  18  ;  xxi.  4'.i  ;  xxii. 
9  ;  xxiv.  14  ;  xxviii.  19),  represents  the  op- 
position to  Christ  of  current  Judaism  (e.  g. 
v.  20-48;  vi.  5-18;  ix.  10-17;  xii.  1-13,  34; 
XV.  1-20  ;  xvi.  1-12 ;  xix.  3-9  ;  xxi.  12-16  ; 
xxiii.,  etc.),  and  shows  by  his  explanations 
of  terms  (i.  23  ;  xxvii.  33),  places  (ii.  23  ;  iv. 
13),  Jewish  beliefs  (xxii.  23)  and  customs 
(xxvii.  15  ;  see  also  xxviii.  15),  that  he  wrote 
not  merely  for  Jews,  but  for  all  believers. 

That  the  author  of  this  Gospel  was.  really 
the  apostle  JIatthew  is  attested  by  the  unan- 
imous tradition  of  the  ancient  church.  It  is 
improbable  that  so  important  a  book  would 
have  been  attributed  to  so  obscure  an  apostle 
without  good  reason.  It  has  been  observed 
also  that  a  publican  would  be  likely  to  keep 
records  ;  while  the  modest  way  in  which  he 
speaks  of  the  feast  given  by  him  to  Jesus 
(ix.  10 ;  cp.  Luke  v.  29)  is  thought  by  many 
to  confirm  the  tradition  of  his  authorship. 
Ancient  tradition  also  affirmed  that  Matthew 
wrote  his  Gospel  originally  in  Hebrew.  At 
the  same  time  the  tradition  affirmed  that  our 
Greek  Gospel  is  Matthew's.  Some  scholars  re- 
ject the  tradition  of  an  original  Hebrew  ; 
others  suppose  that  the  Greek  is  a  translation, 
or  that  Matthew  issued  two  gospels,  one  in 
Hebrew  or  Aramaic,  the  other  in  Greek. 
Some  think  that  Matthew  wrote  in  Hebrew 
merely  a  collection  of  the  sayings  of  Jesus, 
which  are  incorporated  in  our  Greek  Gospel 
together  with  historical  matter  taken  from 
Mark  ;  but  this  theory  is  confronted  by  the 
testimony  of  antiquity  that  our  Greek  Gos- 
pel is  by  Matthew,  and  the  dependence  of 
our  Matthew  on  Mark  is  an  unproved  hy- 
pothesis open  to  many  objections.  It  is 
utterly  improbable  also  that  an  original  gos- 
pel did  not  contain  historical  matter.  What- 
ever therefore  may  be  thought  of  the  tradi- 
tion that  Matthew  wrote  in  Hebrew,  our 
Greek  Gospel  must  certainly  be  attributed  to 
him.  The  date  of  its  composition  is  proba- 
bly to  be  assigned  to  .\.  d.  60-70.  The  most 
ancient  tradition,  that  of  Irenfeus  (about  A.  D. 
175),  assigns  it  to  that  period,  and  internal 
considerations  confirm  the  tradition.  The 
place  of  its  composition  is  unknown.  The 
acquaintance  with  it  shown  by  post-apostolic 
writers  in  widely  scattered  localities  proves 
that  it  obtained,  as  soon  as  it  was  published, 
general  circulation.  G.  T.  P. 

Mat-thi'as  [probably  a  variant  form  of 
Mattathias,  gift  of  Jehovah]. 

One  of  two  Christians  regarded  by  the 
early  church  as  suitable  persons  to  make  up 
the  number  of  the  apostles  diminished  by  the 
apostasy  and  death  of  Judas  Iscariot.  The 
question  of  the  relative  fitness  of  the  two 
candidates  was  submitted  to  lot,  which  was 


Mattithiah 


464 


Meals 


in  favor  of  Matthias,  who  was  at  once  num- 
bered with  the  other  eleven  apostles  (Acts  i. 
21-26).     Nothing  more  is  known  of  his  his- 
torj-. 
Mat-ti-thi'ah  [gift  of  Jehovah] . 

1.  A  Levite,  son  of  the  singer  Jeduthun 
(1  Chron.  xxv.  3),  and  himself  one  of  the 
musicians  of  the  sanctuary  who  played  the 
harp  (xv.  18,  21).  He  was  afterwards  made 
head  of  the  fourteenth  of  the  courses  into 
which  the  musicians  were  divided  by  David 
(xxv.  21). 

2.  A  Levite  of  the  sons  of  Korah,  family 
of  Kohath.  He  was  the  eldest  son  of  Shal- 
lum,  and  was  placed  in  charge  over  the 
things  that  were  baked  in  pans  (1  Chron. 
ix.  31). 

3.  A  son  of  Nebo,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  43). 

4.  A  priest  or  Levite  who  supported  Ezra 
when  he  addressed  the  returned  exiles  re- 
garding the  law  (Neh.  viii.  4). 

Mat'tock. 

An  instrument  for  loo-sening  the  soil, 
shaped  like  a  pickaxe  or  hoe  with  two  blades 
in  different  planes,  the  cutting  edge  of  one 
resenibling  that  of  an  axe,  and  the  other  that 
of  an  adze.  It  is  used  specially  for  grubbing 
up  the  roots  of  trees.  In  the  O.  T.  mattock 
is  the  rendering  of:  1.  The  Hebrew  il/a/t^re- 
shah,  cutting  instrument,  in  1  Sam.  xiii.  20, 
21.  Mak^resheth,  a  similar  word  from  the 
same  root,  occurs  in  ver.  20,  and  is  believed 
to  denote  the  plowshare.  Both  of  these  im- 
plements were  made  of  metal.  2.  The  He- 
brew 3Ia'ihr,  dressing  instrument.  It  was 
used  in  digging  and  dressing  vineyards  (Is. 
Tii.  25). 

In  2  Chron.  xxxiv.  6  the  Hebrew  is  be- 
lieved to  be  corrupt,  and  for  mattock  of  the 
A.  v..  the  E.  V.  substitutes  ruins. 


versions  interprets  it  as  the  signs  of  the  zodiac, 
equivalent  to  the  Hebrew  Mazsaloth  (2  Kin. 
xxiii.  5,  margin).  The  parallel  passage. 
Job  ix.  9,  suggests  that  the  Mazzaroth  are  a 
constellation  of  the  southern  sky,  a  cluster 
among  the  stars  that  are  chambered  in  the 
south.  Other  interpretations  have  also  been 
proposed. 
Mead'ow. 

1.  The  i-endering  of  the  Egyptian  word 
Ahu,  in  A.  V.  of  Gen.  xli.  2,  18.  The  word 
denotes  reed-grass  or,  as  it  is  rendered  in  Job 
viii.  11,  flags. 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Ma'''reh 
(Judg.  XX.  33,  A.  V.)  ;  see  Maareh-geba. 

Me'ali  [a  hundred]. 

A  tower  at  Jerusalem  not  far  from  that  of 
Hananeel  and  the  sheep  gate  (Neh.  iii.  1 ; 
xii.  39) ;  see  Jerusalem  II.  3. 

Meal   Of  fer-ing.     See  Offerings. 

Meals. 

The  Israelites  ate  in  the  morning  and  in 
the  evening  (Ex.  xvi.  12;  1  Kin.  xvii.  6; 
John  xxi.  4,  12).  This  cu.stom  did  not  forbid 
a  morsel  at  other  hours.  Laborers  partook 
of  a  light  repast  at  noon  (Ruth  ii.  14).  Later 
the  ascetic  Essenes  did  with  two  meals,  the 
first  at  the  fifth  hour  or  eleven  o'clock  in  the 
morning,  and  the  other  in  the  evening  (War 
ii.  8,  5).  Among  the  stricter  Jews  of  the 
time  of  Christ,  the  fast  of  the  night  was  not 
broken  by  a  meal  on  an  ordinary  day  before 
nine  o'clock,  which  was  the  hour  of  prayer 
(Acts  ii.  15) ;  and  on  the  Sabbath  food  was 
not  served  before  twelve  o'clock,  when  the 
service  in  the  synagogue  was  over  (Life  54). 
The  chief  meal  of  the  day  took  place  in  the 
evening  (War  i.  17,  4  ;  Life  44  ;  cp.  Gen.  xix. 
1-3  ;  Ex.  xii.  18  ;  Ruth  iii.  7).  Feasts  were 
sometimes  spread  at  noon  by  the  Egyptians 
and  Syrians  (Gen.  xliii.  16 ;  1  Kin.  xx.  16). 


Romans  at  Meal. 


Maul. 

The    rendering  of   the    Hebrew    Mephis, 
breaker,  a  weapon  of  M'ar  (Prov.  xxv.  18). 

Maz'za-roth. 

A    feature    of   the    starry    heavens    (Job 
xxxviii.   32).     The  margin  of  both  English 


As  to  the  posture  at  meals,  the  ancient 
Hebrews,  like  the  ancient  Egyptians  and 
Greeks  (Iliad  x.  578 ;  Anab.  vi.  1, 3)  and  modern 
Arabs,  were  in  the  habit  of  sitting,  proliably 
on  mats  spread  on  the  floor  or  ground  (Gen. 
xxvii.  19  ;  Judg.  xix.  6  ;  1  Sam.  xx.  5,  24  ;  1 
Kin.  xiii.  20).     Reclining  on  couches  came 


Meals 


465 


Meals 


into  use  later  (Esth.  i.  6  ;  vii.  S  ;  Ezek.  xsiii. 
41  ;  John  xxi.  20),  and  probably  prevailed 
in  the  Greeo-Konian  period  (Mark  vii.  1  ;  in 
A.  V.  tables).  Three  couches  were  ordinarily 
placed  about  a  table,  being  arranged  so  as  to 
form  three  sides  of  a  square  and  leave  the 
fourth  side  open  for  the  admittance  of  serv- 
ants with  the  dishes.  The  couches  were 
designated  highest,  middle,  and  lowest  re- 
spectively, the  highest  being  to  the  right  of 
the  servants  as  they  approached  the  table. 
Generally,  only  three  persons  occupied  a 
couch,  but  occasionally  four  or  five.  The 
body  lay  diagonally  on  the  couch,  the  head 
being  near  tlie  table  and  the  feet  stretched 
out  toward  the  back  of  the  couch.  The  left 
<>lbow  rested  on  a  cushion  and  supported  the 
upper  part  of  the  body.  The  right  arm  re- 
mained free.  The  head  of  the  person  re- 
clining in  front  of  another  rested  on  or  near 
the  breast  of  him  who  lay  behind  (John  xiii. 
23  ;  xxi.  20).  The  three  positions  on  each 
couch  were  also  termed  highest,  middle,  and 
lowest,  the  highest  person  being  the  one  who 
had  nobody  at  his  back.  The  po.sition  of 
honor  (Mat.  xxiii.  6,  E.  V.)  was  the  highest 
place  on  the  highest  couch.  Women  took 
their  meals  with  men,  occasionally  at  least 
(Ruth  ii.  14  ;  1  Sam.  i.  4 ;  Job  i.  4)' 


the  hollow  hand  into  a  dish.  Occasionally- 
separate  portions  were  .served  in  tlie  same 
manner  to  each  (Kuth  ii.  14;  1  Sam.  1.  4; 
John  xiii.  26).  Prayer  after  meal  developed 
out  of  Deut.  viii.  10  (War  ii.  8,  5). 


UliLL,- L ^ii_J L    _L 

Washing  the  Hands  before  ur  after  a  Meal. 

The  Hebrews  and  Greeks,  like  the  modern 
Arabs,  washed  their  hands  before  eating 
(Mat.  xxvi.  23;  Iliad  x.  .577;  Odys.  i.  136), 
since  generally  there  was  a  common  dish  into 
which  the  hand  of  each  was  dipped.  This 
cleanly  custom  became  a  ritual  observance 
■with  the  Pharisees,  and  as  such  was  con- 
demned by  Christ  (Mark  vii.  1-13).  A  bless- 
ing was  asked  before  the  meal  by  Samuel  (1 
Sam.  ix.  13),  by  Christ  (Mat.  xiv."  19  ;  sv.  36  : 
xxvi.  26).  and  by  the  early  Christians  (Acts 
xxvii.  35).  It  was  also  customary  among  the 
Jews  in  the  time  of  Christ  (cp.  War  ii.  8,  5). 
A  piece  of  bread  served  as  a  spoon  and  was 
dipped  into  the  bowl  of  grease  or  meat,  or 
the  thick  soup  or  pottage  was  ladled  with 
30 


Modern  Orientals  at  a  Meal. 

At  pretentious  meals  on  festive  occasions, 
when  a  large  company  of  guests  gathered 
about  the  table,  greater  ceremony  was  ob- 
served. It  was  courteous  to  receive  the  guest 
with  a  kiss  (Luke  vii.  45),  and  indispensable 
to  provide  water  for  him  to  wash  his  feet  and 
hands  with  (Gen.  xviii.  4  ;  xix.  2  ;  Luke  vii. 
44  ;  John  ii.  6).  He  came  in  his  best  attire, 
of  course,  and  often  with  the  hair,  beard,  feet, 
and  sometimes  clothes,  perfumed  (Amos  vi. 
6  ;  Wisd.  ii.  7).  Occasionally  he  was  anointed 
at  the  house  of  the  host  (Luke  vii.  38  ;  .John 
xii.  3).  The  participants  at  the  feast  some- 
times wore  a  wreath  on  the  head  (Is.  xxviii. 
1;  Wisd.  ii.  7,  8  ;  Antiq.  xix.  9,  1).  They 
were  arranged  according  to  rank  (1  Sam.  ix. 
22;  Luke  xiv.  8  ;  and  so  in  Egypt.  Gen.  xliii. 
33).  Portions  of  food  were  placed  before 
each  (1  Sam.  i.  4),  and  the  guest  of  honor  re- 
ceived a  larger  or  choicer  share  (5  ;  ix.  24  ; 
so  in  Egypt,  Gen.  xliii.  34).  A  ruler  was 
sometimes  appointed  to  preside  at  the  feast, 
taste  the  viands,  and  direct  the  proceedings 
(Ecclus.  xxxii.  1,  2:  John  ii.  9,  10).  The 
banquet  was  rendered  merrier  by  music  (Is. 
V.  12;  Ecclus.  xxxii.  5,  6),  singing  (2  Sam. 
xix.  35  ;  Amos  vi.  4-6).  dancing  (Mat.  xiv.  6  ; 
Luke  XV.  25),  and  riddles  (Judg.  xiv.  12). 
These  customs  receive  illustration  from  the 
manner  of  feasts  among  the  Greeks.  The 
guests  were  apt  to  be  placed  according  to 
rank,  and  the  guest  of  honor  received  the 
choicest  food  (Herod,  vi.  .57:  Iliad  vii.  .321). 
At  the  conclusion  of  the  meal  garlands  and 
various  kinds  of  perfumes  were  given  to  the 


Mearah 


466 


Medeba 


guests,  and  wine  was  served.  Ordinarily  a 
governor,  chosen  from  among  the  company 
(Anab.  vi.  1,  30),  presided.  His  command 
was  law.  He  tasted  the  food  and  drink  be- 
fore they  were  placed  on  the  taV)le,  directed 
the  servants,  tixed  the  proportion  in  which 
the  wine  and  water  were  mixed,  and  deter- 
mined the  quantitj'  which  each  of  the  com- 
pany should  drink.  He  also  proposed  the 
amusements.  The  ])leasure  was  heightened 
by  songs,  and  bj'  the  spectacle  of  dancing 
(Plato,  Sympos.  ii.,  Legg.  671;  Anab.  vi.  1, 
3-13). 

A  gruesome  custom  existed  among  the 
Egyptians,  according  to  Herodotus  (ii.  78). 
At  the  banquets  of  the  wealthy  the  image  of 
a  dead  body  in  a  cottin  was  carried  round 
and  shown  to  each  of  the  company  with  the 
remark:  "Look  upon  this,  then  drink  and 
enjoy  yourself;  for  when  dead  you  will  be 
like  this." 

Me-a'rah  [a  cave]. 

A  place  near  Sidon  (Josh.  xiii.  4)  ;  com- 
monly, but  without  certainty,  identified  with 
a  district  of  caves,  on  the  top  of  Lebanon, 
east  of  Sidon,  known  as  Mughar  Jezzim  or 
caves  of  Jezzim.  Conder  suggests  Moghei- 
riyeh,  6  miles  northeast  of  Sidon. 

Meas'ure. 

I.  Measures  of  Length. 

The  unit  was  the  cubit,  18  inches  or  more ; 
see  Cubit. 

4  fingers  =  1  handbreadth  ; 
3  handbreadths  =  1  span  ; 
2  spans  =  1  cubit. 

The  finger,  accordingly,  was  S  inch. 

In  the  Greco-Roman  period  di.stance  was 
measured  by  miles  and  stades.  5000  Roman 
feet  =  1  Roman  mile  =  1478.7  meters  = 
4851.43  English  feet.  Eight  stadia  (Luke 
xxiv.  13,  rendered  furlong)  were  loosely  reck- 
oned to  the  mile  ;  although  theoretically  the 
slfulion  was  600  Greek  feet  or  625  Roman 
feet,  the  length  of  the  race  course  at  Olympia. 

II.  Measure  of  Area. 

Acre  is  the  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Semed, 
yoke,  and  Ma^'nah,  furrow  (1  Sam.  xiv.  14  ; 
Is.  V.  10).  The  Roman  «c/«.s,  furrow,  was  120 
Roman  feet  in  length,  and  i\\c  jxigernm,  yoke, 
was  a  piece  of  land  two  actus  long  by  one 
actus  broad  or  less  than  §  of  an  acre.  Proba- 
bly the  Hebrew  acre  was  not  very  diiferent. 

III.  Measures  of  Capacity. 

The  unit  was  the  epbah  for  dry  substances 
and  the  bath  for  liquids,  the  eidiah  and  the 
bath  being  of  equal  cai)acity  (Ezek.  xlv.  11), 
and  containing  a  trifle  more  than  3  pecks,  5 
quarts,  U.  S.  dry  measure,  or  8  gallons,  1 
quart,  1§  pints,  U.  S.  wine  measure.  See 
Ephah. 


Liquid  Pleasure. 

12  logs    =  1  bin  ; 
6  bins    =  1  bath  ; 

10  baths  =  1  homer,  or  cor  (Ezek. 
xlv.  14). 

The  log,  accordingly,  contained  a  trifle 
over  .9  pint  or  about  3f  gills,  and  the  hiu 
about  5  quarts,  1^  pints.  A  third  part,  He- 
brew shalish  (Ps.  Ixxx.  5  ;  Is.  xl.  12,  rendered 
measure)  was  probably  the  third  of  a  bath, 
and  hence  corresponded  to  a  seah.  The  Greek 
measure  metretrs  (John  ii.  6,  rendered  firkin) 
contained  in  Athens  39.39  liters  or  41.61  U. 
S.  liquid  quarts. 

Dry  Measure. 

6  kabs  =  1 seah 

3  seahs  or  measures  \      1  ephah  (Ex.  xvi. 
or  I  =     36  ;  Num.  xv.  4, 

10  omers  or  tenth  parts  j  Septuagint). 

10  ephahs=  1  homer  (Ezek.  xlv.  11). 

The  kab  was  equivalent  to  about  3f  pints, 
and  the  seah  to  9§  quarts.  The  Greek  choinix 
(Rev.  vi.  6,  rendered  measure)  is  estimated 
at  1.094  liters  or  .99301  quart.  The  Roman 
modius  (Mat.  v.  15,  rendered  bushel)  con- 
tained .948  imperial  peck,  or  7.82  U.  S.  dry 
quarts. 

Meat  Of  fer-ing.     See  Offerings. 

Me-bun'nai  [built]. 

A  Hushathite.  one  of  David's  mighty  men 
(2  Sam.  xxiii.  27).  The  name  is  probably  to 
be  read  Sibbecai,  in  accordance  with  xxi.  18 
and  1  Chron.  xi.  29  ;  xxvii.  11. 

Me-che'rath-ite. 

A  person  related  by  birth  or  residence  to 
Jlecherah  (1  Chron.  xi.  36).  No  person  or 
place  called  Mecherah  is  known.  The  pas- 
sage in  Chronicles  must  be  compared  with  2 
Sam.  xxiii.  34. 

Me-co'nah,  in  A.  V.  Mekonah  [foundation, 
place] . 

A  town  in  the  territory  of  Judah  (Neh.  xL 
28),  named  in  connection  with  Ziklag  and 
other  towns  of  the  extreme  south.  Not- 
identified. 

Me'dad  [love]. 

A  man  who,  though  not  present  at  the 
tabernacle  when  the  Spirit  was  imparted  to 
the  elders,  yet  received  the  gift  (Num.  xi. 
26-29).     SeeELDAD. 

Me'dan. 

A  tribe  descended  from  Abraham  and 
Keturah  and  mentioned  in  connection  with 
Midian  (Gen.  xxv.  2;  1  Chron.  i.  32).  Wetz- 
stein  observes  that  the  Arabian  geographer 
Yakut  mentions  a  wady  ]\Icdan  near  the 
ruined  town  of  Dedan  ({■]>.  Gen.  xxv.  3). 

Med'e-ba,  in  1  Mac.  Medaba  [water  of 
quietness]. 

An  old  ]\Ioabite  town  mentioned  with 
Heshbon  and  Dibon  in  Num.  xxi.  30.     It  was 


Mede 


467 


Medicine 


allotted  to  the  tribe  of  Eeuben  (Josh.  xiii.  9, 
16).  During  the  reigu  of  David  it  was  held 
for  a  time  by  the  Aiumouites,  who  with  their 
Araiua'un  allie.s  were  defeated  there  by  Joab 
(1  Chroii.  xi.\.  7).  It  reverted  to  the  Moab- 
ites  (.Moabite  Stoue  30;  Is.  xv.  2).  John 
Maceabieus  was  seized  and  slain  here  by  sons 
of  Jambri  or  Ambri,  a  powerful  family  of 
the  town.  The  act  was  revenged  by  his 
brothers  Jonathan  and  Simon  (1  Mac.  ix.  3(i- 
42;  Antiq.  xiii.  1,  2  and  4).  John  Hyrcanus 
took  the  town  after  a  siege  lasting  nearly  six 
months  (9,  1).  The  ruins  are  still  called 
^ladeba,  and  are  situated  about  16  miles  east 
by  south  of  the  mouth  of  the  Jordan,  and 
6  to  the  south  of  Heshbon.  They  are  on  an 
eminence,  from  which  the  city  extended 
eastward  into  the  plain.  There  are  remains 
of  a  city  wall,  and  of  temples  and  other 
buildings,  with  Greek,  Roman,  and  Phce- 
nician  inscriptions.  At  the  southeast  angle 
of  the  city  is  a  fine  tank  or  reservoir  120 
yards  square,  and  in  the  vicinity  are  many 
caves  which  have  been  used  as  cisterns. 

Mede,  in  A.  V.  once  Median  (Dan.  v.  31). 

A  person  belonging  to  the  Median  nation- 
ality ;  a  native  or  an  inhabitant  of  Media  (2 
Kin.  xvii.  6;  Esth.  i.  19;  Is.  xiii.  17;  Dan. 

V.  28.  31). 

Me'di-a. 

A  country  in  Asia  lying  east  of  the  Zagros 
mountains,  s(mth  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  west 
of  Parthia,  and  north  of  Elarn.  Its  length 
was  about  600  miles,  its  breadth  about  250. 
and  its  area  about  li50.000  square  miles.  But 
when  the  empire  was  at  the  greatest  it  ex- 
tended beyond  these  limits,  especially  in  the 
northwest.  A  great  part  of  Media  proper 
was  a  table-land  3000  feet  high.  The  rest 
consisted  of  seven  parallel  mountain  chains 
running  from  the  northwest  to  the  southeast, 
with  fertile  and  well-watered  valleys  be- 
tween. The  pasturage  was  excellent,  and 
the  country  was  noted  for  its  horses.  The 
early  inhabitants  were  in  all  probability  a 
non-Aryan  and  non-Semitic  race,  who  were 
conquered  by  Arvans,  the  Madai  of  Gen.  x. 
2  (cp.  Herod'.  7,  62).  The  history  of  Media 
begins  to  be  known  in  the  ninth  century 
B.  c.  Berosus  the  Babylonian,  it  is  true, 
makes  the  ^ledes,  about  21.58  B.  c.  capture 
Babj-lon  and  establish  there  a  Median  king- 
dom, whicli  lasted  224  years:  but  it  is  not 
known  on  what  authority  his  statement  rests. 
About  835  the  country  was  probaldy  invaded 
by  Shalmaneser.king  of  Assyria,  and  later  by 
Sharashi-Ramman  his  son.  who  reigned  from 
823-810,  and  by  Rammannirari,  who  was 
king  from  810-781,  with  the  result  that 
the  Medes  became  tributaries  of  Assyria. 
Tiglath-pilcser  conquered  and  annexed  dis- 
tricts of  Media.  When  Sargon  captured 
Samaria,  722  b.  c,  he  placed  Israelites  in  the 
cities  of  the  Medes  (2  Kin.  xvii.  6;  xviii.  11). 
About  710  the  Medes  themselves  were  more 
thoroughly   conquered   by  Sargon,  who  ex- 


acted from  them  a  tribute  of  the  fine  horses 
for  which  Media  was  celebrated.  Sennach- 
erib also  boasts  of  tribute  received  from 
Media,  and  Esarhaddon  jilaccd  governors  in 
the  country.  In  all  this  there  is  no  trace  of 
the  Medes  forming  a  united  nation  under 
one  king  (contrary  to  Herod,  i.  96  seq.). 
Under  Phraortes,  655-633  b.  c.  Media  becauje 
a  formidable  power.  About  625  his  son 
Cyaxares  joined  with  Nabopola.ssar  of  Baby- 
lon in  besieging  and  capturing  Nineveh, 
thus  terminating  the  great  Assyrian  empire 
(cp.  Antiq.  x  5,  1).  The  victors  divided  the 
spoil  between  them,  the  share  of  Cyaxares 
being  Assyria  projier  and  the  countries  de- 
pendent on  it  toward  the  north  and  north- 
west. The  marriage  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  son 
of  Nabopolassar,  with  Amyites  or  Aniytis, 
daughter  of  Cyaxares,  cemented  the  alliance 
between  Babylonia  and  Media,  and  greatly 
strengthened  both  monarchies.  When  Cy- 
axares died,  in  593,  his  son  Astyages  be- 
came king.  In  his  old  age,  about  .5.58 
the  Persians,  whose  country  lay  south  and 
southeast  from  Media,  successfully  rebelled, 
and  Cyrus  their  leader  became  king  of  Media 
and  Persia.  The  conquerors  and  the  con- 
quered were  both  of  the  fine  Aryan  race, 
and  they  became  a  dual  nation,  Medo-Pei>ia. 
In  330  B.  C.  Media  became  a  part  of  Alexan- 
der's empire.  After  this  conqueror's  deatli  it 
was  united  to  Syria  (1  Mac.  vi.  56),  and  later 
it  formed  a  part  of  the  Parthian  empire. 

In  the  Hebrew  Scri])tures  the  Medes  are 
introduced  as  at  least  one  of  the  nationalities 
which  should  take  part  in  the  capture  of 
Babylon  (Is.  xiii.  17,  18;  cp.  also  Jer.  li.  11. 
28)  ;  and  Elam  and  !Media  are  named  as  the 
two  countries  from  which  the  conquerors  of 
Babylon  should  come  (Is.  xxi.  2,  9).  On  the 
capture  of  the  great  city  by  tlie  Medo- 
Persians  under  Cyrus  in  5.39,  Darius  tlie 
Mede  took  the  kingdom  of  Babylon  (Dan.  v. 
31  ;  cp.  28).  The  Medo-Persian  empire  is  the 
second  kingdom  (Dan.  ii.  39),  the  bear  (vii. 
5),  and  the  two-horned  ram  (viii,  3-7,  20). 
One  horn  was  higher  than  the  other,  and 
the  higher  came  up  last  (ver.  3) ;  in  other 
words,  the  Median  power  came  first,  but 
the  Persian,  which  followed,  surpassed  it  in 
strength. 

Me'di-an.     See  Mede. 

Med'i-cine. 

Egyi>t  was  early  renowned  for  medical 
knowledge  and  skill.  Cyrus  of  I'ersia  sent 
to  Egypt  for  an  oculist,  and  Darius  had 
Egyptian  physicians  at  Susa  (Herod,  iii.  1, 
129).  For  each  disea.se  there  was  a  pnM-ti- 
tioner  (Herod,  ii.  84).  They  embalnii-d 
(Gen.  1.  2)  :  they  treated  diseases  of  the  eye 
and  feet  (Herod,  iii.  1,  129)  :  women  prac- 
ticed midwifery  (Ex.  i.  15).  They  had  many 
medicines  (Jer.  xlvi.  11).  Even  the  word 
chemistry  is  perhaps  derived  from  Kum-i, 
the  ancient  name  of  Egypt.  In  Greece  the 
physicians  of  Crotona   enjoyed  the  highest 


Mediterranean  Sea 


468 


Melchisedec 


Tcputation,  wliile  those  of  Cyrene  in  Africa 
stood  next  (Herod,  iii.  I'M). 

The  i)hysi(ian  and  his  coadjutor  the 
apothecary  are  meutioued  iu  the  writings 
of  the  Hebrews,  beginning  as  early  as  the 
exodus  from  Egypt  (Ex.  xv.  26;  2  Chron. 
xvi.  12 ;  Jer.  viii.  22  ;  Mat.  ix.  12 ;  Mark  v. 
26;  War  ii.  8,  6;  and  Ex.  xxx.  35;  Neh.  iii. 
8;  Ecc.  X.  1  ;  Ecclus.  xxxviii.  8).  The  means 
and  medicines  which  they  employed  for 
eti"ecting  cures  were  bandages  (Is.  i.  6),  a\>- 
j)lications  of  oil  and  of  oil  mingled  with 
wine,  and  baths  of  oil  (Is.  i.  6  ;  Luke  x.  IJ4 ; 
Jas.  V.  14  ;  War  i.  33,  5),  salves  and  poultices 
(2  Kin.  XX.  7 ;  Jer.  viii.  22),  roots  and  leaves 
(Ezek.  xlvii.  12;  War  ii.  8,  6),  and  wine  (1 
Tim.  V.  23).  "The  Lord  created  medicines 
out  of  the  earth  ;  and  a  prudent  man  will 
have  no  disgust  at  them  "  (Ecclus.  xxxviii.  4). 

Med-i-ter-ra'ne-an  Sea  [midland  sea]. 

The  sea  which  lies  between  Europe  and 
Africa.  In  Sci-ipture  it  is  referred  to  simply  as 
the  sea,  since  it  was  the  chief  one  in  the  cur- 
rent thought  of  the  Hebrews  (Num.  xiii.  29; 
Acts  X.  6) ;  or  it  is  called  the  great  sea  (Num. 
xxxiv.  6 :  Josh.  xv.  47),  or  the  hinder  or  west- 
ern sea  (Deut.  xi.  24  ;  Joel  ii.  20 ;  in  A.  V.  ut- 
most and  uttermost),  or  the  sea  of  the  Philis- 
tines (Ex.  xxiii.  31).  The  (ireeks  and  Romans 
usually  spoke  of  it  as  the  sea  or  our  sea ;  after 
the  O.  T.  period  they  termed  it  the  sea  on 
this  side  of  the  pillars  of  Hercules  (Aristotle), 
or  the  internal  sea  (Pliny).  The  designa- 
tion Mediterranean  is  late.  Its  length  is 
2000  miles,  and  its  nai'rowest  part  is  between 
Sicily  and  the  African  coast,  where  it  is  only 
79  miles  in  width.  In  O.  T.  times  the  Phoe- 
nician navigators  were  acquainted  with  it  in 
its  entire  extent  from  Syria  to  the  straits  of 
Gibraltar  or,  using  the  Greek  designation,  to 
the  pillars  of  Hercules. 

Me-gid'do,  once  Megiddon  (Zech.  xii.  11) 
[place  of  troops]. 

An  imjKn'tant  town  in  Palestine,  mentioned 
as  Mejedi  among  the  towns  captured  by 
Thothmes  III.  of  Egypt  in  the  twenty-second 
year  of  his  reign.  When  the  Israelites  en- 
tered Canaan,  Megiddo  had  a  native  king, 
who  was  slain  by  Joshua  (Josh.  xii.  21).  It 
was  within  the  limits  of  the  tribe  of  Issachar ; 
but  was  assigned  to  the  Mauassites,  who, 
however,  failed  to  drive  out  the  Canaanite 
inhabitants  (xvii.  11;  Judg.  i.  27;  1  Chron. 
vii.  29).  It  had  waters,  doubtless  some 
stream,  in  its  vicinity  (Judg.  v.  19),  and  was 
not  far  from  Taanacii  and  Beth-shean  (i.  27  ; 
1  Kin.  iv.  12).  Solomon  strengthened  its 
fortifications  (ix.  15).  Ahaziah,  king  of 
Judah,  wounded  by  the  partisans  of  Jehu, 
fled  to  Megiddo,  and  died  there  (2  Kin.  ix. 
27).  In  the  plain  near  the  city  the  battle  was 
fought  between  Pharaoh-necho  and  Josiah, 
in  whicli  the  latter  was  killed  (xxiii.  29  ;  2 
Chron.  xxxv.  22  ;  1  Esdras  i.  29).  A  great 
mourning  for  the  death  of  the  good  king 
took  place  (2  Chron.  xxxv.  25;  Zech.  xii.  11). 


The  name  Megiddo  enters  into  the  composi- 
tion of  Armageddon  (q.  v.).  Robinson,  and 
500  years  before  him  Moses  hap-Parchi,  con- 
sidered Megiddo  to  have  been  at  el-Lejjiin, 
about  9  miles  west  slightly  north  of  Jezreel. 
This  identification  is  commonly  accepted. 
Thomson,  however,  locates  the  site  at  Tell  el- 
Mutasellim,  less  than  a  mile  north  of  Robin- 
son's site  ;  while  Conder  places  it  at  Khurbet 
el-Mujedda',  10  miles  southeast  of  Jezreel  and 
3i  southwest  of  Beth-.shean.  The  similarity 
of  name  favors  the  last-named  identification  ; 
while  its  remoteness  from  Taanach  and  the 
Kishou  (Judge  v.  19,  21)  are  against  it. 

Me-het'a-bel,  in  A.  V.  once  Mehetatoeel 

(Neh.  vi.  10)  [God  blesses]. 

1.  The  wife  of  Hadar,  king  of  Edom  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  39 ;  1  Chron.  i.  50). 

2.  Father  of  a  certain  Delaiah  (Neh.  vi. 
10). 

Me-M'da  [conjunction,  union]. 

Founder  of  a  family  of  Nethinim,  members 
of  which  returned  from  captivity  (Ezra  ii. 
43,  52). 

Me'hir  [price]. 

A  man  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  iv.  11). 

Me-ho'lath-ite. 

A  native  or  inhabitant  of  a  place  called 
Meholah  (1  Sam.  xviii.  19)  ;  perhaps  Abel- 
meholah,  Elisha's  native  village. 

Me-hu'ja-el. 

Sou  of  Irad,  and  father  of  Methusael,  of 
the  race  of  Cain  (Gen.  iv.  18). 

Me-hu'man  [faithful,  a  eunuch ;  if  the 
name  is  related  to  Aramaic,  m'hahnari]. 

One  of  the  seven  chamberlains  who  served 
in  the  presence  of  king  Ahasuerus  (Esth. 
i.  10). 

Me-liu'niin,  Mehunims.     See  Meunim. 

Me-jar'kon  [waters  of  the  yellow  color, 
yellow  waters]. 

A  town  in  the  territory  of  Dan  near  Joppa 
(Josh.  xix.  46).  A  place  on  the  river  'Aujah 
has  been  suggested  (Kiepert,  Conder).  The 
river  flows  from  a  swanij),  through  canes, 
willows,  rushes,  and  grass,  and  then  in  a 
deeply-hollowed  channel,  whence  it  carries 
away  vegetable  soil  enough  to  render  the 
water  yellow.  Thus  the  name  suits.  The 
stream  is  never  dry,  and  iu  winter  is  unford- 
able.  It  falls  into  the  Mediterranean  3| 
miles  north  of  Joppa. 

Me-ko'nah.     See  Meconah. 

Mel-a-ti'ah  [Jehovah  hath  set  free]. 

A  Gibeonite  who  heljied  to  rebuild  part  of 
the  wall  around  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  7). 

Mel'cM  [probably  by  contraction  for  He- 
brew Mulhiyyah.  Jehovah  is  king]. 

A  name  borne  by  two  ancestors  of  Chri>t 
who  lived,  the  one  before,  the  other  after, 
the  time  of  Zerubbabel  (Luke  iii.  24,  28). 

Mel-chi'ah.     See  Malchiah. 

Mel-cMs'e-dec.     See  Melchizedek. 


Melchishua 


469 


Memphis 


Mel- cM-sliu'a.     See  Malchi-shv.v. 

Mel-cMz'e-dek,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  MelcWs- 
edec  [king  of  righteousness  or  justice]. 

King  of  Salem  and  priest  of  the  most  high 
God  ^Geu.  xiv.  ISseq.).  By  Salem,  Jerusa- 
lem is  probably  meant ;  for  1.  The  city  was 
in  existence,  bore  the  name  of  Jerusalem, 
and  was  under  a  king  before  the  conquest  of 
Canaan  by  the  Israelites.  2.  The  name  Je- 
rusalem moans  city  or,  to  the  Hebrew  ear, 
foundation  of  peace  or  siifety,  so  that  Salem 
is  an  appropriate  abbreviation.  3.  Salem  is 
used  as  the  name  of  Jerusalem  in  Ps.  Ixxvi. 
2.  4.  The  comparison  of  David's  Lord  with 
Melchizedek  in  Ps.  ex.  4  appeal's  most  apt  if 
Melchizedek  was  king  of  the  same  city  as 
David.  5.  Jerusalem  is  on  the  route  from 
Hobah  and  Damascus  to  Hebron,  whither 
Abraham  was  going. 

Melchizedek,  as  described  in  Hebrews  v.  10  ; 
vi.  20 ;  vii.,  was  without  father,  without 
mother,  without  genealogy.  This  statement 
means  that  his  pedigree  is  not  recorded  (cp. 
Ezra  ii.  59,  62).  This  mode  of  expression 
was  familiar  to  the  Assyrian  scribes,  was  used 
by  the  Jewish  rabbis,  and  is  known  to  Greek 
and  Latin  writers.  He  is  further  described 
as  having  neither  beginning  of  days  nor  end 
of  life,  of  whom  it  is  testirted  that  he  lives. 
He  suddenly  emerges  from  the  unknown  and 
as  suddenly  disappears ;  it  is  not  known 
whence  he  came  or  whither  he  went,  neither 
birth  nor  death  is  assigned  to  him,  he  is  a 
type  of  undying  priesthood. 

Melchizedek  was  priest  of  God  Most  High. 
El  'elyon  appears  late  among  the  Phoenicians 
as  a  title  of  Saturn,  the  begetter  of  heaven 
and  earth  (Sanchoniathon  quoted  by  Eusebius, 
Praep.  i.  10).  If  El  'elyon  is  not  in  Melchize- 
dek's  conception  the  absolutely  only  God,  he 
is  the  highest,  the  God  of  the  gods ;  a  lofty 
idea,  even  though  not  a  pure  monotheism. 
Melchizedek  came  forth  from  his  royal  city 
to  welcome  the  returning  benefactor  of  the 
peoples  of  Canaan ;  and  Abraham  recognized 
him  as  a  priest  of  the  true  God  and  publicly 
testified  to  sharing  the  same  or  a  kindred 
faith  by  paying  tithes  to  him  who  was  repre- 
sentative of  God  Most  High,  to  the  priest 
who  had  ascribed  the  victory  to  the  Creator 
of  heaven  and  earth  (cp.  Acts  x.  35). 

The  author  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
shows  how  great  a  personage  Melchizedek 
was,  to  whom  even  Abraham,  and  through 
him  virtually  Levi,  paid  tithes,  thus  admit- 
ting their  inferiority.  When  thus  our  Lord 
was  made  a  high  priest  after  the  order  of 
Melchizedek,  he  held  a  higher  office  than  the 
Aaronic  priesthood. 

Me'le-a. 

An  ancestor  of  Christ,  who  lived  shortly 
after  David  (Luke  iii.  31). 

Me'lech  [a  king]. 

A  son  of  Micah,  a  descendant  of  Saul  and 
Jonathan  (1  Chron.  viii.  35;  ix.  41). 

Mel'i-cu.     See  Malluchi. 


Mel'i-ta. 

The  island  where  Paul  was  shipwrecked 
(Acts  xxviii.  1).  Two  islands  bore  this  name 
in  ancient  times.  One,  now  called  Melida, 
lies  in  the  Adriatic  Sea  off  the  coast  of  Dal- 
matia,  the  other  is  now  known  as  Malta.  The 
latter  is  now  probably  universally  believed 
to  be  the  island  where  the  ship  of  Paul  was 
wrecked.  This  opinion  is  strongly  confirmed 
by  the  fact  that  Mr.  Smith,  of  Jordanhill, 
who  was  accustomed  to  sail  in  a  yacht  on 
the  Mediterranean,  investigated  first  the  di- 
rection from  which  the  wind  Euroclydon  or 
Euraquilo  blew,  then  the  course  in  which 
the  ship  would  drift,  and  her  probable  rate 
of  progress  while  she  lay-to  under  storm 
sails.  The  result  was  that  he  found  she 
would  reach  Malta  just  about  the  time  which 
the  narrative  in  The  Acts  requires.  The  ves.sel 
had  been  driven  to  and  fro  in  the  (sea  of) 
Adria  (xxvii.  27);  see  Adria.  The  tradi- 
tional site  of  the  shipwreck  is  St.  Paul's  Bay, 
on  the  northeast  coast  of  the  i.sland.  In  The 
Acts  the  inhabitants  of  the  island  are  called 
barbarians  because  they  were  neither  Greeks 
nor  Eomans. 

Mel'on. 

A  succulent  plant  and  its  edible  fruit,  in 
Hebrew  '"battiah,  which  the  Hebrews  ate  when 
in  Egypt  (Xum.  xi.  5).  Melons  of  all  sorts 
were  cultivated  in  Egypt,  and  the  water- 
melon (Cncnmis  citndlus)  is  still  called  battiji 
by  the  Egyptians,  and  is  grown  in  immense 
quantities. 

Mel'zar  [probably  from  a  Persian  word 
meaning  steward]. 

A  man  whom  the  chief  of  the  eunuchs  set 
over  Daniel  and  his  companions  (Dan.  i.  11, 
16,  A.  v.).  But  in  Hebrew  it  has  the  article 
before  it ;  the  K.  V.  and  the  margin  of  the 
A.  V.  therefore  translate  it  steward. 

Mem. 

The  thirteenth  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alpha- 
bet. English  M  comes  from  the  same  source, 
and  represents  it  in  anglicized  Hebrew  names. 
It  stands  at  the  head  of  the  thirteenth  sec- 
tion of  Ps.  cxix.,  in  which  section  each  verse 
of  the  original  begins  with  this  letter. 

For  Hebrew  letters,  whose  similarity  of 
form  to  mem  has  caused  difficulty  to  copy- 
ists, see  e.  g.  Beth. 

Mem'pMs  [Egyptian  Men-nefer,  place  of 
good,  or.  as  it  was  interpreted  to  Plutarch, 
haven  of  good]. 

An  important  Egyi^tian  city,  said  by  Herod- 
otus to  have  been  built  by  Menes,  the  first 
historical  king  of  Egj-pt,  on  land  reclaimed 
by  him  from  the  Nile.  It  stood  in  the  plain 
on  the  western  side  of  the  Nile,  about  10 
miles  above  the  apex  of  the  delta.  It  became 
the  metropolis  and  capital  of  Lower  Egypt, 
and  the  third,  the  fourth,  the  fifth,  the  sev- 
enth, and  the  eighth  dynasties  were  consid- 
ered Memphite  by  Manetho.  The  deity  spe- 
cially worshiped  in  the  city  was  Ptah.  Mem- 
phis remained  a  flourishing  city  even  after 


Memucan 


470 


Mephiboshetli 


the  capital  was  transferred  to  Thebes,  and 
did  not  lose  its  importance  until  Alexandria 
was  founded.  To  the  Hebrews  Memphis  was 
known  as  Noph,  from  the  demotic  Men-nofi, 
and  Moph,  from  Menf  (Is.  xix.  13  ;  text  of 
Hos.  ix.  6;  c]).  Assyrian  Minpi).  After  the 
fall  of  Jerusalem  and  murder  of  Gedaliah, 
the  Jews  left  in  the  laud  fled  to  Egypt,  and 
some  of  them  settled,  at  Memphis  (Jer.  xliv. 
1).  Judgment  was  threatened  against  the 
city  by  Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel  (xlvi.  19 ;  cp. 
also  ii.  16  and  xlvi.  14;  Ezek.  xxx.  13,  16; 
cp.  also  Is.  xix.  13  ;  Hos.  ix.  6).  A  consider- 
able part  of  Memphis  existed  in  the  middle 
ages,  but  materials  from  it  were  continually 
carried  away  to  be  used  for  building  purposes 
in  Cairo.  Now  it  is  all  but  gone,  two  Arab 
villages  occupying  its  site.  But  twenty  pyr- 
amids, which  constituted  its  necropolis,  and 
the  celebrated  sphinx  present  the  most  im- 
pressive memorials  of  its  former  greatness. 

Me-inu'can. 

One  of  the  seven  princes  of  Persia  and 
Media  at  the  court  of  Ahasuerus  who  saw 
the  king's  face.  Memucan's  counsel  was  ad- 
verse to  Vashti  (Esth.  i.  14,  15,  21). 

Men'a-hem  [comforter] . 

A  .son  of  Gadi  who,  when  the  news  reached 
Tirzah  that  Shallum  had  murdered  king 
Zechariah,  went  to  Samaria,  slew  Shallum, 
and  reigned  in  his  stead  (2  Kin.  xv.  14).  The 
town  of  Tiphsah  refused  to  admit  him  within 
its  gates,  so  he  captured  it,  and  perpetrated 
cruelties  on  the  inhabitants  (ver.  16).  His 
throne  was  unsteady;  and  when  Pul,  better 
known  as  Tiglath-pileser,  king  of  Assyria, 
invaded  the  land,  Menahem  purchased  ex- 
emption from  devastation  for  his  realm  and 
support  for  his  own  tottering  throne  by  the 
payment  of  1000  talents  of  silver,  nearly  two 
million  dollars,  which  represented  a  much 
greater  purchasing  value  then  than  now. 
The  money  was  raised  by  a  tax  on  the 
wealthiest  men  in  Israel,  who  had  to  pay 
50  shekels,  about  $32.50,  each.  There  must, 
therefore,  have  been  more  than  60,000  Isra- 
elites able  to  contribute  this  amount  under 
compulsion.  Tiglath-pileser,  as  recorded  in 
the  Assyrian  sculptures,  claims  Minihimmu 
(Menahem)  of  Samaria  as  one  of  his  tribu- 
taries. In  religion  the  Israelite  king  ad- 
hered to  the  calf  worship  of  Jeroboam  I. 
He  reigned  ten  years,  from  about  747  to  738 
B.  c.  inclu.sive,  and  was  succeeded  on  the 
throne  of  Israel  bv  his  son  Pekahiah  (2  Kin. 
XV.  17,  22). 

Me'nan.     See  Menna. 

Me'ne. 

The  first  word  of  the  inscription  written 
by  a  hand  on  the  wall  at  Belshazzar's  feast: 
Mp;nI';,  Mene,  Tekel,  Upharsin  (Dan.  v. 
25).  These  mysterious  words  are  Aramaic. 
They  are  rendered  on  the  margin  of  R.  V. 
"Numbered,  numbered,  weighed,  and  divis- 
ions;" Pharsin  being  the  plural  of  the  noun 
p'rex,  Mene  being  the  regular  ijassive  par- 


ticiple of  its  verb  in  the  Peal  species,  and 
Tekel  being  regarded  as  likewise  a  passive 
participle,  with  the  vocalization  which  is  tra- 
ditionally given  to  it  changed  from  t'kil  to 
t'lfel  to  conform  to  the  sound  of  m'ne\  These 
letters  were  not  vocalized  as  written  on  the 
wall,  and  might  have  been  pronounced  in  a 
variety  of  ways.  Even  if  the  correct  pro- 
nunciation had  occurred  to  one  of  the  wise 
men  as  among  several  possibilities,  he  had 
DO  means  of  establishing  the  correctness  of 
his  reading  or  of  interpreting  the  words. 
Daniel  solved  the  enigma  (25-28).  How 
difficult  it  was  to  determine  the  true  pronun- 
ciation is  illustrated  by  the  proposal  which 
has  been  made  by  scholars  to  regard  Mene  as 
the  absolute  state  of  the  noun  manya',  maneh, 
and  to  read  the  words  "  A  maneh,  a  maneh, 
a  shekel  and  half  manehs,"  or  "Numbered 
have  been  a  maneh,  a  shekel,  and  half  ma- 
nehs." The  words  as  thus  read  have  been 
sometimes  understood  as  symbolizing  under 
the  figure  of  weights  that  a  worthy  person 
(Nebuchadnezzar,  the  virtual  founder  of  the 
empire)  had  been  succeeded  by  an  inferior 
ruler  (Belshazzar),  and  that  the  empire  was 
about  to  be  divided  into  halves. 

Me'ni  [fate,  destiny]. 

The  name  of  the  god  of  destiny,  whom 
idolatrous  Hebrews  worshiped  (Is.  Ixv.  11, 
margin).  In  the  text  the  English  versions 
prefer  the  alternative  interpretation  of  the 
word,  regarding  it  as  a  common  noun  and 
not  a  proper  name. 

Men'na,  in  A.  Y.  Menan. 

An  ancestor  of  Christ,  who  lived  shortly 
after  the  time  of  David  (Luke  iii.  31). 

Me  -  nu '  hotli  [apparently,  the  resting 
places] . 

A  place,  if  the  present  Hebrew  text  is  cor- 
rect, of  which  half  the  inhabitants  were 
descended  through  Shobal  from  Caleb  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  ii.  52,  R.  V.).  The 
name,  if  vocalized  as  in  the  present  Hebrew 
text,  would  not  give  rise  to  the  gentile  ad- 
jective of  ver.  54,  which  is  rendered  Mana- 
hathites.  Perhaps,  therefore,  Menuhoth 
should  be  read  Manahath  (q.  v.). 

Me-on'e-nim  [augurs]. 

The  augurs'  oak  or  terebinth  stood  near 
Shechem  (Judg.  ix.  37;  not  plain,  as  in  A. 
Y.).     See  remarks  under  Moreh. 

Me-on'o-thai  [my  habitations]. 

A  man  of  Judah,  the  father  of  the  in- 
habitants of  Ophrah  (1  Chron.  iv.  14). 

Meph'a-ath  [beauty]. 

A  town  of  the  Reubenites  (Josh.  xiii.  18), 
given  to  the  Merarite  Levites  (xxi.  37;  1 
Chron.  vi.  79).  In  Jeremiah's  time  it  was  in 
the  hands  of  the  Moabites  (Jer.  xlviii.  21). 
Site  unknown. 

Me-pMb'o-sheth  [destroying  shame]. 

1.  Son  of  king  Saul  by  Rizpah,  the  daughter 
of  Aiah.  He  was  executed  at  the  instance 
of  the  Gibeonites  (2  Sam.  xxi.  8,  9). 


Merab 


471 


Mered 


2.  The  sou  of  Jonathan.  He  was  five 
years  old  when  the  tidings  came  of  his 
father's  and  his  grandfather's  death  at  Gil- 
boa.  Under  the  influence  of  panic,  the 
nurse  took  him  up  in  her  arms  and  fled  with 
him  ;  but  in  her  flight  she  let  him  fall,  so 
that  he  l)ecame  lame  in  both  his  feet  (2  Sam. 
iv.  4).  For  a  long  time  he  lived  at  Lo-debar, 
*ast  of  the  Jordan,  whence  David  called  him 
to  court  to  show  him  kindness  for  his  father 
Jonathan's  sake,  restoring  to  him  the  estates 
ot  Saul  and  appointing  him  a  place  at  the 
r(jyal  talile  {ix.  1-13).  Daring  the  rebellion 
of  Absalom  he  remained  at  Jerusalem,  and 
was  accused  by  his  servant  Ziba  of  dis- 
loyalty. David  believed  the  accusation  and 
transferred  3Iephibosheth's  estates  to  Ziba. 
After  the  return  of  David,  Mephibosheth  at- 
tempted to  clear  himself  of  the  charge,  and 
David  restored  half  the  estates  to  him  ;  but 
lie  declared  that  he  did  not  wish  the  prop- 
erty, since  he  had  his  desire  in  the  restora- 
tion of  the  king  (svi.  1-4  ;  xix.  24-30).  He 
had  a  son  Micha  (ix.  12),  through  whom  the 
race  of  Jonathan  was  perpetuated.  In  1 
Chron.  viii.  34  ;  ix.  40  Mephibosheth  is  called 
Merih-baal,  a  striver  is  the  Lord  or  perhaps, 
striver  against  Baal.  This  was  probably  his 
original  name,  bosheth,  shame,  being  substi- 
tuted for  baal.  lord,  by  later  writers  when  the 
word  Baal  had  become  distasteful  through  as- 
sociation with  idolatry. 

Me'rab  [increase]. 

Saul's  elder  daughter  (1  Sam.  xiv.  49). 
Her  father  promised  her  in  marriage  to 
David,  and  then,  breaking  faith,  gave  her 
as  a  wife  to  Adriel  the  Meholathite  (xviii. 
17-19). 

Me-ra'iali  [contumacy,  stubbornness]. 

A  priest,  head  of  the  father's  house  Seraiah 
in  the  days  of  Joiakim,  a  generation  after 
the  exile  (Neh.  xii.  12). 

Me-ra'ioth  [rebellions]. 

1.  A  priest,  son  of  Zerahiah  (1  Chron.  vi. 
6,  7,  52).  He  lived  while  the  house  of  Eli 
had  charge  of  the  tabernacle. 

2.  A  priest,  son  of  Ahitub  and  father  of 
Zadok  (1  Chron.  ix.  11;  Xeh.  xi.  11).  He 
seems  to  have  lived  about  half  a  century  be- 
fore the  exile. 

3.  A  father's  house  among  the  priests  in 
the  days  of  Joiakim  (Neh.  xii.  15).  See 
Mkremoth. 

Me-ra'ri  [bitter,  unhappy]. 

Son  of  Levi,  and  founder  of  one  of  the 
three  leading  Levitical  families  (Gen.  xlvi. 
11  :   Ex.  vi.  16;  Xum.  xxvi.  57). 

Me-ra'rites. 

One  of  the  three  great  Levitical  families. 
They  were  descended  from  Merari.  In  the 
wilderness  they  encamped  on  the  north  side 
of  the  tabernacle  (Num.  iii.  35).  and  had 
under  their  charge  its  boards,  bars,  pillars, 
sockets,  and  vessels  (36 ;  i  v.  29-33).  To  en- 
able them  to  carry  these  there  were  assigned 


to  them  four  wagons  and  eight  oxeu  (vii.  8). 
They  were  subdivided  into  the  Mahlites  and 
the  Mushites  (iii.  20,  33) ;  and  at  the  first 
census  in  the  wilderness  numbered  6200 
males  from  a  mouth  old  and  upward  (33, 
34).  Of  these,  3200  were  from  30  to  60  years 
old  (iv.  42-45).  The  cities  a.s.signed  to  them 
numbered  twelve,  of  which  four  were  in  the 
tribe  of  Zebulun,  .four  in  that  of  Eeuben, 
and  four  in  that  of  Gad;  one  of  them, 
Ramoth-gilead,  being  a  city  of  refuge  (Josh. 
xxi.  34-40;  1  Chron.  vi.  63,  77-81).  They 
were  reorganized  by  David  (1  Chron.  xxiii. 
6,  21-23). 

Mer-a-tJia'im  [twofold  rebellion]. 

A  symbolical  name  for  Babylon  ( Jer.  1.  21). 

Mer'cu-ry,  in  A.  V.  Mer-cu'ri-us. 

A  deity  worshiped  by  the  Komans  and, 
under  the  name  of  Hermes,  by  the  Greeks 
also.  He  was  the  herald  of  the  gods,  and 
specially  attended  upon  Jupiter.  He  was 
quick  in  his  movements,  was  a  good  speaker, 
and  was  credited  with  having  been  the  in- 
ventor of  letters,  of  music,  and  of  other 
arts.  Paul  and  Barnabas  were  looked  upon 
as  gods  by  the  people  of  Lystra,  when  the 
cripple  was  healed  at  the  apostle's  word ; 
and  as  Paul  was  the  chief  speaker,  they  took 
him  for  Mercury  and  Barnabas,  whom  he  ac- 
companied, for  Jupiter  (Acts  xiv.  12). 

Mer'cy  Seat. 

The  covering  of  the  ark  ;  called  in  Hebrew 
Kappoveth,  covering  (especially  if  not  exclu- 
sively in  the  sense  of  atonement),  and  in 
Greek  'Ihisterion,  propitiatory  (Ex.  xxvi.  34; 
Heb.  ix.  5).  Its  name  did  not  suggest  a  mere 
lid,  but  brought  to  mind  the  act  and  place  of 
atonement  and  the  accomplished  atonement. 
It  was  made  of  pure  gold  ;  its  length  was 
two  and  a  naif  cubits,  and  its  breadth  a  cubit 
and  a  half.  On  each  side  of  it  and  wrought 
as  one  piece  with  it  stood  a  cherub  with  out- 
stretched wings,  so  that  a  wing  of  each  ex- 
tended over  the  mercy  seat  and  met  that  of 
the  other  cherub.  Between  these  cherubim 
Jehovah's  glory  was  manifested,  and  there 
Jehovah  communed  with  his  people  (Ex. 
XXV.  17-22;  xxx.  6;  Num.  vii.  89).  There 
was  a  similar  arrangement  in  Solomon's 
temple  (1  Kin.  vi.  23-28 ;  viii.  6-11 ;  1  Chron. 
xxviii.  11).  Once  a  year,  on  the  great 
day  of  atonement,  the  high  priest,  after  he 
had  ofi"ered  a  sin  ofl'ering,  entered  the  most 
holy  place  and  burnt  incense,  symbol  (»f 
accepted  worship,  in  the  presence  of  Je- 
hovah, which  rose  and  enveloped  the  mercy 
seat  in  a  cloud.  He  then  sprinkled  the  blood 
of  the  sacrificed  bullock  and  goat  on  and 
before  the  mercy  seat  and  made  atonement 
for  the  sins  of  himself  and  the  nation  in  the 
presence  of  the  covenant  law,  which  was 
written  on  the  tables  of  stone  and  was  lying 
in  the  ark,  and  of  Jehovah,  who  dwelt  be- 
tween the  cherubim  (Lev.  xvi.  2,  13-17). 

Me'red  [rebellion]. 

Son  of  Ezrah,  who  was  reckoned  as  be- 


Meremoth 


472 


Merom 


lougiug  to  the  tribe  of  Judah.  He  had  a 
daughter  of  Pharaoh  to  wife  aud  probably 
also  a  Jewess  (1  Chrou.  iv.  17,  lb,  K.  V.). 

Mer'e-moth  [elevations] . 

1.  A  chief  of  the  priests,  who  returned 
from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Neh.  xii.  3, 
7).  In  the  next  generation  a.  father's  house 
among  the  priests,  eaunieraied  in  the  cor- 
responding position  in  the  catalogue,  bears 
the  name  Meraioth  (ver.  15).  One  of  the 
two  names  is  probably  a  misreading  of  mem 
or  jod. 

2.  A  priest,  son  of  Uriah.  He  was  em- 
ployed to  weigh  the  silver  and  gold  brought 
by  Ezra  from  Babylon  (Ezra  viii.  33).  He 
repaired  part  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh. 
iii.  4,  21),  and  is  probably  the  person  of  the 
name  who  sealed  the  covenant  (x.  5). 

3.  A  son  of  Bani,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  36). 

Me'res. 

One  of  the  seven  princes  of  Persia  and 
Media  who  saw  the  king's  face  in  the  reign 
of  Ahasuerus  (Esther  i.  14). 

Mer'i-bah  [contention,  strife]. 

1.  One  of  two  names  given  by  Moses  to 
the  locality  at  Horeb  and  near  Rephidim 
where  the  people  murmured  and  where 
water  was  miraculously  brought  from  the 
rock  (Ex.  xvii.  1-7). 

2.  A  second  locality,-  namely,  Kadesh-bar- 
nea  in  the  wilderness  of  Zin,  where  also  the 
people  murmured  and  water  was  miraculously 
brought  from  the  rock  (Num.  xx.  13,  14; 
xxvii.  14 ;  Deut.  xxxii.  51 ;  xxxiii.  8 ;  Ps. 
Ixxxi.  7).  The  waters  of  this  Meribah  are 
the  waters  of  strife  of  Ps.  cvi.  32  and  Ezek. 
xlvii.  19.  The  R.  V.  in  the  text  of  the  first 
passage  substitutes  Meribah,  and  in  the  sec- 
ond Meriboth-kadesh.  It  is  to  be  noted  that 
there  is  nothing  surprising,  under  the  cir- 
cumstances, in  the  outbreak  of  discontent  at 
the  scarcity  of  water,  which  was  experienced 
more  than  twice  or  thrice.  The  localities 
are  different  and  quite  far  apart.  The  time 
is  different.  The  conduct  of  Moses  is  very 
different  on  the  two  occasions. 

Mer-ib-ba'al.     See  Mephibosheth. 

Mer-i-both-ka'desh  [contentions  at  Ka- 
desh]. 

A  station  of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilder- 
ness (Ezek.  xlvii.  19,  R.  V.).  See  Mer- 
ibah 2. 

Mer'o-dacli  [Assyrian  and  Babylonian 
Mardiik]. 

The  patron  deity  of  Babylon  (Jer.  1.  2). 
See  Bel. 

Mer'o-dacli-bara-dan,  in  2  Kin.  xx.  12 
Berodach-toaladan  [Merodach  has  given  a 
son] .  Berodach  may  be  a  copyist's  misspelling 
for  Merodach,  or  represent  the  approximation 
of  sound  between  m  and  b  in  Babylonian. 

A  king  of  Babylon,  son  of  Baladan  (2  Kin. 
XX.  12),  of  the  dynasty  of  Bit-Yakin.     He 


was  a  man  of  great  ability,  courage,  aud  en- 
terprise. The  dynasty  had  its  capital  at  Bit- 
Yakin,  in  the  marshes  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Euphrates,  a  district  which  was  the  ancestral 
home  of  the  Chaldean  tribe.  Merodach- 
baladan  succeeded  to  this  petty  throne. 
About  731  B.  c.  he  did  homage  to  Tiglath- 
pileser,  king  of  Assyria ;  but  when,  in  722, 
the  Assyrian  army  was  absent  carrying  on 
the  siege  of  Samaria,  and  news  reached 
Babylonia  that  the  king  of  Assyria  had  died 
or  been  murdered,  Merodach-baladan  took 
the  opportunity  of  becoming  king  of  Ba)>y- 
lon.  Sargon,  king  of  Assyria,  recognized 
him  in  721.  He  reigned  eleven  years.  In 
712,  or  thereabouts,  Merodach-baladan  sent 
the  embassy  to  Hezekiah,  which,  traveling 
with  the  ostensible  object  of  congratulating 
Hezekiah  on  his  recovery  (2  Kin.  xx.  12-19  ; 
2  Chron.  xxxii.  31 ;  Is.  xxxix.  1-8),  was 
really  designed  to  invite  him  to  join  in  a  con- 
federacy with  the  rulers  of  Babylon,  Susiana, 
Phoenicia,  Moab,  Edom,  Philistia,  and  Egypt 
for  a  grand  attack  on  the  Assyrian  empire. 
Sargon  suspected  what  was  going  on,  attacked 
his  enemies  individually  before  they  had  time 
to  unite,  aud  vanquished  them  one  by  one. 
In  710  Sargon  took  Babylon,  aud  in  709  Bit- 
Yakin,  capturing  Merodach-baladan  at  the 
latter  place.  Some  time  after  Sargon's  death 
Merodach-baladan  was  again  free,  and  in  704 
or  703  he  reentered  Babylon,  and  slew  the 
Assyrian  viceroy,  who  was  then  its  ruler. 
But  his  second  reign  lasted  only  from  six 
to  nine  months.  He.  was  defeated  aud 
driven  from  Babylon  to  Bit-Yakin  by 
Sennacherib,  Sargon's  son  and  successor. 
In  700,  in  connection  with  the  revolt  of 
a  Chaldean  called  Nergal-ushezib  or  Shu- 
zub,  Merodach-baladan  raised  his  head  again. 
Sennacherib  took  the  road  to  Bit-Yakin, 
but  Merodach-baladan  avoided  battle  and 
fled  to  a  town  in  the  midst  of  the  sea.  Sen- 
nacherib again  prevailed,  quelling  the  re- 
volt in  698.  In  697  he  attacked  the  last 
refuge  of  Merodach-baladan,  which  M'as  a 
fragment  of  territory  given  him  by  the  Elam- 
ites.  The  Assyrian  king  employed  Phoeni- 
cian ships  for  the  purpose.  Merodach's  small 
settlement,  which  he  had  abandoned,  was 
captured  and  burnt,  and  he  was  not  able  to 
raise  his  head  again.  Though  he  may  have 
ultimately  failed  in  his  enterprises,  yet  he 
had  not  lived  in  vain.  The  Chaldeans,  whose 
chief  he  was,  and  who  seem  to  have  been  a 
Semitic  race,  became  from  his  days  the 
dominant  caste  in  Babylon. 

Me'rom  [a  height,  a  high  place]. 

A  lake  on  the  .Jordan,  11  miles  north  of 
the  sea  of  Galilee.  By  it  Joshua  defeated 
the  northern  Canaanite  kings  (Josh.  xi.  5,  7). 
It  is  4  miles  long  by  3i  broad,  and  is  12  miles 
from  the  Banias  source  of  the  Jordan.  It  is 
270  feet  above  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean. 
It  occupies  the  southern  portion  of  a  very 
marshy  basin  about  15  miles  long  by  5  broad. 


Meronothite 


473 


Mesha 


Waters  of  Merom,  now  Late  of  Huleh. 


The  basin  is  now  called  the  Huleh  and  the 
lake  Baheiret  el-Huleh  or  lake  of  Huleh. 

Me-ron'o-thite. 

An  inhabitant  of  Meronoth  (1  Chron.  xxvii. 
30;  Neb.  iii.  7).  Meronoth  has  not  been 
identified. 

Me'roz  [probably,  a  place  of  refuge]. 

A  town  which  gave  no  assistance  in  the 
fight  with  Sisera  (Judg.  v.  23).  Its  site  is 
unknown,  though  el-Murussus,  a  ruin  about 
4A  miles  northwest  of  Beth-shean,  has  been 
suggested,  or  Kefr  Misr,  on  the  southern 
slope  of  mount  Tabor,  6i  miles  northwest  of 
el-5luru.ssus. 

Mes'a-loth,  in  A.  Y.  Masaloth  [perhaps, 
from  Hebrew  m'sillofh.  ascents,  stuirs]. 

A  place  in  the  district  of  Arbela  (1  Mac. 
ix.  2).  Josephus  understood  it  to  be  the  re- 
gion of  fortified  caves  at  Arbela  in  Galilee, 
which  were  only  to  be  reached  by  steps 
(Antiq.  xii.  11,  1). 

Me'sech.     See  Meshech. 

Me'sha,  I. 

The  limit  in  one  direction  of  the  region 
occupied  by  the  descendants  of  Joktan  (Gen. 
X.  .30).  Xot  identified.  Mouza,  on  the  eastern 
coast  of  the  Red  Sea,  about  100  miles  from 
the  straits  of  Bab  el-Mandeb,  Bischa  in 
northern  Yemen,  the  district  Mesene  at  the 
northwestern  end  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  and 
Massa  (cp.  Septuagint  and  Gen.  xxv.  14)  have 
been  suggested. 

Me'sha,  II.  [perhaps,  retreat,  withdrawal]. 
A   Benjamite,  a   son  of  .Shaharaim  by  his 
■Rife  Hodesh  (1  Chron.  viii.  8,  9). 


Me'sha,  III.  [salvation]. 

1.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Hezron, 
house  of  Caleb.  He  was  ancestor  of  the  in- 
habitants of  Ziph  (1  Chron.  ii.  42). 

2.  A  king  of  Moab,  son  of  Chemosh-melech. 
He  rendered  to  king  Ahab  the  tribute  of 
100,000  lambs  and  as  many  rams,  namely 
their  wool  (2  Kin.  iii.  4).  Ahab  was  slain  at 
the  battle  of  Ramoth-gilead  about  853  B.  c, 
which  probably  took  place  in  the  early 
spring,  "the  time  when  kings  go  forth  to 
war,"  and  Ahaziah  thereby  became  sole  king. 
The  discomfiture  of  Israel  and  Judah  at 
Eamoth-gilead  and  the  death  of  Ahab  were 
the  signal  to  Mesha  to  refuse  the  tribute  of 
this  year,  the  second  of  Ahaziah  (Antiq.  ix. 
2,  1),  to  Israel  (2  Kin.  i.  1).  Jehoshaphat, 
king  of  Judah,  returned  from  Ramoth-gilead 
to  Jerusalem,  say  in  May,  and  undertook  a 
religious  reformation  of  the  nation  (2  Chron. 
xix.).  After  this  work  of  reform  had  begun 
(xx.  1),  the  Ammonites  and  Moabites,  in  alli- 
ance with  the  Edomites,  who  had  been  per- 
suaded to  revolt,  invaded  Judah.  Jehosh- 
aphat defeated  the  allies  and  reduced 
Edom  to  its  former  subjection,  and  a  time 
of  peace  ensued  (30).  Ahaziah  died  at  the 
end  of  this  year,  perhaps  in  December  or 
January  or  later,  and  Jehoram  his  brother 
succeeded  him  (2  Kin.  i.  17).  The  next  year, 
852  B.  c,  or  later,  Jehoram,  desiring  to  ren- 
der Moab  again  tributary,  asked  aid  of  Je- 
hoshaphat (iii.  7).  The  latter  probably 
wished  to  chastise  the  Moabites  still  further 
for  their  invasion  of  .Judah.  and,  therefore, 
although  he  had  been  rebuked  for  allying 
himself   with   ungodly  Ahab   and  Ahaziah, 


Meshach 


474 


Meshullam 


consented,  for  Jelioram  had  exhibited  signs 
of  godliness  by  a  considerable  reformation  (2). 
Jehoram  advanced  with  his  confederates,  Je- 
hoshaphat  and  an  unnamed  Edomite  king, 
round  the  southern  end  of  the  Dead  Sea. 
The  allied  armies  were  almost  perishing  with 
thirst  when  Elisha,  who  accompanied  them, 
predicted  that  water  would  be  divinely  sent, 
and  it  came.  As  the  roseate  hues  of  the 
morning  sun  fell  upon  it,  the  Moabite  king, 
doubtless  Mesha,  thought  it  was  blood,  and, 
rashly  inferring  that  the  three  invading 
armies  had  quarreled  and  turned  their  swords 
against  each  other,  carelessly  advanced  with 
his  forces  to  take  the  prey.  He  was  routed, 
and  the  Israelites  entered  his  laud  and  beat 
down  his  cities  (24,  25).  At  Kir-hareseth, 
seeing  that  the  battle  was  too  sore  for  him 
and  failing  in  a  desperate  attempt  to  break 
through  the  lines  of  the  enemy,  he  took  his 
eldest  son  and  heir  apparent  and  olfered  him 
as  a  burnt  offering  to  Chemosh  on  the  city 
wall.  The  besiegers  airparently  felt  that  they 
were  in  part  responsible  for  occasioning  this 
human  sacrifice  and  that  they  had  incurred 
the  wrath  of  God,  and  they  raised  the  siege 
and  returned  to  the  land  of  Israel  without 
resubjugating  Moab  (25-27).  The  Moabite 
stone  was  erected  partly  for  the  purpose  of 
commemorating  this  revolt  and  its  successful 
issue  ;  see  Moabite  Stone. 

Me'shach. 

The  name  given  by  the  prince  of  the 
eunuchs  at  Babylon  to  Mishael,  one  of  the 
three  faithful  Jews  afterwards  saved  from 
the  fiery  furnace  (Dan.  i.  7 ;  ii.  49 ;  iii.  13- 
30). 

Me'shech,  in  A.  V.  once  Mesecli  (Ps.  cxx.  5). 

A  i)eople  descended  from  Japheth  (Gen.  x. 
2).  They  traded  in  the  Tyrian  markets  in 
slaves  and  vessels  of  brass  (Ezek.  xxvii.  13). 
They  were  allies  of  Tubal,  and  allies  or  sub- 
jects of  Gog,  the  prince  of  Rosh,  Meshech, 
and  Tubal  (Ezek.  xxxii.  26;  xxxviii.  2,  3; 
xxxix.  1,  E.  v.).  Meshech  and  Tubal  are 
associated  together  in  the  Assyrian  inscrip- 
tions as  they  are  in  the  Bible.  In  the  days 
of  Tiglath-pileser,  about  1120  b.  c,  and 
Shalmaneser,  859-825,  the  land  of  Muskn, 
that  is  Meshech,  lay  in  the  mountains  to  the 
north  of  Assyria  and  bordered  on  Tabal,  that 
is  Tubal,  in  the  west.  They  were  gradually 
driven  northward  to  near  the  Black  Sea. 
Herodotus  calls  the  two  races  the  Moschoi 
and  Tibarenoi,  and  locates  them  in  the 
mountains  southeast  of  the  Black  Sea  (Herod, 
iii.  94  ;  vii.  78).  The  Moschoi  dwelt  between 
the  source  of  the  Phasis  and  Cyrus  rivers 
(Pliny  vi.  4). 

Me-shel-e-mi'ah  [Jehovah  recompenses]. 

A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath,  house  of  Izhar 
and  Korah.  He  and  his  sons  were  doorkeep- 
ers of  the  sanctuary  (1  C'hron.  ix.  21;  xxvi. 
1).     In  xxvi.  14  he  is  called  Shelemiah. 

Me-shez'a-bel,  in  A.  V.  Meshezabeel  [(lod 
sets  free]. 


1.  Father  of  a  certain  Berechiah  (Neh. 
iii.  4). 

2.  One  of  those  who  sealed  the  covenant 
(Neh.  x.  21). 

3.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Zerah  (Neh. 
xi.  24). 

Me-sMl'le-mith  [recompense,  retribution]. 
See  Meshillemotu  2. 

Me-sMl'le-moth  [recompen.ses] . 

1.  An  Ephraimite,  father  of  that  Berechiah 
who  urged  the  release  of  the  captives  brought 
from  Judah  by  Pekah's  army  (2  Chron. 
xxviii.   12). 

2.  A  priest  descended  from  Immer  (Neh. 
xi.  13),  called  Meshillemith  in  1  Chron.  ix. 
12. 

Me-shul'lam  [a  friend]. 

1.  A  Benjamite,  descended  from  Shaharaim 
through  Elpaal  (1  Chron.  viii.  17). 

2.  A  leading  man  among  the  Gadites  in 
the  reign  of  Jotham  (1  Chron.  v.  13). 

3.  An  ancestor  of  Shaphan  the  scribe  (2 
Kin.  xxii.  3). 

4.  A  priest,  son  of  Zadok,  and  father  of 
the  high  priest  Hilkiah  who  lived  in  Josiah's 
reign  (1  Chron.  ix.  11 ;  Neh.  xi.  11).  See 
Shallum  7. 

5.  A  Kohathite  Levite  who  with  others 
helped  faithfully  to  superintend  the  work- 
men who  re])aired  the  temple  in  Josiah's 
reign  (2  Chron.  xxxiv.  12). 

6.  A  priest,  son  of  Meshillemith  of  the 
house  of  Immer  (1  Chron.  ix.  12). 

7.  A  son  of  Zerubbabel  (1  Chron.  iii.  19). 

8.  A  Benjamite,  father  of  Sallu  (1  Chron. 
ix.  7;  Neh.  xi.  7). 

9.  Another  Benjamite,  son  of  Shephatiah  (1 
Chron.  ix.  8). 

10.  A  chief  man  whom,  with  others,  Ezra 
sent  from  the  river  of  Ahava  to  secure  Le- 
vites  to  go  to  Jerusalem  (Ezra  viii.  16). 

11.  One  of  those  who  busied  themselves, 
probably  adversely,  in  the  matter  of  in- 
ducing the  Jews  who  had  married  foreign 
wives  to  put  them  away  (Ezra  x.  15). 

12.  A  son  of  Bani,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
awaj'  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  29). 

13.  A  son  of  Berechiah.  He  helped  to 
repair  two  portions  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem, 
at  the  second  of  which  he  had  a  chamber 
(Neh.  iii.  4,  30).  Johanan,  son  of  Tobiah 
the  Ammonite,  married  his  daughter  (vi.  18). 

14.  Son  of  Besodeiah.  He  with  another 
returned  exile  repaired  the  old  gate  of  the 
wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  6). 

15.  One  of  those  who  stood  on  Ezra's  left 
hand  while  he  read  and  explained  the  law 
to  the  people  (Neh.  viii.  4). 

16.  A  priest  who,  doubtless  in  behalf  of 
a  father's  house,  sealed  the  covenant  (Neh. 
X.  7). 

17.  A  chief  of  the  people  who  did  so  (Neh. 
X.  20). 

IS.  One  of  the  princes  of  Judah  who 
marched  in  the  procession  at  the  dedication 
of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  xii.  33). 


Meshullemeth 


475 


Mezobaite 


19.  A  priest,  head  of  the  father's  house 
Ezra  in  tlio  days  of  the  high  priest  Joiakim 
(Neh.  xii.  13). ' 

20.  Another  priest  at  the  same  date,  head 
of  the  father's  house  Giuuethon  (Neh.  xii. 
16). 

21.  A  porter  who  lived  at  the  same  date 
(Nell.  xii.  25). 

Me-shul'le-meth  [a  female  friend]. 

Wife  (if  king  Manasseh,  and  mother  of 
king  Anion   (2  Kiu.  xxi.  19). 

Me-so'ba-ite.     See  Mezobaite. 

Mes-o-po-ta'mi-a  [land  between  rivers]. 

The  rendering,  borrowed  from  the  Septua-> 
gint,  for  the  Hebrew  Aram-uaharaim ;  see 
Aram  2,  (1).  It  isa  Greek  name  which  appears 
after  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great.  The 
Greek  and  Roman  geographers  used  the  term 
for  the  whole  country  between  the  Euphrates 
and  llgris  rivers,  excluding  the  mountainous 
region  where  the  rivers  take  their  rise  and 
ordinarily  also  the  low-lying  plain  of  Baby- 
lonia in  the  other  direction.  Thus  limited, 
its  u]>per  portion  is  hilly  and  fertile  and  its 
lower  part,  especially  toward  the  Tigris,  is  a 
salt  desert.  Mesopotamia  is  now  called  by 
the  Arabs  Jezireh  or  the  island. 

Some  of  its  inhabitants  were  present  on 
that  day  of  Pentecost  on  which  the  Holy 
Spirit  descended  (Acts  ii.  9).  Stephen  in- 
cludes Ur  of  the  Chaldees  in  Mesopotamia 
(vii.  2). 

Mes-si'ah,  in  A.  V.  of  X.  T.  Messias  (John 
1.41  ;  iv.  25),  the  Greek  form  [anointed  one]. 

A  Hebrew  word,  to  which  the  Greek  word 
Chrisios  answers.  It  was  applicable  to  any 
person  anointed  with  the  holy  oil ;  as  the 
high  priest  (Lev.  iv.  3,  5.  16 ;  1  Sam.  xii.  3,  5, 
Hebrew)  or  the  king  (2  Sam.  i.  14,  16).  The 
title  is  given  to  the  patriarchs  Abraham  and 
Isaac  and  to  the  Persian  king  Cyrus,  as 
chosen  ones  to  administer  the  kingdom  of 
God  (Ps.  cv.  15:  Is.  xlv.  1).  When  God 
promised  David  that  the  throne  and  scepter 
should  remain  in  his  family  forever  (2  Sam. 
vii.  13),  the  title  acquired  a  special  reference 
and  denoted  the  representative  of  the  royal 
line  of  David  (  Ps.  ii.  2  ;  xviii.  50 ;  Ixxxiv.  9  ; 
Ixxxix.  38,  51;  cxxxii.  10.  17;  Lam.  iv.  20; 
Hab.  iii.  13).  And  when  prophecy  began  to 
tell  of  a  king  who  should  appear  in  this  line 
and  be  the  great  deliverer  of  his  people  (Jer. 
xxiii.  5, 6),  whose  goings  forth  are  from  of  old, 
from  everlasting  (Mic.  v.  2-5),  and  who  should 
uphold  the  throne  and  kingdom  of  David 
forever  (Is.  ix.  6.  7),  the  title  of  the  Messiah, 
par  excellence,  naturally  became  attached  to 
him  (Dan.  ix.  2.5,  26;  Targum  Onkelos,  Num. 
xxiv.  17-19),  and  ultimately  became  a  cus- 
tomary de.signation  of  him,  being  as  common 
as  the  title  s<m  of  David  (John  i.  41  ;  iv.  25 ; 
and  in  the  form  Christ,  Mat.  i.  1  et  paf5sim). 

The  terra  Messianic  prophecy  denotes  all 
prophecy  which  treats  of  the  person,  work, 
or  kingdom  of  Christ,  whether  it  does  so 
with  express  mention  of  Christ  or  speaks  of 


the  future  salvation,  glory,  and  consumma- 
tion of  God's  kingdom  without  mention  of 
the  mediator.  The  term  Messianic  times 
does  not  refer  exclusively  to  the  period  when 
Christ  lived  on  earth.  It  generally  compre- 
hends the  dispensation  which  Clirist  in- 
augurated and  conducts  as  mediatorial  king, 
whether  viewed  in  its  entirety  or  in  some  of 
its  aspects. 

Met'als. 

The  metals  used  in  ancient  times  were 
gold,  silver,  iron,  copper,  lead,  and  tin 
(Num.  xxxi.  22) ;  see  the  several  articles. 
Perhaps  antimony  was  employed  for  color- 
ing the  eyelids  and  eyebrows.     See  Paint. 

Me-theg-am'mah  [probably,  bridle  of  the 
mother  citv,  ;'.  e.  jurisdiction  of  the  metropo- 
lis]. 

A  town  taken  by  David  from  the  Philis- 
tines (2  Sam.  viii.  1).  The  reference  ia 
doubtless  to  Gath  and  its  suburbs  (1  Chron. 
xviii.  1). 

Me-thu'sa-el.     See  Methushael. 

Me-thu'se-lah,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Mathu- 
sala  [perhaps,  man  of  a  weapon]. 

Sou  of  Enoch  and  father  of  the  Setliite 
Laniech  (Gen.  v.  21-27).  If  the  number  of 
years  which  are  assigned  to  him  refer  to  his 
own  individual  life,  he  is  notable  for  having 
lived  to  a  greater  age  than  any  other  man 
recorded  in  history.     See  Chronology. 

Me-thu'sha-el,  in  A.  V.  Me-thu'sael  [man 
of  God]. 

Son  of  Mehujael,  and  father  of  Lamech, 
of  the  race  of  Cain  (Gen.  iv.  IS). 

Me-u'nim,  in  A.  V.  also  Mehunim  and 
Mehunims  [plural  of  the  gentile  adjective 
from  Maon,  denoting  the  people  of  Maon]. 

A  people  whose  capital  was  probably  tlie 
city  of  Ma'an,  12  miles  southeast  of  Petra. 
They  inhabited  mount  Seir  (2  Chron.  xx.  1, 
emended  text,  with  10 ;  cp.  Septuagint).  A 
body  of  them  were  smitten  by  the  Simeon- 
ites  near  Gedor,  where  they  dwelt  as 
strangers  (1  Chron.  iv.  39-41).  They  are 
mentioned  in  connection  with  Philistines 
and  Arabians  (2  Chron.  xxvi.  7).  Some  of 
them,  probably  captives  of  war  and  their 
descendants,  served  at  the  temple  in  Jerusa- 
lem as  Nethinim  (Ezra  ii.  50;  Neh.  vii.  52). 
They  are  mentioned  in  Judg.  x.  12,  accord- 
ing to  the  Hebrew  text,  where  the  Septuagint 
has  Midian.  The  Meunim  are  identified 
by  the  Septuagint  with  the  Minseans.  If  the 
identification  be  correct,  they  are  only  a 
northern  settlement  of  that  people. 

Mez'a-hab  [waters  of  gold]. 

An  ancestress  of  the  wife  of  the  Edomite 
king  Hadar  (Gen.  xxxvi.  39;  1  Chron.  i. 
50) ;  or  perhaps  a  district,  of  which  Matred 
was  a  native. 

Me-zo'ba-ite,  in  A.  V.  Mesobaite. 

A  word  whicii  .seems  to  represent  a  gentile 
adjective,  as  the  English  and  Greek  versions 


Miamin 


476 


Micaiah 


make  it  (1  Chron.  si.  47) ;  but  the  Hebrew 
text  is  evidently  cornii)t. 

Mi'a-min.     See  Mijamin. 

Mib'har  [choice]. 

One  of  David's  mighty  men,  son  of  Hagri 
or  better  a  Hagrite  (1  Chron.  xi.  38) ;  see  re- 
marks about  the  text  under  Bani. 

Mib'sam  [sweet  odor]. 

1.  A  tril)e  descended  from  Ishmael  (Gen. 
XXV.  lo ;   1  Chron.  i.  29). 

2.  A  Simeonite  (1  Chron.  iv.  25). 

Mib'zar  [a  fortification,  a  stronghold]. 

Au  Edomite  chieftain  (Gen.  xxxvi.  42;  1 
Chron.  i.  53). 

Mi'ca,  in  A.  V.  Micha  once  Micah  (1 
Chron.  ix.  15)  [evidently,  like  Micali,  an  ab- 
breviation of  Micaiah,  who  is  like  Jehovah? 
(cp.  Mic.  i.  1  with  Jer.  xxvi.  18  R.  V.,  and  2 
Chron.  xxxiv.  20  with  2  Kin.  xxii.  12)].  A 
variant  Hebrew  spelling  yields  the  English 
form  Micah,  cp.  2  Sam.  ix.  12  with  1  Chron. 
viii.  34. 

1.  A  son  of  Mephibosheth  (2  Sam.  ix.  12). 
The  interchangeable  form  of  the  name, 
Micah,  is  given  him  in  1  Chron.  viii.  34,  35 ; 
ix.  40,  41. 

2.  A  Levite  who  sealed  the  covenant  (Neh. 
X.  11). 

3.  A  Levite  descended  from  Asaph  (1 
Chron.  ix.  15;  Neh.  xi.  17,  22;  and  xii.  35, 
where  the  form  Micaiah  is  used). 

Mi'cah,  in  A.  V.  thrice  Michah  (1  Chron. 
xxiv.  24,  25)  [who  is  like  Jehovah?].  See 
Mica. 

1.  A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath,  house  of 
Uzziel  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  20  ;  xxiv.  24.  25). 

2.  An  Ephraimite  who  stole  from  his 
mother  1100  shekels  of  silver,  about  725  dol- 
lars, but  afterwards  gave  them  back  again. 
His  mother  dedicated  200  of  them  to  the 
Lord  for  images.  A  graven  and  a  molten 
image  were  made  of  them  and  placed  in  the 
house  of  Micah,  and  Micah  consecrated  his 
son  to  be  priest.  A  Levite  chanced  to  pass 
that  way,  and  Micah  embraced  the  oppor- 
tunity to  secure  an  accredited  minister  at 
the  sanctuary.  A  Levite,  though  not  a 
prie.st,  was  better  than  the  layman,  Micah's 
son.  The  Levite  consented  for  hire  to  minis- 
ter before  Jehovah  in  a  house  of  images, 
contrary  to  the  second  commandment.  Some- 
time afterwards,  migrating  Danites  passed 
that  way,  allured  the  Levite  to  go  with 
them,  and  carried  off  Micah's  images,  despite 
his  protestations  (Judg.  xvii.,  xviii.). 

3.  A  son  of  Merib-baal  (1  Chron.  viii.  34, 
35;  ix.  40,  41);  see  MicA  1. 

4.  A  Reubenite  who  lived  several  genera- 
tions before  730  b.  c.  (1  Chron.  v.  5). 

5.  Father  of  Abdon.  He  was  born  before 
Josiah's  reign  (2  Chron.  xxxiv.  20  ;  2  Kin. 
xxii.  12,  where  the  form  Micaiah  is  used)  ; 
cp.   ACHBOR  2. 

(j.  A  descendant  of  Asaph  (1  Chron.  ix. 
15,  A.  V.) ;  see  Mica  3. 


7.  A  Morashtite,  a  native  apparently  of 
Moresheth-gath  (Mic.  i.  14),  a  town  believed 
to  have  been  in  Judah,  near  the  Philistine 
country.  He  prophesied  in  the  reigns  of 
Jotham,  Ahaz,  and  Hezekiah  (]\Iic.  i.  1  ;  and 
Jer.  xxvi.  18,  where  the  form  Micaiah  is 
used).  He  was  a  younger  contemporary  of 
Isaiah  and  Hosea  (cp.  i.  1  with  Is.  i.  1  and 
Hos.  i.  1). 

The  book  of  Micah  is  the  sixth  of  the  minor 
prophets.  Its  author,  Micah  the  Morashtite  (i. 
1),  prophesied  under  Jotham,  Ahaz,  and  Heze- 
kiah. Its  contents  also  show  that  it  was 
written  after  the  reigns  of  Omri  and  Ahab 
(vi.  16),  at  the  time  when  Assyria  was  the 
power  which  the  Israelites  dreaded  (v.  5,  6), 
and  in  part  at  least  while  Samaria  and  the 
northern  kingdom  were  still  in  existence  (i. 
6,  14).  Its  genuineness,  in  whole  or  greater 
part,  is  almost  universally  acknowledged. 
The  prophecy  refers  to  both  Judah  and  the 
northern  kingdom.  It  appears  to  he  a  sum- 
mary of  the  prophet's  utterances,  not  distinct 
discourses.  The  expression  "Hear  ye,"  re- 
peated three  times,  serves  to  mark  three 
divisions.  1.  Judgment,  first  on  Samaria, 
then  on  Judah  (i.,  ii.).  2.  Denunciation 
passes  into  prophecy  of  salvation  and  the 
glorious  reign  of  a  Davidic  king  in  Zion 
(iii.-v.).  3.  Description  of  the  true  religion 
required  by  God,  lament  over  the  general 
corruption,  confidence  in  better  times  founded 
on  God's  promises  (vi.,  vii.). 

Chap.  iv.  1-3  is  almost  identical  with  Is.  ii. 
2-4,  but  more  closely  connected  than  in  the 
corresp(mding  passage  in  Isaiah  with  the 
verses  which  immediately  follow.  Joel  ex- 
presses a  similar  thought  {Joel  iii.  10).  Isaiah 
certainly  quoted  his  words,  as  the  introduc- 
tion, "And  it  shall  come  to  pass,"  shows; 
and  he  may  have  cited  them  from  Micah. 
But  the  verbal  variations  between  Isaiah  and 
Micah,  and  between  these  ]irophets  and  Joel, 
may  be  exiilaiiicd  1)y  su]i])(isiiig  that  each 
adopted  a  traditional  prediction  current  in 
his  day.  At  any  rate  God's  people  of  old  had 
authoritative  prophecy  upon  which  they  re- 
lied, and  favorite  passages  which  they 
quoted,  just  as  Christians  of  to-day  have. 
Micah  iii.  12  is  expressly  quoted  by  Jeremiah 
(xxvi.  18),  who  dates  it  in  the  reign  of  Heze- 
kiah. Micah  V.  2  predicts  the  birth  of 
Israel's  great  ruler  at  Bethlehem  (Mat.  ii.  6). 
The  prophet  refers  to  Nimrod  (Mic.  v.  6; 
Gen.  X.  8-12),  to  the  covenant  with  the  pa- 
triarchs (Mic.  vii.  20),  to  the  exodus  and  to 
Moses,  Aaron,  and  Miriam  (vi.  4,  vii.  15), 
and  to  the  history  of  Balaam  (vi.  5). 

Mi-ca'iah,  in  A.  V.  Mlchaiali  except  in  1 
Kin.  xxii.  8-28  ;  2  Chron.  xviii.  6-27  [who 
is  like  Jehovah  ?]. 

1.  Daughter  of  Uriel  of  Gibeah,  wife  of 
Rehoboam,  and  mother  of  king  Abijah  (2 
Chron.  xiii.  2).  According  to  xi.20,  Abi.jah's 
mother  was  Maacah,  daughter  of  Absalom. 
Micaiah  is  probably  a  corruption  of  Maacah, 


Micha 


477 


Michmash 


for  so  Abijah's  mother  is  always  called  else- 
where, and  she  was  probably  graiiddavighter 
of  Absiiloni  and  daughter  of  Uriel  by  his 
wife  Tamar,  Absalom's  daughter.  See  Maa- 
CAU  9. 

2.  A  prophet,  son  of  Imlah.  Being  desired 
by  Ahab  to  concur  in  the  favorable  prediction 
given  by  the  jirophets  of  Baal  regarding 
Abab's  expedition  against  Ramoth-gilead,  he 
did  what  was  required  of  him,  but  with  such 
transparent  insincerity  that  he  was  adjured 
to  speak  the  truth,  on  which,  in  the  name  of 
Jehovah,  he  predicted  the  death  of  Ahab  in 
the  coming  fight.  The  order  was  given  to 
make  him  a  prisoner  till  the  event  should 
prove  his  unfavorable  vaticination  to  be  un- 
true (1  Kiu.  sxii.  8-23  ;  2  Chron.  xviii.  (5-27). 

3.  One  of  Jehoshaphat's  princes  sent  by 
him  to  teach  in  the  cities  of  Judah  (2  Chron. 
xvii.  7i. 

4.  Father  of  Achbor.  He  lived  before 
Josiah's  reign  (2  Kin.  xxii.  12);  see  Micah  5. 

5.  A  son  of  Gemariah,  who  communicated 
to  the  Jewish  princes  in  the  reign  of  Jehoia- 
kim  the  contents  of  Jeremiah's  book  read  by 
Baruch  (Jer.  xxxvi.   11-13). 

6.  A  descendant  of  Asaph  (Neh.  sii.  35) ; 
see  Mica  3. 

7.  A  priest,  one  of  those  who  blew  trump- 
et-; when  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  was  dedicated 
by  Xehemiah  (Neh.  xii.  41). 

Mi'cha.    See  Mica. 

Mi'cha-el  [who  is  like  God?]. 

1.  A  man  of  Asher,  father  of  the  repre- 
sentative from  that  tribe  on  the  commission 
to  spy  out  Canaan  (Num.  xiii.  13). 

2.  A  Gadite,  descended  from  Buz  and  head 
of  a  father's  house  in  Gilead  (1  Chron.  v.  13 ; 
cp.  11.  14,  16). 

3.  Another  Gadite,  ancestor  of  the  preced- 
ing (1  Chron.  v.  14). 

4.  A  Levite.  family  of  Gershom  and  ances- 
tor of  Asaph  (1  Chron.  vi.  40). 

5.  A  chief  man  of  the  tribe  of  Issachar, 
family  of  Tola,  house  of  Uzzi  (1  Chron. 
vii.  3). 

6.  A  Benjamite,  family  of  Beriah  (1  Chron. 
viii.  16). 

7.  A  Manassite  captain  who  joined  David 
at  Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  20). 

8.  Father  of  Omri,  who  ruled  the  people 
of  Issachar  in  David's  reign  (1  Chron.  xxvii. 
18). 

9.  A  son  of  king  Jehoshaphat  (2  Chron. 
xxi.  2). 

10.  Father  of  Zebadiah,  of  the  sons  of 
.Sho])hatiah  (Ezra  viii.  8). 

11.  An  archangel  (Jnde  9),  one  of  the  chief 
angelic  princes  who  helped  the  man  clothed 
in  linen  against  the  spiritual  being  behind  the 
Persian  empire,  called  thejirinceof  the  king- 
dom of  Persia  (Dan.  x.  13).  who  contended  for 
Israel  (21;  xii.  1),  and  who  with  his  angels 
wars  victoriously  against  the  enemies  of  the 
people  of  God  (Rev.  xii.  7).  When  the  doc- 
trine of  angels  was  wrought  out  by  the  Jews 


after  the  exile,  Michael  was  made  one  of 
seven  archangels  (Tob.  xii.  15),  Gal)riel  being, 
of  course,  included  in  the  number  (Dan.  viii. 
16 ;  ix.  21),  and  five  others  being  added  to 
make  up  seven,  namely,  Kajdiael  (Tob.  iii.  17), 
Uriel  (2  E.sd.  iv.  1),  Chamuel,  Jophiel,  and 
Zadkiel.  The  common  belief  that  Michael  dis- 
puted with  Satan  about  the  body  of  Mo.ses,  to 
which  Jude  refers  and  upon  which  he  bases 
a  lesson  (Jude  9;  cp.  2  Pet.  ii.  11)  is  reflected 
in  the  Targum  of  Jouatiian  on  Deut.  xxxiv. 
6,  which  ascribes  the  burial  of  Moses  to 
Michael  and  other  angels.  The  form  of  ex- 
pres.sion  in  Zech.  iii.  1,  2  and  Jude  9  may 
have  been  derived  from  the  current  account; 
but  more  jirubably  the  words  of  the  i)roi)het 
Zechariah  determined  the  phraseology  of  the 
narrative. 

Mi'chah.     See  Micah. 

Mi-cha'iah.    See  Micaiah. 

Mi'chal  [i)erhaps.  a  brook]. 

The  younger  daughter  of  king  Saul  (1  Sam. 
xiv.  49).  After  Saul  had  failed  to  fulfill  his 
promise  to  give  his  elder  daughter  Merab  to 
David,  he  learned  that  Michal  was  in  hive 
with  the  young  hero,  and  he  gladly  embraced 
the  opportunity  which  this  afl'ection  afforded 
him  to  ex])0.se  David  to  the  risk  of  death. 
He  offered  Michal  to  David  on  condition  that 
he  should  slay  a  hundred  Philistines.  David 
accomplished  the  assigned  task  and  received 
Michal  to  wife  (1  Sam.  xviii.  27,  28).  She 
aided  David  in  e.scaping  from  her  father's 
machinations,  but  after  the  former  became  a 
fugitive  Saul  married  her  to  another  man, 
regardless  of  the  obligations  she  Avas  under 
to  David  (xxv.  44).  When  .-\bncr,  Ish-bo- 
sheth's  general,  sought  to  make  U]i  matters 
with  David,  the  king  required  that  his  wife 
Michal  should  be  restored  to  him,  which  was 
done  (2  Sam.  iii.  15).  But  when  David  was 
briuging  the  ark  to  Jerusalem  and.  in' the 
intensity  of  his  religious  zeal,  danced  before 
the  Lord,  Michal  thought  the  hero  and  king 
was  acting  in  an  undignified  manner,  and 
she  despised  him  in  her  heart,  and  rebuked 
him  with  scornful  and  untrue  words.  But 
David  replied  that  he  had  humbled  himself 
before  the  Lord  and  would  continue  to  do  so, 
but  that  he  would  be  held  in  honor  by  those 
in  whose  sight  she  falsely  insinuated  he  had 
acted  in  a  lewd  manner.  After  a  time  Michal 
died  childless  (2  Sam.  vi.  14-2-';). 

Mich'mash,  and  twice  Michmas  (Ezra  ii. 
27;  Neh.  vii.  31),  and  so  in  A.  V.  of  1  Mac. 
ix.  73  [something  hidden  away]. 

A  town  near  the  mount  of  Bethel  (1  Sam. 
xiii.  2).  east  of  Beth-aven  (5),  and  north  of 
Geba  (xiv.  5,  in  A.  V.  Gibeah  ;  Is.  x.  28,  29). 
The  Philistines  encamped  at  Michmash  to 
war  with  Saul ;  but  through  the  valor  of 
Jonathan  and  his  armor  bearer  at  the  craggy 
pass  near  by  a  slaughter  was  begun  among 
them  and  they  were  routed  by  the  army  of 
Israel  (1  Sam.  xiii.  5-7,  15  seq. :  xiv.  1-23). 
Exiles  from  Michmash  returned  from  the  cap- 


Michmethath 


478 


Migdol 


tivity  (Ezra  ii.  27  ;  Neh.  vii.  31).  They  were 
Beujaniites  (xi.  31).  Jonathan  Maccabteus 
took  up  his  residence  at  Michmash  and  exer- 
cised judgeship  (1  JIac.  ix.  73,  in  A.  V.  Mach- 
mas  ;  Antiq.  xiii.  1,  (i).  The  pass  of  Michmash, 
still  retaining  the  name  of  ]\Iukhmas,  is  7h 
miles  north  by  east  of  Jerusalem,  2  north- 
east of  Geba,  and  3  south  by  east  of  Bethel. 
The  village  of  Mukhmas  is  one  of  an  humble 
character  ;  the  pass  is  probably,  as  Robinson 
thought,  the  wady  es-Suweinit,  and  the  two 
rocks  of  Bozez  and  Seneh  which  flanked  the 
pass  (1  Sam.  xiv.  4)  are  described  by  him  as 
two  conical,  or  rather  spherical,  hills,  with 
rocky  sides. 

Micli'me-tliath,  in  A.  V.  Michmethah. 

A  town  on  the  boundai-y  line  between 
Ephraim  and  Mana.sseh.  It  lay  "  before 
Shechem "  (Josh.  xvi.  6 ;  xvii.  7).  Site 
doubtful. 

Mich'ri  [valuable]. 

A  Benjamite  (1  Chrou.  ix.  8). 

Mich'tam  [engraving,  inscription]. 

A  word  occurring  in  the  titles  of  Psalms 
xvi.  ;  Ivi.-lx.  It  has  been  understood  as 
meaning:  1.  Concealed,  secret,  hence  a  mys- 
tery or  a  hitherto  unknown  composition.  2. 
Golden  psalm.  3.  Epigram,  a  poem  intended, 
like  an  inscription,  to  record  memorable 
thoughts,  and  often  indulging  in  refrains. 
The  last  opinion  has  most  support. 

Mid'din  [extensions]. 

A  village  in  the  wilderness  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  61).     Site  unknown. 

Mid'i-an,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Madian  [strife, 
contention]. 

1.  A  son  of  Abraham  by  Keturah,  sent 
away  with  gifts  into  the  wilderness  (Gen. 
x.xv.  1-6).  He  became  the  progenitor  of  the 
Midianites.  The  name  is  often  used  coNec- 
tively  for  the  tribe. 

2.  A  region  in  the  Arabian  desert  near  the 
.^lanitic  gulf,  occupied  by  the  Midianites 
(Gen.  XXV.  6).  It  was  bordered  by  Edom  on 
the  northwest.  Its  boundaries  were  never 
demarked,  and  doubtless  shifted  considerably 
at  different  periods ;  but  all  the  region  re- 
ferred to  in  the  O.  T.  as  dominated  by  the 
Midianites  is  found  within  an  area  which 
measures  about  17.5  miles  from  north  to  south. 
About  the  time  of  the  exodus  Midian  con- 
trolled the  pasture  lands  east  of  Horeb  in 
the  i)eninsula  of  Sinai  (Ex.  iii.  1).  A  dis- 
trict adjacent  to  Moab  and  near  the  Amorite 
kingdom,  whose  capital  was  Heshbon,  was 
occupied  by  Midianites,  who  had  been  settled 
there  for  some  time  (Gen.  xxxvi.  3.5;  Num. 
xxii.  4  ;  xxv.  1,6;  Josh.  xiii.  21).  The  in- 
tervening region  east  of  Edom  to  the  Red 
Sea  doubtless  belonged  to  Midian.  The  Mid- 
ianites who  were  routed  in  the  valley  of 
Jezreel  fled  in  this  direction,  and  Gideon  in 
pursuing  them  passed  Succoth  and  the  Gadite 
town  of  Jogbehah  (Judg.  viii.  5.  10,  11 ;  cp. 
Gen.  xxxvii.  2.5,  28).  In  David's  time  a 
royal  refugee  from  Edom  found  temporary 


asylum  in  Midian,  probably  southeast  of 
Edom,  before  he  went  into  Egypt  (1  Kin.  xi. 
17,  18).  The  center  of  population  was  east 
and  southeast  of  the  j5%lanitic  gulf  of  the 
Red  Sea,  where  the  name  has  lived  from  age 
to  age  and  is  .still  preserved  in  the  ruins 
called  Madyan. 

Mid'i-an-ites. 

A  j)eople  of  the  desert  (Gen.  xxv.  2,  6  ; 
Num.  x.  29-31 ;  Is.  Ix.  6  ;  Hab.  iii.  7  ;  Judith 
ii.  26).  Five  families  of  them  sprang  from 
Midian  (Gen.  xxv.  4).  Of  these  five,  the 
name  of  Ephah  has  been  identified  with 
much  probability  with  a  name  on  the  As- 
syrian inscriptions  of  the  8th  century  be- 
fore Christ,  which  denotes  a  tribe  of  northern 
Arabia.  Midianite  merchants,  who  were 
with  the  caravan  of  Ishmaelites  coming  from 
Gilead,  bought  Joseph  and  carried  him  to 
Egypt  (Gen.  xxxvii.  25,  28).  The  father-in- 
law  of  Moses  was  a  Midianite  (Ex.  iii.  1). 
Midianites  joined  with  Moabites  in  hiring 
Balaam  to  curse  the  Israelites  and  after- 
wards seduced  the  people  to  idolatry  and 
licentiousness  (Num.  xxii.  4,6;  xxv.).  The 
Israelites  were  conseciuently  directed  to  make 
war  on  them.  They  did  so,  killing  the  five 
kings  of  Midian  with  all  the  male  popula- 
tion of  the  district  and  the  married  women 
(xxxi.).  These  kings  were  allies  or  vassals 
of  Sihon,  king  of  the  Amorites  (Josh.  xiii. 
21).  In  the  period  of  the  judges,  Midianites, 
in  conjunction  with  the  Amalekites  and  the 
children  of  the  east,  entered  Canaan,  with 
their  cattle  and  their  tents,  like  locusts  for 
multitude,  everywhere  appropriating  the 
crops,  and  reducing  to  the  greatest  distress 
those  who  had  sown  them.  After  the  op- 
pression had  lasted  for  seven  years,  God 
raised  up  Jerubbaal,  or  Gideon,  to  deliver 
the  now  repentant  people.  The  decisive 
battle  was  fought  in  the  plain  of  Jezreel.  It 
resulted  in  the  complete  defeat  of  the  foreign 
oppressors.  Their  two  princes,  Oreb  and 
Zeeb,  were  taken  and  put  to  death  ;  and  later 
their  two  kings,  Zebah  and  Zalmunna,  shared 
the  same  fate.  The  land  had  rest,  then,  for 
the  normal  period  of  forty  years  (Judg.  vi.- 
viii. ;  ix.  17;  Psalm  Ixxxiii.  9-12;  Is.  ix.  4  ; 
X.  26). 

Mig'dal-el  [tower  of  God]. 

A  fortified  city  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  xix.  .38). 
Its  identification  with  el-Mejdel,  that  is  Mag- 
dala,  on  the  sea  of  Galilee,  is  contrary  to  the 
order  of  enumeration.  Its  site  is  probably 
Mujeidil,  12J-  miles  northwest  of  Kades,  r.  e. 
Kcdesh,  and  11  miles  north-northwest  of 
Yarun,   i.  e.  Iron. 

Mig'dal-gad  [tower  of  Gad  or  fortune]. 

A  town  in  or  near  the  lowland  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  37).  El-Mejdel  has  been  suggested, 
inland  2\  miles  east,  slightly  north,  from 
Ashkelon.  This  location  would  be  in  the 
country  of  the  Philistines. 

Mig'dol  [tower;  in  Egyptian  mdkihal, 
tower] . 


Migron 


479 


MiU 


An  encampment  of  the  Israelites  while 
they  were  leaving  Ejiypt.  It  was  near  the 
sea  (the  Red  Sea  aocordiug  to  Ex.  xv.  4,  22  ; 
Deut.  xi.  4)  ;  was  before  Pi-hahiroth  and  be- 
fore Baal-zephon  (Ex.  xiv.  2;  Num.  xxxiii. 
7).  After  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by 
Nebuchadnezzar.  .lews  fled  to  Egypt  and 
took  up  their  abode  in  a  place  called  ^[igdol 
(Jer.  xliv.  1  ;  xlvi.  14).  If  the  marginal 
reading  of  Ezek.  xxix.  10;  xxx.  6  is  correct, 
Migdoi  was  in  the  extreme  north  of  Egypt. 
Ancient  authors  mention  a  Migdol  or  Mag- 
dolon  1'2  miles  distant  from  Pelusium,  on  the 
northeastern  frontier  of  Egypt,  and  the 
Malcthal  most  fi'equently  mentioned  on  the 
Egyjitian  monuments  was  situated  near  the 
^Mediterranean  Sea  (El)ers).  Brugsch  identi- 
fies this  place  with  Tell  es-Samut,  and  re- 
gards it  as  the  site  of  the  encampment  of 
the  Israelites.  But  this  situation  does  not 
harmonize  with  the  location  of  the  camp  on 
the  Red  Sea.  as  the  term  Red  Sea  is  under- 
stood. Other  fortresses  on  the  frontier,  how- 
ever, went  by  the  name  of  Migdol  (Ebers). 
Naville  has  expressed  the  opinion  that 
Migdol  was  at  the  present  station  of  the 
Serapeum,  midway  between  lake  Timsah 
and  the  Bitter  Lakes  ;  while  Ebers  locates  it 
at  the  southern  end  of  the  Bitter  Lakes, 
near  the  Persian  monument.  Here  the  gulf 
of  Suez  at  the  time  of  the  exodus  was  nar- 
row and  probably  shallow.  It  was  also  liable 
to  be  driven  back  by  an  east  wind,  so  as 
temjiorarily  to  leave  a  dry  way  at  a  particu- 
lar SJiOt. 

Mig'ron  [possibly,  a  precipice]. 

A  village  of  Benjamin  near  Gibeah.  Saul 
once  encamped  in  its  vicinity  (1  Sam.  xiv. 
2).  It  was  south  of  Aiath  and  north  of 
Michmash  (Is.  x.  28),  and  the  site  is  marked 
by  the  ruins  Makrun.  If  the  site  of 
Oibeah  is  Tell  el-Fiil,  as  is  commonly  be- 
lieved, and  if  the  text  of  1  Sam.  xiv.  2  is 
pure,  there  would  seem  to  have  been  two 
^ligrons,  one  north  and  the  other  consider- 
ably south  of  Michmash. 

Mij'a-mln,  in  A.  V.  sometimes  Miamin 
[from  or  on  the  right  hand]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Aaron.  His  family  had 
grown  to  a  father's  house  by  the  time  of 
David,  and  became  the  sixth  of  the  twenty- 
four  courses  into  which  David  distributed 
the  priests  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  1.  6,  9). 

2.  A  chief  of  the  priests  who  returned  with 
Zerubbabel  from  Babylon  (Neh.  xii.  5,  7). 
In  the  next  generation  a  father's  house  among 
the  priests  bore  the  name  Miniamin  (ver.  17). 
Tlic  difference  between  tliese  names  is  unes- 
sential, being  wholly  external ;  in  one  form 
the  letter  nun  is  assimilated,  in  the  other  it 
is  not. 

3.  A  son  of  Parosh,  induced  by  Ezra  to 
pnt  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  2o). 

4.  A  priest  who,  doubtless  in  behalf  of  a 
father's  house  (cp.  number  2).  sealed  the 
covenant  in  the  time  of  Nehemiah  (Neh.  x. 


7).     Perhaps  it  was  he  who  was  one  of  the 
trumpeters  at   the   dedication   of    the    wall 
(xii.  41)  ;   see  Mixiamin  3,  and  for  form  of 
the  name  see  under  2  of  this  article. 
Mik'loth  [rods]. 

1.  A  military  cajitain  in  David's  reign, 
who  was  on  duty  with  another  captain  in  the 
second  month  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  4). 

2.  A  Benjamite,  of  the  family  of  Jeiel  of 
Gibeon  (1  Chron.  viii.  32  ;  ix.  37,  38). 

Mik-ne'iah  [po.ssession  of  Jehovah]. 

A  Levite  of  the  second  degree,  a  gate 
keeper  of  the  ark,  who  played  the  harp  in 
David's  reign  (1  Chron.  xv.  18,  21). 

Mil'a-lai  [eloquent]. 

A  Levite  who  played  a  musical  instrument 
at  the  dedication  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem 
(Neh.  xii.  36). 

Mil'cah  [counsel  or  counselor]. 

1.  A  daughter  of  Haran  and  sister  of  Lot. 
She  became  the  wife  of  Nahor  and  the 
mother  of  Huz,  Buz,  Kenuiel,  Chesed,  Ilazo, 
Pildash,  Jidla])h,  and  Bethuel  ((ien.  xi.  29  ; 
xxii.  20-23).  She  was  the  grandmother  of 
Eebekah  (xxii.  23;  xxiv.  15,  24). 

2.  A  daughter  of  Zelophehad  (Num.  xxvi. 
33). 

Mil'com.    See  Molech. 

Mile  [thousand  (paces)]. 

In  the  only  jiassage  of  the  Bible  in  which 
the  word  occurs  (Mat.  v.  41)  the  Roman  mile 
is  intended,  containinglOOOpacesof  5  Roman 
feet  each,  and  equivalent  to  4851.43  Eng- 
lish feet,  or  about  ^|  of  an  English  mile. 

Mi-le'tus,  in  A.  V.  once  Miletum. 

A  seaport  to  which  Paul  came  a  day  after 
he  had  been  at  Trogyllium  (Acts  xx.  15). 
Thither  he  summoned  the  elders  of  the 
church  at  Ephesus,  togive  them  exhortations 
and  bid  them  farewell  (17-3*^).  At  Miletus 
Trophimus  was  once  left  when  he  was  sick 
(2  Tim.  iv.  20,  in  A.  V.  Miletum).  The  city 
was  on  the  seacoast  of  Ionia,  about  36  miles 
south  of  E]>hesus,  and  near  the  boundary 
line  between  that  region  and  Caria.  It  had 
a  celebrated  temple  of  Apollo,  and  was  the 
birthplace  of  the  philoso])hers  Thales  and 
Anaximander,  and  perhaps  of  Democritus. 
Scarcely  any  relics  of  the  city  now  remain. 

Milk. 

An  important  article  of  diet,  especially  in 
the  East.  The  milk  of  cows  (2  Sam.  xvii.2n; 
Is.  vii.  22),  sheep  (Deut.  xxxii.  14),  goats 
(Prov.  xxvii.  27),  and  camels  (cp.  Gen.  xxxii. 
15)  was  and  is  still  used.  The  milk  of  the 
camel  is  excellent,  being  rich  and  strong,  but 
not  very  sweet.  Milk  was  used  in  its  natural 
state  and  as  curds  and  as  cheese  (Deut.  xxxii. 
14  ;  Judg.  V.  25  ;  2  Sam.  xvii.  29).  It  was 
kept  in  skin  bottles,  and  served  in  dishes 
(Judg.  iv.  19;  v.  25). 

Mm. 

In  Palestine  and  neighboring  lands  the 
mill  was  a  simple  machine,  consisting  of  two- 
round  millstones   (Deut.    xxiv.   6).     In    the 


Millet 


480 


Minister 


mill  in  use  among  the  people  to-day,  the  stones 
are  generally  made  of  basalt,  about  a  foot  and 
a  half  in  diameter  and  from  two  to  four  inches 
thick.  The  nether  stone  is  slightly  convex 
on  the  top.  It  has  a  i)eg  in  the  center,  about 
which  the  upper  stone  revolves.  This  upper 
stone  is  slightly  concave  on  the  under  side  in 
order  to  fit  on  the  nether  stone,  and  isjiierced 
by  a  hole  in  the  center  which  receives  the 
peg  and  into  which  the  grain  is  dropped  by 
hand.  It  is  turned  by  means  of  an  upright 
handle  near  the  circumference.  The  meal 
falls  over  the  edge  of  the  nether  stone  into  a 
cloth  si)rcad  underneath  or  into  a  j)latter. 
The    work    of    grinding    is    laborious    and 


Women  at  the  Mill. 

menial.  It  was  performed  by  the  women  (Ecc. 
xii.  3,  E.  V.  margin ;  Mat.  xxiv.  41),  slave 
women  (Ex.  xi.  5  ;  Is.  xlvii.  2),  and  x'risoners 
(Judg.  xvi.  21).  In  ordinary  Jewish  house- 
holds, however,  it  was  not  regarded  as  at  all 
degrading  for  the  female  portion  of  the 
family  to  grind  meal  every  morning  for  a 
day's  consumption,  rising  up  for  the  purpose, 
at  least  in  winter,  long  before  daybreak.  If 
the  millstone  was  taken  away,  the  family 
was  left  without  ground  grain  till  it  was  re- 
turned, on  which  account  it  was  forbidden 
by  the  Mosaic  law  to  take  the  mill  or  the 
upper  millstone  to  pledge,  for  he  taketh  (a 
man's)  life  to  pledge  (Deut.  xxiv.  (>).  The 
cessation  of  the  sound  of  grinding  betokens 
utter  desolation  (Jer.  xxv.  10  ;  Kev.  xviii. 
22). 

A  larger  mill,  constructed  on  the  same 
principle,  but  turned  by  an  ass,  was  also  in 
use  (Mat.  xviii.  6,  R.  V.  margin). 

Millet. 

A  cereal  {Pmiicnm  miliaceum),  in  Hebrew 
dohan,  in  Arabic  duln.  Ezekiel  was  bidden 
to  use  it  as  an  ingredient  of  the  bread  which 
he  was  ordered  to  prepare  (Ezek.  iv.  9).  It  is 
extensively  used  in  western  and  southern 
Asia,  northern  Africa,  and  southern  Europe. 
The  stalks  make  an  excellent  fodder  for  cat- 
tle, while  the  grain  is  fed  to  poultry,  and  af- 
fords a  nutritious  and  palatable  food  for  man. 
It  is  i)ossit)le  that  under  the  Hebrew  dohan 
other  allied  species  of  cereals  may  lie  in- 
cluded, and  especially  Sorghum  rnlriare.  the 
Indian  millet,  a  taller  grass  much  cultivated 


in  India  and  southwestern  Asia,  and  known 
to  the  natives  as  doura. 
Mil'lo  [filling,  terrace]. 

1.  A  house,  i.  e.  probably  a  fortress,  at 
Shechem  (Judg.  ix.  6,  20). 

2.  A  bastion  at  Jerusalem,  in  existence  in 
the  time  of  David,  rebuilt  by  Solomon,  and 
strengthened  by  Hezekiah  as  a  precaution 
against  the  expected  siege  by  the  Assyrians 
(2  Sam.  V.  9  ;  1  Kin.  ix.  15,  24 ;  xi."27 ;  2 
Chron.  xxxii.  5).  Its  site  is  unknoM'u.  It 
was  in  or  at  the  city  of  David,  apparently 
intended  to  cover  the  old  Jebusite  strong- 
hold (2  Chron.  xxxii.  5).  General  considera- 
tions lead  to  the  conjecture  that  it  may  have 
stood  on  the  southwestern  hill,  on  the  north- 
eastern corner,  on  the  spur  that  overlooked 
the  Tyropceou  valley  and  faced  the  temple. 

Mine. 

The  operation  of  mining,  by  which  gold, 
silver,  iron,  copper,  and  precious  stones  were 
obtained,  is  graphically  described  in  Job 
xxviii.  1-11.  The  Egyptians  carried  on 
mining  operations  from  an  early  period.  As 
early  as  the  fourth  dynasty  they  discovered 
coi)])er  in  wady  IMagharah,  in  the  peninsula 
of  Sinai,  and  commenced  mining  and  smelt- 
ing operations,  which  continued  for  many 
years.  Work  was  suspended  during  the 
domination  of  the  Hyksos,  but  was  resumed 
under  Thothmes  III.,  and  was  carried  on  un- 
der Ramses  II.,  who  is  commonly  believed  to 
have  been  the  Pharaoh  of  the  oppression. 
The  miners  were  criminals,  prisoners  of  war, 
and  slaves,  working  under  the  whij)  of  the 
taskmaster  and  often  in  fetters.  The  mines 
had  broad,  low  openings.  The  shaft  pene- 
trated to  a  considerable  depth.  The  roof  was 
supported  by  ])illars  of  stone  which  the 
miners  left  and  by  timber  of  acacia  wood. 
The  gold  and  silver  mines  of  Spain  were 
celelnated  (1  Mac.  viii.  ,3).  Canaan  was  de- 
scribed to  the  expectant  Israelites  as  a  land 
whose  stones  are  iron,  and  out  of  whose  hills 
thou  mayest  dig  bra.ss  (Deut.  viii.  9) ;  but 
there  is  no  account  of  their  having  carried 
on  mining  operations  in  Palestine.  That  the 
Hebrews  understood  how  to  drive  shafts  is 
shown  by  the  tunnel  which  they  cut  from  the 
fountain  of  the  Virgin  to  the  i)ool  of  Siloam. 
Iron  mines  now  exist  on  Lebanon. 

Min'i-a-min  [from  or  on  the  right  hand]. 

1.  One  of  those  who,  under  the  direction 
of  a  Levite,  Kore,  took  charge  of  the  free- 
will offerings  in  the  temple  and  distributed 
them  to  the  Levites  during  Hezekiah's  reign 
(2  Chron.  xxxi.  15). 

2.  A  father's  house  among  the  priests  in 
the  days  of  the  high  priest  Joiakim  (Neh. 
xii.  17)';  see  Mijamin  2. 

3.  A  ]iriest,  one  of  those  who  blew  trumpets 
at  the  dedication  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem 
(Neb.  xii.  41) ;  see  MuAMlN  4. 

Min'is-ter. 

1.  A  personal  attendant  and  helper,  not  a 
menial,    in     Hebrew    m'shnreth,    in    Greek 


Ulinni 


481 


Miracle 


^uperelrs.  Joseph,  the  slave,  when  raised  to 
a  position  of  honor  and  trust  in  iiis  master's 
household,  ministered  unto  him  ((ien.  xxxix. 
4).  Ahishag  was  given  honorahle  and  influ- 
ential place  hy  David,  and  she  ministered 
unto  him  (1  Kin.  1.  4,  15).  Joshua  attended 
Moses,  took  charge  of  the  first  tent  of  meet- 
ing, and  succeeded  Moses  in  office  (Ex.  xxiv. 
13;  xxxiii.  11;  Josh.  i.  1).  Elisha  attended 
Elijah,  poured  water  on  his  hands,  and  suc- 
ceeded him  (1  Kin.  xix.  21 ;  2  Kin.  iii.  11). 
The  attendant  of  the  synagogue  aided  the 
officiating  teacher  in  the  service  (Luke  iv. 
20).  The  disciples  attended  Jesus  and  were 
eyewitnesses  (i.  2  ;  Acts  xxvi.  16).  John 
Mark  attended  Paul  and  Barnabas  during  a 
part  of  the  first  missionary  journey  (xiii.  5). 

2.  A  public  functionary  in  the  service  of 
the  state  or  of  God,  in  Hebrew  lu'xhareth,  in 
Oreek  leitoiinjos ;  as  the  priests  and  Levites 
in  the  performance  of  the  duties  of  the  sanc- 
tuary (Ex.  xxviii.  43 ;  Num.  iii.  31 ;  Deut. 
xviii.  5  ;  Is.  Ixi.  6  :  cp.  Septuagint ;  Luke  i. 
23  ;  Heb.  ix.  21),  Christ  as  high  priest  in  the 
heavenly  sanctuary  (Heb.  viii.  2),  Paul  in 
administering  the  gos]>el  unto  the  gentiles 
(Rom.  XV.  16).  The  epithet  is  applied  to  the 
civil  magistrate  as  a  public  official  (xiii.  6). 
It  designates  an  attache  of  the  royal  court 
(1  Kin.  X.  5),  often  a  person  of  high  rank  (2 
Chron.  xxii.  8  ;  Esth.  i.  10) ;  and  it  is  used  of 
the  angels  (Ps.  ciii.  21  ;  civ.  4). 

3.  One  engaged  in  the  service  of  another, 
and  regarded  primarily  as  the  master's  own 
representative  and  servant,  and  not  as  acting 
in  behalf  of  others,  in  Greel?  diakonos ;  for 
example,  a  magistrate  as  the  representative 
of  God,  an  avenger  for  wrath  to  him  that 
doeth  evil  (Eora.  xiii.  4).  It  is  used  espe- 
ciallv  for  God's  minister  in  the  gospel  ;  as 
Timothy  (1  Thes.  iii.  2),  Paul  and  Apollos  (1 
Cor.  iii.  5),  Tychicus  (Eph.  vi.  21),  Epaphras 
(Col.  i.  7).  The  term  dialuiios  was  also  used 
in  a  restricted  .sense  for  deacon,  a  church 
officer  with  specified  duties  distinguishing 
him  from  a  bishop. 

Min'ni. 

A  people  of  Armenia  (Antiq.  i.  3,  6)  in- 
habiting the  district  near  lake  Van,  prob- 
ably between  that  and  lake  Urumiah,  and 
adjacent  to  the  kingdom  of  Ararat  on  the 
Araxes.  In  830  B.  v..  Shalmaneser,  king 
of  Assyria,  pillaged  the  country  of  the 
Minni.  In  716  B.  c.  and  again  in  715  the 
king  of  Minni  revolted  against  Assyria,  but 
in  714  he  was  anew  subdued.  The  Minni 
continued  to  give  trouble  at  intervals,  espe- 
ciallv  during  the  reign  of  the  A.ssyrian  king 
Ashiirbanipal  (668-626) ;  till  at  length  about 
606  B.  c.  they  took  part  with  the  Medes, 
Cimmerians,  and  other  natif)nalities  in  cap- 
turing Nineveh  and  ending  the  Assyrian 
empire.  In  Jer.  li.  27  (R.  V.)  the  kingdoms 
of  Ararat,  Minni,  and  Ashkenaz  are  de- 
scribed as  uniting  for  the  destruction  of 
Babvlon. 
31 


Min'nith. 

A  town  of  the  Ammonite  country  (Judg. 
xi.  33).  It  exported  wheat  to  Tyre  (Ezek. 
xxvii.  17).  According  to  Eusebius,  there  was 
a  village  called  Manith  4  Roman  miles  from 
Heshbon  in  the  direction  of  Philadelphia. 

Min'strel. 

A  musician  (Rev.  xviii.  22,  in  A.  V.  musi- 
cian) ;  especially  one  who  sings  to  the  accom- 
paniment of  an  instrument. 

1.  The  Hebrew  word  M'nactcien,  which  is 
rendered  minstrel  in  2  Kin.  iii.  15,  signifies  a 
player  on  a  stringed  instrument,  as  harp  or 
lyre.  Music  was  employed  by  the  Hebrews 
to  still  excitement ;  and  when  Saul  was 
troubled  by  an  evil  spirit,  David  was  sum- 
moned to  the  court  to  act  as  minstrel  (1  Sam. 
xvi.  14-23).  Music,  sometimes  at  least, 
formed  part  of  the  religious  exercises  of  the 
prophets  (1  Sam.  x.  5-10) ;  and  Elisha  sum- 
moned a  minstrel  to  play  before  him  while 
he  waited  for  God  to  speak  to  him  (2  Kin. 
iii.  15).  The  nuisic  calmed  the  prophet's 
mind,  recalled  his  thoughts  from  the  outside 

I  world,  and  gladdened  his  .spirit.  "  Prophecy," 
says  JIaimonides,  "  dwelleth  not  in  the  midst 
of  melancholy  nor  in  the  midst  of  apathy, 
but  in  the  midst  of  joy." 

2.  The  minstrels  hired  by  Jairus  (Mat.  ix. 
23,  A.  V.)  were  flute  players  (R.  V.),  who 
with  singers  and  wailing  women  M'ere  em- 
ployed as  professional  mourners  (2  Chron. 
xxxv.  25;  Jer.  ix.  17-20;  xlviii.  31  with  36). 

Mint. 

An  herb  of  the  genus  Mentha,  of  which 
there  are  several  species.  It  is  called  in 
Greek  'ediiosmnn,  sweet  smelling  (Mat.  xxiii. 
23).  Hor.semint  {Mentha  sylresfris)  is  tlie 
mo.st  common  species  in  Syria,  and  grows 
wild  on  all  the  hills.  It  is  not  known  cer- 
tainly which  sort  the  ancient  Israelites  cul- 
tivated. 

Miph'kad,  in  R.  V.  Hammiphkad,  incor- 
porating the  Hebrew  article  [appointed 
place]. 

A  gate  at  Jerusalem,  probably  of  the  tem- 
ple (Neh.  iii.  31) :  see  Jbkus.\^lem  II.  3. 

Mir'a-cle. 

Miracles  are  wonder.s,  signs,  tyjies,  powers, 
works  of  God  (Deut.  xi.  3;  xxix.  3;  Ps. 
Ixxviii.  7.  11,  12,  43;  xcv.  9;  Mark  ix.  39; 
Luke  xxiii.  8;  John  ii.  11,  23  ;  ix.  3  ;  Actsii. 
22;  vi.  8;  viii.  13;  see  R.  V.).  They  arc  not 
merely  wonderful  events  ;  but  are  also  signs, 
types,  powers,  works  of  God.  They  are  not 
merely  supernatural  events,  like  the  creation 
of  the  world ;  for  God  is  not  represented  as 
bringing  the  universe  into  existence  as  a 
sign  of  attestation.  Nor  are  they  merely 
extraordinary  providences,  which  men  some- 
times term  miracles  of  providence,  and  which 
are  brought  about  by  secondary  means  and 
are  not  signs;  such  as  the  storm  which  dis- 
persed the  .Spanish  Arnuida.  The  locusts 
which  Avere  blown  into  Egypt  by  the  strong 
east  wind  and  blown  away  again  by  the  west 


Miriam 


482 


Mirror 


n 


■wind  (Ex.  x.  13,  19),  and  the  arrival  of 
quails,  which  migrate  in  the  spring  and  sup- 
plied the  camp  of  Israel  with  meat  for  an 
evening  (xvi.  13)  were  extraordinary  provi- 
dences, but  with  additional  elements.  They 
were  foretold  and  were  intended  as  signs. 
The  plague  of  locusts  was  one  of  the  signs 
and  wonders  wrought  at  Zoan  (Ps.  Ixxviii. 
42,  46),  and  the  quails  were  sent  that  Israel 
might  know  that  Jehovah  is  God  and  their 
God  (Ex.  xvi.  12).  In  the  strict  biblical 
sense,  miracles  are  events  in  the  external 
world,  wrought  by  the  immediate  jiower  of 
God  and  intended  as  a  sign  or  attestation. 
They  are  possible  because  God  sustains,  con- 
trols, and  guides  all  things,  and  is  personal 
and  omnipotent.  Perhaps  the  manner  of 
working  these  deeds  in  the  realm  of  the 
physical  universe  is  illustrated  by  the  power 
of  the  human  Avill.  Man  wills,  and  mus- 
cular force  is  exerted  which  controls  or 
counteracts  nature's  laws ;  as  when  one 
hurls  a  stone  into  the  air  against  the  law 
of  gravitation.  Miracles  are  not  to  be  credu- 
lously received,  but  their  genuineness  must 
be  tested.  The  tests  are :  1.  They  exhibit 
the  character  of  God  and  teach  truths  con- 
cerning God.  2.  They  are  in  harmony  with 
the  established  truths  of  religion  (Deut.  xiii. 
1-3).  If  a  wonder  is  worked  which  contra- 
dicts the  doctrines  of  the  Bible,  it  is  a 
lying  wonder  (2  Thes.  ii.  9  ;  Eev.  xvi.  14). 
3.  There  is  an  adequate  occasion  for  them. 
God  does  not  work  them  except  for  great 
cause  and  for  a  religious  purpose.  They  be- 
long to  the  history  of  redemption ;  and  there 
is  no  genuine  miracle  without  an  adequate 
occasion  for  it  in  God's  redemptive  revela- 
tion of  himself.  4.  They  are  established, 
not  by  the  number  of  witnesses,  but  bj'  the 
character  and  qualifications  of  the  witnesses. 

The  miracles  of  the  Bible  are  confined 
almost  exclusively  to  four  periods,  separated 
from  each  other  by  centuries;  the  time  of 
1.  The  redemption  of  God's  people  from 
Egypt  and  their  establishment  in  Canaan 
under  Moses  and  Joshua.  2.  The  life  and 
death  struggle  of  the  true  religion  with 
heathenism  under  Elijah  and  Elisha.  3.  The 
exile,  when  Jehovah  afforded  proof  of  his 
power  and  supremacy  over  the  gods  of  the 
heathen,  although  his  people  were  in  cap- 
tivity (Daniel  and  his  companions).  4.  The 
introduction  of  Christianity,  when  miracles 
attested  the  person  of  Christ  and  his  doc- 
trine. Outside  of  the.se  periods  miracles  are 
rare  indeed  (Gen.  v.  24).  They  were  almost 
totally  unknown  during  the  many  centuries 
from  the  creation  to  the  exodus. 

The  working  of  miracles  in  the  apostolic 
age,  although  not  confined  to  the  apostles 
(Acts  vi.  8 ;  viii.  5-7),  were  the  signs  of  an 
apostle  (2  Cor.  xii.  12;  Heb.  ii.  4  ;  cp.  Acts  ii. 
43  ;  Gal.  iii.  5). 

Mir'i-am  [obstinacy,  rebellion]. 

1.  Sister  of  Aaron  and  of  Mo.ses  (Ex.  xv. 


20;  Num.  xxvi.  59).  It  was  probably  she 
who  watched  over  the  ark  M'hich  contained 
the  infant  Moses  (Ex.  ii.  4-8).  After  the 
l)assage  of  the  Red  Sea,  she  took  a  timbrel 
and  led  the  Israelite  women  with  timbrels 
and  with  dances,  saying :  "  Sing  ye  to  the 
Lord,  for  he  hath  triumphed  gloriously  ;  the 
horse  and  his  rider  hath  he  thrown  into  the 
sea"  (xv.  20,  21).  She  was  a  prophetess 
(ibid.),  and  she  and  her  brothers  were  chosen 
by  God  to  be  leaders  of  the  Hebrew  people 
(iv.  15,  29,  30 ;  Mic.  vi.  4)  ;  but  she  insti- 
gated Aaron,  and  they  made  Moses'  marriage 
with  a  Cushite  woman  the  occasion  of  mur- 
muring against  his  superior  position  and  in- 
fluence. They  claimed  that  God  had  spoken 
by  them  as  well  as  by  Moses.  For  this  in- 
subordination to  the  will  of  God,  she  was 
made  a  leper  as  white  as  snow,  but  owing  to 
the  intercession  of  Moses  was  speedily  healed 
(Num.  xii.  1-16  ;  Deut.  xxiv.  9).  She  died, 
and  was  buried  in  Kadesh  (Num.  xx.  1). 

2.  A  man  of  Judah,  descended  from  Ezrah 
(1  Chron.  iv.  17). 

Mir'niah,  in  A.  V.  Mirma  [deceit]. 

A  Benjamite,  son  of  Shaharaim  by  his 
wife  Hodesh  (1  Chron.  viii.   10). 

Mir'ror. 

A  polished  surface  intended  to  reflect  ob- 
jects, especially  the  face  (Wisdom  vii.  26  ;  2 
Cor.  iii.  18  ;  Jas.  i.  23).  Ancient  mirrors  were 
made  of  molten  brass  (Ex.  xxxviii.  8 ;  Job 
sxxvii.  18),  and  were  provided  with  a 
handle.  If  they  acquired  rust  spots,  they 
were  polished  anew  (Ecclus.  xii.  11).  They 
lacked  the  perfection  of  the  modern   glass. 


Ancient  Mirrors. 


and  the  image  in  them  was  less  clear  and 
true  (1  Cor.  xiii.  12).  As  the  material  was 
metal,  R.  V.  substitutes  mirror  for  glass, 
which  is  the  rendering  of  A.  V.  Opinion  is 
divided  as  to  whether  mirrors  or  transparent 
garments  are  referred  to  in  Is.  iii.  23. 

Later,  in  the  West,  mirrors  were  sometimes 
made  of  tin.  Praxiteles,  in  the  time  of 
Pompcy,  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  to 
make  them  of  silver.  They  were  even  made 
of  gold. 


Misgab 


483 


Mizpah 


Blls'gab  [high  place,  the  high  fort]. 

An  uuideutitied  Moabite  city  (Jer.  xlviii.  1). 

Mish'a-el  [who  is  God?]. 

1.  A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath,  house  of 
Uzzicl  (Ex.  vi.  22;    Lev.  x.  4). 

2.  One  of  Daniel's  three  companions,  called 
by  the  Babylonians  Meshach  (Dan.  i.  6,  7, 11, 
19 ;  ii.  17  :  "l  Mac.  ii.  oH). 

3.  One  of  those  who  stood  by  Ezra  when 
he  preached  to  the  people  (Neh.  viii.  4). 

Mi'shal,  in  A.  V.  once  Misheal  (Josh.  xix. 
2(Jj  [prayer]. 

A  village  of  Asher  (Josh.  xix.  26),  given 
with  its  suburbs  to  the  Levites  of  the  Ger- 
shouite  family  (xxi.  30).  It  is  called  in  1 
Chrou.  vi.  74  Mashal.     Not  identified. 

Mi'sham  [swiftness]. 

A  son  of  Elpaal,  who  with  his  brothers 
built  Ono  and  Lod  (1  Chron.  viii.  12). 

Mi'she-al.     See  Mishal. 

Mish'ma  [hearing]. 

1.  A  tribe  descended  from  Ishmael  (Gen. 
XXV.  14  ;  1  Chron.  i.  30).  The  name  perhaps 
lingers  either  in  Jebel  Misma',  midway  be- 
tween Damascus  and  Jauf,  or  in  the  other 
Jebel  Misma',  about  150  miles  due  east  of 
Taima. 

2.  A  descendant  of  Simeon  (1  Chron.  iv.  25). 
Mlsh-man'nali  [fatness]. 

One  of  the  Gadites  who  came  to  David  at 
Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  10).  • 

Mish'ra-ites. 

A  family  or  the  inhabitants  of  a  town 
called  Mishra  (1  Chron.  ii.  53). 

Mis'par,  in  A.  V.  Mizpar  ;  but  the  original 
edition  of  A.  V.  had  the  correct  spelling, 
Mispar  [a  narrative,  a  number]. 

One  of  those  who  returned  with  Zerub- 
babel  from  captivity  (Ezra  ii.  2).  In  Neh. 
vii.  7  the  feminine  form  is  used,  Mispereth. 

Mis'pe-reth.     See  Mispar. 

Mis-re-photli-ma'iin  [burnings  or  eleva- 
tions at  the  waters]. 

A  place  to  which  Joshua  pursued  the  kings 
defeated  at  the  waters  of  Merom  (Josh.  xi. 
8),  on  the  frontier  of  the  country  of  the 
Zidouians  (xiii.  6).  It  is  now  commonly, 
and  probably  correctly,  identified  with  the 
ruins  and  the  fountain  el-Musheirifeh,  11 
miles  north  of  Acre,  and  i  mile  from  the  sea, 
at  the  foot  of  Ras  en-Nakurah. 

Mite. 

A  small  coin,  worth  about  ^  cent  (Mark 
xii.  42).    See  Money. 

Mi'ter. 

The  headdress  or  turban,  called  in  He- 
brew inunepheth,  which  was  worn  by  the 
high  priest.  It  was  made  of  fine  linen. 
Its  distinguishing  characteristic  was  a  golden 
plate  inscribed  with  the  words  Holiness 
to  the  Lord,  and  affixed  in  front  by  a  blue- 
colored  lace  I  Ex.  xxviii.  4,  36-39;  Ezek. 
xxi.  26,  in  A.  V.  diadem) ;  sec  High  Priest, 
and  for  Zech.  iii.  5,  see  Diadem. 


Mith'kah,  in  A.  V.  Mitncah  [sweetness]. 
An   ciicamjiment  of  the   Israelites  in  the 
wilderness  (Num.  xxxiii.  28,  2{)). 

Mith'nite. 

Probably  iin  in-habitant  of  a  town  called 
Methen  (1  Chron.  xi.  43). 

Mitli're-dath  [given  by  Mithra,  the  ani- 
mating spirit  of  fire]. 

1.  Treasurer  under  Cyrus,  king  of  Persia, 
through  whom  the  sacred  vessels  were  re- 
stored to  the  Jews  (Ezra  i.  8). 

2.  One  of  those  who  ^n  the  reign  of  Arta- 
xerxes  Longimanus  complained  that  the 
Jews  were  rebuilding  the  walls  of  Jeru- 
salem (Ezra  iv.  7). 

Mit-y-le'ne. 

A  city  between  Assos  and  Chios  visited  by 
Paul  (Acts  XX.  13-13).  It  was  the  capital  of 
the  island  of  Lesbos  in  the  Grecian  Archi- 
pelago, and  was  noted  for  being  the  birth- 
place of  the  poet  Alca^us,  the  statesman 
Pittacus,  and  the  poetess  Sappho.  It  is  still 
called  Mitylen. 

Mi'zar  [smallness]. 

A  hill  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Jordan, 
probably  within  sight  of  the  peaks  of  Her- 
mou  (Ps.  xlii.  6).     Exact  situation  unknown. 

Miz'pahand  Mizpeh  [watchtower]. 

1.  The  name  given  to  the  cairn  north  of 
the  Jabbok,  called  Galeed  or  heap  of  witness, 
to  indicate  the  special  thing  to  which  it  bore 
witness,  namely,  that  God  is  the  watcher  be- 
tween the  covenanting  parties  (Gen.  xxxi. 
44-49) ;  see  Galeed. 

2.  A  town  in  Gilead,  east  of  the  Jordan 
(Judg.  x.  17;  xi.  11);  probably  identical 
with  Mizpeh  of  Gilead  (xi.  29)  and  with 
Ramath-mizpeh  or  height  of  Mizpeh  (Josh, 
xiii.  26),  otherwise  known  as  Kamoth  in 
Gilead  or  Ramoth-gilead  (Deut.  iv.  43 ;  1 
Kin.  iv.  13)  and  Ramah  (2  Kin.  viii.  28,  29). 
It  was  situated  in  the  territory  of  Gad,  on 
the  boundary  (Josh.  xiii.  26),  a.ssigned  to  the 
Levites  (xxi.  38),  and  appointed  a  city  of 
refuge  (Deut.  iv.  43;  Josh.  xx.  8).  Jephthah 
dwelt  here  (Judg.  xi.  34),  and  it  was  the  resi- 
dence of  the  taxgathercr  for  one  of  the  twelve 
districts  into  which  Solomon  divided  the 
country  (1  Kin.  iv.  13).  To  gain  and  hold 
possession  of  it  battles  were  fought  between 
Israel  and  the  Syrians  (1  Kin.  xxii.  3  seq.  ; 
2  Kin.  viii.  28).  It  was  taken  and  burned 
by  Judas  Maccabseus  (1  Mac.  v.  35,  in  A.  V. 
Maspha).  According  to  Eusebius,  it  lay  15 
Roman  miles  west  of  Philadelphia,  on  the 
Jabbok.  It  is  commonly  identified  with  es- 
Salt,  about  10  miles  east  of  the  mouth  of  the 
Jabbok  and  the  crossing  of  the  Jordan  at 
Damieh  ;  but  the  ruined  town  of  .Tal'ud, 
about  6  miles  north  of  es-Salt,  has  strong 
claim  to  be  the  site. 

3.  A  place  at  the  foot  of  mount  Hermon 
(Josh.  xi.  3),  not  identified.  The  land  of 
Mizpah  is  probablv  the  same  as  the  valley  of 
Mizpeh  (8). 


Mizpar 


484 


Moab 


4.  A  village  ia  or  near  the  lowland  of 
Judah  (Josh.  xv.  38),  comniDiily  identified 
with  Tell  es-Safi,  7^  miles  nortii-uorthwestof 
Beit  Jil)rin.  Eusebius  located  it  north  of  Eleu- 
theropolis,  that  is,  Beit  Jibrin,  in  the  direc- 
tion of  Jerusalem. 

5.  A  town  of  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii.  26), 
not  far  from  Ramah  (25;  1  Kin.  xv.  22)  and 
over  against  Jerusalem  (1  Mac.  iii.  46,  in 
A.  V.  Maspha).  The  tribes  were  summoned 
to  it  at  times  for  conferences  (1  Sam.  vii.  5- 
17;  X.  17;  Judg.  xx.  1-3;  xxi.  1,  5,8).  It 
was  fortified  by  Asa  aS  a  defense  against  the 
northern  tribes  (1  Kin.  xv.  22;  2  Chron. 
xvi.  (>).  After  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem, 
the  Babylonian  governor  fixed  his  residence 
here  (2  Kin.  xxv.  23-25  ;  Jer.  xl.  6-16;  xli. 
1-16).  It  was  inhabited  after  the  captivity 
(Neh.  iii.  7,  15,  19).  Robinson  believed  its 
site  to  have  been  either  at  Neby  Samwil, 
which  means  prophet  Samuel,  or  at  Tell  el- 
Ful,  conspicuous  eminences  north  of  Jerusa- 
lem ;  but  he  decides  in  favor  of  the  former. 
This  identification  has  received  cordial  ac- 
ceptance. The  place  is  2935  feet  above  the 
sea  level,  and  about  4  miles  north-northwest 
of  Jerusalem,  from  which  it  is  distinctly 
seen. 

6.  An  unidentified  place  in  Moab  (1  Sam. 
xxii.  3). 

Miz'par.     See  MispAR. 
Miz'peh.     See  Mizpah. 

Miz'ra-im  [dual  form  of  mi.mi,,  probably, 
defen.se,  defensed  land]. 

Egypt,  the  dual  form  pointing  to  the  two 
countries  of  Upper  and  Lower  Egypt,  settled 
by  descendants  of  Ham  (Gen.  x.  6) ;  see 
Egypt. 

Miz'zah  [possibly,  fear]. 

Tlie  chief  of  a  tribe  in  the  land  of  Edom, 
a  descendant  of  Esau,  and  also  of  Ishmael 
(Gen.  xxxvi.  3,  4,  13,  17;  1  Chron.  i.  37). 

Mna'son. 

An  early  disciple  from  Cyprus,  who  accom- 
panied Paul  on  his  last  journey  from  Csesarea 
to  Jerusalem,  and  with  whom  the  apostle 
was  to  lodge  (Acts  xxi.  16). 

Mo'ab  [scarcely,  water  of  a  father ;  prob- 
ably, desire]. 

1.  Son  of  Lot  by  an  incestuous  union  with 
his  elder  daughter  (Gen.  xix.  37). 

2.  The  descendants  of  Moab,  Lot's  son, 
closely  related  to  the  Ammonites  (Gen.  xix. 
37,  38).  Tliey  had  become  numerous  before 
the  time  that  the  Israelites  crossed  the  Red 
Sea  (Ex.  xv.  15) :  had  taken  possession  of  the 
country  from  the  plain  of  Heshbon  unto  the 
wady  Kurahi,  which  emerges  at  the  southern 
end  of  the  Dead  Sea,  and  formed  the  boundary 
of  Moab  toward  Edom  ;  and  with  their  kin- 
dred the  Ammo7iites  had  absorbed  and  de- 
stroyed the  remnants  of  the  gigantic  race 
whidi  had  previously  occupied  the  country 
ea,st  of  the  Jordan  (Deut.  ii.  10,  11,  19-21  ; 
Cf).  Gen.  xiv.  5).     Shortly  before  the  arrival 


of  the  Israelites,  Sihon,  king  of  the  Amorites, 
had  wrested  from  them  the  pasture  land 
north  of  the  Arnon,  though  the  country  was 
still  remembered  as  the  land  of  Moab,  con- 
fining Moab  for  a  time  to  the  country  south 
of  the  Arnon  (Num.  xxi.  13-15,  26-30).  The 
Moabites  showed  a  commercial  friendliness  to 
the  migrating  Israelites  (Deut.  ii.  28,  29),  but 
refused  them  jierniission  to  pass  through  their 
land  (Judg.  xi.  17;  cp.  Deut.  xxiii.  4).  Be- 
cause, doubtless,  of  the  kinship  between  the 
Moabites  and  Israelites,  Moses  was  forbidden 
to  attack  them  (Deut.  ii.  9;  cp.  19).  Never- 
theless, the  king  of  Moab,  alarmed  when  the 
Israelites  encamped  in  his  vicinity,  sent  for 
Balaam  to  curse  them  (Num.  xxii.-xxiv. ; 
Josh.  xxiv.  9).  For  this  hostile  attitude  the 
Israelites  were  commanded  to  exclude  them 
from  the  congregation  to  the  tenth  genera- 
tion, and  to  maintain  a  coldness  and  indifler- 
ence  toward  them  forever  (Deut.  xxiii.  3-6; 
Neh.  xiii.  1).  The  last  encampment  of  the 
Israelites  before  they  crossed  the  Jordan  was 
at  Shittim  in  the  plains  of  Moab  (Num.  xxii. 
1-Josh.  iii.  1).  While  they  were  there,  Moab- 
ite  and  Midianite  women  seduced  them  to 
licentious  idolatry  (Num.  xxv.;  Hos.  ix.  10). 
Early  in  the  time  of  the  judges  Eglon,  king 
of  Moab,  invaded  Canaan,  established  his 
seat  of  government  at  Jericho,  and  oppressed 
Israel  18  years  until  he  was  assassinated  by 
Ehud  (Judg.  iii.  12-30;  1  Sam.  xii.  9).  p:iim- 
clech*sojouined  in  Moab,  and  thence  came 
his  two  daughters-in-law,  Orpah  and  Ruth. 
Ruth  married  Boaz  and  became  the  ances- 
tress of  David  (Ruth  i.  22 ;  iv.  3,  5,  10,  13- 
17;  Mat.  i.  5-16).  Saul  warred  with  the 
Moabites  (1  Sam.  xiv.  47),  and  David,  when 
a  fugitive  from  Saul,  put  his  father  and 
mother  in  charge  of  the  king  of  Moab  (xxii. 
3,  4).  After  David  became  king,  he  over- 
came the  Moabites,  and  doomed  a  large  pro- 
portion of  them  to  death  (2  Sam.  viii.  2-12  ; 
1  Chron.  xviii.  2-11).  The  Moabites  were 
subject  to  Omri  and  his  son  ;  but  on  the 
death  of  Ahab  they  rebelled,  and  neither  of 
Omri's  grandsons,  Ahaziah,  who  was  inca- 
pacitated for  the  attempt  by  a  fall,  nor  Jeho- 
ram  was  able  to  subdue  them  (2  Kin.  i.  1; 
iii.  4-27;  Moabite  Stone).  Jehoshaphat  was 
king  of  Judah  at  that  time,  and  the  Moabites 
formed  a  confederacy  with  the  Ammonites, 
Edomites,  and  others  for  the  invasion  of 
Judah,  but  the  allies  turned  their  weapons 
against  each  other,  and  Judah  did  not  need 
to  strike  a  blow  (2  Chron.  xx.  1-30 ;  cp.  Ps. 
Ix.  8;  Ixxxiii.  6;  cviii.  9).  The  year  that 
Elisha  died,  bands  of  Moabites  invaded  the 
kingdom  of  Israel  (2  Kin.  xiii.  20),  and  they 
entered  Judah  in  the  reign  of  Jehoiakim 
(2  Kin.  xxiv.  2).  Many  of  the  towns  noi'th 
of  the  Arnon  reverted  to  Moab  (cp.  Is.  xv.). 
The  prophets  denounced  the  ^loabites  often  as 
typesof  the  enemiesof  the  kingdom  of  God  (Is. 
x V. ;  X vi. ;  XX V.  10 ;  Jer.  ix.  26  ;  xxv.  21 ;  xxvii. 
3:  xlviii.  ;  Ezek.  xxv.  8-11;  Amos  ii.  1,  2; 
Zeph.  ii.  8-11).     Some  of  the  Jews,  who  fled 


Moabite  Stone 


485 


Moabite  Stone 


from  Jerusalem  when  Nebucliadnezzar  in- 
vaded Judah,  took  refuge  iu  Moab,  but  re- 
turned when  Gedaliah  was  appointed  gov- 
ernor (Jer.  xl.  11).  Nebucliadnezzar  subju- 
gated the  Moabites  (Antiq.  x.  9,  7).  They 
disappear  henceforth  from  history  as  a  nation, 
though  still  existing  as  a  race  (Ezra  ix.  1  ; 
Neh.  xiii.  1,  23;  Antiq.  i.  11,  5).  Alexander 
Jannaeus  placed  them  under  tribute  (Antiq. 
xiii.  13,  5). 

3.  The  country  occupied  by  the  Moabites. 
It  was  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Dead 
Sea.  It  was  separated  from  Edom  on  the 
south  by  the  wady  Kuiahi,  known  in  its 
upper  course  as  the  wady  el-' Ahsy.  This  fact 
is  learned  from  the  towns  which  are  men- 
tioned as  situated  in  Moabite  territory.  On 
the  east  lay  the  desert  (Xum.  xxi.  11).  The 
northern  boundarj^  which  the  Amorites  and 
Israelites  recognized  was  the  Arnon  (Num. 
xxi.  13  ;  Dent.  ii.  36  ;  iii.  12  ;  Josh.  xii.  1  ; 
Judg.  xi.  18),  but  the  Moabites  at  an  early 
date  possessed  (Num.  xxi.  26),  and  always 
regarded  as  theirs  and  frequently  occupied,  a 
considerable  district  north  of  the  river. 
Moab  is  chiefly  a  rolling  j)lateau,  about  3200 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  is  well 
adapted  for  pasturage.  The  western  edge 
descends  abruptly  to  the  Dead  Sea,  and  the 
face  of  the  bluff  is  cut  by  deep  valleys. 
The  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea  is  comparatively 
fertile  from  the  great  abundance  of  springs. 

Mo'ab-ite  Stone. 

An  inscribed  stone  found  within  the  ter- 
ritory   of    Moab,    and    recording    Moabite 


The  Moabite  Stone. 

history.  On  the  19th  of  August,  1868,  the 
Rev.  F.  Klein,  a  German  in  the  employ 
of  the  Church  Missionary  Society,  was  en- 


camped at  Dhib&n,  the  ruins  of  the  ancient 
^Moabite  town  of  Dibon,  wlien  lie  was  in- 
formed bj^  a  sheik  that  within  ten  miiuitcs' 
walk  from  his  tent  there  lay  an  inscri))ed  stone. 
Proceeding  to  the  spot,  he  found  lying  on 
its  back  a  slab  of  black  basalt,  three  feet  ten 
inches  high,  two  feet  broad,  and  a  foot  and 
two  and  a  half  inches  thick,  rounded  at  the 
top  and  the  bottom  to  nearly  a  semicircle. 
The  inscription  consisted  of  thirty-four  lines 
of  writing  in  an  unknown  character,  run- 
ning across  the  stone,  about  an  inch  and  a 
quarter  apart.  He  at  once  set  on  foot  negcj- 
tiations  for  its  transferto  the  Berlin  Museum. 
Unhappily,  M.  Clermont-Ganneau,  of  the 
French  Consulate,  also  attempted  to  obtain 
it  for  the  Paris  Museum.  This  ran  it  up  to  a 
nearly  prohibitory  price.  Then  the  Anils 
fell  to  fighting  over  the  expected  money. 
The  dispute  settled  nothing,  so  kindling  a  tire 
under  the  stone,  and  pouring  water  on  it  when 
it  was  hot,  they  broke  it  into  fragments, 
which  they  distributed  among  the  several 
granaries,  to  act  as  blessings  to  the  grain. 
Prior  to  the  destruction,  a  messenger  from 
M.  Clermont-Ganneau  had  obtained  a  squeeze 
of  the  inscription  ;  but  having  to  escape  pre- 
cipitately on  horseback  and  crumpling  up 
the  paper  while  it  was  still  wet,  it  broke  into 
seven  pieces,  and  was  not  of  much  use. 
Better  squeezes  of  the  two  larger  p(]rlions  (if 
the  broken  stone  were  afterwards  obtained  liy 
a  messenger  from  Sir  Charles  Warren  and  by 
another  from  M.  Clermont-Ganneau  ;  and 
finally  a  number  of  fragments  of  the  stone 
itself  reached  Jerusalem,  and  are  now  some 
in  Paris  and  others  in  London.  With  the 
aid  of  the  squeezes  the  pieces  were  put  to- 
gether. It  was  found  that  of  about  1100 
letters,  669  in  all,  or  le.ss  than  two-thirds, 
had  been  recovered,  and  that  the  language 
was  akin  to  Hebrew.  The  inscription  is  as 
follows  : 

1.  I  am  Mesha,  son  of  Chemoshmelech,  king  of 

Moab,  the  D- 

2.  ibonite.    My  father  reigned  over  Moab  for 

thirty  years,  and  reign  did 

3.  I  after  my  father.    And   I  have  made  this 

high  place  for  Chemosh  in  Krhh  on  ac- 
count of  the  deliverance  of  Me-' 

4.  sha,  because  he  saved  me  from  all  the  kings 

and  because  he  let  me  see  my  pleasure  on 
all  that  hated  me.    Omr- 

5.  i  was  king  of  Israel,  and  he  afflicted  Moah 

many  days,  becau.se  Chemosh  was  angry 
with  hisla- 

6.  nd.    And  his  son  succeeded  him;  and  he 

also  said:  "I  will  afflict  Moab."  In  my 
days  he  spake  thus. 

7.  But  i  saw  my  pleasure  on  him  and  on  his 

house,  and  Israel  perished  with  everlast- 
ing destruction.  Now  Omri  had  taken 
possession  of  all  the  [la-] 

8.  nd  of  Medeba,  and  dwelt  in  it  during  his 

days  and  half  the  days  of  his  sons  [or  his 
son],  forty  years ;  but  resto- 

9.  re  it  did  Chemosh  in  my  days.    And  I  built 

Baalmeon  and  I  made  in  it  the  reservoir  (?) 
and  I  built 
10.  Kiriathen.    And  the  men  of  Gad  had  dwelt 
in  the  land  of  Ataroth  from  of  old,  and 
built  for  himself  had  the  king  of  I- 


Moabite  Stone 


486 


Moladah 


11.  srael  Ataroth.    And  I  fought  against  the  city 

and  took  it  and  slew  all  the  [people  of] 

12.  the  city,  a  sight  unto  Cheraosh  and  to  Moab. 

And  I  brought  back  from  there  the  altar 
hearth  of  Daudoh  (?)  and  drag- 

13.  ged  it  before  Chemosh  in  Kerioth.  Andlset- 

tled  the  men  of  Srn  in  it  and  the  men  of 

14.  Mhrth.    And  Cheraosh  said  tome  :  "Go, take 

Nebo  against  Israel."    And  I 

15.  went  by  night  and.  fought  against  it  from 

break  of  dawn  until  noon,  and  to- 

IG.  ok  it  and  slew  all  of  them,  seven  thousand 

men  and  boys  and  women  and  gir- 

17.  Is  and  maidservants ;  for  I  had  devoted  it  to 

Ashtor-Chemosh.    And  I  took  thence  the 
altar-hear- 

18.  ths  of  Jehovah  and   dragged  them  before 

Chemosh.    Now  the  king  of  Israel  had 
built 

19.  Jahaz ;  and  he  abode  in  it  while  he  fought 

against  me.    But  Chemosh  drove  him  out 
from  before  me.    And 

20.  I  took  two  hundred  men  of  Moab,  all  its 

chiefs;  and  led  them  against  Jahaz  and 
took  it 

21.  to  add  to  Dibon.    I  built  Krhh,  the  wall  of 

the  woods  and  the  wall  of' 

22.  the  mound.    And  I  built  its  gates  and  I  built 

its  towers.     And 

23.  I  built  the  king's  palace,  and  made  the  en- 

closures of  the  [ for  the  wat]  ers 

in  the  midst  of 

24.  the  city.    And  there  was  no  cistern  in  the 

midst  of  the  city,  in  Krhh.    And  I  said  to 
all  the  people  :  "  Make  for 

25.  yourselves,  every  one  a  cistern  in  his  house." 

And  I  cut  out  the  cutting  for  Krhh  with 
the  help  of  prisoner- 

26.  s  of  Israel.    I  built  Aroer  and   made  the 

highway  on  the  Arnon. 

27.  I  built  Beth-bamoth,  for  it  was  pulled  down. 

I  built  Bezer,  for  ruins 

28 Dibon  fifty,  for  all  Dibon  was  obedient. 

And  I  reigned 

29.  over  one  hundred  in  the  cities  which  I  added 

to  the  land.    .\nd  I  built 

30.  Medeba  and  Beth-diblatheu  and  Beth-baal- 

meon,  and  took  thither  the  [herdsmen] 
31 the  sheep  of  the  land.    And  as 

for  Horonen,  there  dwelt  in  it  the  so[n] 

of  De[d]an.    And  De[dan]  said 
32 Chemosh    said   to  me:    "Go 

down,  fight  against  Horonen ; "  and  I  went 

down  and  .... 
33 and  Chemosh  [resto]red  it  in 

my  days.    And  I thence  ten  (?) 

34 

To  judge  from  Mesha's  own  words,  the 
stele  was  a  memorial  commemorative  not 
merely  of  his  recovery  of  independence  for 
Moab  from  Israel,  but  of  his  glorious  and 
successful  reign  as  a  whole  (1.  4,  'M) ;  erected 
late  in  his  reign,  ;i  ftcr  the  death  of  Ahab,  after 
the  humiliation  of  that  house  also,  and  not  im- 
probably after  the  extinction  of  the  line  of 
Omri  by  Jehu,  and  the  entrance  of  Israel 
into  its  period  of  dire  distress  (I.  7). 

The  Hebrew  records  date  the  revolt  of 
Moab  after  the  death  of  Ahab  (2  Kin.  i.  1 ; 
iii.  5) :  a  date  which  conflicts  with  a  u.sual 
understanding  of  the  inscription,  to  the 
effect  that  the  revolt  occurred  in  the  middle 
of  Ahab's  reign.  But  the  statements  of  the 
stone  maybe  readily  interpreted  in  harmony 
with  tlie  Hebrew  account,  and  that  in  one 
of  two  ways: 


1.  The  two  accounts  may  be  combined. 
The  capture  of  the  frontier  town  of  Medeba 
was  eflFected  by  Mesha  about  the  middle  of 
Ahab's  reign  (1.  8)  ;  but  the  Moabite  king 
did  not  attempt  actually  to  throw  off  the 
Israelitish  yoke  until  after  Ahab's  death. 

2.  Or,  better,  in  accordance  with  the  well- 
known  custom  of  the  times,  whereby  the  royal 
descendants  of  Omri,  as  of  other  founders 
of  dynasties,  were  designated  simply  as  his 
sons;  in  view  of  the  ascription  of  round 
forty  years  to  the  occupation  of  Medeba  by 
the  Israelites ;  in  view  of  Moabite  grammar, 
whereby  the  collocation  beth  nun  he  in  line  8 
may  be  properly  rcTidered  his  sons;  and  in 
view  of  the  probability  which  arises  from 
Mesha's  own  words  that  he  was  acquainted 
with  the  final  overthrow  of  Omrl's  sons ; 
lines  7  and  8  of  the  inscription  may  be  trans- 
lated :  "Now  Omri  had  taken  possession  of 
all  the  land  of  Medeba,  and  [Israel]  dwelt 
therein  during  his  daj's  and  half  the  days  of 
his  sons,  forty  years."  This  is  the  same  story 
as  told  by  the  Hebrew  writers.  The  revolt 
of  Moab  did  actually  occur  midway  in  the 
reign  of  Omri's  sons,  as  it  were  dividing 
their  reign  in  twain,  and  lending  in  Moab- 
itish  eyes  an  aspect  to  the  latter  half  of  their 
rule  far  different  from  the  former.  See  Omri 
and  Mesha. 

Mo-a-di'ah  [perhaps,  host  of  Jehovah], 

A  father's  liouse  among  the  priests  in  the 
time  of  the  high  priest  Joiakim  (Neh.  xii. 
17) ;  see  M.^adiah. 

Mo'diu  [informers  or  prognosticators,  prog- 
nostication  (cp.  Is.  xlvii.  13)]. 

The  native  town  of  the  Maccabees  (1  Mac. 
ii.  1),  with  tl'.o  family  tomb  where  Mattathias 
and  two  of  his  sons,  Judas  and  Jonathan, 
were  buried  (ii.  70:  ix.  19;  xiii.  25).  It 
stood  on  the  edge  of  the  plain  of  Philistia 
(xvi.  4,  5),  and  the  tomb  was  vi.sible  from 
the  sea  (xiii.  29).  The  town  was  still  in  ex- 
istence in  the  time  of  Eusebius  and  Jerome, 
in  the  vicinity  of  Diospolis,  that  is  I^ydda. 
The  Talmud  states  its  distance  from  Jerusa- 
lem at  15  Roman  miles.  The  site  is  disputed. 
Hitzig  located  it  at  el-Burj,  2^  miles  south  of 
Midieh  ;  and  Robinson,  following  mediseval 
pilgrims,  at  Latrun.  The  more  recent  sug- 
gestion of  Forner  has  been  favorably  re- 
ceived, that  the  site  is  Midieh,  hard  by  the 
road  to  Jeinisalem  via  Beth-horon,  about  6 
miles  from  Lydda  and  18  from  Jerusalem. 
One  half  mile  north  of  the  ruined  village  of 
Midieh,  and  about  the  same  distance  west  of 
the  modern  village  rises  a  hill,  from  the 
summit  of  which  vessels  on  the  sea  are 
visible  and  where  the  foundations  of  a  stately 
tonil)  have  been  found. 

Mol'a-dah  [lurth,  origin]. 

A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  2fi),  assigned  to  the  Simeonites 
(xix.  2 :  1  Chron.  iv.  28).  It  was  inhabited 
after  the  captivity  (Neh.  xi.  26).  It  is  doubt- 
less the  town  known   in   the  Greek  period 


Mole 


487 


Money 


as  Malatha,  in  Idiimpea,  to  wbicli  Herod 
Agripjia  I.,  diiriiif?  the  earlier  and  less  pros- 
perous period  of  his  life,  retired  in  debt  and 
iu  depression  of  spirits  {Antiq.  xviii.  6,  2). 
The  Onomastieon  locates  Malatha  4  Roman 
miles  from  Arad  and  on  the  road  from 
Hebron  to  Aila,  that  is  Elath.  Robinson  is 
commonly  followed  in  his  identification  of 
it  with  Milh,  on  the  Roman  road  7^  miles 
southwest  of  Arad,  where  there  are  vestiges 
of  an  extensive  town  with  important  wells. 
It  is  about  14  miles  east  by  south  from  Beer- 
sheha,  and  22  south  by  west  from  Hebron. 

Mole. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Tinshe- 
meth  (Lev.  xi.  30,  A.  V.).     See  Chameleon. 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  words 
H"phor  peroth,  digging  of  holes  or  digging  of 
rats  (Is.  ii.  20).  The  two  words  are  better  re- 
garded as  one,  H''phafp(iroth,  diggers.  These 
may  be  rats  or  moles.  It  is  believed  that  no 
species  of  Talpn.  the  genus  to  which  the 
common  mole  (T.  enropxa]  belongs,  exists  iu 
Palestine,  its  place  being  taken  bj^  the  mole 
rat  {Spala.i-  t!/i)hlHf!),  which  is  probably  the 
animal  intended  by  Isaiah.  This  animal  is 
very  common  iu  the  Holy  Land,  living  un- 
derground in  small  societies.  It  resembles 
the  mole  iu  appearance,  but  is  not  of  the 
same  order,  being  a  rodent  feeding  on  vege- 
tables, chiefly  bulb.s,  whereas  the  mole  is 
insectivorous.  It  is  larger  than  the  mole, 
being  eight  or  more  inches  long.  It  is  silvery 
gray  in  color,  is  tailless,  and  has  only  minute 
or  rudimentary  eyes. 

Mo'lech,  in  A.  V.  twice  Moloch,  a  spelling 
introduced  into  the  English  version  through 
the  Greek  text  of  Amos  v.  26  and  its  quota- 
tion by  Stephen  in  Acts  vii.  43.  The  Hebrew 
text  and  R.  V.  have  "your  king"  in  place 
of  Moloch  [reigning  one,  king]. 

A  deity  worshiped  by  the  children  of  Am- 
mon  (1  Kin.  xi.  7).  The  article  is  prefixed 
to  his  name  where  it  occurs  in  the  Hebrew, 
indicating  that  the  word  is  not  a  proper 
name,  but  an  a])pellative  preserving  its 
meaning  of  reigning  one.  He  was  known 
also  as  Milcom  (1  Kin.  xi.  .5,  33)  and  Malcam 
(Jer.  xlix.  1,  3,  R.  V. :  Zeph.  i.  5),  proper 
names  formed  by  the  familiar  terminations 
om  and  am.  He  was  an  aspect  of  Baal  (Jer. 
xxxii.  35),  whose  name  is  a  common  noun 
likewise  and  signifies  lord.  Baal  was  wor- 
shiped with  human  sacrifices  at  Tyre  under 
the  name  of  Melcarth.  king  of  "the  city  ; 
and  an  exceedingly  detestable  feature  of 
Molech"s  worship  was  the  burning  of  chil- 
dren to  him  in  the  fire.  The  practice  was 
in  vogue  early  ;  and  when  the  Israelites  were 
at  Sinai  and  expected  soon  to  be  neighbors 
of  the  Ammonites,  the  law  was  enacted  that 
if  ally  man  made  or  permitted  his  children 
to  "  pass  through  the  fire  to  Molech  "  he  was 
to  be  put  to  death  (Lev.  xviii.  21  ;  xx.  1-.5). 
Nevertheless  Solomon  in  his  old  age  erected 
an  altar  to  Milcom,  being  led  into  this  idol- 


atry by  the  Ammonite  wives  whom  he  loved  ; 
and  in  the  following  centuries  children 
were  burnt  to  Molech  in  the  valley  of  Hin- 
nom  at  the  high  place  of  Topheth  (Ps.  cvi. 
33;  Jer.  vii.  31:  xix.  4,  .5;  Ezek.  xvi.  21; 
xxiii.  37,  39;  cp.  Is.  xxx.  33).  Ahaz  burnt 
childi'en  of  his  there  (2  Chron.  xxviii.  3),  and 
Manasseh  made  at  least  one  of  his  sons  to 
pass  through  the  fire  (2  Kin.  xxi.  6).  The 
northern  Israelites  were  also  guilty  of  this 
hideous  rite  (2  Kin.  xvii.  17  ;  Ezek.  xxiii. 
37).  Josiah  destroyed  the  altars  which  Solo- 
mon built  on  the  mount  of  Corruption  to 
this  false  divinity  and  other  heathen  gods, 
and  defiled  the  high  place  of  Topheth  (2  Kin. 
xxiii.  10,  13). 

Mo'lid  [begetter]. 

A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Hezron,  house 
of  Jerahmeel  (1  Chron.  ii.  29). 

Moloch.     See  Molech. 

Mol'ten  Sea  or  Bra'zen  Sea. 

A  great  basin  made  by  Solomon  of  brass 
which  David  had  taken  as  booty  (1  Chron. 
xviii.  8).  It  stood  in  the  inner  court  of  the 
temple  between  the  altar  of  burnt  offering 
and  the  sanctuary,  somewhat  toward  the 
south  ;  and  was  intended  for  the  priests  to 
wash  their  hands  and  feet  in  before  entering 
the  sanctuary  or  ajiproaching  the  altar  (1 
Kin.  vii.  39  ;  2  Chron.  iv.  6  ;  Antiq.  viii.  3,  6  ; 
cp.  Ex.  xxx.  18-21).  It  was  round,  10  cubits 
in  diameter  and  5  in  height,  and  held  2000 
baths  (1  Kin.  vii.  23,  26 ;  in  2  Chron.  iv.  o  in- 
correctly .3000).  The  brim  curved  outward 
like  a  cup,  and  the  sides  were  ornamented 
with  two  rows  of  knops  underneath  the  brim 
(1  Kin.  vii.  24,  26).  It  was  not  an  exact  hem- 
isphere, but  its  sides  bulged  out  like  a  tulip, 
as  appears  from  the  statement  of  its  capacity 
and  from  the  comparison  of  it  to  a  lily.  It 
stood  upon  twelve  brazen  oxen,  in  four 
groups  of  three  each,  facing  the  four  quarters. 
Ahaz  took  it  down  from  the  oxen  (2  Kin. 
xvi.  17)  ;  and  finally,  when  Nebuchadnezzar 
captured  Jerusalem,  he  broke  the  basin  in 
pieces  (xxv.  13,  16;  Jer.  xxvii.  19-22). 

Mon'ey. 

Money  was  early  coined  by  the  Greeks  and 
the  peoples  of  Asia  Minor  within  the  sphere 
of  Greek  influence.  Staters,  made  of  an  alloy 
of  gold  with  silver  called  electron,  were 
struck  in  Lydia  in  Asia  Minor  and  silver 
coins  at  ^Egina  as  early  as  700  to  650  b.  c. 
In  the  rest  of  western  Asia  and  in  Egypt 
people  were  content  to  use  gold  and  .silver  in 
bars,  rings,  and  other  forms,  probably 
stamped  with  the  value,  but  not  issued  by 
authority  (Josh.  vii.  21  ;  and  cp.  name  of 
talent,  kikkar.  circle).  In  business  transac- 
tions reliance  was  not  placed  on  the  stanlp, 
but  the  quantity  was  determined  by  weigh- 
ing (Gen.  xxiii."l6;  xliii.  21) ;  cp.  Weights. 
Counting  was  rarely  resorted  to  (2  Kin.  xii. 
11),  and  then  only  to  form  a  general  estimate. 
Shekel  in  the  early  period  does  not  mean  a 
coin  bearing  an  authoritative  stamp,  but  a 


Money 


488 


Money 


certain  weight  {shekel)  of  silver.  The  weights 
formed  a  series  iu  the  denomination  of  talent, 
maneh,  shekel,  gerah,  and  beka  or  half 
shekel ;  see  Weights.  Darius  Hystaspis, 
521-486  B.  c,  is  credited  with  the  introduc- 
tion of  coinage  into  Persia  (Herod,  iv.  166), 
whereby  the  Jews  became  acquainted  with 


Gold  Daric. 

coins.  The  ordinary  daric  (Ezra  ii.  69  ;  in  A. 
Y.  dram)  was  a  thick  gold  coin,  showing  on 
one  side  the  king,  kneeling  and  holding  a 
bow  and  a  javelin.  On  the  reverse  was  an 
irregular  square,  doubtless  the  mark  of  the 
punch  with  which  the  lump  of  metal  was 
driven  into  the  die.  It  was  worth  about  five 
dollars ;  see  Daric.  After  the  fall  of  the 
Persian  empire,  the  Greek  system  came  into 
vogue  in  Palestine,  and  money  was  reckoned 
by  talents  and  drachmas  (1  Mac.  xi.  28  ;  2 
Mac.  iv.  19). 


Silver  Half  Shekel  of  Year  1. 

In  the  year  141-140  b.  c,  Simon  Maccabaeus 
obtained  the  right  to  coin  money  for  his  nation 
with  his  own  stamp  (1  Mac.  xv.  6),  and  issued 
silver  shekels  and  half  shekels  and  perhaps 


Shekel  of  Year  2. 

copper  half,  quarter,  and  sixth  shekels.  The 
silver  coins  show  a  vase  on  the  obver.se  with 
the  date  above  and  the  legend  "shekel  (or 
half  shekel)  of  Isi-ael  ; "  and  on  the  revei\se 
a  branch  bearing  flowers  encircled  by  the 
words  "Jerusalem  the  holy."  The  small 
copper  coin  of  John  Hyrcanus,  which  is  rep- 
resented in  the  accompanying  cut,  bears  on 
the  obverse  within  a  wreath  of  olive  the  in- 
scription, "  Jehohanan  the  high  priest,  head 


and  friend  of  the  Jews."  The  reverse  has  a 
Greek  symbol,  the  united  cornucopias,  be- 
tween which  is  a  pomegranate.     Herod  the 


Copper  Coin  of  John  Hyrcanus. 

Great  and  his  successors  down  to  Herod 
Agrippa  II.  issued  copper  coins,  but  only  with. 
Greek  legends. 


Copper  Coin  of  Herod  Antipas,  Tetrarch  of 
Galilee. 

The  money  of  the  Greeks,  however,  con- 
tinued to  circulate  along  with  the  Jewish 
coinage.  The  coins  consisted  of  drachmas 
and  tetradrachmas.  The  silver  drachma  (Luke 
XV.  8,  R.  Y.  margin)  in  the  time  of  the  Herods- 
and  the  procurators  was  equivalent  to  the 
Roman  denariusand  worth  about  16  cents :  the 
silver  stater  or  tetradrachma  (Mat.  xvii.  27, 
margin),  struck  by  the  Greek  cities  of  Syria 
and  Phoenicia,  was  worth  about  66  cents,  but 
soon  afterwards  became  much  debased.  The 
Iffjiton  was  a  small  copper  coin  (Luke  xii.  59  ; 
xxi.  2,  rendered  mite),  not  the  lepton  of  the 
Greek  system,  but  the  smallest  copper  coin  in 
circulation,  worth  about  ^  cent  and  equal  to 
half  the  quadrans  (Mark  xii.  42).  The  name 
denotes  small.  It  was  a  Jewi.sh  coin,  for  only 
Jewish  money  was  allowed  to  be  oflered  in 
the  temple ;  and  it  was  probably  a  cojiper 
coin  issued  by  John  Hyrcanus  or  other  Mac- 
cabfean  jjrince.  The  didrachma,  which  corre- 
sponded to  the  half  shekel  [Mat.  xvii.  24,  mar- 
gin), was  probably  not  in  circulation  or  but  lit- 
tle u.sed  in  Palestine.  The  talent  employed 
in  Palestine  (1  Mac.  xi.  28  ;  ]\Iat.  xviii.  '24) 
was  the  Attic  talent,  which  Alexander  had 
made  the  lawful  standard  throughout  his 
empire  and  which  afterwards  maintained  its 
supremacy.  It  was  not  a  coin,  but  money  of 
account ;  was  divided  into  niinas  (1  Mac.  xiv. 
24  ;  Luke  xix.  13-25,  rendered  pound) ;  and 
it  consisted  of  60  niinas  or  6000  drachmas. 
It  suffered  great  doiu-cciation,  the  drachma 
falling  off  from  altout  (J7.5  grains  to  about  55 
grains  or  16  cents  under  the  early  Ca?sars. 

With  the  advent  of  the  Romans  in  Pales- 
tine, the  money  of  the  Romans  had  also  come 
into  circulation.  The  denarius  (Mat.  xviii. 
28;  rendered  penny)  was  a  silver  coin.  In 
the  time  of  the  empire  its  obverse  almost  in- 
variably bore  the  head  of  the  reigning  sov- 
ereign or  of  some  member  of  the  imperial 


Money 


489 


Money 


family.  From  the  time  of  Augustus  to  that 
of  Nero,  its  standard  weiglit  was  (jO  grains, 
equivalent  tu  alwut  17  cents.  It  was  the 
tribute  money  payable   by  the  Jews  to  the 


Denarius  with  Image  and  Superscriiition  of  Ti- 
berius Caesar. 

imperial  treasury  (Mat.  xxii.  19).  The  assa- 
riou  (x.  29  ;  Luke  xii.  6,  rendered  tiirthing), 
the  Greek  name  of  the  Roman  as,  was  a 
small  copper  coin,  the  value  of  which  was 
reduced  in  217  B.  c.  to  ^  of  a  denarius  or  to 
about  1  cent.  The  quadrans  (Mat.  v.  26 ; 
Mark   xii.   42  ;  rendered    farthing)   was   the 


Procurator's  Copper  Coin. 

fourth  part  of  an  as,  or  J  cent.  The  pro- 
curators of  Judsea  were  also  accustomed  to 
coin  money.  They  Lssued  copper  pieces  in 
the  name  of  the  imperial  family  and  with  the 
legend  in  Greek  letters.  The  coin  which  is 
represented  in  the  accompanying  cut  bears 
the  name  of  Ti.  Claudius  Ca!sar  Germauicus 
written  in  Greek  on  the  margin,  and  in  the 
center  two  palm  branches  laid  crosswise  with 
the  date,  "year  14,"  between  them.  The 
reverse  contains  the  name  of  the  emperor's 
wife,  Julia  Agrippina.  It  was  struck  in  A. 
D.  .54,  during  the  ])rocuratorship  of  Felix. 

The  gold  coin  which  was  current  in  Pales- 
tine during  the  N.  T.  period  was  the  Koman 
denarius  aureus,  generally  termed  simply 
aureus  (.\ntiq.  xiv.  8,  .5,  rendered  ]>ieces  of 
gold>,  which  passed  for  2o  silver  denarii. 

The  national  coinage  of  Israel  was  revived 


Shekel  of  Simon,  Prince  of  Israel. 

by  Eleazar,  the  priest,  and  Simon,  the  prince, 
during   the  first  revolt,  A.  d.  66-70.     Silver 


shekels  and  quarter  shekels  and  copper  coins, 
with  various  devices  and  old  Hebrew  in- 
scriptions were  issued.  The  shekel  of  Simon, 
of  which  a  copy  is  here  given,  shows  on  the 
obverse  a  palm  tree  and  the  legend  "Simon, 
prince  of  Israel,"  and  on  the  reverse  a  vine 
and  "  Year  one  of  the  red(-uiption  of  Israel." 
On  the  suppression  of  this  revolt  and  the 
capture  of  Jerusalem,  coins  were  struck  in 
Eome  with  the  image  and  name  of  the  em- 
peror Vespasian  on  the  obverse,  and  a  female 


Silver  Coin  of  \'c.sijat.iun,  cumuiuniorating  the 
Capture  of  Jerusalem. 

captive  under  a  palm  tree,  with  the  inscrip- 
tion "Judaea  subdued"  or  "' Juda-a  captive" 
on  the  reverse ;  cp.  medal,  article  Jerusalem. 
Herod  Agrippa  II.,  king  of  part  of  Galilee 
and  the  region  to  the  east,  continued  to  issue 


Copper  Coin  of  Ilerocl  Agrippa  II. 

copper  coins  after  the  fall  of  Jerusalem.  The 
one  depicted  dates  from  the  reign  of  Titus. 
It  bears  the  head  of  the  emperor,  his  name 
and  titles,  on  the  obverse  ;  and  on  the  re- 
verse a  winged  victory  holding  a  wreath  and 
a  ])alm  branch,  and  the  date,  "year  26  of 
king  Agrippa."  During  the  second  revolt, 
which  was  headed  by  Bar-cocheba,  A.  D.  132- 
1:5.5.  shekels  and  quarter  shekels  of  silver 
and  also  of  cojiper,  with  old  Hebrew  inscrip- 


Shekel  of  Bar-cocheba. 

tions,  were  again  coined.  The  shekel  shows 
a  tetrastyle  temple  on  the  obverse,  probably 
a  conventional  representation  of  the  beauti- 
ful gate  of  the  temple  at  Jerusalem.     At  the 


Money  Changers 


490 


Moon 


sides  of  it  appears  the  word  Simon,  perhaps 
the  personal  name  of  the  leader  of  the  re- 
volt ;  while  above  it  a  star  is  introduced, 
doubtless  in  allusion  to  the  surname  of  the 
leader,  Bar-cocheba,  sou  of  a  star.  To  obtain 
quarter  shekels  the  Eoman  denarius  was  re- 
struek,  which  at  this  time  so  nearly  equaled 
the  quarter  shekel  in  value  that  it  could  be 
substituted  for  it  without  inconvenience. 

Mon'ey  Chan-gers. 

When  a  cei>sus  was  taken  every  Israelite, 
whether  rich  or  poor,  who  had  reached  the 
age  of  twenty  years,  was  required  to  pay 
half  a  shekel  into  the  treasury  of  the  Lord 
as  an  otiering  to  make  atonement  (Ex.  xxx. 
13-13).  Later  it  was  customary,  according 
to  Maimonides,  to  pay  this  poll  tax  annually. 
Besides  this  tax,  pious  Israelites  made  free- 
will offerings,  which  they  cast  into  chests 
placed  in  the  court  of  the  women  (Mark  xii. 
41).  This  money  must  be  in  native  coin; 
and  as  several  currencies  circulated  in  Pales- 
tine in  the  time  of  Christ,  and  as  multitudes 
of  Jews  from  foreign  lands  visited  Jerusalem 
at  the  passovcr,  bringing  the  coin  of  their 
country  with  them,  need  arose  of  facilities 
for  exchanging  foreign  for  native  money. 
The  business  of  the  money  changer  sprang 
up.  They  had  stalls  in  the  city  ;  and  as  the 
feast  approached  they  were  admitted  to  the 
precincts  of  the  temple  and  placed  their 
tables  in  the  court  of  the  gentiles.  The  pre- 
mium paid  for  half  a  shekel  was,  according 
to  the  Talmud,  a  kolliiboft,  equal  to  twelve 
grains  of  silver  and  worth  about  three  cents. 
From  this  premium  the  money  changer  was 
called  a  koUnbififrs  (Mat.  xxi.  12),  and  from 
the  table  at  which  he  .sat  a  trapezHes  (Mat. 
XXV.  27).  On  two  diti'erent  occasions  Jesus 
overturned  the  tables  of  the  money  changers 
and  drove  the  cattle  dealers  from  the  court, 
because  their  presence  and  too  often  their 
dishonesty  and  avarice  were  incompatible 
with  the  sanctity  of  the  place  and  with  the 
quiet  which  is  necessary  for  worship  (John  ii. 
14-16;  Mat.  xxi.  12,  13). 

Month. 

In  Egypt  the  Israelites  were  acquainted 
with  a  year  of  twelve  months  of  thirty  days 
each,  with  five  additional  days  to  produce 
confoi'mity  with  the  solar  year  of  365  days 
(Herod,  ii.  4),  and  in  the  account  of  the 
flood  the  months  are  reckoned  at  thirty  days 
each  (Gen.  vii.  11,  24;  viii.  3,  4).  After- 
wards, however,  the  Hebrews  ai)pear  to  have 
used  a  lunar  month.  This  may  be  gathered 
(1)  from  the  two  words  for  month  which  de- 
note respectively  new  moon  and  lunation 
and  indicate  the  original  measurement;  (2) 
from  passages  like  Gen.  i.  14;  Ps.  civ.  19; 
Ecclus.  xliii.  6-8;  (3)  from  the  observance  of 
the  day  of  the  new  moon  by  .special  offerings 
to  Jehovah  (Num.  x.  10;  xxviii.  11-14;  2 
("hron.  ii.  4);  and  (4)  from  the  coincidence 
between  the  ])assovcr,  which  was  always  cele- 
brated on  the  evening  of  the  fourteenth  day 


of  the  month,  and  the  full  moon  (Ps.  Ixxxi. 
3-5) ;  see  further  Antiq.  iii.  10,  3  and  5 ;  iv. 
4,  6,  and  article  Year.  A  lunation  requires 
a  little  more  than  twenty-nine  days  and  a 
half.  The  months  would  accordingly  aver- 
age twenty-nine  and  thirty  days  alternately. 
When,  however,  a  month  is  spoken  of  gener- 
ally, thirty  days  are  meant  (cp.  Num.  xx.  29; 
Deut.  xxxiv.  8  with  xxi.  13).  The  months 
were  commonly  distinguished  by  number. 
The  names  of  only  four  Hebrew  months  are 
found  in  Bible  narratives  relating  to  the 
period  before  the  captivity.  They  are  the 
first  month,  Abib  (Ex.  xiii.  4,  etc.);  the  sec- 
ond month,  Zif  (1  Kin.  vi.  37) ;  the  seventh, 
Ethanim  (viii.  2)  ;  and  the  eighth,  Bui  (vi. 
38).  After  the  captivity  the  names  in  com- 
mon use  among  the  Babylonians  and  other 
Semites  were  emjjloyed.     See  Year. 

Moon. 

The  jirincipal  luminary  of  the  night  (Gen. 
i.  16  ;  Ps.  cxxxvi.  9),  relied  upon  to  measure 
time,  marking  off  moons  or  months,  and 
regulating  the  day  of  the  passover,  and  thus 
aiding  in  regulating  the  feasts  of  the  year 
(Gen.  i.  14;  Ps.  civ.  19;  Ecclus.  xliii.  6,7; 
Antiq.  iii.  10,  5).  Almost  all  the  nations 
with  which  the  ancient  Hebrews  came  into 
contact  worshiped  the  moon.  Ur  of  the 
Chaldees,  from  which  Abraham  emigrated, 
and  Haran,  where  he  settled  for  a  time  and 
where  Jacob  dwelt  for  twenty  years,  were 
noted  seats  of  the  moon's  worship.  When 
Abraham  removed  to  Ganaan,  he  had  neigh- 
bors who  worshii)ed  the  two-horned  Ashto- 
reth  (Gen.  xiv.  5).  The  Egyptians  sacrificed 
to  the  moon  (Herod,  ii.  47),  and  the  goddess 
Isis  bore  the  lunar  disk  on  her  head.  In  the 
time  of  the  Assjrian  and  Babylonian  inva- 
sions of  Palestine,  the  Hebrews  came  again 
into  contact  with  people  who  regarded  the 
moon  as  one  of  the  great  gods.  At  this  time 
the  worship  of  the  moon  and  other  heavenly 
bodies  made  serious  inroads  on  the  religion 
of  Jehovah  (2  Kin.  xxi.  3;  xxiii.  4,  5;  Jer. 
vii.  18;  viii.  2).  The  moon  was  adored  by  a 
kiss  of  the  hand  (Job  xxxi.  26,  27),  with  the 
burning  of  incense  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  5).  In 
heathen  tem])les  the  moon  was  often  repre- 
sented by  the  crescent  as  a  symbol  and  by  an 
image  in  the  form  of  a  human  being.  This 
heathenism  had  its  check  in  the  sublime 
doctrine  of  Jehovah.  The  sun  and  moon 
were  made  by  the  God  of  Israel,  were  cre- 
ated for  the  useful  purjjose  of  giving  light, 
and  were  serviceable  to  man  in  aflbrding  a 
convenient  measurement  of  time. 

Different  from  the  worship  of  the  moon 
was  the  childish  conception  that  the  varying 
appearance  of  the  moon  from  night  to  night 
at  its  rising,  during  its  course  across  the  sky, 
and  at  its  setting,  which  are  due  to  atmos- 
pheric and  astronomic  conditions,  presaged 
political  occurrences.  The  aspect  of  the  moon 
may  indicate  weather  probabilities  ;  but  the 
folly  of  basing  predictions  of  national  events 


Moph 


491 


Moreli 


on  such  phenomena  was  pointed  out  by  tlie 
prophets  (Is.  xlvii.  13).  The  Helnews  seem 
to  have  shari'd  in  the  widespread  belief,  ap- 
parently justified  by  the  statements  of  trav- 
elers in  equatorial  regions,  that  the  moon 
may  atfect  the  health  and  under  eircuni- 
stances  produee  evil  consequences  to  muscles 
and  nerves.  But  the  child  of  God  can  safely 
intrust  himself  to  the  watchful  care  of  Je- 
hovah (Ps.  cxxi.  6). 

As  the  months  were  lunar,  the  new  moon 
marked  the  beginning  of  the  month  ;  and  the 
daj'  of  the  new  moon,  being  the  commence- 
ment of  a  natural  division  of  time,  was  ob- 
served as  a  holy  day.  No  set  convocation 
seems  to  have  been  prescribed  ;  but  additional 
sacrifices  were  offered  (Num.  xxviii.  11-14), 
trumpets  were  blown  (Num.  x.  10  ;  Ps.  Ixxxi. 
3),  ordinary  labor  was  suspended  (Amos  viii. 
5),  and  the  day  offered  favorable  opportunity 
for  religious  instruction  (2  Kin.  iv.  2.3  ;  Ezek. 
xlvi.  1,  3).  It  was  kept  with  joy  and  feasting 
(1  Sam.  XX.  .5  ;  Judith  viii.  6).  The  new  moon 
of  the  seventh  month  marked  the  beginning 
of  the  seventh  recurrence  of  a  fixed  portion 
of  time,  and  consequently  fell  under  the 
Sabbath  law.  and  was  observed  as  such  in 
addition  to  the  usual  worship  on  the  day  of 
the  new  moon  (Lev.  xxiii.  24,  25;  Num. 
xxix.  1-6).  After  the  exile  this  celebration 
assumed  the  character  of  a  new  year's  fes- 
tival. 

The  advent  of  the  new  moon  was  calcu- 
lated at  an  early  period  (1  Sam.  xx.  .5,  18). 
The  Babylonian  astrologers  watched  for  it 
on  the  evening  when  it  was  expected  to  be 
seen,  in  order  to  take  note  of  its  ap]iearance. 
According  to  the  Talmud,  the  .sanhedrin  as- 
sembled seven  times  a  year  early  in  the 
morning  of  the  thirtieth  day  of  the  month. 
Watchmen  were  stationed  on  the  heights 
about  Jerusalem  to  watch  for  the  new  moon 
and  report  it  as  soon  as  seen.  When  the  evi- 
dence of  its  appearance  was  deemed  sufli- 
cient,  the  sanhedrin  pronounced  the  word 
M'knddash,  it  is  consecrated,  and  the  day  be- 
came the  first  of  the  new  month,  leaving 
twenty-nine  days  for  the  preceding  mouth. 
If  fogs  or  clouds  prevented  the  moon  from 
bei*ig  discerned,  the  day  was  reckoned  as 
the  thirtieth  and  the  new  mouth  began  on 
the  morrow.  The  announcement  of  the  new 
moon  was  made  to  the  country  at  large  by 
lighting  a  beacon  fire  on  the  mount  of  Olives, 
which  was  repeated  by  similar  signals  from 
other  mountain  tops.  The  Samaritans  are 
said  to  have  thwarted  this  plan  by  kindling 
fires  prematurely.  In  consequence  the  sig- 
nals were  discontinued,  and  the  announce- 
ment of  the  new  moon  was  made  by  mes- 
sengers. 

Moph.     See  Memphis. 

Mo'ras-tliite. 

A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Moresheth,  as 
was  the  prophet  Micah  (i.  1:  Jer.  xxvi.  18)  ; 

see  MORESHETH-GATH. 


Mor'de-cai  [perhaps,  Persian,  signifj'ing 
little  man,  or  a  Babylonian  name,  meaning 
a  worshiper  of  Merodach]. 

1.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Jair,  son  of  Shimei, 
son  of  Ki.sh  (Esth.  ii.  5).  Hi.s  great-grand- 
father Kish,  to  whom  and  not  to  Mordecai 
ver.  6  probablj-  refers,  was  carried  captive  to 
Babylon  with  king  Jeconiah  in  598  B.  u.  He 
brought  up  Hadassah  or  Esther,  his  uncle's 
daughter,  adopting  her  as  his  own  after  her 
father  and  mother  had  died.  She  acted 
under  his  direction  in  the  series  of  events 
which  ended  by  making  her  queen  of  Persia 
as  wife  of  Ahasuerus  (Esth.  ii.  7-20).  This 
king  was  Xerxes,  who  reigned  from  486  to 
466  B.  c.  Through  Esther  Mordecai  informed 
the  king  of  a  plot  against  his  life,  and  the 
two  conspirators  were  executed  (21-23).  When 
Haman  was  the  king's  favorite,  Mordecai  de- 
clined to  prostrate  himself  before  him,  re- 
fu.sing  to  pay  the  customary  civilitj'  because 
of  Haman's  unprincipled  character  or  perhaps 
because  Haman  was  an  Agagite.  The  in- 
sulted dignitary  determined  to  wreak  ven- 
geance not  on  Mordecai  alone,  but  on  the 
entire  Jewish  people,  and  the  king  granted 
him  leave  (iii.  5-11).  One  night  Ahasuerus 
could  not  sleep,  and  to  relieve  the  tedium  of 
his  waking  hours,  he  desired  that  the  book 
recording  the  chronicles  of  the  kingdom 
should  be  read  to  him  by  his  attendants. 
The  con.spiracy  came  up  in  the  part  read, 
and  the  king  remembered  that  he  had  done 
nothing  for  his  deliverer.  When  morning 
dawned  he  requested  Haman,  who  had  come 
to  ask  permission  to  hang  ^Mordecai,  to  take 
that  faithful  subject,  array  him  in  royal 
apparel,  and  conduct  him  through  the  streets 
of  the  city  (Susa)  mounted  on  a  horse  belong- 
ing to  the  sovereign,  and  to  proclaim  before 
him  as  he  went  along:  "Thus  shall  it  be 
done  to  the  man  whom  the  king  delighteth 
to  honor."  This  was  the  commencement  of 
Haman's  fall,  and  of  a  series  of  events 
wliich  resulted  in  the  death  of  Haman  and 
his  sons,  and  the  promotion  of  Mordecai  to 
be  the  second  man  in  the  empire  (Esth.  vi.- 
X.).  Some  interpreters  would  identify  Mor- 
decai with  the  eunuch  Matacas  or  Natacas, 
who,  according  to  Ctesias,  was  the  chief  fav- 
orite of  Xerxes. 

2.  A  Jew  who  returned  from  Babylon  with 
Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii.  2;  Neh.  vii.  7). 

Mo'reh  [archer,  orthe  first  rain,  or  teacher] . 

1.  A  terebinth  or  oak  tree  and  grove  near 
Shechem  (Gen.  xii.  6;  Deut.  xi.  29,  30), 
which  most  probably  took  its  name  from  an 
archer  or  teacher  who  at  one  time  or  other 
dwelt  there.  Abraham  encamped  by.it  when 
he  arrived  in  Canaan  from  Mesopotamia,  and 
erected  an  altar  there  to  Jehovah  who  ap- 
peared unto  him.  It  was  probably  the  tree 
under  which  Jacob  buried  the  amulets  and 
idols  that  his  family  had  brought  with 
them  from  Haran,  and  where  Joshua  erected 
a.  stone  to  commemorate  the  covenant  which 


Moresheth-gath 


492 


Moses 


the  people  renewed  there,  and  whither  the 
men  of  Shechem  went  to  make  Ahimelech 
king  (Gen.  xxxv.  4  ;  Josh.  xxiv.  26,  though 
slightly  diflereut  words  are  used  for  tere- 
binth in  these  two  })assages  from  that  em- 
ployed in  Gen.  xii.  6;  Judg.  ix.  6).  The 
identity  of  the  tree  with  the  oak  or  terebinth 
of  the  augurs  near  Shechem  is  not  so  obvious 
(Judg.  ix.  37). 

2.  A  hill  in  the  valley  of  Jezreel  to  the 
north  of  the  spring  of  Harod  (Judg.  vii.  1). 
Not  positively  identified.  Jehel  Duhy,  or 
Little  Hermou,  about  8  miles  northwest  of 
mount  Gilboa  and  1  mile  south  of  Nain,  has 
been  suggested. 

Mor'esli-eth-gatli  [possession  of  Gath  or 
of  a  wine  press]. 

A  town  mentioned  in  connection  with 
places  in  Judah,  and  therefore  evidently 
situated  in  the  same  region  (Micah  i.  14). 
Jerome  located  it  in  the  vicinity  of  Eleu- 
theropolis.  Gath  in  the  name  is  generally  sup- 
posed to  denote  the  Philistine  city  and  to 
indicate  that  Moresheth  was  near  it.  Per- 
haps the  town  was  the  home  of  the  prophet 
Micah  (i.  1). 

Mo-ri'ah  [the  meaning  is  unknown.  The 
definite  article  ])refixed  to  the  word  shows 
that  it  is  not  a  proper  name  and  that  it  does 
not  contain  the  divine  name  Jehovah  ;  and 
the  orthography  further  shows  that  the  word 
does  not  mean  "  appearance  or  provision  of 
Jehovah  "]. 

1.  A  district  of  country,  on  one  of  whose 
hills  Abraham  prepared  to  sacrifice  Isaac; 
probably  the  region  lying  round  about  the  hill 
of  the  same  name  on  which  the  temple  was 
afterwards  built,  and  taking  its  name  from 
that  hill  or  from  some  circumstance  common 
to  both  it  and  the  hill  (Gen.  xxii.  2;  Antiq. 
i.  13,  1  and  2).  The  Samaritans,  and  after 
them  a  few  modern  scholars  like  Bleek,  Tuch, 
Stanley,  identify  Moreh  near  Shechem  with 
Moriali  (see  Samaritan  text)  and  Gerizim 
with  the  scene  of  Abraham's  sacrifice.  The 
Samaritan  identification  doubtless  rests  on 
the  fact  that  Abraham  did  build  an  altar  at 
Moreh  (Gen.  xii.  6,  7),  and  the  identification 
was  encouraged  by  the  desire  to  enhance  the 
religious  glory  of  their  country.  But  the 
etymology  of  Moreh  and  Moriah  is  diflVrent. 

2.  The  hill  on  which  was  the  threshing 
floor  of  Oman  the  Jebusite.  David  pur- 
chased the  floor  and  erected  an  altar  on  it. 
and  Solomon  made  it  the  site  of  the  temple 
(2  Sam.  xxiv.  18  seq. ;  2  Chron.  iii.  1).  The 
original  hill  has  been  much  altered  arti- 
ficially and  part  of  its  slopes  are  hidden 
beneath  accumulated  rubbish  and  embank- 
ments, but  its  general  contour  has  been 
determined.  Mount  Moriah  stood  between 
the  Kidron  and  Tyropoeon  valleys,  and  lifted 
its  summit  directly  opposite  the  mouth  of 
that  ravine  which  forms  the  western  branch 
of  the  latter  valley.  On  the  north  a  sliglit 
depression  separated  it  from  the  narrow  neck 


of  land  which  connected  it  with  the  main 
plateau.  It  is  diflicult  to  state  exact  dimen- 
sions ;  to  call  its  original  area  600  feet  from 
north  to  south  by  300  from  east  to  west  may 
be  not  fiir  from  the  truth.  Its  highest  point 
is  now,  according  to  Warren,  2448  feet  above 
the  ocean.  Other  platforms  are  2430  and 
2420  feet,  from  which  the  east  and  west 
slopes  very  rapidly  fall. 

Mor'tar  I. 

A  vessel  in  which  grain  and  spices  are 
pounded  with  a  pestle  (Num.  xi.  8;  Prov. 
XX vii.  22).  The  Arabs  of  the  present  day 
use  stone  mortars  in  which  to  pound  wheat 
for  making  Mbhy,  their  national  food,  and 
the  sound  of  l)raying  the  grain  with  the 
pestle  may  be  heard  at  all  hours  in  the 
towns. 

Mor'tar  II. 

A  substance  used  to  bind  bricks  or  stones 
together  in  a  wall.  Various  materials  were 
used.  1.  Mud  or  claj^  without  lime  (Nah. 
iii.  14),  frequently  employed  by  peasants  in 
Palestine.  2.  Mortar  properly  so  called,  con- 
sisting of  sand  and  lime  mixed  with  water, 
which  was  employed  in  building  the  better 
class  of  houses  (cp.  Ezek.  xiii.  10).  Palestine 
is  a  limestone  country,  and  lime  is  easily  ob- 
tained (Is.  xxxiii.  12).  3.  Bitumen  in  regions 
like  Babylonia  where  clay  and  lime  are 
scarce  (Gen.  xi.  3,  E.  V.  margin).  The  walls 
of  houses  were  (Lev.  xiv.  42)  and  still  are 
daubed  or  plastered  with  mud  or  mortar, 
often  mixed  with  straw  and  pebbles,  to  pro- 
tect them  against  the  weather.  The  mortar 
used  for  this  purpose  in  Egypt  consists  of  one 
half  clay,  one  quarter  lime,  and  the  rest  ashes 
and  straw. 

Mo-se'rah,  in  A.\.  Mosera  [bond,  fetter]. 

All  encampment  of  the  Israelites  in  the 
wilderness  near  Bene-jaakan  (Deut.  x.  6).  In 
Num.  xxxiii.  30,  the  plural  form  Moseroth  is 
used  as  the  name  of  the  place.  The  site  is  un- 
known; but  it  was  near  mount  Hor,  by  the 
border  of  Edom  (Num.  xx.  23;  xxxiii.  37; 
with  Deut.  x.  (i),  in  the  country  of  the  Hor- 
ites  (cp.  Gen.  xxxvi.  20,  27  with  1  Chron.  i.  42). 
Jebel  Madara  sounds  much  like  Mosera  ;  but 
is  not  the  exact  equivalent,  if  the  Arabic 
spelling  has  been  correctly  reported  by  travel- 
ers.    See  Hoe. 

Mo-se'roth.     See  preceding  article. 

Mo'ses  [from  the  Egyptian  mes  or  mesu, 
extraction,  a  son]. 

The  great  Hebrew  leader  and  legislator. 
He  was  a  Levite,  family  of  Kohath,  house 
of  Amram  (Ex.  vi.  18,  20).  Jochebed  is  called 
the  mother  of  Moses  (ver.  20)  ;  but  this  ex- 
pression is  doubtless  to  be  understood  in  the 
sense  of  ancestress,  Amram  and  Jochebed 
being  foundersof  the  tribal  house  into  which 
Moses  was  born  ;  see  Egypt.  The  edict  re- 
quiring the  Hebrew  male  children  to  be  cast 
into  the  Nile  brought  Moses  into  imminent 
peril  of  his  life.     But  his  mother  saw  that 


Moses 


493 


Moses 


he  was  a  goodly  child,  or,  as  Stephen  words 
it,  exceeding  fair  (Acts  vii.  20)  ;  and  she 
hid  liim  three  months  in  her  house.  When 
she  could  hide  him  no  longer,  she  placed  him 
within  an  ark  of  bulrushes,  which  had  been 
daubed  witii  bitumen  and  pitch  to  render  it 
water-tight:  put  it  among  the  flags  on  the 
river's  hank  ;  and  posted  Miriam,  then  a 
young  girl,  to  watch  the  result.  By  and  by 
Phai-aoh's  daughter,  attended  by  her  maid- 
ens, came  to  the  river  to  bathe.  Her  name 
was  Thermuthis.  according  to  Josephus 
(Antiq.  ii.  9,  5).  Eu.sebius  calls  her  Merris, 
whicli  sounds  like  Meri,  one  of  the  younger 
daughters  of  Ramses  II.  The  rabbins  iden- 
tify her  with  Bithiah  (1  Chron.  iv.  18).  She 
espied  the  ark,  and  had  it  opened.  She  saw 
by  the  features  and  color  of  the  infant  that 
he  was  a  Hebrew.  He  wept  and  she  was 
touched  with  pity.  At  this  critical  moment 
Miriam  stepped  forward,  and  with  admirable 
tact  asked  :  "Shall  I  go  and  call  thee  a  nurse 
of  the  Hebrew  women,  that  she  may  nurse 
the  cliild  for  thee  ?  "  The  princess  bade  her 
go,  and  the  child's  mother  was  called  and 
the  infant  committed  to  her  care.  When  he 
was  weaned  he  was  taken  to  Pharaoh's 
daughter,  who  adopted  him  and  called  him 
Moses.  The  name  was  doubly  fitting,  the 
child  having  been  d^a\^^l  from  the  water  and 
being  adopted  as  a  son  (Ex.  ii.  1-10).  The 
adopted  son  of  a  princess  required  a  princely 
education,  and  Moses  became  instructed  in 
all  the  wisdom  of  the  Egyptians  (Acts  vii. 
22),  who  were  then  unsurpassed  in  civiliza- 
tion by  any  people  in  the  world.  This  was 
designed  to  fit  him  for  high  office  under  the 
government,  if  not  even  for  the  Egyptian 
throne.  But  in  God's  intention  it  was  to 
prepare  him  for  the  leadership  of  the 
Hebrews.  He  was  po.ssessed  of  great  natu- 
ral ability,  and  the  training  which  he  re- 
ceived schooled  him  for  the  great  work  for 
which  he  was  destined.  He  became  familiar 
with  court  life  and  intercourse  with  princes, 
with  the  grandeur  and  pomp  of  religious 
w'orship  and  with  ritualistic  conventionali- 
ties and  symboli.sm,  with  letters  and  the 
literary  ideas  of  the  time.  He  witnessed 
the  administration  of  justice,  and  he  ac- 
quired a  general  acquaintance  with  the  arts 
which  were  practiced  in  civilized  life.  He 
remembered,  however,  his  origin,  believed 
the  promises  which  had  been  made  to  the 
Hebrew  people,  and  before  the  close  of  his 
sojourn  in  Egypt  he  had  discovered  the  call 
of  God  to  him  to  be  the  judge  and  the  de- 
liverer of  the  Israelites.  Going  out  to  ob- 
serve the  state  of  his  countrjanen,  he  saw 
one  of  them  struck  by  an  Egyptian.  Moses 
killed  the  opitressor,  and  hid  iiis  body  in  the 
sand.  Another  day  he  tried  to  reconcile  two 
Hebrews  who  were  striving  together,  on 
which  the  one  who  was  in  the  wrong  inso- 
lently asked  :  "  Who  made  thee  a  prince  and 
a  judge  over  us  ?  intendest  thou  to  kill  me,  as 
thou   killedst  the   Egyptian?"     Moses  was 


alarmed  to  find  that  his  deed  of  the  previous 
day  had  become  known,  and  on  learning 
that  it  had  reached  the  ears  of  I'haraoh, 
who  said  that  he  would  kill  him  for  it,  fled 
from  Egypt  to  the  land  of  Midian.  He  had 
refused  to  be  called  the  son  of  Pharaoh's 
daughter,  had  cast  in  his  lot  with  the  people 
of  God,  and  bad  assumed  the  position  of  de- 
liverer and  judge  (Ex.  ii.  11-1.5;  Acts  vii. 
24-28;  Heb.  xi.  24,  25).  He  was  now  forty 
years  old  (Acts  vii.  2.3).  On  arriving  in 
Midian,  Moses  aided  the  daughters  of  Jethro 
to  water  their  flocks.  This  act  introduced 
him  to  Jethro,  who  was  a  priest.  Jethro 
showed  him  hospitality,  furnished  him 
with  employment,  and  gave  him  one  of 
his  daughters  to  wife.  She  bore  Moses  two 
sons,  Gershom  and  Eliezer  (Ex.  ii.  22  ;  iv.  20  ; 
xviii.  3,  4).  He  remained  in  Midian  forty 
years  (Acts  vii.  30).  This  period  was  like- 
wise a  time  of  preparation.  He  enjoyed  in- 
timate association  with  a  leading  man  of  the 
Midianites,  a  man  of  sound  judgment  (Ex. 
xviii.).  and  a  priest,  although  not  of  the  reli- 
gion of  the  Israelites.  Here  Moses  widened  his 
acquaintance  with  religious  thoughtand  forms 
of  Avorship.  He  learned  the  roads  of  the  wil- 
derness, its  resources,  its  climate,  and  the 
mode  of  life  of  its  inhabitants.  In  its  soli- 
tude he  had  opportunity  for  reflection.  At 
the  close  of  this  period  he  was  astonished  to 
see  a  bush  burning  and  yet  remaining  un- 
consumed.  As  he  turned  aside  to  look  more 
narrowly  at  a  sight  so  unique,  he  received 
an  authenticated  call  from  Jehovah,  and  the 
objections  were  overcome  which  he  rai.sed  on 
the  ground  of  insutficiencj'  for  the  work 
(Ex.  iii.  11),  inability  to  tell  the  ]>e(ii>le  in 
what  character  God  would  manifest  himself 
for  their  deliverance  (13j,  lack  of  credentials 
to  secure  the  recognition  of  the  people  (iv.  1), 
and  lack  of  eloquence  to  persuade  (10).  These 
difficulties  were  removed ;  and  Moses  ac- 
quiesced, but  unwillingly.  God  was  dis- 
pleased, and  promised  that  Aaron  should 
help  Mo.ses  (14).  Moses  took  his  wife  Zip- 
porah  and  his  sons  to  return  to  Egypt  (20). 
Two  sons  had  been  born  to  him.  One  of 
them,  doubtless  the  younger,  he  had  not 
circumcised,  because  Zipporah  regarded  the 
rite  as  bloody.  In  yielding  to  her  in  this 
matter  Moses  had  shown  himself  unfaithful 
in  his  own  household  and  unfit  for  his  high 
commission.  God  was  displeased  with  this 
neglect  of  the  sign  of  the  covenant;  and 
now,  as  Moses  was  returning  to  Egypt  with 
his  family,  God  brought  him  nigh  unto  death 
at  the  inn.  But  Zipporah  discerned  the 
cause  and,  desirous  of  saving  her  husband's 
life,  at  once  took  a  knife  and  performed  the 
operation,  saying,  "  A  bridegroom  of  blood  art 
thou  to  me"  (Ex.  iv.  24-26).  Arriving  in 
Egypt,  Moses  repeatedly,  in  conjunction  with 
Aaron,  conveyed  to  Pharaoh  the  divine  com- 
mands, the  rejection  of  which  brought  on 
the  obstinate  king  and  his  people  the  suc- 
cession   of  judgments    known    as    the   ten 


Moses 


494 


Moses 


plagues  (v.-xiii.  16).  When  the  departure 
from  Ejivpt  took  phice,  it  was  Moses  who, 
under  divine  guidance,  led  the  people.  At 
Sinai  he  was  admitted  to  intimate  relations 
with  God.  God  allowed  all  the  people  to 
hear  his  voice  in  articulate  words ;  but  he 
permitted  Moses  to  see  him  manifested  and 
he  spake  unto  Moses  face  to  face,  as  a  man 
speaketh  unto  his  friend  (Ex.  xxiv.  9-11 ; 
xxxiii.  11,  17-23;  xxxiv.  5-29),  and  he  re- 
vealed his  will  to  Moses  from  time  to  time 
for  the  instruction  of  his  people,  as  he  did 
afterwards  to  the  successive  prophets.  Moses 
received  from  God  the  two  tables  of  stone  ; 
but  on  finding  that  in  his  absence  the  people 
had  taken  to  worshiping  a  golden  calf,  he 
dashed  the  tablets  to  the  ground  and  broke 
them  in  his  righteous  indignation  and  in 
token  of  the  fact  that  the  covenant,  of  which 
they  were  the  fundamental  law,  had  been 
annulled  by  the  sin  of  the  ])eople.  Moses  in- 
terceded for  the  people,  and  God  promised 
that  his  angel  should  accompany  the  host. 
Moses  was  again  called  into  the  mountain, 
and  received  two  other  tables  inscribed  like 
the  first  (xix.,  xx. ;  xxxii.-xxxiv.).  On  each 
of  these  occasions  he  fasted  forty  days  and 
nights  (Ex.  xxiv.  18;  xxxiv.  28;  Deut.  ix.  9, 
18),  as  Elijah  afterwards  did  (1  Kin.  xix.  8), 
both  in  this  respect  foreshadowing  the  simi- 
lar fast  of  our  Lord  (Mat.  iv.  2).  The  name 
of  Moses  is  forever  associated  with  the  laws 
given  at  Sinai  and  during  the  subsequent 
desert  wanderings.  When  Moses  came  dowu 
from  mount  Sinai  the  second  time,  with  the 
tables  of  the  law  in  his  hand,  the  skin  of  his 
face  shone,  sending  forth  beams  (Hebrew, 
horns),  and  the  people  were  afraid  to  come 
nigh  him  (Ex.  xxxiv.  29,  E.  V.  margin). 
Moses  called  to  them,  and  they  returned  to 
him ;  and  he  spake  with  them  and  gave  to 
them  all  that  the  Lord  had  spoken  with  him. 
"And  till  Moses  had  done  speaking  with 
them,  he  put  a  veil  on  his  face.  But  when 
Moses  went  in  before  the  Lord  to  speak  with 
him,  he  took  the  veil  off,  until  he  came  out" 
(33,  34,  A.  v.).  The  E.  V.,  following  the 
Septuagiut  and  Vulgate  and  correctly  ren- 
dering the  Hebrew,  says  just  the  contrary: 
"  And  when  Moses  had  done  speaking  with 
them,  he  put  a  veil  on  his  face."  He  did 
not  wear  the  veil  while  speaking  either  with 
the  people  or  with  the  Lord.  He  wore  the 
veil,  not  to  hide  the  splendor  (A.  V.),  but  to 
conceal  the  vanishing  away  of  the  splendor 
(E.  V.) ;  and  he  wore  it  until  he  returned  to 
the  presence  of  the  Lord,  where  the  light  of 
his  countenance  was  rekindled.  Moses  "  put 
a  veil  upon  his  face,  that  the  children  of 
Israel  should  not  look  steadfastly  on  the  end 
of  that  which  was  i)assing  away "  (2  Cor. 
iii.  13,   E.  v.,  cp.  7). 

In  the  second  year  of  the  sojourn  of  the 
Israelites  in  the  wilderness,  Moses  is  men- 
tioned as  having  married  a  Cushite  woman 
(Num.  xii.  1).  Zipporah  may  have  died  dur- 
ing the  preceding  year,  although  her  death 


is  not  recorded  (cp.  Ex.  xviii.  2).  Among 
the  later  Jews  the  story  ran  that  the  Cushite 
woman  was  an  Ethiojiian  princess  named 
Tharbis,  who  had  fallen  in  love  with  Moses 
on  the  occasion  of  his  leading  an  Egyptian 
army  into  Ethiopia,  while  he  was  still  a 
member  of  Pharaoh's  household  (Antiq.  ii. 
10,  2).  The  tale  is  evidently  a  fabrication. 
The  marriage  took  place  in  the  wilderness, 
when  Miriam  and  Aaron  were  jealous  of 
Moses'  superiority  in  public  afiairs.  They 
were  leaders  of  the  host,  directors  of  the 
national  life,  and  prophets  as  well  as  Moses ; 
and  on  this  ground  they  claimed  that  their 
opposition  to  Moses'  marriage  with  the  for- 
eigner should  have  been  heeded  by  him. 
The  Cushite  woman  was  probably  one  of  the 
mixed  multitude  which  accompanied  the 
Israelites  in  the  flight  from  Egypt  (Ex.  xii. 
38). 

Shortly  after  leaving  Kadesh,  Korah  and 
other  princes  rebelled  against  the  authority 
of  Moses  and  Aaron,  but  were  signally  pun- 
ished by  God  (Num.  xvi.) ;  see  Korah.  At 
the  second  encampment  at  Kadesh,  Moses 
and  Aaron  grievously  sinned  (Num.  xx.). 
When  bidden  by  God  to  speak  unto  the  rock 
that  it  give  forth  its  water,  Moses  said  to  the 
assembled  people:  "Hear  now,  ye  rebels; 
shall  we  bring  you  forth  water  out  of  this 
rock  V  "  The  brothers  failed  to  observe  their 
subordinate  position.  They  claimed  to  be 
the  leaders  and  providers  of  the  people, 
whereas  it  was  God  wiio  had  led  the  Israel- 
ites from  Egypt  and  had  fed  them  for  forty 
years  in  the  wilderness.  They  took  to  them- 
selves the  honor  which  belonged  to  God  alone. 
When  called  upon  to  act  for  God,  they  acted 
in  their  own  name,  and  used  for  their  own 
glory  the  power  delegated  unto  them.  For 
this  sin  of  treason  they  were  denied  the 
privilege  of  conducting  the  people  into  the 
promised  land.  It  was  a  sore  chastisement 
to  Moses,  but  it  made  no  change  in  the  fidelity 
of  this  great  servant  of  the  Lord.  After  the 
condemnation  he  was  faithful,  as  he  had  been 
before.  He  started  the  people  once  more  on 
their  march  to  Canaan.  He  led  Aaron  up 
mount  Hor,  stripped  him  of  his  ofiicial  robes, 
and  transferred  his  olfice  to  Eleazar,  thus 
himself  aiding  in  carrying  out  the  death 
sentence.  When  the  people  were  bitten  by 
the  fiery  serpents,  he  interceded  with  God 
for  them,  and  at  God's  bidding  erected  the 
brazen  serpent  and  bade  his  dying  country- 
men look  and  live.  He  led  the  armies  of 
Israel  into  the  territory  of  Sihon  and  Og, 
and  conquered  it  for  Israel.  When  the  camp 
was  pitched  in  a  valley  in  the  mountains  of 
Abarim,  and  glimpses  of  the  land  of  Abraham, 
Isaac,  and  Jacob  were  obtained,  the  pent-up 
emotionsof  Moses'  soul  again,  as  on  other  unre- 
corded occasions  since  his  transgression  found 
relief  in  prayer :  "  O  Lord  God,  thou  hast  be- 
gun to  show  th  J'  servant  thy  greatness,  and  thy 
strong  hand  :  .  .  .  .  Let  me  go  over,  I  pray 
thee,  and  see  the  good  land  that  is  beyond 


Moses 


495 


Mourning 


Jordan,  that  goodly  mountain,  and  Lebanon." 
But  the  answer  eanie  :  "  Let  it  suffice  thee  ; 
speak  no  more  untu  me  of  this  matter  .  .  .  . 
for  thou  shalt  not  go  over  Jordan "  (Deut. 
iii.  24-27).  The  camp  was  moved  and 
pitched  at  Shittim  in  the  valley,  and  Moses 
put  his  house  in  order  that  he  might  die.  He 
delivered  a  parting  address  to  the  peojjle  ;  see 
Deuteronomy.  He  led  Joshua,  whom  God 
liad  appointed  to  succeed  him,  before  the 
high  priest  in  the  presence  of  the  congrega- 
tion, placed  his  liands  upon  him,  and,  giving 
him  a  charge,  transferred  to  him  the  office 
which  he  himself  had  so  honorably  and 
efficiently  filled  for  forty  years.  He  after- 
wards led  Joshua  to  the  door  of  the  taber- 
nacle to  receive  a  charge  from  God.  Then 
he  taught  the  people  a  song  that  they  might 
have  words  of  religious  wisdom  in  their 
memory  and  on  their  tongues,  bestowed  his 
farewell  blessing  on  the  several  tribes,  as- 
cended mount  Xebo  and  viewed  the  promised 
land  from  its  summit,  and  died.  He  was  120 
years  old,  yet  was  his  eye  not  dim  nor  his 
natural  force  abated.  God  buried  him  near 
by  (Deut.  xxsiv.). 

It  was  during  the  forty  years  in  the  wil- 
derness that  the  principal  literary  work  of 
Moses  was  done.  He  kept  a  record  of  the 
encampments  (Num.  xxxiii.),  made  a  note  of 
events,  such  as  the  battle  with  Amalek  (Ex. 
xvii.  It),  connuitted  the  .statutes  founded  on 
the  covenant  law  to  writing  (.xxiv.  4-7),  pre- 
served a  copy  of  his  farewell  address  (Deut. 
xxxi.  24).  He  had  also  the  richness,  vivid- 
ness, and  depth  of  thought  requisite  for 
writing  Hebrew  poetry,  which  is  verj^  simple 
in  its  structure  and  a  ready  vehicle  for  fervid 
utterance.  The  most  spontaneous  of  his 
poems,  written  under  the  intense  feeling  of 
the  moment,  was  the  song  which  he  uttered 
when  Pharaoh  was  overthrown  in  the  Red  Sea 
(Ex.  XV.  1-lS).  Moses  ascribes  the  glory  to 
Jehovah  (1-3),  describes  the  event  (4-12), 
anticipates  its  effect  upon  the  enemies  of  Is- 
rael (13-1.5),  and  discerns  in  it  a  guarantee 
that  Jehovah  will  bring  Israel  into  the  prom- 
ised land  (1()-18).  The  song  may  h-ave  been 
compo.sed  in  a  few  moments.  Ps.  xc.  is  the 
product  of  a  quieter  mood  and  of  reflection. 
His  didactic  song,  embodying  the  religious 
lessons  of  the  preceding  forty  years,  was 
prepared  with  the  design  of  its  being  com- 
mitted to  memory  by  the  people  (Deut.  xxxii. ; 
cp.  xxxi.  19,  22).  His  farewell  blessing  of 
the  tribes,  like  the  farewell  words  of  Jacob 
to  his  sons,  was  also  cast  in  poetic  form 
(Dent,  xxxiii.).  Mo.ses  had  literary  ability ; 
he  had  also  the  stimulus  aflorded  bj-  the 
literary  ideas  of  the  Egyptians  and  the  ex- 
ample of  their  histories,  and  the  incentive 
of  the  awakened  national  life  of  the  He- 
brews, and  the  stirring  events  amid  which 
he  lived  to  lead  him  to  write  a  connected 
history  of  his  peojile,  such  as  is  found  in  the 
Pentateuch.  For  his  authorship  of  that  work 
see  Pentateuch. 


Moses  had  the  wisdom  of  a  statesman.  lie 
observed  the  opposition  to  him  which  was 
manifested  in  his  own  family,  the  jealousy 
of  other  tribes,  the  worldly  considerations 
by  which  the  people  were  actuated,  their 
lack  of  faith  in  Jehovah  at  critical  monu-uts, 
and  their  readiness  to  lapse  into  i(i<platry. 
He  meditated  on  these  weaknesses  wliich 
threatened  the  national  existence  ;  and  when 
he  came  to  prepare  his  farewell  address  he 
insisted  upon  the  law  of  the  one  altar  and 
upon  the  spirituality  of  religion  as  the  great 
means  under  God  of  overcoming  these  de- 
fects by  deepening  the  moral  life  on  the  one 
hand,  and  on  the  other  hand  by  preserving 
purity  of  worship  and  doctrine,  binding  the 
people  together  as  one  nation,  and  making 
their  own  religion  a  greater  spectacle  than 
the  ceremonies  at  heathen  shrines ;  see  Altar 
and  Deuteronomy.  After  his  death  the 
greatness  of  Moses  was  universally  recog- 
nized, and  his  reputation  grew  as  the  cen- 
turies went  by.  He  had,  moreover,  the 
distinguished  honor  of  being  i)ermitted  to 
reappear  as  the  representative  of  O.  T.  law, 
with  Elijah,  the  representative  of  O.  T. 
'prophecy,  to  hold  converse  with  Jesus  on  the 
mount  of  transfiguration  (Mat.  xvii.  3,  4). 

Moth. 

An  insect  proverbial  for  its  destruction  of 
clothing  (Job  xiii.  28  ;  Mat  vi.  19  ;  Jas.  v.  2). 
Its  larva  feeds  upon  wool  (Is.  li.  8),  and  out 
of  the  same  substance  builds  itself  a  house 
or  case,  in  which  it  lives  (Job  xxvii.  18),  pro- 
truding its  head  while  eating.  The  clothes 
moth  {Tinea)  is  intended,  of  which  several 
species,  as  T.  pellionella  and  vestianeUa,  feed 
on  fur  and  wool. 

Mount. 

1.  A  mountain.  The  word  is  now  used 
almost  exclusively  in  poetry  or  as  part  of  a 
compound  name,  as  mount  Carmel,  mount 
Tabor,  mount  Zion,  mount  of  Olives  (1  Kin. 
xviii.  19  :  Ps.  xlviii.  2  ;  Zech.  xiv.  4)  ;  see 
Carmel,  Zion,  etc. 

2.  A  mound,  especially  one  raised  against 
the  wall  of  a  besieged  city  by  the  assailing 
army  (Jer.  vi.  6  ;  Dan.  xi.  15  ;  and  R.  V.  of 
2  Sam.  XX.  15  ;  2  Kin.  xix.  32),  and  on  which 
the  battering  ram  was  placed  (Ezek.  xxvi. 
8,  9) ;  see  illustration  xinder  Lachish.  In 
Is.  xxix.  3  a  different  Hebrew  word  is  used, 
which  R.  V.  renders  fort. 

Moun'tain. 

Gf  the  mountains  in  or  near  Palestine  the 
loftiest  was  mount  Hermon.  Then  followed 
the  Lebanon  range.  Compared  with  those 
towering  elevations  such  hills  as  mount  Zion, 
mount  Moriah,  mount  Carmel,  mount  Tabor, 
etc.,  were  very  inferior  eminences  (Deut. 
iii.  25). 

Mourn 'ing. 

The  mourning  of  the  oriental  was  and  is 
ostentatious.  Public  expression  was  given  to 
grief  principally  by  removing  ornaments  and 
neglecting  the  person  (Ex.  xxxiii.  4  ;  2  Sam. 


Mouse 


496 


Mule 


xiv.  2;  xix.  24;  Mat.  vi.  16-18),  rending 
the  clothes  hy  slitting  the  tunic  at  the  throat 
or  tearing  the  coat  or  the  outer  mantle  (Lev. 
X.  6;  2  .Sam.  xiii.  31;  Joel  ii.  13),  shaving 
the  head  or  plucking  out  the  hair  (Ezra  ix. 
3 ;  Jer.  vii.  29),  putting  on  sackcloth  (Joel  i. 
8),  sprinkling  ashes  or  dust  on  the  head  (2 
Sam.  XV.  32),  fasting  (Ps.  xxxv.  13),  weeping 
and  lamenting  (Joel  i.  8,  13).  Several  of 
these  modes  were  usually  combined  (Gen. 
xxxvii.  34;  2  Sam.  iii.  31,  32;  xiii.  19;  xv. 
32;  Ezra  ix.  3,  5;  Job  i.  20;  Jer.  xli.  5). 
Friends  came  to  the  house  of  mourning,  and 
flute  players  and  professional  mourners, 
chiefly  women,  were  also  employed,  who 
made  loud  lamentations  (Jer.  ix  17,  18 ; 
Mat.  ix.  23  ;  Acts  ix.  39) ;  see  Minstrel.  As 
at  the  present  day,  funeral  feasts  were  given 
to  the  crowds  that  assembled  at  the  funeral 
{Jer.  xvi.  7;  Baruch  vi.  32).  After  the 
funeral  women  came  forth  very  early  in  the 
morning  to  visit  the  grave,  as  they  are  still 
accustomed  to  do,  and  to  pray,  weep  and  sob  or 
chant  hymns  or  beat  their  breasts  (Mark  xvi. 
1,  2).  Many  of  them  are  professionals  ;  but 
others  are  sincere  mourners,  relatives  of  the 
deceased  and  their  sympathizing  friends' 
(John  xi.  31).  Customs,  in  general  similar, 
prevailed  in  Egypt,  Persia,  and  Scythia 
(Herod,  ii.  66,  85 ;  iv.  71  ;  viii.  99  ;  ix.  24). 

The  period  of  mourning  varied.  It  was 
thirty  days  for  Aaron  and  Moses  (Num.  xx. 
29  :  Deut.  xxxiv.  8),  and  seven  days  foi  feaiil 
(1  Sam.  xxxi.  13).  The  Egyptians  obseived 
seventy  days  for  Jacob,  and  seven  more  days 
were  devoted  to  public  mourning  for  him  at 
the  threshing  floor  of  Atad  (Gen.  1.  3,  10) 

Mouse. 

A  small   rodent  quadruped,  3Ius  vintcxlHs 
and  other  allied  species  of  the  family  iTii}  uJx 
It  was  an  unclean  animal  (Lev.  xi.  29),  but 
was  eaten  by  Israelites  in  Isaiah's  time  -nho 
gave  themselves  up  to  heathenism  and  piid 
no  attention  to  the  Mosaic  law  (Is.  Isvi    17) 
The   field    mouse   (Arvicola  arralis)  was   d( 
structive  to  crops  (1  Sam.  vi.  5).     The  H( 
brew  word  for  mouse,   'akbar,  is  a  compie 
hensive  one,  including  not  merely  the  genus 
Mus,  but  most  of  the  family  Muridse,  vMth 
many  animals   from   other   families  haviii 
either  an  affinity  or  an  analogy  to  the  t^yi 
cal    mice.    '  The    Arabs   include   the  jeiboi 
under  the  designation  'akhar,  and  they  eat 
it,   and    various    other  mouse-like  animals, 
such   as  sand   rats,  which  belong  to  the  sub- 
family GerhilUnse,  and  dormice,  of  the  related 
family  Myoxidae. 

Mo'za  [a  going  forth,  issue]. 

1.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Hezron, 
house  of  Caleb  (1  Chron.  ii.  46). 

2.  A  descendant  of  Jonathan  (1  Chron. 
viii.  36,  37). 

Mo'zah. 

A  town  of  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii.  26).  Not 
identified.     The  name  is  etymologically  dif- 


ferent from   Beit  Mizza,   a  ruined   village, 
about  .5  miles  west-northwest  of  Jerusalem. 

Mul'ber-ry  Tree. 

A  tree  of  the  same  order  as  the  fig.  It  is 
cultivated  in  Syria  for  the  sake  of  its  leaves, 
on  which  the  silkworm  feeds.  A  cooling 
drink  is  made  from  its  berries,  the  juice 
being  expressed,  sweetened  with  honey,  and 
flavored  with  spices.  The  juice  of  the  ber- 
ries was  shown  to  elephants  to  prepare  them 
for  battle  (1  Mac.  vi.  34  ;  cp.  3  Mac.  v.  2).  A 
mulberry  is  mentioned  in  N.  T.  under  the 
name  of  sycamine. 

Mulberry  is  the  rendering  of  the  Hebrew 
BahC,  weeping,  distilling  ;  a  tree  which  grew 
near  Jerusalem  and  of  which  the  leaves 
rustled  in  the  wind  (2  Sam.  v.  23,  24 ;  1 
Chron.  xiv.  14, 15).  In  the.se  passages  and  in 
Ps.  Ixxxiv.  6  the  margin  of  E.  V.  has  balsam 
tree.  Royle  suggested  that  the  tree  intended 
is  that  called  hak  by  the  Arabs,  or  rather 
fihajrat  al-bak,  the  gnat  tree,  which  he  iden- 
tifies with  the  poplar.  Two  species  of  poplar 
are  common  along  the  banks  of  streams  and 
in  moist  soil  in  Palestine,  the  white  poplar 
and  the  Euphrates  poplar;  but  there  is  no 
etymological  connection  between  bak  and 
baka' . 

Mule. 

A  graminivorous  animal,  called  in  Hebrew 
pered  (1  Kin.  xviii.  5).     The  mule  is  a  hybrid 


Mule  in  Ancient  Assyria. 

between  the  horse  and  the  ass.  It  is  often 
mentioned  with  horses  (Ps.  xxxii.  9),  and 
was  much  used  for  riding  and  for  carrying 
burdens  (2  Sam.  xiii.  29;  2  Kin.  v.  17;  1 
Chron.  xii.  40).  It  is  not  mentioned  before 
the  time  of  David,  but  was  in  common  use 
fnmi  his  days  onward.  The  Tyrians  obtained 
mules  in  Armenia  (Ezek.  xxvii.  14). 

In  A.  Y.  of  Gen.  xxxvi.  24  the  Hebrew 


Muppim 


497 


Music 


plural  yeiiiim  is  translated  mules;  but  it 
should  rather  be  rendered  hot  springs,  as  it 
is  in  the  Vulgate  and  in  K.  V.  In  A.  V.  of 
Esth.  viii.  10,  14  rekesh  is  rendered  mule,  in 
1  Kin.  iv.  28  dromedary.  E.  V.  substitutes 
swift  steed. 
Mup'pim. 

A  sou  of  Benjamin  (Geu.  xlvi.  21) ;  see 
Shephupham. 

Mur'der. 

Just  after  the  deluge  it  was  enacted  that 
whoso  sheddeth  man's  blood,  by  man  shall 
his  blood  be  shed  :  for  in  the  image  of  God 
made  he  man  (Geu.  ix.  ti).  The  avenger  of 
blood  had  the  right  to  put  the  murderer  to 
death  (Num.  xxxv.  19) ;  but  if  the  man- 
slayer  reached  a  city  of  refuge  he  was  tem- 
porarily safe.  The  cities  of  refuge  were  not 
instituted  for  the  benefit  of  the  deliberate 
murderer ;  they  were  designed  for  the  man 
who  had  accidentally  committed  manslaugh- 
ter (Num.  XXXV.).  Even  if  the  deliberate 
murderer  had  fled  for  asylum  to  the  altar, 
and  probably  taken  hold  of  its  horns,  he  was 
to  be  taken  from  it  and  put  to  death  (Ex. 
xxi.  14;  cp.  1  Kin.  ii.  28-34).  At  the  city  of 
refuge  the  mauslayer  was  given  a  trial.  The 
concurrent  testimony  of  at  least  two  wit- 
nesses was  required  to  convict  him  of  murder 
(Num.  xxxv.  30;  Deut.  xvii.  6).  If  guilty 
of  deliberate  murder,  no  ransom  was  ac- 
cepted (Num.  xxxv.  31),  he  was  delivered  to 
the  avenger  of  blood  to  be  slain  (19;  Deut. 
xix.  12).  If  acquitted,  he  was  granted  asy- 
lum in  the  city.    See  City  of  Refuge. 

Mu'shl. 

A  Levite,  sou  of  Merari,  and  the  founder 
of  a  tribal  family  or  house  (Ex.  vi.  19 ;  Num. 
iii.  20 ;  xxvi.  58 ;  1  Chron.  vi.  19,  47 ;  xxiii. 
21,  23;  xxiv.  26,  30). 

Mu'sic. 

Music  is  ancient  (Gen.  iv.  21).  Among 
the  Hebrews,  Miriam  and  her  companions 
took  timbrels  and  danced  and  sang  praises  to 


on  musical  instruments,  and  danced  (.Ter. 
XXV.  10;  1  Mac.  ix.  39;  Luke  xv.  25).  Mar- 
riage processions,  as  they  passed  through  the 
streets,  were  accompanied  with  music  and 
song  (Jer.  vii.  34).  Women  and  maidens 
welcomed  the  victorious  warrior  on  his  re- 
turn home  with  music,  song,  and  dance 
(Judg.  xi.  34;  1  Sam.  xviii.  (j).  Kings  had 
their  court  musicians  (2  Chron.  xxxv.  25; 
Ecc.  ii.  8).  The  accession  of  a  king  and  his 
marriage  and  his  feasts  were  made  joyous 
with  music  (2  Sam.  xix.  35;  1  Kin.  i.  40;  Ps. 
xlv.  8,  E.  v.).  The  shepherd  might  have  his 
harp  (1  Sam.  xvi.  18).  The  mind  might  be 
quieted  and  refreshed  by  music  (1  Sam.  x.  5; 
xvi.  16  ;  2  Kin.  iii.  15).  P.salms  might  be  sung 
to  the  accompaniment  of  the  harp  (Ps.  xcii. 
1-3;  cxxxvii.  2;  cp.  Amos  vi.  5). 

The  musical  instruments  of  the  Hebrews 
were  of  three  classes:  stringed  instruments, 
wind  instruments,  and  instruments  of  per- 
cussion. Stringed  instruments  consisted  of 
a  body  of  wood  with  strings  of  gut,  and 
were  played  with  the  fingers  of  one  or  both 
hands  or  were  struck  w'ith  a  plectrum  of 
wo(jd.  ivory,  or  metal.  They  were  chiefly 
the  harp  and  psaltery.  The  harp  was  in 
general  use  among  the  people  both  for  worldly 
and  sacred  music ;  the  psaltery  was  commonly, 
though  not  exclusively,  reserved  for  religious 
purposes.  The  p.saltery  was  tuned  to  the 
soprano  register,  the  harp  an  octave  lower 
(1  Chron.  xv.  20,  21).  The  wind  instruments 
were  chiefly  flutes  or  pipes  and  horns.  The 
pil)e  was  often  played  wdth  other  instruments 
(1  Sam.  X.  5;  1  Kin.  i.  40;  Is.  v.  12;  xxx. 
29;  Ecclus.  xl.  21),  was  employed  to  lead 
dancing  (Mat.  xi.  17),  and  was  played  at 
weddings  (1  Mac.  iii.  45;  Eev.  xviii.  22).  It 
was  specially  the  instrument  of  lamentation 
(Jer.  xlviii.  36;  Mat.ix.23,  R.V.;  War  iii.  9,  5). 
The  Bible  does  not  mention  its  use  in  the 
temple  service,  not  even  in  1  Mac.  iv.  54  ;  but 
it  was  used  in  sacred  music  (1  Sam.  x.  5)  and 
was  heard  in  processions  of  worshipers  march- 


Band  of  Musicians  in  Assyria. 


the  Lord  for  his  deliverance  of  the  Israelites 
at  the  Eed  Sea  (Ex.  xv.  20).  The  people 
danced  and  sang  in  idolatrous  worship  about 
the  golden  calf  (Ex.  xxxii.  6,  18).  In  family 
feasts  and  religious  festivals  they  sang,  played 


ing  to  the  house  of  God  (Is.  xxx.  29),  and  in 
the  later  temple  it  had  an  assigned  place, 
especially  at  the  passover  and  feast  of  taber- 
nacles. The  ram's  horn,  or  an  imitation  of 
it,  was  sometimes  used  to  increase  the  noise 


Music 


498 


Music 


of  other  instruments  (1  Chron.  xv.  28;  2 
Chrou.  XV.  14 ;  Ps.  xcviii.  6,  rendered  trumpet), 
but  was  generally  blown  by  itself.  Its  prin- 
cipal employment  was  not  in  music,  but  for 
military  purposes  and  to  make  proclamations. 
Straight,  narrow,  silver  trumpets,  about  a 
cubit  in  length,  and  called  hasofrah,  were  used 
by  the  priests  to  anuouuce  ifestivals,  to  call  the 
congregation,  and  on  advancing  to  battle 
(Num.  X.  1-10).  They  were  rarely  blown  by 
laymen  (Hos.  v.  8 ;  perhaps,  2  Kin.  xi.  14 
and  2  Chi'on.  xsiii.  13).  Of  the  instruments 
of  percussion  the  timbrel  or  tabret  was  the 
popular  instrument;  it  was  usually  played 
by  women  and  was  employed  on  festive  occa- 
sions, esjiecially  to  beat  time  at  the  dances 
and  for  singers  (Gen.  xxxi.  27 ;  Ex.  xv.  20 ; 
Judg.  xi.  34  ;  Ps.  Ixxxi.  2).  Cymbals  of  brass 
were  used  in  the  temple  service  (1  Chron. 
XV.  19). 

Music   was   cultivated   by   the   companies 
which  gathered  about  the  prophets  (1  Sam. 


288  were  trained  musicians,  who  were  de- 
pended upon  to  lead  the  less  skilled  body  of 
assistants  (1  Chron.  xxv.  7,  8).  They  were 
divided  into  twenty-four  cour.ses,  containing 
twelve  trained  musicians  each.  Of  these 
courses  four  belonged  to  the  family  of  Asaph, 
six  to  that  of  Jeduthun,  and  fourteen  to  that 
of  Heman.  The  orchestra  which  accompa- 
nied the  singing  consisted  of  stringed  instru- 
ments, but  cymbals  were  also  used,  being 
probably  struck  by  the  chief  musician  to 
beat  time  (1  Chron.  xv.  19-21).  It  appears 
from  this  passage  that  the  proportion  of 
psalteries  to  harps  was  eight  to  six.  In 
Herod's  temple  there  were  ordinarily  two 
psalteries,  nine  harps,  and  one  cymbal,  and 
on  certain  days  pipes  were  added.  The  par- 
ticipation of  priests  with  trumpets  in  the 
orchestra  of  stringed  instruments  was  ex- 
ceptional (2  Chron.  v.  12,  13;  vii.  6).  In  the 
second  temple  the  trumpets,  when  blown  in 
connection  with  the  regular  orchestra,  were 


^C= 


Band  of  Musicians  in  Ancient  Egypt  accompanying  the  Ministrations  of  a  Priest. 


X.  .5),  various  instruments  being  employed  as 
an  orchestra.  It  is  not  mentioned  as  belong- 
ing to  the  service  of  the  tabernacle  in  the 
early  period.  David  introduced  it  into  the 
worship  at  the  sanctuary,  and  Solomon  pro- 
moted it  (2  Sam.  vi.  5,  14  ;  1  Kin.  x.  12 ;  1 
Chron.  XV.,  xvi.).  Hezekiah  and  Josiah  paid 
special  attention  to  its  restoration  (2  CJhron. 
xxix.  2.5;  xxxv.  1.5).  David  was  assisted  in 
his  work  by  Asaph,  Heman,  and  Ethan  or 
Jeduthun,  three  masters  of  music.  A  choir 
of  singers  and  musicians,  with  Asaph  at  its 
head,  was  formed  of  Levites,  and  stationed 
before  the  ark  at  the  tabernacle  on  Zion, 
while  Heman  and  Jeduthun,  with  their 
choirs,  were  assigned  to  the  old  tabernacle  at 
Gibeon  (1  Chron.  xvi.  4-6,  39-42).  These 
three  choirs  were  afterwards  united  in  the 
temple.  In  David's  reign  they  numbered 
4000  members  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  5),  of  whom 


heard  only  in  the  pauses  or  as  responsive 
music  (Ezra  iii.  10, 11).  The  musicians  stood 
on  tlie  east  of  the  great  altar  (2  Chron.  v.  12). 
In  Herod's  temple  they  occupied  a  broad 
staircase,  which  led  from  the  court  of  Israel 
to  the  court  of  tbe  priests.  In  this  later 
temple  a  choir  of  boys,  standing  at  the  foot 
of  the  stairs,  lent  their  higher  voices  to  the 
song  of  the  Levites. 

Little  is  known  of  the  character  of  the 
music.  The  Hebrews  had  a  scale  of  eight 
tones.  Their  sacred  choirs  probably  sang  in 
unison  the  same  simple  melody,  divided  into 
two  parts,  the  one  an  octave  higher  than  the 
other,  and  representing  the  male  and  female 
voices,  and  were  accompanied  by  the  instru- 
ments in  the  same  tones  (1  Chron.  xv.  20,  21). 
Melodies  are  probably  named  in  the  titles  of 
Ps.  ix.,  xxii.,  xlv.,  Ivi.,  Ivii.,  and  others. 
Antiphonal  and  responsive  singing  was  prac- 


3 


Mustard 


499 


Mystery 


ticed  (Ex.  xv.  21  ;  Xeh.  xii.  31-43)  and  was 
often  lioard  in  the  tenipk-  service  (Ezra  iii. 
10,  11;  Jer.  xxxiii.  11);  several  psalms  were 
arranged  for  this  purpose,  e.  </.,  xxiv.  7-10 ; 
exxxvi.  The  congregation  seldom,  if  ever, 
joined  in  the  singing  in  the  first  tenijjle,  but 
at  its  close  they  united  in  saying  amen  (1 
Chron.  xvi.  7,  36).  In  the  Herod ian  temple 
the  i)eople  sometimes  participated  by  singing 
responses. 

Mus'tard. 

A  garden  herb  (Luke  xiii.  19),  which  in 
comparison  with  other  herbs  becomes  a  great 
tree  (Mat.  xiii.  32;  Jfark  iv.  32),  on  whose 
branches  the  birds  rest  for  the  sake  of  obtain- 
ing its  seeds.  Its  seeds  are,  hyperbolically 
speaking,  less  than  all  seed.s  (Mat.  xiii.  32). 
The  largeness  of  the  plant  grown  from  seeds 
so  small  illustrates  the  increase  of  the  king- 
dom of  heaven  from  a  very  small  beginning. 
The  nnistard  seed  was  employed  provei'bially 
by  the  Jews,  just  as  it  was  by  Jesus  (Mat.  xvii. 
20;  Luke  xvii.  6),  to  denote  anything  very 
minute.  The  common  mustard  of  Palestine 
is  Sinapis  nigra  or  black  mustard.  It  grows 
wild,  attaining  the  height  of  a  horse  and 
rider,  as  travelers  have  noticed.  It  is  also 
cultivated  in  gardens  for  its  seed,  which  is 
used  as  a  condiment.  Those  who  seek  another 
identification  generally  consider  the  mustard 
of  Scripture  to  have  been  Siilvadora  persica, 
the  type  of  the  natural  order  Salvadoracex 
or  Salvadorads.  Royle,  who  supported  this 
view,  says  that  it  has  a  succulent  fruit,  tast- 
ing like  garden  cress.  It  is,  however,  small, 
and  apparently  confined  to  the  low  valley  of 
the  Jordan  ;  and  it  is  not  an  herb. 

Muth-lab'ben  [die  for  the  son]. 

An  expression  of  doubtful  meaning  in  the 
title  of  Ps.  ix.  It  probably  indicates  a  famil- 
iar melody. 

Myn'dos,  in  A.  V.  Myndus. 

A  small  town  of  Caria,  situated  on  the  sea- 
coast  (Herod,  v.  33).  It  was  not  far  from 
Halicarnassus,  for  Alexander  led  a  detach- 
ment of  troops  across  the  intervening  country 
in  one  night.  In  the  time  of  Simon  Macca- 
baeus  it  was  subject  to  Rome  (1  Mac.  xv.  23). 
Its  site  is  probably  marked  by  the  small 
sheltered  port  of  Gumishlu. 

My'ra. 

A  city  of  Lycia,  where  Paul,  when  a  pris- 
oner on  liis  way  to  Rome,  changed  ships 
(Acts  xxvii.  5.  fi).  Myra  was  one  of  the 
principal  cities  of  Lycia.  It  stood  some  two 
miles  from  the  sea,  and  was  built  on  and 
about  a  cliff,  at  the  mouth  of  the  gorge  leading 
into  the  interior  mountain  region.  It  is  now 
called  Derabra. 

Myrrb. 

1.  A  fragrant  substance,  called  in  Hebrew 
mor,  in  Greek  smitnia.  It  was  an  ingredient 
in  the  oil  with  which  Aaron  and  his  succes- 


sors were  anointed  (Ex.  xxx.  23).  Reds  and 
garments  were  perfumed  with  it  (Ps.  xlv.  .M ; 
Prov.  vii.  17 ;  Song  iii.  (i),  and  an  oil  of 
myrrh  was  used  in  the  purification  of  women 
(Esth.  ii.  12).  The  magi  brought  it  from  the 
east  to  present  to  the  infant  Jesus  (Mat.  ii. 
11).  At  the  crucifixion  it  was  offered  to  him 
in  wine,  probably  to  deaden  pain  (Mark  xv. 
23),  and  was  an  ingredient  in  the  spices  de- 
signed for  anointing  his  body  (John  xix.  39). 
It  was  used  for  embalming  the  dead  (llerod. 
ii.  86).  The  tree  which  produced  it  grew 
in  Arabia  (iii.  107;  Pliny  xii.  16).  The 
plant  which  produced  it  was  probably  Bul- 
samodemJyon  myrrha.  It  is  a  small  tree,  with 
odoriferous  wood  and  bark,  short  spiiiy 
branches,  trifoliolate  leaves,  and  pluni-likc 
fruit.  It  grows  in  Arabia  Felix,  and  fur- 
nishes the  myrrh  of  commerce. 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Lot  (Gen. 
xxxvii.  25;  xliii.  11).  Myrrh  is  not  a  hapi)y 
translation  ;  it  should  have  been  ladanum 
(R.  V.  margin),  called  by  the  Greeks  ledon 
and  ladanon,  and  by  the  Arabs  ludan,  which 
is  cognate  with  the  Hebrew  lot.  It  is  a 
highly  fragrant  resin,  containing  a  volatile 
oil.  and  is  produced  by  Cistnn  creticus  and 
various  other  species  of  rock  rose.  It  grow-s 
in  parts  of  Syria. 

Myr'tle. 

A  tree,  called  in  Hebrew  h"dns.  It  grew 
in  the  mountains  near  Jerusalem,  and  booths 
were  made  of  its  branches  at  the  feast  of 
tabernacles  (Neh.  viii.  15).  It  is  mentioned 
also  in  Is.  xii.  19  ;  Iv.  13;  Zech.  i.  8,  10,  11. 
The  tree  is  undoubtedly  the  common  myrtle 
{Myrtns  communis),  which  grows  in  Palestine. 

My'si-a. 

A  province  in  the  extreme  northwest  of 
Asia  Minor  ;  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Pro- 
poutis,  now  sea  of  Marmora,  on  the  south  by 
Lydia,  on  the  east  by  Bithynia,  and  on  the 
west  by  the  Hellespont.  The  Troad  lay 
within  its  limits.  Paul  and  Silas  passed 
through  it  to  Troas,  one  of  its  cities  (Acts 
xvi.  7,  8>.  Assos,  to  which  Paul  sailed  to 
meet  his  associates,  was  another  (xx.  13).  A 
third  was  Pergamos,  one  of  the  seven  churches 
in  Asia  (Rev.  i.  11 ;  ii.  12-17). 

Mys'ter-y. 

A  word  borrowed  from  the  heathen  reli- 
gion, in  which  a  mystery  was  a  secret  and  pe- 
culiar doctrine,  which  distinguished  one  re- 
ligion from  another,  and  found  expression  in 
rites,  ceremonies,  and  purifications  to  which 
only  initiated  persons  were  admitted.  The 
word  does  not  imply  that  the  doctrine  is  in- 
comprehensible. In  the  N.  T.  it  denotes  a 
secret  hidden  from  the  world  till  the  ap- 
pointed time  (Rom.  xvi.  25),  or  until  man 
has  been  prepared  by  the  Spirit  of  God  to  re- 
ceive and  appreciate  it  (Mark  iv.  11),  which 
forms  a  characteristic  and  essential  doctrine 
and  finds  expression  in  the  life  (1  Tim. 
iii.  16). 


Naam 


500 


Nabal 


N. 


Na'am  [sweetness,  pleasantness]. 
A  son  of  the  celebrated  Caleb  (1  Chron.  iv. 
15). 
Na'a-mah  [sweet,  pleasant]. 

1.  Daughter  of  Lamech,  and  sister  of  Tubal- 
cain  (Gen.  iv.  22). 

2.  An  Ammonitess,  Uiother  of  king  Eeho- 
boam  (1  Kin.  xiv.  21,  31 ;  2  Chron.  xii.  13). 

3.  A  town  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  41).     Not  identified. 

Na'a-man  [pleasantness,  delight]. 

1.  A  grandson  of  Benjamin,  a  son  of  Bela 
and  founder  of  a  family  (Gen.  xlvi.  21 ;  Num. 
xxvi.   40). 

2.  A  Syrian  commander-in-chief  under 
king  Benhadad.  He  was  an  able  and  a  brave 
man,  and  a  leper.  In  Syria  leprosy  did  not 
exclude  from  human  society,  as  it  did  in 
Israel,  tliough  it  was  a  loathsome  disease.  In 
one  of  the  Syrian  raids  into  the  Israelite  ter- 
ritory, the  soldiers  had  brought  away  a  little 
maid,  who  became  a  slave  to  Naaman's  wife. 
This  girl  expressed  to  her  mistress  the  wish 
that  Naaman  were  with  Elisha  in  Samaria, 
as  the  pi-ophet  would  heal  him  of  his  leprosy. 
The  speech  of  the  maiden  was  reported  to 
her  master,  who  resolved  to  seek  a  cure  from 
Eli.sha.  His  sovereign,  the  king  of  Syria, 
wrote  a  letter  of  introduction  for  him,  and 
sent  him  to  the  king  of  Israel  to  be  cured. 
When  the  Israelite  ruler  received  it  he 
thought  that  the  real  intention  of  his  corre- 
spondent was  to  pick  a  quarrel  and  declare 
war.  Elisha  reassured  the  king,  and  desired 
that  Naaman  should  be  sent  to  him,  when  he 
■would  learn  that  there  was  a  prophet  in  Is- 
rael. When  he  came  with  his  horses  and 
chariot  to  Elisha's  door,  the  proi)het  in  order 
to  humble  his  pride  and  teach  him  that  he 
owed  his  cure  not  to  man,  but  .solely  to  the 
power  of  God,  did  not  appear,  but  sent  out  a 
message  that  he  was  to  dip  seven  times  in 
Jordan,  and  he  should  be  cleansed.'  Naaman, 
feeling  atfronted,  declined  the  prescription, 
saying,  "Are  not  Abana  and  Pharpar,  rivers 
of  Damascus,  better  than  all  the  waters  of 
Israel?  may  I  not  wash  in  them  and  be 
clean?"  He  went  ofi'  in  a  passion,  but  his 
servants  soothed  his  ruffled  temper,  and 
begged  him  to  dip  in  Jordan,  which  he  did, 
and  was  at  once  miraculously  cured.  Now 
thoroughly  softened  in  heart,  and  filled  with 
gratitude,  he  wished  to  reward  Elisha.  The 
prophet  desired  to  impress  upon  the  Syrian 
the  freeness  of  (Jod's  blessings,  and  refused 
all  recompense  ;  but  Gehazi,  his  servant, 
acted  in  a  very  different  spirit.  Naaman  re- 
nounced idolatry,  and  became  a  worshiper 
of  Jehovah  ;  and  he  carried  home  two  mules' 
burden  of  earth  to  build  an  altar  to  Jehovah. 
He  lived,  however,  in  a  heathen  community 
and  could  not  altogether  escape  outward  par- 
ticipation in  heathen  customs.     His  king  was 


an  idolater,  a  worshiper  of  Rimmon  ;  and  it 
was  Naaman's  official  duty  to  support  him 
when  he  entered  the  temple  and  bowed  be- 
fore the  god.  The  prophet  of  Jehovah  per- 
mitted Naaman  to  fulfill  his  secular  duties, 
even  though  to  do  so  involved  his  assisting  his 
king  to  i)erform  heathen  worship  (2  Kin.  v.). 

Na'a-ma-thite. 

A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Naamah ;  as 
Zophar,  Job's  friend  (Job.  ii.  11  ;  xi.  1  ;  xx. 
1  ;  xlii.  9).  The  place  was  probably  in 
Arabia. 

Na'a-rah  [a  girl]. 

1.  A  wife  of  Ashhur,  the  ancestor  of  the 
inhabitants  of  Tekoa  (1  Chron.  iv.  5,  6). 

2.  A  town  on  the  boundary  line  of  E- 
l)hraim,  east  of  Bethel,  and  not  far  from  Jeri- 
cho (Josh.  xvi.  7).  In  A.  V.  the  name  is 
written  Naarath.  The  final  th  is  archaic, 
and  is  probably  due  in  the  text  to  the  pres- 
ence of  the  local  ending.  The  town  is  doubt- 
less one  with  Naaran  (1  Chron.  vii.  28). 
Archelaus  diverted  half  the  water  supply  of 
Neara  to  irrigate  the  palms  of  his  palace  at 
Jericho  (Antiq.  xvii.  13,  1).  Eusebius  men- 
tions a  village  Noorath,  5  Roman  miles  from 
Jericho.  A  plausible  conjecture  for  the  site 
is  on  the  Nahr  el-'Aujah,  with  its  plentiful 
water;  perhaps  at  the  ruin  el-'Aujah. 

Na'a-rai. 

One  of  David's  valiant  men  (1  Chron.  xi. 
37 ;  apparently  a  diverse  reading,  perhaps 
the  correction,  of  Paarai,  2  Sam.  xxiii.  35). 

Na'a-ran.     See  Naaeah  2. 

Na'a-rath.     See  Naaeah  2. 

Na'a-shon.     See  Nashon. 

Na-as'son.     See  Nashon. 

Na'bal  [foolish,  wicked]. 

A  sheepmaster,  resident  in  Maon,  who  pas- 
tured his  ffocks  around  the  village  Carmel  in 
Judah,  on  the  confines  of  the  wilderness. 
His  wife's  name  Avas  Abigail.  David  and  his 
followers  had  dwelt  for  some  time  in  the 
neighborhood,  and  had  nsed  their  might  to 
protect  the  projierty  of  the  people  from  ma- 
rauding bands  of  robbers.  When  Nabal  was 
shearing  his  sheep,  David  sent  ten  young 
men  to  .solicit  assistance  for  himself  and  his 
followers.  Nabal  sent  back  a  churlish  re- 
fusal, which  so  irritated  David  that  he  i)ut 
his  men  in  motion  with  the  intention  of  cut- 
ting off  Nabal  and  every  other  male  ))clong- 
ing  to  the  household.  Abigail,  who  was  a 
clever  and  judicious  woman,  made  ready  a 
])resent  for  David,  and,  starting  promptly, 
apologized  for  her  husband'sconduct,  allayed 
the  resentment  which  it  had  caused,  and 
j)revented  the  gathering  storm  from  breaking 
on  her  home.  Returning  to  her  abode,  .she 
found  a  great  feast  in  progress,  and  her  lord 
completely  intoxicated.  Next  morning,  when 
he  was  sober,  she  told  him  how  narrowly  he 
had  escaped  destruction.  He  wasjirofoundly 
affected  by  the  intelligence,  and  never  recov- 
ered  from  the   shock   which  it  caused,  but 


Nabathseans 


501 


Nahash 


died  in  ten  days.  After  a  time,  Abigail  be- 
came one  of  David's  wives  (1  Sam.  xxv. 
1-42). 

Nab-a-thse'ans,    in    A.   V.  Na'bath-ltes. 

Sec  Nekaioth. 

Na'both. 

An  inliabitant  of  Jezreel,  who  had  a  vine- 
yard at  that  town  near  one  of  Ahab's  palaces. 
The  king  wished  to  buy  it,  but  its  owner 
would  not  sell  it  because  it  bad  descended  to 
him  from  his  ancestors.  At  the  instance  of 
Jezebel,  Naboth's  life  was  sworn  away  by 
suborned  witnesses,  he  and  his  sons  (2  Kin. 
ix.  26),  to  whom  the  vineyard  would  have 
descended,  were  stoned  to  death,  their  bodies 
were  left  to  be  devoured  by  the  dogs,  and  the 
vineyard  was  seized  by  Ahab.  This  act  of 
violence  called  down  the  judgment  of  God  on 
the  guilty  king  and  his  yet  guiltier  wife 
(1  Kin.  xxi.  1-24 ;  xxii.  34-;i8  ;  2  Kin.  ix. 
30-37). 

Na'chon.    See  Xacon. 

Na'chor.    See  Nahoe. 

Na'con,  in  A.  V.  Nachon  [prepared,  ready]. 

The  designation  of  a  threshing  floor  at 
which  Uzzah  was  struck  dead  for  touching 
the  ark  (2  Sam.  vi.  6),  and  hence  called 
Perez-uzzah.  i  e.  breach  of  Uzzah  (8).  It  is 
not  certain  that  Nacon  is  the  original  spelling 
of  the  name  ;  see  Chidon. 

Na'dab  [of  one's  freewill,  liberal]. 

1.  The  eldest  of  Aaron's  four  sons  (Ex.  vi. 
23;  Num.  iii.  2;  xxvi.  60;  1  C'hron.  vi.  3 ; 
xxiv.  1).  With  his  brother  Abihu,  he  was 
granted  the  privilege  of  a  near  approach  to 
Jehovah  at  Sinai  (Ex.  xxiv.  1),  and  was  sub- 
sequently appointed  to  the  priesthood  (xxviii. 
1),  but  both  of  them  afterwards  offered 
strange  fire  to  God,  and  as  a  penalty  were 
consumed  by  fire  (Lev*,  x.  1-7;  Num.  xxvi. 
61).  From  the  fact  that  a  command  was  im- 
mediately thereafter  given  to  Aaron  not  to 
drink  wine  or  strong  drink  when  he  entered 
the  tabernacle,  it  may  be  inferred  that  Nadab 
and  Abihu  had  done  so,  and  were  under  the 
influence  of  liquor  when  they  committed  the 
sin  which  cost  them  their  lives  (Lev.  x.  9). 
They  both  died  childless  (Num.  iii.  4  ;  1 
Cbron.  xxiv.  2). 

2.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Hezron, 
house  of  Jerahmeel  (1    Cliron.  ii.  28,  30). 

3.  A  Benjamite.  a  son  of  Gibeon  and 
Maachah  (1  Chron.  viii.  30  :  ix.  36). 

4.  Son  of  Jeroboam  I.,  and  his  successor  on 
the  throne  of  Israel.  He  began  to  reign  about 
910  B.  c.  He  followed  the  evil  example  of 
his  father  with  respect  to  calf  worship.  He 
led  the  forces  of  his  kingdom  to  besiege  Gib- 
bethon,  but  was  murdered  with  bis  relatives 
by  Baasha,  who  then  mounted  the  vacant 
throne.  This  massacre  fulfilled  the  threaten- 
ings  of  Jehovah  against  .Jeroboam  and  his 
house.  Nadab  reigned  less  than  two  full 
years  (1  Kin.  xiv.  10,  11,  30;  xv.  25,  30). 


Nad'a-batb,  in  A.  V.  Na-dab'a-tha. 

A  place,  probably  a  village,  in  or  near 
Moab  (1  Mac.  ix.  37  ;  in  Antiq.  xiii.  1,  4 
Gabatha). 

Nag'gai,  in  A.  V.  Nagge. 

An  ancestor  of  (lirisi  (Luke  iii.  25). 

Na'ha-lal  and  Nahalol  (Judg.  i.  .30),  in  A. 
V.  once  Nahallal  (Josh.  xix.  15)  [pasture]. 

A  village  of  Zebulun  (.Josh.  xix.  15),  froni 
which,  however,  that  tribe  failed  to  drive 
out  the  Canaauite  inhabitants  (Judg.  i.  30). 
It  was  assigned  to  the  Merarite  Levites  (Josh. 
xxi.  35).  The  Jerusalem  Talmud  says  that 
it  was  afterwards  called  Mahlul.  Schwarz 
and  Van  de  Velde  identify  this  with  the  vil- 
lage of  Ma'lul,  3i  miles  west  of  Nazareth. 

Na-ha'li-el  [valley  and  brook  of  God]. 

An  encampment  of  the  Israelites,  between 
Beer,  in  the  desert  east  of  Moab,  and  Bamoth, 
which  lay  between  Dibon  and  Baal-meon 
(Num.  xxi.  19),  and  hence  probably  on  one 
of  the  northern  tributaries  of  the  Arnon. 
Not  identified  ;  although  the  name  is  possi- 
bly preserved  in  Encheileh,  the  valley  of  the 
Arnon  from  the  Balua  eastward  to  the  mouth 
of  the  Sell  Sa'ideh,  a  distance  of  about  2 
miles. 

Na-hal'lal.     See  Nahalal. 

Na'ha-lol.     See  Nahalal. 

Na'liam  [solace,  consolation]. 

Brother  of  Hodiah's  wife  (1  Chron.  iv.  19, 
E.  v.).  The  translation  of  A.  V.  is  impossi- 
ble. 

Na-ham'a-ni  [compassionate]. 

One  of  those  who  returned  with  Zerub- 
babel  from  Babjion  (Neh.  vii.  7). 

Na'ha-rai,  in  A.  V.  once  Nahari  (2  Sam. 
xxiii.  37),  a  misspelling  of  late  editions  from 
which  the  original  edition  of  1611  was  free 
[snoring,  snorting]. 

A  Beerothite,  Joab's  armorbearer  (2  Sam. 
xxiii.  37  ;  1  Chron.  xi.  39). 

Na'hash  [serpent]. 

1.  Father  of  Abigail  and  Zeruiah,  David's 
sisters  (2  Sam.  xvii.  25;  cp.  1  Chron.  ii.  16). 
Probably  his  widow,  the  mother  of  Abigail 
and  Zeruiah,  married  Jesse  and  became  the 
mother  of  David.  This  exi)lanation  is  better 
than  the  assumption  that  Nahash  was  the 
name  of  Jesse's  wife ;  or,  as  the  later  Jews 
interpreted  the  passage,  that  Nahash  was  an- 
other name  of  Jesse. 

2.  An  Ammonite  king  who  besieged  Jabesh- 
gilead,  and  when  its  inhabitants  offered  to 
surrender  and  liecome  tributary,  would  not 
accept  the  jn-oposal  unless  every  man  in  the 
place  consented  to  lose  the  right  eye.  He 
determined  to  put  a  reproacli  upon  Israel. 
A  week's  time  was  given  in  which  to  seek 
help.  Before  it  expired,  Saul,  just  before 
elected  king.  a})peared  with  a  relie\'ing  army, 
totally  defeated  the  Ammonites,  and  saved 
Jabesh-gilead  and  its  defenders  (1  Sam.  xi. 
1-11).     Either  this  Nahash  or  a  son  of  his 


Nahath 


502 


Nain 


bearing  the  same  name  treated  David  kindly, 
jHuhaps  because  he  was  at  variance  with  Saul 
(2  Sara.  X.  2). 

3.  A  man  who  lived  in  Kabbah  of  the  Am- 
juouites  (2  Sam.  xvii.  27).  He  may  have  been 
the  king  aforementioned,  or  an  Israelite  who 
had  settled  in  Kabbah  after  its  capture  by 
David  (2  Sam.   xii.  29). 

Na'hath  [descent  or  quiet]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Esau  and  also  of  Ish- 
mael.  He  became  a  chieftain  of  Edom  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  3,  4,  13,  17  ;  1  Chron.  i.  37). 

2.  A  Kohathite  Levite  (1  Chron.  vi.  26)  ; 
probaldy  the  person  elsewhere  called  Tohu 
and  Toah  (1  Sam.  i.  1  ;  1  Chron.  vi.  34). 

3.  A  Levite,  one  of  those  who  had  charge 
of  the  tithes  and  ofleriugs  under  Hezekiah 
(2  Chron.  xxxi.  13). 

Nah'bi  [concealed]. 

The  representative  spy  from  the  tribe  of 
Naphtali  (Num.  xiii.  14). 

Na'hor,  in  A.  V.  twice  Nachor  (Josh.  xxiv. 
2;  Luki  iii.  34)  [breathing  hard,  snorting]. 

1.  A  son  of  Serug,  and  grandfather  of 
Abraham  (Gen.  xi.  24,  25). 

2.  A  .son  of  Terah,  and  brother  of  Abraham 
(Gen.  xi.  27).  He  married  his  niece  Milcah, 
daughter  of  Haran  and  sister  of  Lot  (29). 
He  is  not  mentioned  as  emigrating  from  Ur 
■with  Terah,  Abraham,  and  Lot ;  but  later  he 
is  found  in  Mesopotamia  at  Haran  (xxiv.  10 ; 
sxvii.  43).  Eight  sons  were  boru  to  him  by 
Milcah,  from  whom  sprang  Aramjean  tribes. 
Four  othere  traced  their  descent  from  his 
concubine  (xxii.  21-24).  One  of  his  sons  by 
Milcah  was  Bethuel,  who  became  the  father 
of  Kebekah  and  Laban  (xxiv.  15,  29). 

Nah'shon,  A.  V.  has  once  Naashon  (Ex.  vi. 
23),  and  in  N.  T.  Naasson  [enchanting, 
ominous]. 

A  jirince  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  in  the 
early  period  of  the  wilderness  wanderings 
(Num.  i.  7;  ii.  3;  vii.  12,  17;  x.  14).  His 
sister  was  married  to  Aaron,  who  was  of  the 
tribe  of  Levi  (Exod.  vi.  23).  Nahshon  was 
the  grandfather  or  remoter  ancestor  of  Boaz, 
Ruth's  husband,  and  the  fifth  backward  in 
the  genealogy  of  David  (Kuth  iv.  20-22;  1 
Chron.  ii.  10-12).  This  placed  him  in  the 
ancestry  of  our  Lord  (Mat.  i.  4  ;  Luke  iii.  32, 
33). 

Na'hum  [compassionate]. 

A  i)ro])het  born  at  Elkosh,  doubtless  a  vil- 
lage of  Palestine.  He  proi)hesied  to  Judah 
(i.  15),  not  to  the  ten  tribes  in  captivity. 
The  position  of  the  book  among  the  minor 
l)roi>hets,  after  Micah  and  before  Habakkuk 
and  Zephaniah,  is  evidence  that  it  was  writ- 
ten between  the  commencement  of  Heze- 
kiah's  and  the  dose  of  Josiah's  reign  (Mic.  i. 
1;  Zeph.  i.  1);  and  that  the  prophet  cites 
the  destruction  of  No-amon  in  Egypt  (iii.  8- 
10),  which  was  overthrown  by  the  Assyrians 
in  664  B.  c,  and  jiredicts  the  fall  of  Nineveh 
(7),  which  occurred  about  606  b.  c,  narrows 


the  limits  within  which  the  composition  of 
the  book  must  be  sought  to  the  fifty-eight 
years  intervening  between  the.se  events.  It 
was  a  time  when  the  people  of  Judah  were 
despondent  by  reason  of  the  persistent  inva- 
sions of  the  Assyrians  and  the  captivity  of 
their  king. 

The  theme  of  the  prophecy  is  the  burden 
of  Nineveh  (i.  1).  The  prophet  insists  on 
the  familiar  truth  that  Jehovah  is  a  jealous 
God,  whose  vengeance  is  certain  to  fall  on 
his  adversaries,  but  who  is  a  stronghold  to 
those  that  trust  in  him  (2-8),  urges  the 
people  to  turn  a  deaf  ear  to  the  counsel  of 
those  w'ho  were  s]>eakiug  against  Jehovah's 
tardiness  and  advising  the  abandonment  of 
his  service  (9-11),  declares  the  unalterable 
purpose  of  the  Lord  to  deliver  his  people 
(12-14),  and  exhorts  them  to  unswerving 
loyalty  to  their  God  and  the  faithful  ob- 
servance of  his  worship  (15).  On  the  basis 
of  this  truth,  the  prophet  proceeds  to  describe 
the  overthrow  of  the  worldly  power  which 
was  then  oppressing  the  kingdom  of  God. 
He  pictures  the  siege  of  the  city  (ii.  1-10),  and 
takes  occasion  to  taunt  the  city  which  had 
been  as  a  den  of  lions  (11-13).  Keturning  to 
the  description  of  the  siege,  he  attributes 
the  judgment  which  befalls  the  city  to  its 
whoredoms  (iii.  1-4).  This  allusion  leads  to  a 
change  of  the  figure,  and  he  depicts  the  pun- 
ishment as  the  punishment  of  a  harlot  (5-7). 
He  draws  attention  to  the  fact  that  Nineveh 
is  not  better  than  No-amon,  which  went  into 
captivity  (8-10),  and  he  predicts  that  like 
No-amou  Nineveh  shall  be  destroyed  (11-19). 

2.  An  ancestor  of  Christ,  born  scarcely 
three  centuries  earlier  (Luke  iii.  25).  A.  V. 
uses  the  Greek  form  of  the  name,  Naum. 

Nail. 

1.  The  horny  scale  at  the  end  of  the  finger 
(Deut.  xxi.  12  ;  Dan.  iv.  33). 

2.  A  tent  pin  (Judg.  iv.  21),  which  was  of 
large  size  and  commonly  made  of  wood. 
Those  used  to  fasten  the  curtains  of  the 
tabernacle  were  of  brass  (Ex.  xxvii.  19). 

3.  A  pin,  commonly  of  metal,  used  for 
driving  into  wood  or  other  material  to  hold 
sejiarate  pieces  together,  or  left  projecting 
for  hanging  things  on.  It  might  be  made  of 
iron  (1  Chron.  xxii.  3),  or  of  gold,  or  be  gilded 
(2  Chron.  iii.  9).  It  was  sometimes  driven 
between  the  stones  of  a  wall  (Ecclus.  xxvii. 
2).  Idols  were  fastened  securely  in  place  by 
nails  (Is.  xli.  7  ;  Jer.  x.  4),  and  victims  were 
often  affixed  to  the  cross  by  means  of  a  nail 
driven  tlirough  each  hand  and  the  feet  (John 
XX.  25). 

Na'in. 

A  town  where  our  Lord  raised  to  life  the 
only  son  of  a  widow  woman  (Luke  vii.  11-17). 
It  is  still  called  Nain,  and  is  in  the  northwest 
corner  of  the  eminence  called  Jebel  Duhy, 
or  Little  Hermon,  2  miles  west-southwest 
of  En-dor,  and  5  miles  south-southeast  of 
Nazareth.     It  is  a  small  hamlet,  little  more 


Naioth 


503 


Naphtali 


than  a  duster  of  ruins ;  with  ancient  sepul- 
chral caverns  chiefly  on  the  east  of  the  vil- 
lage. 

Na'ioth  [habitations]. 

The  quarter  in  Ramah  where  the  prophets, 
who  gathered  about  Samuel  to  work  under 
his  direction,  dwelt  as  a  couimuuity  (1  Sam. 
xix.  18-xx.  1). 

Name. 

English  names,  such  as  James,  Robert, 
Anno,  have  a  meaning,  but  it  is  known  only 
to  those  who  have  studied  the  etymology. 
In  biblical  times  it  was  ditlerent.  The  names 
of  persons  were  not  only  significant,  but  as  a 
rule  everybody  knew  the  meaning  as  soon 
as  the  name  was  heard.  Sarah,  Jacob,  Miriam, 
Jehoshaphat,  Martha,  Ehoda,  Dorcas  were 
intelligible  to  all. 

The  name  was  probably  given  by  the 
Hebrews  on  the  eighth  day  after  birth  (Gen. 
xvii.  12;  xxi.  3,  4  ;  Luke  i.  59  ;  ii.  21).  The 
•child  might  he  given  the  name  of  a  natural 
object ;  as  Terati,  wild  goat,  Leah,  wild  cow, 
Jonah,  dove,  Tamar,  palm  tree,  Tabitha, 
gazelle.  It  might  receive  a  name  expressive 
of  its  physical  condition ;  for  example, 
Shiphrah,  beauty ;  or  of  the  parents'  hope 
regarding  it,  as  Noah,  rest  (Gen.  v.  29). 
Some  names  were  given  prophetically,  as 
that  of  Jesus  because  he  should  be  a  saviour 
(Mat.  i.  21).  Many  names  testified  to  the 
piety  or  gratitude  of  the  parents,  as  Simeon, 
hearing  (Gen.  xxix.  33),  or  Nethaniah,  Jeho- 
vah hath  given,  or  Elizur,  God  is  a  rock.  Others 
were  commemorative  of  national  events,  as 
Ichahod  (1  Sam.  iv.  21) ;  yet  others  were 
family  names  (Luke  i.  59-61 ;  cp.  iii.  23-38). 
When  character  had  developed,  a  new  name 
was  sometimes  given  as  expressive  of  it ;  as 
Israel  and  Cephas.  In  the  later  period, 
when  several  languages  were  spoken  in  Pal- 
estine, a  name  was  often  translated  and  the 
person  was  known  by  two  names,  as  Cephas 
after  the  Aramaic,  and  Peter  after  the  Greek, 
Thomas  and  Didymus,  both  names  meaning 
twin,  Messiah  and  Christ,  both  meaning 
anointed.  At  this  time  also  names  were 
transformed,  the  Hebrew  Jehohanan  became 
in  Greek  Joannes,  and  Josei)h  became  Joses. 

Surnames  were  lacking  among  the  He- 
brews ;  persons  were  designated  by  adding 
to  the  personal  name  the  name  of  their  city, 
as  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  Joseph  of  Arimathsea, 
Mary  Magdalene,  Nahum  the  Elkoshite  ;  or 
by  a  statement  of  their  descent,  as  Simon 
son  of  Jonah  ;  by  their  disposition,  trade,  or 
other  characteristic,  as  Simon  Peter,  Nathan 
the  prophet,  Joseph  the  carpenter,  Matthew 
the  publican,  Simon  the  zealot,  and  Dionysius 
the  Areopagite.  Every  Roman  had  three 
names ;  a  prxnomen,  which  was  his  personal 
name  and  stood  first,  a  nomen,  which  was  that 
of  his  gens  or  house  and  stood  second,  and  a 
cognomen  or  surname  which  was  that  of  his 
family  and  came  last.  Thus  M.  Antonius 
Felix,    the  procurator,  was  Marcus   of  the 


clan  Antonia  and  the  family  called  Felix. 
Frequently  only  the  nomen  and  cognomen 
were  given,  the  personal  name  being  omit- 
ted ;  as  Julius  Caesar,  Pontius  Pilate,  Claudius 
Lysias. 

Name  is  often  used  in  Hebrew  in  the  sense 
of  revealed  character  and  essence.  God 
swears  by  his  great  name  to  carry  out  bis 
jnnpose  (Jer.  xliv.  26),  that  is,  he  swears  by 
his  attested  power  to  accomplish  his  word. 
The  name  of  God  which  is  excellent  in  all 
the  earth  (Ps.  viii.  1),  is  that  expression  of 
his  being  which  is  exhibited  in  creatiou  and 
redemption.  The  name  of  the  God  of  Jacob 
which  sets  the  king  on  high  (Ps.  xx.  1)  is  the 
manifested  power  of  Israel's  God.  The  name 
of  God  was  in  the  angel  which  led  Israel 
through  the  wilderness  (Ex.  xxiii.  21),  be- 
cause in  him  the  revealed  might  and  majesty 
of  God  himself  dwelt.  The  name  of  God 
dwelt  an  his  sanctuary  (2  Sam.  vii.  13),  the 
place  where  he  manifested  himself.  To 
know  the  name  of  God  is  to  witness  the 
manifestation  of  those  attributes  and  appre- 
hend that  character  which  the  name  denotes 
(Ex.  vi.  3,  with  7;  1  Kin.  viii.  43;  Ps.  xci. 
14  ;  Is.  Iii.  6;  Ixiv.  2 ;  Jer.  xvi.  21). 

Na-o'mi  [pleasant]. 

Wife  of  Elimelech,  Elimelech  went  with  her 
and  his  two  sons  to  sojourn  in  Moab,  because 
famine  prevailed  in  Judah.  The  sons  married 
Moabite  women.  Elimelech  and  his  sons 
died,  and  Naomi  accompanied  by  her  daugh- 
ter-in-law Ruth  returned  to  Bethlehem  of 
Judah  (Ruth  i.-iv.). 

Na'pMsh,  in  A.  V.  once  Nephish  (1  Chron. 
V.  19)  [respiration]. 

Son  of  Ishmael  (Gen.  xxv.  15 ;  1  Chron.  i. 
31),  and  founder  of  a  clan  with  which  the 
Israelite  tribes  east  of  the  Jordan  were  at 
one  time  in  conflict  (1  Chron.  v.  18-22). 

Naph'ta-li,  in  A.  Y.  twice  Nephthalim 
(Mat.  iv.  13,  15),  once  Nepthalim  (Rev.  vii. 
6)  [obtained  by  wrestling]. 

1.  Sixth  son  of  Jacob,  and  second  by  Bil- 
hah,  Rachel's  maidser%'ant.  Rachel  gave 
him  this  name  because  she  had  wrestled  in 
prayer  for  God's  favor  and  blessing  (Gen. 
XXX.  8). 

2.  The  tribe  descended  from  Naphtali.  It 
was  subdivided  into  four  great  families  which 
sprang  from  the  four  sons  of  Naphtali  (Gen. 
xlvi.  24  ;  Num.  xxvi.  48,  49).  The  prince  of 
the  Naphtalite  tribe  early  in  the  wilderness 
wanderings  was  Ahira,  son  of  Enan  (Num.  i. 
15:  ii.  29;  vii.  78,  83;  x.  27):  at  a  later 
period  it  was  Pedahel,  son  of  Ammihud 
(xxxiv.  28) ;  its  representative  spy  was  Nah- 
bi,  son  of  Vophsi  (xiii.  14).  At  the  first  cen- 
sus in  the  wilderness  its  fighting  men  were 
5.3,400  (ii.  29,  30);  at  the  second  they  were 
45.400  (xxvi.  50).  The  tribe  of  Naphtali 
pitched  on  the  north  side  of  the  tabernacle, 
beside  those  of  Dan  and  Asher  (ii.  29).  Ar- 
riveil  in  Canaan,  they  were  one  of  the  six 
tribes  which  stood  upon  mount  Ebal  to  pro- 


Naphtuhim 


504 


Nathanael 


nouiice  curses  on  transgressors  of  the  law 
(Deut.  xxvii.  13  ;  cp.  Josh.  viii.  33).  The 
territory  allotted  to  them  was  in  northern 
Palestine.  It  was  bounded  on  the  east  by 
the  upper  Jordan  and  the  sea  of  Galilee,  on 
the  south  by  Is.sachar  and  Zebulun,  and  on 
the  west  by  Zebulun  and  Asher  (Josh.  xix. 
34).  It  was  a  long,  narrow  strip  of  land, 
about  50  miles  from  north  to  south,  and  vary- 
ing from  about  10  to  15  from  east  to  west.  It 
is  mostly  mountainous  (Josh.  xx.  7),  and  is 
quite  fertile.  Its  boundary  ran  by  mount 
Tabor  (xix.  34),  and  it  numbered  Ramah, 
Hazor,  Kedesh,  Iron,  and  Beth-anath  among 
its  fortified  cities  (36-38).  The  Gershonite 
Levites  had  three  cities  allotted  them  within 
its  limits  ;  they  were  Kedesh,  Hammoth-dor, 
and  Kartan.  The  first  of  them  was  a  city 
of  refuge  (Josh.  xx.  7 ;  xxi.  6,  32 ;  1  Chron. 
vi.  62,  76).  Up  to  the  early  period  of  the 
judges  the  Naphtalites  had  not  succeeded  in 
expelling  the  Canaanites  from  Beth-shemesh 
and  Beth-anath ;  they  had,  however,  made 
them  tributary.  The  Naphtalites  took  a 
large  share  in  the  fighting  under  Deborah 
and  Barak,  being  mentioned  with  Zebulun 
as  having  jeopardized  their  lives  unto  death 
in  the  high  places  of  the  field  (Judg.  iv.  6, 
10  ;  v.  18).  They  also  responded  to  the  sum- 
mons to  arms  issued  by  Gideon  (vi.  35  ;  vii. 
23).  A  thousand  captjiins,  with  37,000  fight- 
ing men,  came  to  David  at  Hebron,  to  aid 
him  in  the  contest  with  Ish-bosheth  (1  Chron. 
xii.  34 ;  cp.  40).  Their  ruler  some  time  after- 
wards was  Jerimoth,  son  of  Azriel  (xxvii.  19  ; 
cp.  Ps.  Ixviii.  27).  Ahimaaz  was  Solomon's 
purveyor  in  Naphtali  (1  Kin.  iv.  15).  Hiram, 
not  the  Tyrian  king,  but  the  skillful  worker 
in  metal,  was  a  widow's  son  of  the  tribe  of 
Naphtali  (vii.  14).  The  land  of  Naphtali  was 
ravaged  by  Benhadad,  king  of  Syria  (1  Kin. 
XV.  20  ;  2  Chron.  xvi.  4),  and  many  of  its  in- 
habitants were  subsequently  carried  into 
caiitivity  by  Tiglath-pileser,  king  of  Assyria 
(2  Kin.  XV.  29).  To  these  calamities  Isaiah 
alludes,  and  comforts  the  afflicted  people  by 
intimating  in  the  name  of  the  Lord  that  the 
territory  now  ravaged  should  one  day  receive 
special  privilege,  so  that  they  who  walked  in 
darkness  should  see  a  great  light  (Is.  ix.  1-7). 
This  prophecy  was  fulfilled  when  our  Lord 
made  the  region  on  which  the  invasion  had 
fallen  the  special  seat  of  his  ministry  (Mat. 
iv.  12-16).  Chorazin,  Capernaum,  and  Ti- 
berias were  within  the  limits  of  what  had  been 
Naphtali. 

Naph'tu-him  [plural  of  nnphttihi]. 

A  tribe  of  Egyptian  descent,  mentioned 
between  the  Libyans  of  Lower  and  the  Path- 
rusim  of  Upper  Egypt  (Gen.  x.  13;  1  Chron. 
i.  11).  Ebers  derives  the  name  from  tia-ptah, 
the  [people]  of  Ptah,  or  inhabitants  of  Mid- 
dle Egypt,  in  the  district  about  Memphis,  the 
seat  of  Ptah's  worship.  Najjata,  an  ancient 
ca])ital  of  Ethiopia,  on  the  Nile  near  the 
fourth  cataract,  has  also  been  suggested. 


Nap'kin.     See  Handkerchief. 

Nar-cis'sus  [the  narcissus  or  daffodil]. 

A  Ivomau,  whose  household  was  in  the 
Lord  and  was  greeted  by  Paul  in  his  letter  to 
the  cliurch  (Rom.  xvi.  11). 

Na'sor.     See  Hazor. 

Na'than  [he  has  given]. 

1.  Sou  of  Attai,  and  father  of  Zabad,  be- 
longing to  the  house  of  Jerahmeel,  family  of 
Hezron,  tribe  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  ii.  36j. 

2.  A  distinguished  prophet  in  the  reign  of 
David  and  Solomon.  The  proposal  to  build 
the  temple  was  submitted  to  him  by  David. 
At  first  he  was  favorable  to  the  project,  but 
afterwards  received  a  message  from  the  Lord 
directing  that  not  David,  but  his  successor 
was  to  have  the  honor  of  building  the  holy 
house  (2  Sam.  vii.  1-17 ;  1  Chron.  xvii.  1-15). 
Nathan  Avas  afterwards  sent  to  David  to 
bring  him  to  a  sense  of  his  great  sin  in  the 
matter  of  Uriah  the  Hittite.  This  the 
prophet  did  by  the  parable  of  the  ewe  lamb 
(2  Sam.  xii.  1-15  ;  cp.  Ps.  li.  title).  In  his 
official  capacity  as  prophet  of  the  Lord  he 
named  the  young  Solomon  Jedidiah  (2  Sam. 
xii.  25).  With  his  and  Gad's  concurrence,  or 
possibly  at  their  instigation,  David  arranged 
the  musical  service  for  the  sanctuary  (2 
Chron.  xxix.  25).  When  Adonijah  aspired 
to  the  throne  in  lieu  of  Solomon,  he  sent  no 
intimation  of  his  intention  to  Nathan,  be- 
lieving probably  that  the  prophet  was  too 
loyal  to  David  to  be  seduced  from  his  alle- 
giance (1  Kin.  i.  8-10).  Nathan  advised  Bath- 
sheba  to  go  at  once  and  tell  David  what  had 
occurred,  arranging  that  he  would  come  in 
and  confirm  her  Avords.  The  plan  was  car- 
ried out,  and  David  gave  orders  to  Zadok 
the  priest,  Nathan  the  prophet,  and  Benaiah, 
chief  of  the  bodyguard,  to  proclaim  Solomon 
(11-45).  Nathan  wrote  a  history  in  which  he 
described  the  reign  of  David  and  part  at  least 
of  that  of  Solomon  (1  Chron.  xxix.  29;  2 
Chron.  ix.  29). 

3.  The  father  of  one  and  brother  of  an- 
other of  David's  mighty  men  (2  Sam.  xxiii. 
36  ;  1  Chron.  xi.  38) ;  see  Igal. 

4.  The  third  of  those  children  of  David 
who  were  born  in  Jerusalem  (2  Sam.  v.  14). 
He.  or  possibly  the  prophet,  was  father  of 
Solomon's  officials,  Azariali  and  Zabud  (1 
Kin.  iv.  5).  His  family  is  mentioned  in  Zech. 
xii.  12.  Through  him  David  and  Jesus  Christ 
are  connected  by  natural  lineage  (Luke  iii. 
31) ;  while  it  is  through  Solomon  that  Joseph, 
the  husband  of  Mary,  is  connected  with 
David  (Mat.  i.  6). 

5.  A  chief  man  with  Ezra  at  the  brook  of 
Ahava  (Ezra  viii.  16). 

6.  A  son  of  Baui,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  39). 

Na-than'a-el  [God  hath  given]. 

A  native  of  Cana  in  Galilee,  wliom  Jesus 
declared  to  be  an  Israelite  indeed  in  whom 
was  no  guile.  His  attention  was  directed  by 
Philip  to  Jesus  as  the  Messiah  of  O.  T.  proph- 


Nathan-melech 


505 


Nazareth 


ecy.  But  as  Nazareth  is  not  mentioned  in 
O.  T.  prophecy  and  besides  had  a  question- 
able reputation,  he  felt  difficulty  in  accept- 
ing the  Messianic  claims  of  one  who  had 
been  brought  up  in  that  towu  ;  but  he  at 
once  yielded  to  the  evidence  which  the  su- 
perhuman knowledge  of  Jesus  furnished 
(John  i.  45-51).  He  was  in  the  boat  with 
Simon  Peter  when  the  miraculous  draught 
of  fishes  was  brought  in  (xxi.  2).  The  name 
does  not  occur  iu  the  lists  of  the  apostles  given 
in  the  first  three  gospels,  but  he  was  prob- 
ably the  same  person  as  Bartholomew. 

Other  persons  of  the  name  are  mentioned 
iu  O.  T.,  but  there  the  original  Hebrew  form 
is  used.     See  Xethaxel. 

Na-than-me'lech  [the  king  hath  given]. 

A  chamberlain  who  lived  in  Josiah's  time 
within  the  precincts  of  the  temple  (2  Kin. 
xxiii.  11). 

Na'um.     See  Xahtjm  2. 

Naz-a-rene'  [belonging  to  Nazareth]. 

1.  One  born  or  resident  in  Nazareth  (Mat. 
ii.  23  ;  E.  Y.  of  xxvi.  71  ;  Mark  xvi.  6).  In 
Is.  xi.  1  the  Messiah  is  called  neser  or  shoot 
out  of  the  roots  of  Jesse  ;  an  oflTspring  of  the 
royal  family  indeed,  but  of  that  family  .shorn 
of  its  glory  and  reduced  to  its  original  hum- 
ble condition.  He  is  frequently  called  the 
Branch  also  ( Jer.  xxiii.  5  ;  xxxiii.  15  ;  Zech. 
iii.  8  ;  vi.  12).  On  the  most  probable  inter- 
pretation of  Mat.  ii.  23,  the  evangelist  sees  a 
fulfillment  of  Isaiah's  prophecy  in  the  provi- 
dence which  led  the  parents  of  Jesus  to  take 
up  their  residence  iu  Nazareth  again  and  re- 
sulted in  Jesus  being  a  Nazarene.  If  Naz- 
areth means  protectress  or  guardian,  Matthew 
finds  the  fulfillment  merely  in  the  similarity 
of  sound  and  in  the  low  esteem  in  which  the 
town  and  its  inhabitauts  were  held  ;  but  if 
the  name  is  derived  from  the  same  root  as 
neser  (see  Nazareth),  then  Matthew  finds 
the  fulfillment  in  the  meaning  chiefly  (Mat. 
xxvi.  71,  E.  V.  ;  Mark  xvi.  6,  E.  V.). 

2.  An  adherent  of  the  religion  founded  by 
Jesus  ;  a  Christian.  It  is  used  contemptuous- 
ly (Acts  xxiv.  5). 

Naz'a-reth  [verdant,  ofiFshoot ;  or  perhaps 
protectress  (see  below)]. 

A  town  of  Galilee  (Mat.  ii.  23),  where 
Joseph  and  Mary  lived  (Luke  ii.  39),  and 
where  Jesus  was  brought  up  (iv.  16)  and 
spent  the  greater  part  of  thirty  years  (iii.  23 
with  Mark  i.  9).  He  was  accordingly  known 
as  Jesus  of  Nazareth  Olat.  xxi.  11  ;  Mark  i. 
24).  He  was  held  in  favor  there  (Luke  ii. 
52;  iv.  16)  ;  but  after  he  entered  on  his  mis- 
sion, he  was  twice  rejected  by  his  fellow 
townsmen  (iv.  28-31  ;  cp.  Mat.  iv.  13  ;  and 
xiii.  54-58:  Mark  vi.  1-6).  Nazareth  stood 
upon  a  hill  (Luke  iv.  29).  The  town  was 
either  small  and  unimpoitant  or  of  recent 
origin  ;  for  it  is  not  mentioned  in  the  O.  T. 
or  in  the  Apocrypha  or  by  Josephus.  It  is 
still  called  en-Nasirah.  It  lies  in  a  secluded 
valley  in'Lower  Galilee,  a  little  north  of  the 


great  plain  of  Esdraelon,  and  is  about  l.'> 
miles  west-southwest  of  Tiberias,  20  south- 
west of  Tell  Hum,  the  reputed  site  of  (Caper- 
naum, and  19  southeast  of  Aci'e.  The  valley  is 
about  a  mile  from  east  to  west  and,  on  an 
average,  a  quarter  of  a  mile  from  uorth  to 
south.  The  hill  on  the  northwest  rises  about 
500  feet  above  the  valley,  and  is  cut  into 
ravines  on  its  eastern  slope.  On  that  eastern 
declivity  stands  the  village  of  Nazareth. 
The  houses  are  better  than  those  iu  many 
other  villages  in  Palestine,  being  made  of 
the  white  limestone  which  is  conspicuously 
displayed  along  all  the  higher  parts  of  the 
investing  hills.  They  are  prettily  situated 
among  fig  trees,  olive  trees,  and  some  cy- 
presses, while  down  below  in  the  valley  are 
gardens  surrounded  by  hedges  of  prickly 
pear.  In  the  midst  of  the  gardens  is  the 
fountain  of  the  Virgin,  from  which  Nazareth 
derives  its  water,  and  whither  doubtless 
Mary  frequently  went  to  obtain  water  for 
her  household.  Nazareth  now  contains  4000 
or  more  inhabitants.  A  considerable  major- 
ity of  them  belong  to  the  Greek  church  ;  a 
smaller  proportion  are  Roman  Catholics ; 
about  one-fifth  of  all  the  inhabitants  are 
Mohammedans,  and  there  are  also  a  number 
of  Protestants.  There  is  a  fine  Franciscan 
convent.  The  monks  point  out  many  sacred 
sites  in  Nazareth,  but  only  the  fountain  of 
the  Virgin  rests  on  good  evidence.  The  site 
of  the  attempted  precipitation  was  probably 
near  the  Maronite  church,  where  there  are 
two  or  three  bare  scarps,  20,  30,  40,  or  50 
feet  high. 

The  name  Nazareth  is  written  in  several 
forms  in  the  manuscripts  of  the  N.  T.  Naz- 
areth aud  Nazaret  are  the  best  attested,  but 
the  Alexandrian  text  has  Nazarath,  and  in 
Mat.  iv.  13  and  Luke  iv.  16  the  Sinaitic  and 
Vatican  texts  have  Nazara.  The  different 
forms  probably  represent  popular  variations 
of  the  name  in  Palestine  itself;  the  towu 
having  been  called  in  Aramaic  Nas^ra',  or 
with  the  feminine  ending  t  (th)  retained,  as 
was  frequently  the  case  in  the  names  of 
towns  (Zarephath,  Daberath,  Bozkath,  Tim- 
nath),  and  pronounced  under  Hebrew  influ- 
ence, Nasereth  (cp.  Aramaic  'irig'ra'  and 
'iggereth,  a  letter).  As  thus  explained,  the 
word  is  a  feminine  participle.  It  is  rare  for 
the  Semitic  sound  s  to  be  represented  by  z  in 
Greek,  as  this  explanation  of  Nazareth 
requires  ;  but  it  is  not  unparalleled  (cp. 
Zilpah,  Hebrew  Ijfilpah,  Greek  Zelpha). 
The  Syriac  preserves  s,  using  the  form 
Ndfrath.  The  Arabs  who  conquered  the 
country  heard  the  emphatic  sibilant  and  per- 
petuated the  name  in  the  form  en-Nasirah. 
The  Arabic  name  signifies  helper  or  victor. 
The  derivation  of  the  original  name  is  fre- 
quently .sought  in  the  Hebrew  root  nasar, 
watch,  protect,  guard,  so  that  Nazareth 
means  protectress  or  guardian  But  this  root 
in  Aramaic,  including  S.yriac,  is  u'iar.  Prob- 
ably,  therefore,   the  name  Nazareth  is  de- 


Nazareth. 


Fuuiituiu  uf  tlic  N'iigiu,  at  Nazareth. 


Nazirite 


507 


Nebo 


rived  from  the  root  which  appears  in  Hebrew 
neser  and  Aramaic  )i(s»-<j',  sprout  (Tar<;iim, 
Job  xxxi.  8),  Xazaretli  accordingly  signifying 
verdant  i)lace  or  otlshoot. 

Naz'i-rite,  in  A.  V.  Nazarite  [separated, 
consecrated  (to  God)]. 

A  person,  male  or  female,  who  was  spe- 
cially consecrated  to  God.  Nazirites  probably 
exi.sted  of  old  among  the  Hebrews,  but  their 
mode  of  life  was  brought  under  the  regula- 
tions of  the  law  at  Sinai.  The  Nazirite  vowed 
to  separate  himself  unto  the  Lord  for  a  cer- 
tain specified  period.  He  did  not,  however, 
become  a  hermit ;  he  continued  to  live  in 
human  society.  Nor  was  he  necessarily  an 
ascetic.  By  the  law  he  must  not  drink  wine 
or  strong  drink  nor  eat  any  product  of  the 
vine  during  the  days  of  his  separation  ;  for 
from  the  time  of  the  nomadic  patriarchs  the 
vine  was  the  symbol  of  a  settled  life  and 
culture,  which  were  quite  right  in  themselves, 
but  were  removed  from  the  ancient  .simplicity 
of  life  and  manners.  See  Jonadab.  Nor 
must  the  Nazirite  shave  his  head.  The  long 
hair  was  the  visible  sign  of  his  consecration 
to  God  ;  the  hair  was  the  glory  of  the  head 
and  the  product  of  the  body  he  had  devoted 
to  God  ;  and  the  cutting  of  the  hair,  which 
God  made  grow,  was  popularly  regarded  as 
rendering  the  head  in  a  measure  common 
(cp.  Ex.  XX.  25  ;  Num.  xix.  2  ;  Dent.  xv.  19). 
Finally,  the  Nazirite  must  not  render  him- 
self ceremonially  unclean  by  touching  a  dead 
body,  even  if  the  corpse  .should  be  that  of  a 
near  relative.  When  the  time  approached 
for  his  vow  to  expire,  he  appeared  before  the 
priest,  made  certain  prescribed  offerings, 
shaved  off  his  hair  and  burned  it,  after 
which  he  might  again  drink  wine  (Num.  vi. 
1-21).  One  might  be  a  Nazirite  for  life  in- 
stead of  for  a  limited  period,  and  might  be 
dedicated  to  that  mode  of  existence  at  or 
even  before  his  birth.  This  was  the  case 
with  Samson  (Judg.  xiii.  4,  5)  and  with 
Samuel  (1  Sam.  i.  11,  28).  Samson,  however, 
permitted  deviations  from  not  only  the  law 
of  the  Nazirite,  but  at  the  same  time  from 
other  laws  and  ancient  customs  and  the  dic- 
tates of  refinement.  In  the  time  of  Amos 
profane  people  tempted  the  Nazirites  to  break 
their  vow  of  total  abstinence  from  wine,  even 
offering  it  to  them  to  drink  (Amos  ii.  11,  12). 
After  the  exile  Nazirites  became  comparative- 
ly numerous  (1  Mac.iii.  49;  War  ii.15, 1).  John 
the  Baptist  was  consecrated  a  Nazirite  from 
his  birth  (Luke  i.  15).  The  prophete.ss  Anna 
was  not  unlikely  a  Nazirite  (ii.  36,  37).  It 
seems  to  have  been  the  Nazirite  vow  that 
Paul  was  induced  to  take  to  allay  the  storm 
which  his  friends  saw  to  be  gathering  against 
him  on  his  last  visit  to  Jerusalem  (Acts  xxi. 
20-261.  Wealthy  persons  often  bore  the  legal 
expenses  of  poor  Nazirites  (Antiq.  xix.  6,  1). 

Ne'ah  [emotion]. 

A  place  on  the  boundary  line  of  Zebulun 
(Josh.  xix.  13).     Site  unknown. 


Ne-ap'o-lis  [new  city]. 

The  seaport  of  Philippi,  and  the  first  place 
in  Europe  at  which  Paul  touched  (Acts  xvi. 
11 ;  implied  also  in  xx.  6).  It  was  situated 
on  the  Strymonian  Gulf,  10  miles  east-south- 
east of  Philippi.  It  is  now  called  Kavalla, 
and  is  a  Turkish  city  with  Greek  and  Roman 
ruins  in  its  vicinity. 

Ne-a-ri'ah  [perhaps,  Jehovah  hath  shaken 
out  (cp.  Nell.  V.  13  ;  Ex.  xiv.  27)]. 

1.  A  Simeonite  captain,  who  took  part  in  a 
successful  war  against  the  Amalekites  near 
mount  Seir  during  the  reign  of  Hezekiah 
(1  Chrou.  iv.  42). 

2.  A  descendant  of  Shecaniah  (1  Chron.  iii. 
22,  23). 

Ne'bai.     See  Nobai. 

Ne-ba'ioth,  in  A.  Y.  of  Genesis  Nebajoth 
[to  the  Hebrew  ear  probably  high  places]. 

A  tribe  descended  from  Ishmael  (Gen.  xxv. 
13,  16;  xxviii.  9;  xxxvi.  3;  1  Chron.  i.  29) 
and  rich  in  flocks  (Is.  Ix.  7).  They  are  be- 
lieved to  be  identical  with  the  Nabathsean 
Arabs  who,  as  early  as  the  fourth  centui-y 
before  Christ,  took  possession  of  mount  Seir, 
and  spread  thence  northeastward  into  the 
country  east  of  the  Jordan  (1  Mac.  v.  25  ;  ix. 
35)  as  far  as  the  Hauran  and  Damascus 
(Antiq.  xiii.  15,  2).  The  entire  country  from 
the  Euphrates  to  the  iElanitic  gulf  of  the 
Eed  Sea  became  known  as  Nabatene  (Antiq. 
i.  12,  4).  They  were  conquered  by  Pompey 
in  ()2  B.  c,  and  in  a.  d.  105  Trajan  converted 
their  kingdom  into  a  Roman  province.  Their 
capital  was  Petra.  the  ancient  Sela.  One  of 
their  kings,  Aretas,  is  mentioned  in  2  Cor. 
xi.  32. 

Ne-bal'lat. 

A  town  of  Benjamin  inhabited  after  the 
captivity  (Neh.  xi.  34),  now  Beit  Nebala, 
about  4  miles  northeast  of  Lydda  and  1^ 
north  of  el-Haditheh,  i.  e.  Hadid,  and  west 
by  north  of  Bethel. 

Ne'bat  [look,  aspect] . 

Father  of  Jeroboam  I.  (1  Kin.  xi.  26). 

Ne'bo  [as  name  of  a  deity,  is  Semitic  Baby- 
lonian Nabfi,  announcer ;  as  a  geographical 
name  it  may  indicate  that  the  place  was  a 
seat  of  Nebo's  worship,  or  correspond  to 
Arabic  naba\  and  denote  elevation]. 

1.  A  Babylonian  god  (Is.  xlvi.  1),  who 
presided  over  knowledge  and  literature.  The 
special  seat  of  his  worship  was  at  Borsippa, 
near  Babylon.  In  Isaiah's  time  images  of 
Nebo  were  used  as  objects  of  worship  (Is. 
xlvi.  1). 

2.  A  peak  of  the  Abarira  mountains  over 
against  Jericho  (Num.  xxxiii.  47;  Deut. 
xxxii.  49),  and  the  summit,  apparently,  of 
Pisgah  (Deut.  xxxiv.  1).  Its  probable  site  is 
Jebel  Neba,  8  miles  east  of  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Jordan.  From  its  summit,  especially 
from  the  elevation  called  Ras  Siaghah,  there 
are  visible  in  the  clear  atmosphere  of  spring 
Hermon,  at  the  foot  of  which  lay  Dan ;  and 


Nebuchadrezzar 


508 


Nebuzaradan 


the  mountains  of  Naphtali ;  and  the  hill 
country  of  Ephraini  and  Judah,  which  are 
bounded,  and  at  Cai-mel  washed  by,  the 
hinder  sea  ;  and  the  depression  which  marks 
the  soutli  country  ;  and  the  Dead  Sea  and 
the  Jordan  valley. 

3.  A  Moabite  town  near  or  on  mount  Nebo 
(Num.  xxxii.  3).  It  was  rebuilt  by  the  Reu- 
benites  (xxxii.  37,  38 ;  xxxiii.  47 ;  cp.  1 
Chron.  v.  8),  but  came  again  into  Moabite 
hands  (Moabite  Stone,  14;  Is.  xv.  2;  Jer. 
xlviii.  1,  22).  The  site  is  generally  believed 
to  be  marked  by  the  ruins  which  are  called 
Nebbeh,  and  are  situated  6  miles  southwest 
of  Heshbon. 

4.  A  town  mentioned  just  after  Bethel 
and  Ai  (Ezra  ii.  29;  Neh.  vii.  33).  Not  iden- 
tified. Neither  Beit  Niiba,  13  miles  west- 
southwest  of  Bethel,  nor  Nuba,  about  7  miles 
northwest  by  north  of  Hebron,  is  etymologi- 
cally  identical  with  it. 

Neb-u-chad-rez'zar  and  Nebuchadnezzar 

[Nabu-kudiirri-imir,  Nebo,  defend  the  bound- 
ary]. The  two  forms  represent  ditferent 
Hebrew  methods  of  reproducing  the  name. 

Son  of  Nabopolassar  and  king  of  Babylon. 
His  father  headed  a  successful  revolt  of  the 
Babylonians  against  Assyria  and  founded  the 
Babylonian  empire  in  625  b.  c.  Pharaoh-iiecho, 
who  ascended  the  throne  of  Egypt  in  610  B.  c, 
finding  the  power  of  Assyria  weakened, 
marched  into  northern  Syria  about  608  b.  c, 
and  encroached  upon  Assyria  (2  Kin.  xxiii. 
29 ;  2  Chron.  xxxv.  20).  But  Nineveh,  the 
capital  of  Assyria,  was  taken  by  the  allied 
armies  of  Media  and  Babylon  about  606  B.  c, 
and  the  Egyptians  had  to  reckon  with  the 
new  claimants  of  the  Assyrian  dependencies. 
Nabopolassar  sent  his  son  Nebuchadnezzar  to 
meet  them.  The  prince  defeated  them  in 
605  B.  c.  with  great  .slaughter  at  the  battle 
of  Carchemisli,  drove  them  back  to  their 
own  land,  and  subjugated  the  intervening 
regions  (2  Kin.  xxiv.  7;  Jer.  xlvi.  2).  But 
news  arrived  that  his  father  was  dead.  Com- 
mitting affairs  in  the  west  to  his  generals,  he 
hastened  back  to  Babylon  and  ascended  the 
throne  in  605  b.  c.  (con.  Apion.  i.  19).  In- 
formation regarding  his  reign  is  derived 
chiefly  from  the  Jewish  sacred  writers,  in- 
cluding Nebuchadnezzar's  contemporaries 
Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  and  Daniel,  supplemented 
by  notices  on  inscribed  bricks,  and  the  state- 
ments of  the  Babylonian  historian  Berosus, 
who  lived  about  250  years  after  Nebuchad- 
nezzar. After  its  subjection,  Judah  rendered 
tribute  to  him  for  three  years  and  then  re- 
volted (2  Kin.  xxiv.  1).  Nebuchadnezzar  re- 
turned to  Palestine  after  a  while,  suppressed 
the  revolt,  threw  one  king  in  fetters,  pres- 
ently ordered  the  new  king  to  be  carried 
captive  to  Babylon,  and  placed  yet  another 
king  on  the  throne  (2  Chron.  xxxvi.  6,  10)  ; 
see  Jehoiakim,  Jehoiachin,  Zedekiah. 
Zedekiah  remained  professedly  loyal  for 
about  eight  years;    in   the  ninth   year  he 


struck  for  independence,  being  assisted  by 
the  advance  of  an  Egyptian  army  (Jer. 
xxxvii.  5).  The  ultimate  result  was  that 
Jerusalem  was  besieged  and  taken,  587  b.  c, 
the  temple  burnt,  and  the  leading  inhabit- 
ants of  the  capital  and  the  country  carried 
into  captivity  (2  Kin.  xxiv.  ;  xxv. ;  2  Chron. 
xxxvi.  5-21 ;  Jer.  xxxix.  ;  lii.).  About  this 
time,  probably  in  the  seventh  year  of  the 
Tyrian  king  Ithobalos  and  not  of  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, Nel)uchadnezzar  began  the  siege 
of  Tyre,  which  lasted  thirteen  years  (Ezek. 
xxix.  18;  con.  Apion.  i.  21;  Antiq.  x.  11,  1). 
In  his  twenty-third  year,  582  b.  c,  he  warred 
against  Ccelesyria,  Moab,  and  Ammou,  and 
deported  several  hundred  Jews  (Jer.  lii.  30; 
Antiq.  x.  9,  7).  Afterwards  he  chastised 
Egj^pt  for  the  part  it  had  taken  in  the  Jewish 
war.  About  572  B.  c.  he  invaded  Egypt  {cp. 
Ezek.  xxix.  19),  and  in  his  thirty-seventh 
year,  569  or  568  B.  c,  he  again  led  his  army 
against  the  Egyptians.  It  is  probable  that 
Nebuchadnezzar  carried  on  other  military 
campaigns,  though  the  record  of  them  is 
lost.  He  acted  on  the  policy  of  transporting 
the  inhabitants  of  conquered  countries  to 
other  parts  of  the  empire,  and  had  thus  at  com- 
mand much  servile  labor,  which  enabled  him 
to  carry  out  important  works.  He  built  the 
great  wall  of  Babylon,  erected  a  magnificent 
palace  for  himself,  and  repaired  the  great  tem- 
ple of  Merodach  at  Babylon,  the  temple  of 
Nebo  at  Borsippa,  and  many  other  sanctuaries. 
He  is  said  to  have  built  hanging  gardens  to 
remind  his  wife  Amuhia  of  her  native  Median 
hills  (con.  Apion.  i.  19;  Antiq.  x.  11,  1),  and 
to  have  constructed  near  Sippara  a  huge  res- 
ervoir for  irrigation,  reputed  to  have  been 
140  miles  in  circumference  and  180  feet  in 
depth,  besides  canals  across  the  land,  and 
quays  and  breakwaters  on  the  Persian  Gulf. 
The  form  of  madness  from  which  he  suffered 
when  pride  overthrew  his  reason  was  that 
called  lycanthropy,  in  wliich  the  patient 
fancies  himself  one  of  the  inferior  animals, 
and  acts  as  such.  Nebuchadnezzar  imagined 
that  he  had  become  an  ox,  and  went  forth  to 
eat  grass  like  other  cattle  (Dan.  iv.).  He 
reigned  nearly  forty-three  years  and  died 
after  a  brief  illness  in  the  year  561  b.  c, 
leaving  his  son  Evil-merodach  to  ascend  the 
throne. 

Neb-u-shaz'ban,  in  A.  V.  Nebushasban 

[Nubu-shisibonni.   Nebo,  .save  me]. 

A  Babylonian  prince  who  held  the  oflice  of 
rab-saris  under  Nebuchadnezzar  (Jer.  xxxix. 
13). 

Neb-u-zar-a'dan  [Xiihu-sir-iddina,  Nebo 
hath  given  ofi"spring]. 

The  captain  of  the  guai'd  in  the  army  of 
Nebuchadnezzar,  which  captured  Jerusalem. 
He  was  chief  in  command  of  the  troops 
which  comijleted  the  destruction  of  the  city 
and  burnt  the  temple  (2  Kin.  xxv.  8-11,  18- 
21;  Jer.  xxxix.  9,  10;  lii.  12-30;  cp.  xli.  10; 
xliii.  6).     To  the  prophet  Jeremiah,  who  had 


Neco 


509 


Nehemiah 


recommended  his  coimtrymeii  to  submit  to 
the  Babylouians,  he,  by  express  orders  from 
the  victorious  sovereign,  sliowed  all  kindness 
(Jer.  xxxix.  11-14:  xl.  1-5). 

Ne'co  and  Necoh,  in  A.  V.  Necho  and 
Neclioli  [Egyptian  Xeku,  Nekaii,  Xekliao].  See 
Phakaoh. 

Ned-a-bi'ah  [Jehovah  hath  impelled  or  is 

bountiful]. 

A  son  of  king  Jeconiah  (1  Chron.  iii.  18). 

Neg'i-nah  and  plural  Neginotti  [playing 
on  a  stringed  instrument ;  a  stringed  instru- 
ment]. 

A  musical  term  occurring  in  the  title  of 
many  psalms,  where  it  denotes  a  stringed  in- 
strument, and  is  so  rendered  in  E.  V.  (Ps. 
ixi.).  Elsewhere  the  word  often  means  song, 
music. 

Ne-hel'a-mite. 

The  designation  of  the  fal.se  prophet  She- 
maiah  (Jer.  xxix.  24).  It  may  be  derived 
from  his  native  place  or  from  an  ancestor,  it 
is  uncertain  which.  On  tiie  margin  of  the 
A.  V.  it  is  rendered  dreamer. 

Ne-he-mi'ah  [Jehovali  hath  consoled]. 

1.  (Jue  of  the  chief  men  who  returned 
with  Zerubbabel  from  Babylon  (Ezra  ii.  2 ; 
Neh.  vii.  7). 

2.  Son  of  Azbuk  and  ruler  of  half  the  dis- 
trict of  Beth-zur.  He  repaired  part  of  the 
wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  16 1. 

3.  A  Jew  of  the  captivity,  son  of  Hacha- 
liah  (Xeh.  i.  i).  He  was  discharging  his 
duty  of  cupbearer  to  Artaxerxes  Longi- 
manus,  king  of  Persia,  when  the  king  ob- 
served that  he  looked  sad,  and  questioned 
him  as  to  the  cause  of  his  sorrow.  Nehemiah 
frankly  told  him  it  was  the  state  of  ruin  in 
which  the  city  of  his  fathers'  sepulchers, 
Jerusalem,  was  Ijnng.  He  therefore  begged 
permission  to  go  and  build  again  the  wall  of 
the  city.  The  king  accorded  him  an  es- 
cort of  cavalry  for  the  journey,  gave  him 
letters  commending  him  to  the  diiierent 
Persian  governors  by  the  way,  and  appointed 
him  governor  of  Judah,  as  Zerubbabel  had 
been  i  Neh.  i.  1-ii.  9;  v.  14).  He  arrived  at 
Jerusalem  in  the  twentieth  year  of  Arta- 
xerxes' reign,  44.5  B.  c.  Ezra  the  priest  was 
then  at  the  Je^ash  capital,  having  come 
from  Babylonia  thirteen  years  previously. 
Nehemiah,  on  reaching  the  ca]iital,  made  a 
journey  by  night  around  the  city  and  viewed 
the  ruined  walls.  He  now  intimated  to  the 
people  his  intention  of  rebuilding  the  walls, 
and  solicited  their  active  aid.  They  gave  it 
with  good  will,  each  notable  man  under- 
taking a  part  of  the  wall  (Neh.  iii.).  The 
neighboring  gentile  tribes  did  not  like  to 
hear  that  Jerusalem  was  being  rebuilt,  and 
three  of  their  representatives,  Sanballat,  the 
Horonite,  Tobiah,  an  Ammonite,  and  Gesliem, 
an  Arab,  i)ut  forth  active  efforts  to  stop  the 
building.  But  they  could  neither  circum- 
vent  nor   intimidate    Nehemiah,   who   reso- 


lutely held  on  his  course.  The  builders  also 
guarded  against  sudden  attack  by  working 
with  one  hand  while  with  the  other  they 
carried  a  weapon  (ii,  10 ;  iv.-vi. ;  Ecclus. 
xlix.  13).  The  wall  was  rebuilt  in  fifty-two 
days  (vi.  15),  in  the  year  445  B.  c,  75  years 
after  the  temple  had  been  completed.  Atten- 
tion was  nest  turned  to  the  instruction  of 
the  people  (viii. ),  and  a  religious  revival  fol- 
lowed, which  led  to  all  the  leading  men, 
both  of  priests  and  people,  sealing  with  Ne- 
hemiah a  covenant  to  worship  Jehovah  (ix., 
X,).  After  governing  Judah  for  twelve  years, 
Nehemiah,  in  433  B.  C,  returned  to  Susa.  He 
asked  for  further  leave  of  absence  (xiii.  6), 
and,  returning  to  Jerusalem,  seen)s  to  have 
governed  it  for  the  remainder  of  his  life, 
trying  to  enforce  the  law  of  Closes  against 
all  who  in  any  way  departed  from  its  pro- 
visions (xiii.  8-31).  For  his  connection  with 
the  formation  of  the  canon,  see  C'anox. 
Josephus  states  that  he  died  at  a  great  age 
(Autiq.  xi.  5,  8). 

The  Book  of  Nehemiah  stands "  m  the 
Hagiographa,  or  third  divi.sion  of  the  He- 
brew Scriptures,  immediately  after  Ezra  and 
before  Chronicles,  In  counting  the  books  of 
Scripture,  the  Jews  reckoned  Ezra  and  Ne- 
hemiah as  one  book :  see  Ezra, 

Nehemiah,  informed  of  the  wretched  con- 
dition of  Jerusalem  (i),  obtains  permission 
of  the  Persian  king  Artaxerxes  to  visit  Jeru- 
salem temporarily  as  a  royal  commis-sioner 
(ii, ;  cp.  6),  He  incites  the  people  to  rebuild 
the  walls  (17),  The  names  of  the  builders 
(iii.).  He  finds  it  neces-sary  to  arm  the 
builders  because  of  the  opposition  of  the  Sa- 
maritans (iv.).  While  the  wall  is  in  process 
of  construction  he  corrects  abuses  among 
the  people  (v,).  The  wall  is  finished  not- 
withstanding all  attempts  of  Sanballat  and 
Tobiah  to  terrify  Nehemiah,  and  the  secret 
aid  furnished  these  foreigners  by  nobles  of 
Judah  (vi.).  The  city  being  large,  but  the 
population  scanty,  Nehemiah  desires  to  in- 
crease the  number  of  the  inhabitants  (vii.  4). 
To  this  end  he  gathers  together  the  nobles, 
the  rulers,  and  the  people  with  the  view  first 
of  reckoning  them  by  genealogy  and  then  of 
drafting  some  to  dwell  in  Jerusalem.  The 
register  of  them  that  came  up  at  the  first 
with  Zerubbabel  (vii.  6-73).  It  is  the  regis- 
ter of  Ezra  ii.  1-70.  Before  the  registration 
was  accomplished,  the  seventh  month  ar- 
rived, which  brought  the  populace  to  Jeru.sa- 
lem  to  the  feast.  The  people  ask  that  the 
law  of  Moses  be  read.  The  reading  results 
in,  first,  their  building  booths  in  which  to 
dwell  during  the  feast  (viii.),  and,  second, 
in  repentance  of  their  sins  and  of  their  guilt 
in  inteiTuarriage  with  foreigners  (ix,).  They 
subscribe  or  seal  a  covenant  to  obey  God's 
law  and  to  abstain  from  intermarriage  with 
the  heathen.  A  list  of  those  who  sealed  (x.). 
These  religious  acts  having  been  performed, 
the  original  intention  of  making  a  registra- 
tion of  the  people  and   securing  additional 


Nehemiali 


510 


Nepheg 


inhabitants  for  the  city  is  carried  out.  Lots 
are  cast  to  draft  one  in  ten  from  the  country 
people  to  dwell  in  Jerusalem  in  addition  to 
those  already  inhabiting  the  city  (xi.  1,  2). 
A  list  of  the  families  who  dwelt  at  Jerusalem 
(3-24).  A  list  of  the  priests  and  Levites  who 
returned  at  the  first  with  Zerubbabel  (xii. 
1-9).  List  of  high  prie.sts  from  Jeshua  to 
Jaddua  (10,  11).  A  list  of  the  heads  of  the 
priestly  houses  in  the  generation  after  the 
return  (12-21).  A  list  of  the  heads  of  the 
Levites  at  the  same  time  and  shortly  after 
(22-2G).  The  dedication  of  the  wall  (27  seq.). 
In  the  interval  during  which  Nehemiah  was 
absent  at  the  Persian  court  abuses  had  grown 
up :  the  Levites  had  been  illy  provided  for 
(xiii.  10),  the  law  of  the  Sabbath  was  observed 
with  laxity  (15),  and  intermarriages  with 
foreigners  had  not  entirely  ceased  (23).  These 
abuses  Nehemiah  corrected. 

Not  only  does  the  title  assign  the  author- 
ship of  the  book  to  Nehemiah  (i.  1),  but 
throughout  the  book  Nehemiah  speaks  in  the 
first  person,  except  (1)  when  state  documents 
and  their  dockets  are  inserted  (x.  1 ;  xii.  26) ; 
(2)  incidentally  in  the  midst  of  the  account 
of  Ezra's  religious  work,  where  the  presence 
of  Nehemiah  as  civil  governor  lending  his 
oflficial  sanction,  with  other  persons  of  au- 
thority, is  briefly  recorded  (viii.  9 ;  and  (3) 
after  an  allusion  to  the  days  of  David  and 
Asaph  and  to  the  days  of  Zerubbabel,  the 
days  of  Nehemiah  are  mentioned  (xii.  47). 
In  this  last-mentioned  passage  the  third  per- 
son was  in  better  taste  in  this  connection 
than  the  first  person  would  have  been  ;  and 
besides,  the  passage  is  a  retrospect,  taken  after 
Nehemiah's  return  from  the  Persian  court, 
and  refers  to  what  took  place  during  tlie 
twelve  years  of  his  former  administration. 

It  is  universally  admitted  that  Nehemiah 
wrote  the  main  portion  of  the  book.  And 
the  prayer  of  ix.  6-38,  which  in  the  Septna- 
gint  is  introduced  by  the  words,  "and  Ezra 
said,"  and  which  in  fact  bears  traces  of  be- 
ing an  utterance  of  Ezra  (cp.  10  with  Ezra 
ix.  7,  15  ;  30  with  Ezra  ix.  1,  2,  11 ;  and  8, 
36  with  Ezra  ix.  9,  15),  would  be  properly  in- 
serted without  change  of  phraseology  by  Ne- 
hemiah in  his  historical  work.  But  the  nar- 
rative in  viii.  9  and  x.  1  gives  to  Nehemiah 
the  title  of  Tirshatha.  Tirshatha  is  doubtless 
the  Persian  equivalent  of  pehnh,  governor 
(Ezra  ii.  63  with  Hag.  i.  1).  The  use  of  the 
third  per.son  in  these  and  other  passages  is 
compatible  with  the  theory  of  Nehemiah's 
authorship;  but  the  title  of  Tirshatha  given 
him  is  not  so  readily  explained  on  the  supposi- 
tion that  Nehemiah  wrote  the  passages,  for 
he  elsewhere  styles  himself,  and  is  referred 
to  as,  the  pehah  (v.  14,  18  ;  xii.  26).  Most 
modern  critics  believe  that  traces  of  another 
hand  are  discernible.  Still  the  use  of  the  first 
person  plural  in  x.  30,  32,  34,  a  part  of  the 
section  viii.-x.,  suggests  an  eyewitness  of  the 
events.  If  another  than  Nehemiali  had  a  hand 
in  compiling  the  book,  the  question  whether 


this  writer  was  contemporary  with  Nehemiah 
or  later  depends  chiefly  upon  whether  the 
genealogies  (xii.  10,  11,  22)  are  brought  down 
to  the  reign  of  Darius  Codoniaunus,  king  of 
Persia  from  336  to  330  B.  C,  and  to  the  high- 
priesthood  of  Jaddua,  who  was  oiiiciatiug 
when  Alexander  the  Great  visited  Jerusalem 
(Antiq.  xi.  8,  4).  If  they  are  brought  down 
to  this  date,  neither  Nehemiah  nor  a  con- 
temporary could  have  penned  the  words ;  but 
if  the  references  to  Jaddua  merely  name  him 
as  a  youth,  and  include  him  because  he 
was  the  heir  to  the  office  of  high  priest,  the 
passages  easily  fall  within  the  lifetime  of 
Nehemiah  and  the  reign  of  Darius  Notluis, 
king  of  Persia  from  424  to  405  B.  c.  It  wil  1  be 
observed  that  the  enumeration  of  families 
is  assigned  to  the  time  of  Joiakim,  son  of 
Jeshua  and  great-great-grandfather  of  Jaddua 
(xii.  12,  26),  and  the  latest  recorded  events 
occurred  in  the  generation  before  the  high- 
priesthood  of  Jaddua  (xii.  23  ;  xiii.  28).  The 
book  was  originally  reckoned  one  with  Ezra ; 
see  Ezra. 

Ne'hi-lotli  [wind  instruments]  (Ps.  v. 
title). 

Ne'hum  [consolation]. 

One  of  those  who  returned  from  the  Baby- 
lonian captivity  (Neh.  vii.  7).  Called  in  Ezra 
ii.  2  Rehum  (cp.  3  Esdras  v.  8),  for  which 
Nehum  may  be  a  copyist's  error. 

Ne-hush'ta  [bronze]. 

Daughter  of  Elnathan  of  Jerusalem.  She 
became  the  wife  of  Jehoiakim  and  mother  of 
Jehoiachin  (2  Kin.  xxiv.  8). 

Ne-hush'tan  [piece  of  brass] .  See  Brazen 
Sekpent. 

Ne-i'el. 

A  frontier  village  of  Asher  (Josh.  xix.  27). 
Not  identified. 

Ne'keb  [a  hollow,  perhaps  a  pass  or  a  cav- 
ern]. 

A  frontier  village  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  xix. 
33).  The  R.  V.  joins  the  name  with  the  pre- 
ceding word,  calling  the  place  Adami-nekeb. 
The  Jerusalem  Talmud  calls  Nekeb  Siada- 
tha.  This  name  Conder  finds  lingering,  in  a 
corrupted  form,  in  Seiyadeh,  a  ruin  3J  miles 
west  by  north  of  the  exit  of  the  Jordan  from 
the  sea  of  Galilee. 

Ne-ko'da  [perhaps,  distinguished,  a  herd- 
man]. 

Founder  of  a  family  of  Nethinim  (Ezra  ii. 
48,  60). 

Nem'u-el. 

1.  A  Reubenite,  brother  of  Dathan  and 
Abiram  (Num.  xxvi.  9). 

2.  A  son  of  Simeon  (Num.  xxvi.  12)  ;  see 
Jemuel. 

Ne'pheg  [a  sprout,  an  offshoot]. 

1.  A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath,  house  of 
Izhar  (Ex.  vi.  21). 

2.  One  of  the  sons  born  to  David  in  Jerusa- 
lem (2  Sam.  V.  15 ;  1  Chron.  iii.  7 ;  xiv.  6). 


Nephish 


511 


Nethaniah 


Ne'pMsh.     Sec  Naphiph. 

Neph'i-sim,  or  Ne-phu'sim ;  while  in 
Nephisliesini  nr  Nephusliesini,  two  spellings, 
one  with  sh,  tlie  other  with  s,  are  appareutly 
combined  in  the  same  word  [exi)anded  ones]. 

A  family  of  Nelhiuim  (Ezra  ii.  50;  Neli. 
vii.  52),  perhai)s  originally  captives  taken 
from  the  Irilie  Xaphish  (q.  v.). 

Neph'tha-lim.     See  Naphtali. 

Neph'to-ah  [an  opening]. 

A  fountain  on  the  boundary  line  between 
Judah  and  Benjamin,  to  the  west  of  Jerusa- 
lem (Josh.  XV.  9  ;  xviii.  15).  It  is  generally 
located  at  'Ain  Lifta,  2  miles  northwest  of 
Jerusalem.  Porter  prefers  'Ain  Yalo,  3  miles 
southwest  of  Jerusalem.  Conder  points  out 
that  the  Jerusalem  Talmud  identified  Neph- 
toah  with  En  Etam,  which  he  identifies  with 
'Ain  'Atan,  2A  miles  southwest  of  Bethlehem  ; 
but  his  suggestion  has  not  found  favor. 

Ne-phu'she-sim  and  Ne-phu'sim.  See 
Np;phisim. 

Nep'tha-lim.    See  Naphtali. 

Ner  [a  lamp]. 

1.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Abiel  and  father  of 
Abner  (1  Sam.  xiv.  51).  He  or  Abner  was 
Saul's  uncle  (50).  If  Abner  was  Saul's  uncle, 
\er  was  Saul'sgrandfather  and  identical  with 
the  following. 

2.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Jeiel  and  father  or 
remoter  ancestor  of  Saul's  father,  Kish  (1 
Chron.  viii.  33 ;  ix.  35,  36).     See  Kish  2. 

Ne're-us  [a  sea  god  who,  under  Poseidon 
or  Neptune,  ruled  the  Mediterranean  Sea]. 

A  Roman  Christian  to  whom  Paul  sent  a 
salutation  (Rom.  xvi.  15). 

Ner'gal. 

A  heathen  deity  worshiped  by  the  Baby- 
lonians (2  Kin.  xvii.  .30).  The  chief  seat  of 
his  worship  was  Cuthah.  He  was  ruler  of  the 
nether  world,  and  god  of  war  and  pestilence ; 
and  was  represented  under  the  form  of  a 
colossal  winged  lion  with  a  human  face. 

Ner-gal-sha-re'zer  [Babylonian  Nergal- 
shani^nr,  Nergal,  protect  the  king]. 

One  of  Nebuchadnezzar's  princes,  who 
held  the  office  of  rab-mag  (Jer.  xxxix.  3,  13). 
He  is  supposed  to  be  Nergalsharusur,  known 
to  the  Greeks  as  Neriglissar  or  Nerigasolasar, 
who  married  a  daughter  of  Nebuchadnezzar, 
murdered  his  brother-in-law  Evil-merodach, 
and  ascended  the  throne  as  the  latter's  suc- 
cessor (con.  Apion.  i.  20),  reigning  from  559 
to  556  B.  c. 

Ne'ri. 

An  ancestor  of  Christ  and  somehow  gene- 
alogically the  fatherof  Shealtiel  (Luke  iii.  27). 

Ne-ri'ah  [lamp  of  Jehovah]. 

Son  of  Maaseiah,  and  father  of  Baruch 
and  Seraiah  (Jer.  xxxii.  12  ;  xxxvi.  4  :  li.  .59). 

Net. 

The  net  was  used  by  the  Hebrews  in  fowl- 
ing (Prov.  i.  17).  Doubtless,  as  in  Egypt, 
the   clap  net  was  used,  a  familiar  form  of 


which  consisted  of  two  half  hoops  or  frames 
covered  with  netting  and  attached  to  a  com- 
mon axis.  The  trap  was  spread  open  Hat, 
and  the  bait  placed  in  the  center.  The  mo- 
tion of  the  bird  at  the  bait  released  a  spring, 
the  two  sides  closed  suddenly,  and  the  bird 
was  caught. 

The  net  was  also  used  in  hunting  (Is.  11. 
20).  It  was  cast  about  the  game  (Job  xix.  6) 
or  over  it  (Ezek.  xii.  13;  xix.  8),  or  laid  to 
catch  the  feet  (Ps.  ix.  15;  xxv.  15;  Ivii.  6; 
Lam.  i.  13).  Throughout  the  ancient  world, 
as  sculpture  and  narrative  reveal,  it  was  usual 
to  extend  nets  on  stakes  so  as  to  inclose  a 
large  space  as  by  a  fence,  a  single  ojiening 
being  left  as  an  entrance.  Through  this  gate- 
way various  kinds  of  game  were  driven,  such 
as  hares,  boars,  deer;  and  once  within  the 
inclosure,  they  were  under  control  and  easily 
dispatt'hed.  Small  nets  were  used  to  close 
gaps  between  bushes  or  to  bar  a  path.  Purse 
nets  were  laid,  that  animals  might  run  into 
them  as  into  a  tunnel  and  find  no  exit. 

In  fishing  both  drag  nets  (Hab.  i.  15 ;  Mat. 
xiii.  47,  48)  and  casting  nets  (iv.  18;  John 
xxi.  6  ;  Herod,  i.  141)  were  used.  The  He- 
brews were  acquainted  with  the  common 
drag  net  of  Egypt  (Is.  xix.  8).  It  was  quite 
large,  its  cords  were  made  of  flax,  the  lower 
edge  was  weighted  with  lead  and  sunk  to  the 
bottom  of  the  river  or  sea,  and  the  upper 
edge  was  floated  by  pieces  of  wood  ;  see  illus- 
tration, article  Fishing.  This  form  of  net 
was  widely  used  throughout  the  world 
(Homer,  Odvssey  xxii.  384-387  ;  Pliny,  Hist. 
Nat.  xvi.  8,  13). 

Neth'a-nel,  in  A.  V.  Ne-than'e-el  [God 
hath  given].     The  Greek  form  is  Nathanael. 

1.  Prince  of  the  tribe  of  Issachar  at  an 
earlv  period  of  the  wilderness  wanderings 
(Num.  i.  8;  ii.  5;  vii.  18,  23;  x.   1,5). 

2.  Jesse's  fourth  son,  and  David's  brother 
(1  Chron.  ii.  14). 

3.  One  of  the  priests  who  blew  trumpets 
when  the  ark  was  brought  up  to  the  city  of 
David  (1  Chron.  xv.  24). 

4.  A  Levite,  father  of  Shemaiah  (1  Chron. 
xxiv.  6). 

5.  A  son  of  Obed-edom  in  David's  reign  (1 
Chron.  xxvi.  4). 

6.  One  of  the  princes  whom  Jehoshaphat 
sent  to  teach  in  the  cities  of  Judah  (2  Chron. 
xvii.  7). 

7.  A  chief  of  the  Levites  in  Josiah's  reign 
(2  Chron.  xxxv.  9). 

8.  A  son  of  Pashhur,  induced  by  Ezra  to 
put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  22). 

9.  A  priest,  head  of  the  father's  house  of 
Jedaiah  in  thedavsof  the  high  priest  Joiakim 
(Neh.  xii.  21). 

10.  A  priest's  son  who  blew  a  trumpet  at 
the  dedication  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh. 
xii.  36). 

Neth-a-ni'ah  [Jehovah  has  given]. 
1.  A  son  of  Asaph  (1   Chron.  xxv.  2),  the 
head  of  the  fifth  course  of  singers  (12). 


Nethinim 


512 


New  Testament 


2.  A  Levite  sent  with  others  by  .leliosha- 
phat  to  teach  in  the  cities  of  Judah  (2  Chron. 
xvii.  8). 

3.  Father  of  Jehudi  (Jer.  xxxvi.  14). 

4.  Father  of  that  Islimael  who  assassinated 
Gedaliah  (2  Kin.  xxv.  23,  25). 

Neth'i-nim,  in  A.  V.  NetMnims  [given]. 

Temple  servants  or  slaves  given  by  David 
and  the  princes  for  the  service  of  the  Levites 
(Ezra  viii.  20).  Prior  to  their  appointment, 
similar  functions  seem  to  have  been  dis- 
charged by  the  Midianites,  whom  Moses  gave 
over  to  the  Levites  (Num.  xxxi.  47),  and  at 
a  subsequent  period  by  the  Gibeonites,  whom 
Joshua  assigned  as  hewers  of  wood  and 
drawers  of  water  for  the  house  of  God  (Josh, 
ix.  23).  Even  after  the  Nethinim  were  as- 
sociated with  them  or  superseded  them,  the 
number  of  the  Nethinim  may  liav^e  been  too 
small  for  the  elaborate  temple  services  insti- 
tuted by  David's  son  and  successor,  and  been 
increased ;  for  we  find  in  the  books  of  Ezra 
(ii.  55-58)  and  Nehemiah  (vii.  57-60)  the  chil- 
dren of  Solomon's  servants,  i.  e.  slaves,  men- 
tioned after  and  numbered  with  the  Neth- 
inim. Although  they  were  organized  by 
David,  it  was  probably  under  a  different  name ; 
for  the  word  Nethinim  occurs  only  in  the 
books  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  with  a  solitary 
passage  in  1  Chronicles  (ix.  2).  They  dis- 
charged the  more  meUial  duties  required  by 
the  temple  worship.  Of  the  Nethinim  and 
the  children  of  Solomon's  servants,  392  re- 
tunied  from  captivity  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra 
ii.  58  ;  Neh.  vii.  60),  and  220  more  with  Ezra 
(Ezra  viii.  17-20).  The  Nethinim  seem  to 
have  been  naturalized  foreigners  rather  than 
people  of  true  Israelite  descent  (1  Chron.  ix. 
2;  Ezra  ii.  59;  Neh.  vii.  61),  and  several  of 
the  names  on  the  list  of  their  leading  men 
have  a  foreign  aspect  (Ezra  ii.  43-54  ;  Neh. 
vii.  46-56).  They  were  pi'obably  descendants 
of  the  Midianites  and  Gibeonites,  who  have 
been  already  mentioned,  and  of  various 
bands  of  captives  taken  in  war ;  they  con- 
tinued to  be  designated  by  the  name  of  the 
prince  or  tribe  from  whom  they  were  taken, 
as  the  children  of  Sisera,  of  Rezin,  of  Meu- 
nim.  and  of  Nephisim  (Ezra  ii.  48,  50,  53  ; 
with  1  Chron.  v.  19-21  ;  2  Chron.  xxvi.  7). 
The  children  of  Tabbaoth  and  Keros,  and  of 
Solomon's  servants  the  children  of  the  Soph- 
ereth  (Ezra  ii.  43,  44,  55),  which  mean  the  chil- 
dren of  the  rings,  of  the  weaver's  comb,  and 
of  the  scribal  office,  apparently  denote  the 
official  duties  in  the  temple  which  the  men  of 
these  classes  discharged.  Other  names  are 
those  of  progenitors  ;  and  yet  others  seem  to 
be  the  names  of  the  native  places  of  the  cap- 
tives, as  perhaps  Nckoda,  Harliur,  Harsha 
(ver.  48,  51.  52).  Some  of  them  lived  on  Ophel, 
a  southern  prolongation  of  the  temple  hill 
(Neh.  iii.  26,  31  ;  xi.  3.  21),  others  in  the  vil- 
lages round  about  Jerusalem  (Ezra  ii.  70  ; 
Neh.  vii.  73).  They  seem  to  have  adopted 
with  some  cordiality  the  covenant  made  at 


the  i7i stance  of  Nehemiah  to  worship  Jehovah 

(x.  28,  29). 

Ne-to'phah  [dropping,  falling  in  drops]. 

A  town  of  Judah,  evidently  near  Bethle- 
hem (1  Chron.  ii.  54;  Ezra  ii.  21,  22;  Neh. 
vii.  26).  It  was  the  home  of  two  of  David's 
mighty  men  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  28,  29).  Netopha- 
thites  with  Seraiah  at  their  head  were  among 
the  men  who  assembled  loyally  about  Geda- 
liah, whom  Nebuchadnezzar  had  made  gov- 
ernor of  Judah  on  the  fall  of  Jerusalem 
(2  Kin.  xxv.  23 ;  Jer.  xl.  8  seq.).  Fifty-six 
of  the  town's  people  returned  after  the  exile 
(Ezra  ii.  22).  It  was  not  originally  a.ssigned 
to  the  Levites,  but  after  the  return  its  de- 
pendent villages  were  occupied  by  certain  of 
them,  including  singers  (1  Chron.  ix.  16; 
Neh.  xii.  28).  On  the  survey  map  it  is  located, 
with  a  query,  at  the  ruin  Umm  Toba,  the 
Om  Tuba  of  Tobler,  and  the  Antubeh  of  Van 
de  Velde,  2  miles  northeast  of  Bethlehem. 

Ne-to'pha-tMte,  in  A.  V.  of  Neh.  xii.  28  Ne- 

tophatM,    the  Hebrew  form  being  preserved. 

An  inhabitant  of  Netophah  (2  Sam.  xxiii. 

28). 

Net'tle. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Hand, 
burning  plant,  one  that  inflames.  Men  driven 
by  want  take  refuge  under  it  (Job  xxx.  7). 
Along  with  the  stinging  nettle,  Hebrew  kim- 
m'shoH,  it  overspreads  the  sluggard's  un- 
weeded  garden  (Prov.  xxiv.  31).  In  fact  it 
springs  up  everywhere  when  cultivation  of 
the  land  is  neglected  (Zeph.  ii.  9).  The 
plant  cannot  be  identified  R.  V.  places 
wild  vetches  on  the  margin. 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Kimmosh 
in  Is.  xxxiv.  13  and  Hos.  ix.  6.  The  rab- 
binical idea  that  the  plant  is  a  nettle,  has 
been  generally  adopted.  The  Roman  or  pill 
nettle  (Urtica pihdifeni)  is  found  everywhere 
in  Palestine.  The  Hebrew  word  itself  is 
probably  more  general  in  signification  and 
comprehends  a  large  class  of  weeds.  A  mod- 
ification of  the  word  is  kimiu'shon  (Prov. 
xxiv.  31),  which  the  English  versions  render 
thorns. 

New  Moon.     See  Moon. 

New  Tes'ta-ment. 

Tlie  second  of  the  two  portions  into  which 
the  Bible  is  naturally  divided.  Testament 
represents  the- Latin  woi'd  fesfdiiieiitnm,  which 
is  used  to  translate  the  Greek  word  dinthrke, 
covenant  (2  Cor.  iii.  14).  The  N.  T.  embodies 
the  new  covenant  of  which  Jesus  was  the 
Mediator  (Heb.  ix.  15 ;  cp.  x.  16,  17  and  Jer. 
xxxi.  31-.34).  The  fir,st  covenant  was  dedi- 
cated with  blood  (Heb.  ix.  19,  20),  but  was  in 
no  sense  a  testament:  the  secoTid,  while 
primarily  a  covenant  was  also  a  testament ; 
that  is,  it  was  not  merely  dedicated  with 
blood,  bnt  it  required  the  death  of  the  testa- 
tor to  give  it  force.  It  would  not  have  had 
j)roper  efficacy  had  not  Jesus  its  Mediator 
died  an  atoning  death. 


I 


New  Testament 


513 


New  Testament 


With  the  possible  exception  of  Matthew's 
Gospel,  the  hooks  of  the  N.  T.  were  written 
iu  Greek.  This  language  had  taken  deep 
root  in  Palestine  during  the  more  than  three 
centuries  which  bad  elai)sed  since  the  con- 
quest of  the  Holy  Laud  by  Alexander  the 
Great ;  and  the  merits  of  the  language  itself 
and  that  of  the  literature  which  it  enshrined, 
had  given  it  the  widest  currency  among  edu- 
cated men  throughout  the  Roman  empire, 
though  Greece  had  now  for  a  considerable 
time  lost  its  i)olitical  independence. 

The  original  manuscripts  of  the  books  of 
the  N.  T.  and  the  copies  made  during  the 
first  three  centuries  have  disappeared.  Papy- 
rus, which  was  commonly  used  for  letters 
(2  John  12),  soon  wore  out,  and  in  the  time 
of  Diocletian,  A.  D.  303,  it  was  customary  for 
the  persecutors  of  Christians  to  seek  for 
copies  of  the  Scriptures  and  destroy  them. 
The  art  of  printing  was  unknown,  but  tran- 
scribers laboriously  multiplied  copies.  The 
four  gospels  were  most  frequently  transcribed, 
and  after  them  the  epistles  of  Paul.  The 
Eevelatiou  was  copied  least  often.  No  fewer 
than  1760  ancient  manuscript  copies  of  the 
N.  T.  iu  whole  or  in  part  exist,  their  abun- 
dance markedly  contrasting  with  the  small 
number  of  the  classical  writers  which  have 
come   down  to  our  own  day. 

Corruptions  of  the  text  soon  crept  in. 
Copyists  were  fallible,  careless,  and  often 
imperfectly  acquainted  with  Greek.  Men 
of  the  patristic  age  and  later  were  not  gov- 
erned by  the  modern  demand  for  scientitic 
exactness,  and  they  handled  the  text  with 
considerable  license.  They  attempted  to  im- 
prove the  grammar  and  the  style,  to  correct 
supposed  errors  in  history  and  geography,  to 
adjust  the  quotations  from  the  O.  T.  to  the 
Greek  of  the  Septuagint,  and  to  harmonize 
the  gospels.  They  incorporated  marginal 
notes,  and  they  added  to  the  gospel  nar- 
ratives incidents  obtained  from  authentic 
sources,  as  John  vii.  53-viii.  1  and  jNIark 
xvi.  9-20.  The  various  readings  which  thus 
originated  are  very  numerous.  They  number 
150,000.  Nineteen-twentieths  of  these  are, 
however,  of  no  authority,  being  evidently 
not  genuine,  and  only  the  merest  fraction  of 
the  remainder  are  of  any  consequence  as 
affecting  the  .sense.  The  v^ery  number  of 
these  readings,  and  the  fact  that  they  were 
made  originally  in  different  parts  of  the 
world,  and  from  a  v'ariety  of  manuscripts, 
enables  biblical  students  to  detect  and  elimi- 
nate the  errors,  and  approximate  to  the 
original  text  more  closely  than  if  the  various 
readings  were  fewer.  This  tedious  but  nec- 
essary work  has  been  carried  out  with  un- 
tiring energy  by  textual  critics.  It  is  possible 
indirectly  to  gain  access  to  the  readings  in 
manuscripts  which  have  perished,  for  there 
were  early  versions  of  the  X.  T.  in  different 
languages,  such  as  the  Syriac  and  Latin,  and 
quotations  from  the  X.  T.  are  found  iu  the 
writings  of  the  early  Christians,  especially 
33 


in  Clement  of  Alexandria  and  Origen.  In 
many  cases  these  versions  and  citations  were 
made  ironi  manuscripts  not  now  existing, 
but  the  translation  shows  what  the  original 
must  have  been. 

The   N.  T.  manuscripts  fall   into  two  di- 
visions: Uncials,  written  in  (ireek  capitals, 
without  breathings  or  accents  and  with  no 
separation  between  the  different  words,  ex- 
cept occasionally  to  indicate  the  beginning 
of  a  new  paragraph,  and  very  little  even  be- 
tween  the  different  lines;  and  Cursives,  in 
small  Greek  letters,  and   with  divisions  of 
words  and  lines.     The  change  between  the 
two  kinds  of  Greek  writing  took  place  about 
the  tenth  century.     Only   five  manuscripts 
of  the  X.  T.  approaching  to  completeness  are 
more  ancient  than  this  dividing  date.     The 
first,  numbered  by  biblical  critics  A,  is  the 
Alexandrian     manuscript.      Though    taken 
to    England    by   Cyril    Lucar,    patriarch    of 
Constantinople,  as  a  present  to  Charles  I.,  it 
is  believed  that  it  was  written,  not  in   that 
capital,  but  in  Alexandria,  whence  its  title. 
Its  date  is  believed  to  be  the  middle  of  the 
fifth  century.     In  addition  to  a  large  portion 
of  the  O.  T.'and  the  First  Epi-stle  of  Clement 
and   part   of   the  Second,   it    contains    the 
whole  of  the  X.  T.  except  Mat.  i.-xxv.  5 ; 
John    vi.  50-viii.    52;    2  Cor.   iv.   1.3-xii.  H. 
The    page    is    divided    into    two    columns, 
and   the   text  is  marked  off  into  chapters, 
I   Mark   containing  forty-eight.     The  second, 
I    known  as  B,  is  the  Vatican  manuscript.     It 
I   has  been  in  the  Vatican  library  at  Eome  from 
!    1475  or  an  earlier  period,  but  not  till  18.57  was 
j   an  edition  of  it  published,  and  that  one,  by 
;    Cardinal   Mai,   when    issued,    was  uncritical 
i   and  of  little  value.     But  in  1868  a  facsimile 
i    of  it  came  forth,  so  that  now-  it  is  fully  ac- 
;   cessible  to  scholars.   The  Vatican  manuscript 
!   dates  from  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century, 
'   if  not  even  from  an  earlier  period.     Besides 
j    the  O.  T.,  it  contains  the  whole  of  the  N.  T. 
!   except  Heb.  ix.  14-28,  1  and  2  Tim.,  Titus, 
Philem.,  and  Rev.     It  has  three  columns  to 
the  page,  and  is  divided  into  .short  chapters, 
Matthew  having  170.     The  third,  C,  or  the 
Ephraem    manuscript,    is   a   palimpsest.     In 
the  twelfth  century  the  original  writing  was 
washed  out  to  make  room  for  the  text  of  sev- 
eral ascetic  treatises  of  Ephraem  the  Syrian. 
Traces  of  the  older  writing  were,  however, 
discernible,  and  in  1834  the  original  text  was 
revived   by  an   application  of   prussiate  of 
potash.     It  is  believed  that  it  belongs  to  the 
fifth  century,  and  perhaps  a  slightly  earlier 
period  of  it  than  the  manuscript  A.     It  ccm- 
tains  portions  of  the  O.  T.  and  five-eighths 
of  the  X.  T.     The  lines  run  across  the  page. 
The  fourth,  D,  or  the  manuscript  of  Beza, 
was  so  called  because  it  belonged  to  the  re- 
former Beza,  who  found  it  in  the  monastery 
of  St.  Irenaus  at  Lyons  in  1562.     It  is  dated 
in  the  sixth  century.    It  contains  the  greater 
part  of  the  Greek  text  of  the  gospels  and  The 
Acts,  together  with  a  Latin  translation.    It  is 


New  Testament 


514 


Nicodemus 


written  sticliometrically,  i.  e.,  in  single  lines 
containing  as  many  words  as  could  be  read 
at  a  breath,  consistently  with  the  sense.  The 
fifth,  called  X  (the  Hebrew  first  letter,  alpha), 
is  the  Sinaitic  manuscript,  obtained  in  1844 
and  1859  by  Tischendorf  from  the  monks  be- 
longing to  the  convent  of  St.  Catherine  on 
mount  Sinai.  Besides  the  major  part  of  the 
O.  T.,  it  contains  the  whole  N.  T.  without 
a  break,  together  with  the  epistle  of  Bar- 
nabas and  a  large  part  of  the  Shepherd  of 
Hernias.  The  last  twelve  verses  of  Mark 
are  lacking,  but  it  is  suspicious  that  the  page 
where  they  occur  seems  to  be  a  cancel.  It 
was  made  in  the  fourth  century.  It  has  four 
columns  to  the  page. 

The  cursive  manuscripts,  though  numerous, 
are  of  too  late  date  to  stand  on  the  same  level 
for  critical  purposes  as  the  uncials. 

The  first  printed  edition  of  the  Greek  N. 
T.  actually  published  was  that  of  Erasmus, 
who  issued  it  in  1516.  It  was  reprinted  in 
1518,  a  second  and  more  correct  edition 
followed  in  1519,  a  third  in  1522,  a  fourth  in 
1527.  Cardinal  Ximenes,  the  Eoman  Catho- 
lic primate  of  Spain,  had  been  engaged  for 
some  years  in  preparing  an  edition  of  the 
Greek  N.  T.,  but  various  causes  of  delay 
kept  it  back  from  the  world  till  1521  or  1522. 
From  being  made  at  Alcala,  called  by  the 
Romans  Comjilutum,,  it  is  known  as  the 
Complutensian  edition.  Among  other  edi- 
tions of  the  Greek  N.  T.  which  followed, 
none  were  more  celebrated  than  those  of 
Eobert  Stephens  of  Paris.  They  appeared 
in  1546,  1549,  1550,  and  1551.  Then  Beza 
the  reformer  came  upon  the  scene,  and 
issued  several  editions  of  the  Greek  N.  T. 
between  1565  and  1604,  based  on  Stephens' 
third  edition  (1550),  which  in  turn  had  been 
founded  mainly  on  Erasmus'  fourth  or  fifth 
edition.  Stephens'  edition  of  1550  is  the 
te.rtiis  recepfus  in  England,  but  on  the  conti- 
nent of  Europe  this  designation  and  au- 
thority are  generally  given  to  the  first 
Elzevir  edition,  printed  at  Leyden  in  1624. 
This  Elzevir  text  is  mainly  that  of  Stephens' 
edition  of  1550,  from  which  it  diflers  in  278 
places,  including  merely  orthographic  varia- 
tions. It  was  mainly  from  Beza's  edition  of 
1598  that  the  A.  V.  of  the  English  Bible  was 
made. 

The  division  of  the  O.  and  N.  T.  into  our 
present  chapters  has  been  generally  ascribed 
to  Cardinal  Hugo,  who  died  in  1263,  a 
Dominican  monk,  who  used  it  for  his  con- 
cordance to  the  Vulgate.  Its  application  in 
this  concordance  certainly  brought  this  di- 
vision into  repute,  and  established  the  prac- 
tice of  citing  by  chapters  instead  of  referring 
to  the  book  merely  or  to  some  prominent 
narrative  in  the  book  (cp.  Mark  ii.  26;  xii. 
26 ;  Rom.  xi.  2)  ;  but  there  is  reason  to  believe 
that  the  present  division  antedates  Hugo, 
and  was  due  to  Ste})hen  Langton,  archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  who  died  in  122S.  The  di- 
vision of  the  N.  T.  into  our  present  verses 


was  made  by  Robert  Stephens  in  the  Vul- 
gate which  he  published  in  1555.  The  first 
English  N.  T.  to  be  so  divided  was  Whitting- 
hani's  translation,  Geneva,  1557,  and  the  first 
English  Bible  so  divided  was  the  Geneva 
version  of  1560. 

Ne-zi'ah  [bright,  pure,  illustrious]. 

Founder  of  a  family  of  Nethinim,  mem- 
bers of  which  returned  with  Zerubbabel  from 
the  Babylonian  captivity  (Ezra  ii.  54  ;  Neh. 
vii.  56). 

Ne'zlb  [statue,  idol,  military  station]. 

A  town  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv. 
43).  Beit  Nusib,  about  9  miles  west-north- 
west of  Hebron,  is  scarcely  the  site ;  for  it 
is  in  the  hill  country. 

Nib'haz. 

An  idol,  one  of  two  worshiped  by  the 
Avvites,  a  tribe  brought  with  others  from  the 
Assyrian  empire  to  colonize  Samaria  after 
the  cai)tivity  of  the  ten  tribes  (2  Kin.  xvii. 
31).  The  Jewish  ra))bins  derived  the  name 
from  the  Semitic  root  inibah,  to  bark,  and 
considered  that  Nibhaz  had  the  figure  of  a 
dog;  but  there  is  no  reason  to  think  that 
thej'  were  correct. 

Nib'shan  [soft,  level  soil]. 

A  town  in  the  wilderness  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  62).     Site  unknown. 

Ni-ca'nor  [victorious]. 

1.  Son  of  Patroclus  and  one  of  the  king's 
friends  whom  Lysias,  regent  in  western 
Syria  during  the  absence  of  Antiochus  E]Mi)h- 
anes,  in  166  B.  c.  selected  to  lead  the  army 
to  suppress  the  Judsean  revolt  (1  Mac.  iii.  38  ; 
2  Mac.  viii.  9).  The  Syrians  were  defeated. 
Nicanor  stood  high  in  the  favor  of  Demetrius 
I.  also,  and  was  appointed  governor  of  Judsea 
by  him  (1  Mac.  vii.  26 ;  2  Mac.  xiv.  12).  He 
professed  friendship  for  Judas  Maccabicus, 
but  the  Jew  was  not  deceived.  Nicanor  en- 
gaged in  battle  with  Judas  at  Capharsalama, 
and  was  slain  in  battle  with  him  near  Beth- 
horon,  160  B.  c.  (1  Mac.  vii.  27-49  ;  2  Mac.  xv. 
1-36). 

2.  One  of  the  seven  men  who  were  chosen 
in  the  church  at  Jerusalem  to  look  after  the 
Greek-speaking  widows,  and  apparently  the 
poor  in  general  (Acts  vi.  5). 

Nic-0-de'm.us  [victor  over  the  people]. 

A  Pharisee  and  a  member  of  the  sanhe- 
drin.  Being  convinced  by  the  miracles  which 
Jesus  wrought  that  the  Nazarenc  teacher  had 
come  from  God,  he  sought  an  interview  with 
him  ;  but  by  night,  that  he  might  not  attract 
observation.  Jesus  then  explained  to  him 
the  nature  of  the  new  birth,  and  the  love  of 
God  for  the  world  which  prompted  him  to 
.send  his  only  begotten  Son  to  give  eternal  life 
to  all  who  should  accept  him  in  faith  (John 
iii.  1-21).  When  afterwards  the  sanhedrin 
wished  to  arrest  .Tesus,  Nicodemus  defended 
him  and  was  met  with  the  reply,  "  Art  thou 
also  of  Galilee  ?  Search,  and  see  that  out  of 
Galilee    ariseth    no    prophet"    (vii.   50-52). 


Nicolaitans 


515 


NUe 


After  the  death  of  Christ  Nicodennis  took 
about  a  liiiiidrcd  i)()Uiuls  weight  of  myrrh 
and  aloes,  and  aided  in  eiiil)aliiiiug  the  i)re- 
cious  reoiaius  (xix.  39).  The  time  and  man- 
ner of  his  own  death  are  unknown. 

Nic-0-la'i-tans. 

A  jiarty  or  sect  iu  the  churches  of  Ephesus 
and  IVrgamos  whose  practice  and  doctrine 
are  se%'erely  censured.  They  held  the  doc- 
trine of  Balaam,  and  taught  that  Christians 
were  free  to  eat  things  offered  to  idols  and 
commit  the  excesses  of  heathenism  (Eev.  ii. 
(),  14,  15).  Presumably  the  Nicolaitans  were 
the  followers  of  some  heresiarch  called 
Nicolas.  There  is  no  i>roof  that  he  was  the 
man  of  that  name  elected  as  one  of  the  first 
seven  deacons :  although  one  tradition  makes 
the  deacon  lapse  into  imjiurity  and  then  be- 
come the  head  of  an  immoral  sect  ;  and  an- 
other describes  him  as  using  unguarded  lan- 
guage, which,  though  in  itself  innocent,  was 
capable  of  being  perverted  to  evil  ends,  and 
thus  unwittingly  originating  an  immoral 
jiarty  wMth  which  he  had  no  sympathy.  A  sect 
of  Nicolaitans  existed  among  the  Gnostics, 
which  may  have  grown  out  of  these  corrupt 
Christians  of  the  apostolic  age. 

Nic'o-las  [victor  over  the  people]. 

A  proselyte  of  Antioch,  who  was  one  of 
the  seven  elected  at  the  instance  of  the  apos- 
tles to  look  after  the  interests  of  the  Greek- 
speaking  widows  and  apparently  the  Chris- 
tian poor  in  general  (Acts  vi.  5). 

Ni-cop'o-lis  [city  of  victory]. 

A  place  at  which  Paul,  when  he  wrote  the 
Epistle  to  Titus,  hoped  to  winter  (Titus  iii. 
12).  The  note  appended  to  the  epistle  makes 
it  sent  from  Nicopolis  of  ^Macedonia,  but  it  is 
of  no  authority.  The  place  referred  to  in 
this  postscript  was  situated  on  both  sides  of 
the  river  Nestus,  which  was  the  boundary 
line  between  Thrace  and  Macedonia.  It  is 
now  called  Nikopi.  But  the  probability  is 
that  the  Nicopolis  at  which  Paul  meant  to 
winter  was  the  town  in  Epirus,  4  miles  from 
Actium,  which  Augustus  founded  in  30  B.  c.  to 
commemorate  his  victory.  Herod  the  Great 
built  a  number  of  its  public  edifices  (Antiq. 
xvi.  5,  3).     Its  ruins  remain  at  Prevesa. 

Ni'ger  [black]. 

A  Latin  surname  of  Simeon,  a  prophet 
and  teacher  in  the  church  of  Antioch  (Acts 
xiii.  1). 

Night. 

The  period  of  darkness  (Gen.  i.  5).  It  was 
divided  into  three  watches  :  sunset  to  mid- 
night, midnight  to  cock-crow,  cock-crow  to 
sunrise  (Lam.  ii.  19;  Jiidg.  vii.  19;  Ex.  xiv. 
24).  The  Greek  and  Roman  division  into 
four  watches  was  in  use  in  N.  T.  times  (Luke 
xii.  38  ;  Mark  vi.  48).  At  this  period  the 
night,  from  sunset  to  sunrise,  was  divided 
into  twelve  hours  (cp.  Acts  xxiii.  23). 

Night  Hawk. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Tahmas,  vio- 


lent one ;  an  unclean  bird  mentioned  in  Lev. 
xi.  K;  ;  Deut.  xiv.  15.  It  is  doul)tful  what 
bird  is  meant.  The  English  versions  make 
it  the  night  hawk,  which  is  another  name  for 
the  night  jar,  better  known  as  the  goat- 
sucker iCaprimulgiis  europveus),  or  some  sjje- 
cies  akin  to  it.  The  Septuagint  and  Vulgate 
identify  it  with  the  owl. 

Night  Mon'ster. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Lilith  (Is. 
xxxiv.  14,  R.  V.  Margin  ;  in  A.  V.  screecli 
owl ).  The  word  in  Hebrew  means  simply  noc- 
turnal, and  may  denote  any  female  nocturniri 
bird  or  beast.  In  Assyrian,  it  was  ajiplied  to 
a  nocturnal  demon.     See  under  Satvk. 

NUe. 

The  great  river  of  Egypt  (Is.  xxiii.  3,  in 
A.  Y.  Sihor ;  Jer.  ii.  18,  margin  of  R.  V.)  ; 
in  Hebrew  Sldhor,  dark,  turbid,  and  Y'or, 
stream.  Its  waters  covered  so  vast  an  ex- 
panse, especially  during  the  inundation,  that 
it  is  sometimes  called  a  sea  (Nab.  iii.  8).  The 
ultimate  sources  of  the  river  are  the  streams 
which  feed  the  Victoria  Nyanza  in  equa- 
torial Africa.  But  the  Nile  in  a  narrower 
sense,  as  it  presents  tho.se  peculiarities  which 
have  made  it  famous,  is  formed  by  the  con- 
fluence of  the  White  and  the  Blue  Nile  at 
the  town  of  Khartum  ;  from  which  point  to 
its  principal  mouths  at  Damiettaand  Rosetta, 
a  distance  of  upw-ards  of  1800  miles,  it  trav- 
erses an  absolutely  barren  country  and  re- 
ceives one  tributary  only,  the  Atbara,  on  the 
east  side,  about  180  miles  below  Khartum. 
The  banks  rise  several  hundred  feet  and  at 
places  to  upwards  of  1000  feet,  resembling 
two  large  canal  enibaukments,  and  wall  the 
valley  all  the  way  to  Cairo,  where  they  di- 
verge abruptly  toward  the  east  and  north- 
west and  face  the  protruded  delta.  A  short 
distance  .above  Assuan,  the  ancient  Syeue,  a 
ridge  of  granite,  extending  for  180  miles  from 
east  to  west,  lies  athwart  the  river's  course. 
The  stream  breaks  through  this  barrier^ 
plunges  down  the  rocks  of  the  last  or,  on  as- 
cending the  river,  first  cataract,  and  enters 
the  bounds  of  ancient  Egypt.  All  above  that 
cataract  was  Ethiopia  ;  all  below  was  Egypt. 
The  granite  of  this  transverse  ridge  is  col- 
ored ;  it  is  the  well-known  light-brown  stone 
of  which  so  many  of  the  polished  statues  of 
the  Pharaohs  are  made.  Below  Cairo  the 
river  divides  and  seeks  the  sea  by  several 
great  channels.  These  mouths  are  now  two, 
the  Damietta  and  the  Rosetta  ;  but  formerly 
they  numbered  seven,  of  which  the  most 
important  were  the  eastern  or  Pelusiac,  the 
western  or  Canopic,  and  the  middle  or  Seben- 
nytic  (Herod,  ii.  17). 

As  the  river  pursues  its  tortuous  course 
through  thirsty  land,  much  of  its  water  is 
consumed  by  evaporation  and  infiltration, 
and  still  more  by  the  extensive  sy.stem  of  ir- 
rigating canals.  The  loss  at  the  time  of  the 
inundation  within  Egypt  proper  is  about  one- 
third  of  the  total  volume. 


Nimrali 


516 


Nineveh 


This  annual  overflow  is  the  famous  feature 
of  the  Nile.  Its  occurrence  in  a  rainless  re- 
gion was  mysterious  to  the  ancients  (Herod. 
ii.  19-25).  It  is  exi)laiued  by  the  fact  that 
all  the  sources  of  the  Nile  lie  within  the  region 
of  abundant  periodical  rains.  These  fall  co- 
piously on  the  sources  of  tiie  White  Nile 
about  the  time  of  the  equinoxes,  and  in 
Abyssinia  a  little  later.  The  Abyssinian 
rains,  being  nearer  the  mouth,  cause  a  first 
rise,  which  reaches  Egypt  about  the  middle 
of  June.  This  is  followed  in  the  course  of  a 
mouth  by  a  sudden  increase,  due  to  the  in- 
flux of  the  rising  waters  of  the  White  Nile, 
when  the  river  begins  to  swell  steadily  in 
volume  with  a  resulting  inundation  which 
commences  in  the  latter  part  of  August. 
Toward  the  end  of  September  the  water 
vea.ses  to  rise,  remaining  at  about  the  same 
height  for  a  fortnight  or  more  ;  but  during 
the  first  half  of  October  it  rises  again  and 
attains  its  highest  level.  During  a  good  in- 
undation it  reaches  a  height  of  40  feet  at  As- 
suan  and  of  23  to  27  at  Cairo.  About  the  end 
of  November  most  of  the  fields  are  left  dry 
and  covered  with  a  fresh  layer  of  rich  brown 
slime ;  this  is  the  time  when  the  lands  are 
put  under  culture.  Occasionally  inundation 
does  not  take  place.  Tradition  was  current 
and  found  record  in  an  in.scription  on  the 
rocks  at  Sahel,  an  islau,d  of  the  first  cataract, 
that  in  the  reign  of  Toser  or  Toser-Sa,  a 
Pharaoh  of  the  third  dynasty,  the  inunda- 
tion failed  for  seven  years  and  a  sore  famine 
resulted.  It  failed  for  seven  years  in  the 
time  of  Joseph  (Geo.  xli.  54) ;  and  it  failed 
likewise  for  seven  years  in  the  reign  of  the 
caliph  el-Mustansir,  the  resulting  famine 
reaching  its  height  A.  D.  1070. 

In  the  time  of  the  Pharaohs  the  Egyptian 
agricultural  year  was  divided  into  three 
equal  parts  ;  the  period  of  the  inundation 
(from  the  end  of  June  to  the  end  of  October), 
that  of  the  growing  of  the  crops  (from  the  end 
of  October  to  the  end  of  February),  and  that 
of  the  harvest  (from  the  end  of  February  to 
the  end  of  June). 

Nim'rali  [limpid  and  wholesome  water]. 

An  abbreviation  of  Beth-nimrah  (cp.  Num. 
xxxii.  :>  with  36)  ;  see  Beth-nimrah. 

Nim'rim  [perhaps,  a  plural  of  Nimrah, 
limpid  waters,  or  an  abnormal  plural  for 
leopards]. 

A  locality  in  Moab,  noted  for  its  waters 
(Is.  XV.  6  ;  Jer.  xlviii.  34).  Opinion  as  to  its 
identification  is  divided  between  Beth-nim- 
rah in  the  Jordan  valley  and  the  wady 
Nemeirah,  near  the  southern  end  of  the 
Dead  Sea,  where  the  ruins  of  a  town  Nemei- 
rah, the  leopard,  exist.  Tristram  locates 
the  site  higher  up  the  valley,  where  it  is  said 
there  is  an  old  Moabite  city  with  the  name 
Springs  of  Nemeirah.  It  has  many  well- 
watered  gardens  still  in  cultivation. 

Nim'rod. 

A  Cushite,  a  mighty  hunter  and  a  potent 


monarch,  the  beginning  of  whose  original 
kingdom  embraced  Babel,  Erech,  Accad,  and 
Calneh,  cities  in  the  laud  of  Shinar  (Gen.  x. 
8-10;  Mic.  V.  ()).  The  only  ancient  king  of 
Babylonia  known,  who  fits  this  description, 
and  was  at  the  same  time  celebrated  in  tradi- 
tion and  song,  was  Izd  ubar  or,  as  there  is  rea.son 
to  pronounce  his  name,  Gilgamesh.  He  freed 
Babylonia  from  the  oppressive  rule  of  the 
Elamites  and  became  king  of  Erech.  He 
was  a  slayer  of  wild  beasts,  and  his  encoun- 
ters with  animals,  not  less  than  his  exploits 
in  war,  were  embodied  in  a  poem,  and  formed 
a  favorite  subject  for  engraver  and  sculptor. 
His  life  became  embellished  with  legend,  and 
he  was  occasionally  addressed  in  prayer  by 
men  of  after  ages;  but  through  all  the  attri- 
butes which  accumulated  about  him  the  fact 
remained  clearly  discerned  that  he  was  a 
mortal  man.  There  is,  however,  no  proof 
that  Nimrod  and  Gilgamesh  are  identical, 
and  the  attempt  to  establish  a  relationship 
between  their  names  has  thus  far  proved 
fruitless. 

Nim'sM  [perhaps,  drawn  out,  or  active, 
lively]. 

An  ancestor  of  Jehu  (1  Kin.  xix.  Ifi ;  2 
Kin.  ix.  2),  who  was  generally  designated 
the  son  of  Nimshi. 

Nin'e-veli. 

The  capital  of  the  Assj^rian  empire.  The 
Hebrews  embraced  the  entire  population 
which  was  collected  about  the  capital,  and 
occupied  the  district  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Tigris  and  the  Upper  Zab  under  the  designa- 
tion of  Nineveh  the  great  city  (Gen.  x.  11, 
12;  Jon.  i.  2;  iii.  3;  Judith  i.  1).  Nineveh 
in  the  narrower  sense  stood  on  the  eastern 
bank  of  the  Tigris,  at  the  mouth  of  a  small 
tributary  which  is  now  known  as  the  Khosr, 
about  27  miles  above  the  confluence  of 
the  Zab  with  the  main  stream.  It  was 
built  by  a  people  of  Babylonian  origin 
(Gen.  X.  11).  Its  tutelary  deity  was  the  god- 
dess Ishtar,  to  whom  from  a  very  eai-ly 
period  a  temple  had  existed  in  the  place. 
This  sanctuary  engaged  the  attention  of 
Shamshiramman  about  1800  B.  c,  and  after 
falling  into  decay,  was  rebuilt  vrith  splendor 
by  Ashuruballit  about  1400  B.  c.  Asshur,  60 
miles  south  of  Nineveh  and  on  the  opposite 
bank  of  the  river,  was  the  ancient  seat  of 
government;  but  Shalmaueser  erected  a  pal- 
ace at  Nineveh  about  1300  b.  c,  and  made  it 
his  capital,  and  from  that  period  it  was 
looked  upon  as  the  chief  city  of  Assyria. 
Ashurnasirpal  and  his  successor  Shalmaneser, 
whose  united  reigns  extended  from  about 
885  to  825,  had  palaces  in  both  Nineveh  and 
Calah,  and  resided  sometimes  in  one  place, 
sometimes  in  the  other.  Their  successors 
dwelt  in  Nineveh  in  the  broad  sense  ;  but 
the  palace  was  not  always  in  Nineveh  proper, 
but  was  often  erected  in  one  of  the  suburbs, 
as  Calah  or  Dur-sharrukin  or  Tarbisu.  The 
Assyrians  were  great  warriors,  and  the  spoils 


Nineveh 


5V, 


Nisan 


of  the  couquered  cities  and  nations  were 
hronght  to  tlic  capital  and  used  to  enihellisli 
it.  It  was  also  the  center  of  some  literary 
activity.  Al)out  tioO  b.  c.  Ashurhanijial  gath- 
ered a  great  library,  consisting  of  documents 
inscribed  on  clay  tablets,  which  related  to 
history,  ritual,  incantation,  astronomy,  math- 
ematics. It  was  composed  for  the  most  ]>art 
of  copies  of  older  works,  which  had  been 
brought  from  Babylonia.  The  prophet  Na- 
hum  calls  >^ineveh  the  bloody  city  (iii.  1), 
both  because  of  the  wars  which  it  had  waged 
for  centuries  with  the  surrounding  nations, 
and  because  of  the  cruelty  which  was  prac- 
ticed by  the  victors.  Asliurnasirpal,  for  ex- 
ample, was  accustomed  after  his  victories  to 
cut  oil'  the  hands  and  feet,  and  the  noses 
and  ears,  and  put  out  the  eyes  of  his  cap- 
tives, and  to  raise  mounds  of  human  heads. 
In  6"25  B.  c,  when  the  Assyrian  empire  began 
to  decline  in  vigor.  Nabopolassar,  governor 
of  Babylon,  declared  himself  independent, 
and  about  606  b.  c.  the  Babylonians,  Medes, 
Persians,  and  Armenians,  acting  in  confeder- 
ation, captured  and  destroyed  Nineveh.  They 
were  greatly  aided  by  a  sudden  rise  of  the 
Tigris,  which  carried  away  a  great  part  of 
the  city  wall  and  rendered  the  place  inde- 


NINEVE>i 

REHOBOTH-IR.CALAH.ANO  REjEtj 

77ie  Great  City 


fensible.  So  complete  was  the  desolation 
that  in  classic  times  the  departed  Nineveh 
became  like  a  myth.  Yet  all  the  while  part 
of  the  city  lay  buried  under  mounds  of  ap- 
parent rubbish.  Rich.  English  resident  at 
Bagdad,  inspected  the  mound  called  Kon- 
yunjik,  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Tigris,  in 
1820,  and  became  convinced  that  it  concealed 


the  ruins  of  Nineveh.  In  184IJ  Botta,  French 
consul  at  Mosul,  on  the  western  bank  of  the 
Tigris,  began  to  make  excavations.  He  was 
soon  diverted  to  Khorsabad,  10  miles  ofl",  the 
site  of  Dur-sharrukin.  Between  184.')  and 
1850  Layard  commenced  operations  at  Nim- 
roud,  18  miles  south  of  Kouyunjik ;  then 
he  made  excavations  at  the  latter  i)lace  itself, 
which  proved  to  be  the  site  of  Nineveh. 
George  Smith  conducted  further  excavations 
at  the  place  from  1873  to  1876,  ajid  after  his 
death  the  work  was  taken  up  and  extended 
to  other  mounds  by  Eassam.  The  walls  of 
Nineveh  have  been  traced,  and  indicate  a 
city  3  miles  in  length  by  less  than  a  mile 
and  a  half  in  breadth,  containing  an  area  of 
about  1800  English  acres.  But,  as  already 
said,  the  Hebrews  and  perhaps  other  foreign- 
ers were  accustomed  to  include  under  the 
name  of  Nineveh  the  complex  of  cities 
which  included  besides  Nineveh  Calah,  18 
miles  south,  Eesen  between  Calah  and  Nine- 
veh, and  Rehoboth-Ir,  broad  places  or  suburb 
of  the  city,  which  is  perhaps  identical  with 
Eebit  Nina,  suburb  of  Nineveh,  which  lay 
to  the  northeast  of  the  city.  These  are  the 
four  jdaces  which  are  enumerated  in  Gen.  x. 
11, 12  as  composing  the  great  city.  But  they 
were  not  the  only  towns  which  sprang  up  in 
the  environs  of  Nineveh.  Yarimja.  on  the 
river  directly  south  of  Nineveh,  marks  an 
ancient  site,  and  near  the  Tigris,  3  miles 
above  Nineveh,  was  Tarbisu,  with  a  royal 
palace,  beginning  the  imposing  line  of  habi- 
tations and  walled  towns  which  extended 
along  the  river  southward  to  Calah.  Back 
from  the  river,  northeast  of  Nineveh  and  be- 
yond Eebit  Nina,  at  the  foot  of  the  eastern 
mountains,  was  Dur-sharrukin  or  Sargon's 
burg,  a  town  about  as  large  as  Calah,  built 
about  707  b.  c,  and  containing  a  great  palace. 
Seven  miles  southeast,  and  also  at  the  foot  of 
the  eastern  mountain,  was  another  town 
scarcelj'  inferior  in  size  to  Calah.  Its  ancient 
name  is  unknown,  but  it  is  situated  hard  by 
Baasheihah.  It  was  one  of  a  series  of  towns 
which  extended  to  Calah.  Birtelleh,  6 
miles  south,  probably  marks  the  site  of  an 
ancient  town,  and  Keremlis.  3  miles  far- 
ther on,  is  known  to  do  so.  Imgurbel,  with 
its  palace  and  temple  which  Asliurnasirpal 
adorned,  was  6  miles  south  of  the  latter 
place,  and  was  9  miles  from  Calah.  Other 
towns  and  villages  dotted  the  ])lain  within 
the  bounds  which  have  been  thus  defined. 
It  may  be  that  Diodorus  Siculus,  of  the  first 
century  B.  c,  is  citing  an  authentic  tradi- 
tion when  he  states  that  Nineveh  formed  a 
quadrangle  measuring  l.">0  stadia  by  90,  or 
480  in  circuit,  about  60  miles.  Strabo,  a  few 
years  later,  says  that  it  was  much  larger 
than  Babylon. 

Ni'san  [Assyrian  Kimviui,  jjrobably  open- 
ing, beginning]. 

The  name  given  after  the  captivity  to 
Abib,  the  first  month  of  the  year  (Neh.  ii.  1 ; 


Nisroch 


518 


Noah 


I'^sth.  iii.  7).  It  nearly  corresponds  to  March. 
See  Year. 

Nis'roch. 

A  god  worshiped  by  Sennacherib.  It  was 
in  the  temple  of  Nisroch  at  Nineveh  that  he 
was  assassinated  (2  Kin.  xix.  37 ;  Is.  xxxvii. 
:{8).  NLsroch  is  the  Hebrew  pronunciation 
of  the  name.  Perhaps  it  represents  the  As- 
syrian god  Nuskii,  or  is  compo.site  and  con- 
tains the  name  of  the  god  Ashur. 

Ni'ter. 

Saltpeter,  potassium  nitrate ;  but  among 
the  ancients  sodium  carbonate  and  potassium 
carbonate.  It  is  an  alkali  (Prov.  xxv.  20), 
and  in  solution  was  used  in  washing  clothes 
(Jer.  ii.  22). 

No  and  in  R.  V.  once  No-amon  (Nah.  iii.  8) 
[Egyptian  nu-da,  the  large  city,  or  nu-amen, 
Anion's  city]. 

The  Egyptian  city  of  Thebes,  often  called 
by  this  name  on  the  monuments.  Herodotus 
found  its  distance  from  On  to  be  a  voyage  of 
nine  days  up  the  river  (ii.  9).  After  the  ex- 
pulsion of  the  Hyksos  from  Egypt,  Aahmes 
I.,  tlie  founder  of  the  eighteenth  dynasty, 
turned  his  attention  to  the  reorganization 
and  improvement  of  the  kingdom,  and  among 
other  works  embellished  Thebes.  The  city 
at  once  rose  to  chief  importance  as  the  capi- 
tal of  the  new  empire,  and  became  large, 
splendid,  and  populous.  Homer  speaks  of 
its  hundred  gates  (Iliad  ix.  381).  Its  tutelary 
divinity  was  Amon,  and  the  high  prie.st  of 
Amon  was  second  only  to  the  king.  It  re- 
mained the  center  of  Egyptian  civilization 
and  power  until,  first,  Esarhaddon,  king  of 
Assyria,  conquered  Egypt,  in  672  b.  c,  and, 
afterwards,  Ashurbanipal,  his  son  and  suc- 
ce.ssor,  subjugated  the  country  and  plundered 
the  city  in  664  B.  c.  (Nah.  iii.  8).  But  even 
after  that  disaster,  Thebes  long  remained  a 
l)lace  of  importance  (Jer.  xlvi.  25 ;  Ezek. 
XXX.  14-16 ;  Herod,  ii.  3 ;  iii.  10).  It  was 
finally  destroyed  utterly  by  the  Roman  pre- 
fect, Cornelius  Clallus,  for  its  participation  in 
the  revolt  of  Upper  Egypt  in  30-29  b.  c. 
against  oppressive  Roman  taxation.  Splendid 
remains  of  the  city,  consi.sting  of  temples, 
obelisks,  sphinxes,  etc.,  still  exist  at  Luxor 
and  Karnak,  on  the  eastern,  and  Kurna  and 
Medinet-Habu,  on  the  western  side  of  the 
river.  West  of  what  was  the  site  of  the 
city  there  is  a  gorge  cut  into  the  lower  lime- 
stone which  contains  the  tombs  of  the  ancient 
Theban  kings. 

No-a-di'ah  [Jehovah  hath  met]. 

1.  Son  of  Binnui.  He  was  one  of  those 
who  took  charge  of  the  gold  and  silver 
vessels  brought  by  Ezra  and  the  returned 
captives  from  Babylon  (Ezra  viii.  33). 

2.  A  prophetess  whose  evil  vaticinations 
were  intended  to  frighten  Nehemiah  (Neh. 
vi.  14). 

No'ah  I.,  in  A.  V.  of  Matthew  and  Luke 
Noe   [rest]. 

Son   of  Lamech  of  the  posterity  of  Seth 


(Gen.  v.  28,  29).  Tlie  reason  for  bestowing 
the  name  Noah  is  stated  in  words  which 
bear  some  resemblance  to  the  name  in 
sound.  He  called  him  Noah,  saying:  "This 
same  shall  comfort  us  {y'iiah''menu)  for  our 
work  and  for  the  toil  of  our  hands,  because 
of  the  ground  which  the  Lord  hath  cursed." 
This  method  is  one  of  several  which  are  em- 
ployed by  the  Hebrew  writers.  The  refer- 
ences to  the  years  of  Noah's  life  are  capa))le 
of  .several  explanations,  in  accordance  with 
ancient  methods  of  statement  and  of  con- 
structing genealogical  registers.  Several 
methods  are  mentioned  in  the  art'cle  on 
Chkonology.  The  application  of  the  first 
two  of  these  to  the  data  referring  to  Noah  is 
simple  and  needs  no  explanation.  The  third 
method  is  more  intricate,  but  is  also  appli- 
cable. According  to  it,  in  the  family  of 
Lamech,  182  years  after  it  succeeded  to  the 
position  of  prominence  among  the  children 
of  Seth  and  became  the  family  through 
which  the  church  descended,  a  son  was  born 
whom  his  father  called  Noah,  saying  :  "  This 
one  shall  comfort  us."  Long  afterwards, 
among  the  descendants  of  this  child  of  boi)e, 
who  are  collectively  called  Noah,  just  as  the 
descendants  of  Israel  were  frequently  called 
Israel,  appeared  one  in  whom  the  hopes  were 
realized,  who  proved  a  comforter,  whose  con- 
duct and  worship  were  rewarded  by  God's 
promise  not  to  curse  the  ground  again  for 
wicked  man's  sake  nor  to  smite  any  more 
everything  living,  who  built  the  ark  and 
who  was  the  family's  head  and  representa- 
tive. He  is  referred  to  by  the  tribal  name. 
His  eldest  son  was  about  100  years  old  when 
the  flood  came.  This  event  occurred  in  the 
six  hundredth  year  of  Noah,  that  is,  600 
years  after  the  family  which  was  spoken  of 
as  Noah  had  attained  to  leadership.  If  the 
third  method  is  the  true  one,  such  is  its  ap- 
plication to  the  record  concerning  Noah. 

Noah  was  a  just  man  and,  like  Enoch, 
walked  with  God  (Gen.  vi.  9).  But  it  was  a 
time  of  almost  universal  apo.stasy.  It  was 
an  age  of  religious  indifference,  when  even 
the  sons  of  God  had  become  worldly  and  in 
contracting  marriage  chose  by  the  outward 
appearance  rather  than  by  the  disposition  of 
the  heart  (vi.  2),  and  when  men  generally 
were  living  for  the  present  moment,  eating 
and  drinking,  marrying  and  giving  in  mar- 
riage (Mat.  xxiv.  38).  It  was  al.so  an  age 
that  was  defiant  of  God :  there  was  secret 
hostility  of  the  heart ;  men  formed  their 
plans  without  regard  to  God,  every  imagina- 
tion and  device  of  man's  heart  was  evil 
(Gen.  vi.  5) ;  there  was  open  defiance  also ; 
the  earth  was  filled  with  violence,  the  strong 
oppres.sed  the  weak  (11).  The  age  was  so 
corrupt  that  God  purjiosed  to  destroy  man- 
kind ;  but  a  respite  apparently  of  120  years 
was  given  (3).  By  his  exemplary  life  at 
least,  Noah  was  a  preacher  of  righteou.sness 
(2  Pet.  ii.  5).  To  him  God,  the  creator  and 
judge  of  all,  revealed  his  purpose  to  destroy 


Noah 


519 


Nobah 


niau,  and  coinnianded  him  to  huikl  an  ark 
to  save  hiiiist'lt'  and  his  family  and  keep 
alive  the  various  kinds  of  animals,  for  a 
flood  of  waters  was  to  overwhelm  the  laud. 
Noah  did  so.  When  the  ark  was  finished, 
Jehovah,  God  of  redemption,  hade  Koah 
enter  the  ark  with  his  family  and  provide 
for  their  use  the  clean  animals  which  they 
needed  for  food  and  .sacrifice;  and  he  who 
had  created  the  beasts  and  the  birds  had 
them  also  go  by  pairs  into  the  vessel  for  the 
preservation  of  their  species.  The  same  God 
of  redemption  shut  Noah  in.  Then  the  flood 
broke  in  all  its  violence.  See  Flood.  When 
at  length  the  judgment  purposed  by  the 
creator  and  governor  of  the  universe  was  ac- 
complished he  remembered  Noah  and  made 
the  waters  to  assuage.  After  catching  the 
first  glimp.se  of  the  mountain  tops,  Noah 
waited  the  same  length  of  time  as  the  storm 
had  raged,  and  then  sent  forth  birds  to 
discover  whether  the  waters  were  abated 
from  the  surface  of  the  earth.  When  he 
learned  that  they  were,  he  tarried  yet  in  the 
ark,  waiting  until  God  should  bid  him  dis- 
embark. On  New  Year's  day  he  removed 
the  covering  and  saw  that  the  ground  was 
dry,  but  it  was  eight  weeks  longer  before 
God  bade  him  go  forth.  Then  he  built  an 
altar  and  ottered  burnt  ofterings  to  the  God 
of  his  redemption,  who  accepted  the  worship 
and  purposed  in  his  heart  not  to  curse  the 
ground  again  and  smite  every  living  thing 
on  account  of  man's  wickedness.  God  pro- 
ceeded to  reveal  this  i>urpose.  As  he  had 
blessed  Adam  when  he  created  him  and  had 
commanded  that  he  be  fruitful  and  multiply, 
so  now  at  the  beginning  of  a  new  world  he 
blessed  Noah  and  bade  him  be  fruitful.  He 
also  laid  injunctions  on  the  head  of  the  new 
race ;  but  of  the  seven  precepts  of  Noah,  as 
they  are  called,  which  were  regarded  by  the 
Jews  as  antecedent  to  the  law  and  the  ob- 
servance of  which  was  required  of  all  pros- 
elytes, three  only  are  expressly  mentioned 
here  :  the  abstinence  from  blood,  the  prohibi- 
tion of  murder,  and  the  recognition  of  the 
civil  authority  (Gen.  ix.  4-()).  The  remain- 
ing four,  the  prohibition  of  idolatry,  blas- 
phemy, incest,  and  theft,  rested  on  the  gen- 
eral sense  of  mankind.  God  further,  in 
revealing  his  purpose  not  to  curse  the  ground 
again  for  man's  .sake,  pledged  himself  not  to 
cut  off  all  flesh  again  by  the  waters  of  a 
flood  and  adopted  the  rainbow  as  the  sign  of 
the  engagement  by  which  he  had  bound 
himself  (>S-17). 

Noah  naturally  devoted  himself  to  agri- 
culture. Among  other  works  he  planted  a 
vineyard,  and  he  drank  himself  drunk'  on 
the  wine.  His  son  Ham  mocked  at  his  dis- 
grace, but  the  other  sons  sought  to  protect 
their  father.  When  Noah  recovered,  and 
learned  what  had  occurred,  with  insight  into 
character,  and  with  that  knowledge  which 
he  had  derived  before  the  flood  of  God's 
ordination    that    the    evil    propensities    of 


parents  descend  to  children  and  that  God 
blessed  the  righteous  in  their  gi'uerations 
(Ex.  XX.  5,  (i),  he  foretold  degradation  among 
the  i)osterity  of  Ham,  for  some  reason 
singling  out  one  only  of  Ham's  sons,  pre- 
dicted the  subjection  of  this  branch  of  the 
tribe  to  the  descendants  of  the  high-minded 
and  godly  brothers,  pronounced  the  divine 
blessing  on  the  families  of  Sheni  and  .Iai)heth, 
and  announced  especially  their  united  ser- 
vice of  Jehovah,  God  of  Shem  (Gen.  ix.  20- 
27) ;  see  Canaan,  Japheth,  and  Shem. 

Noah  lived,  or  the  family  which  he  repre- 
sented continued  its  leadershii),  for.i^O  years 
after  the  flood  (Geu.ix.28).  Then  the  Semites, 
as  distinguished  from  the  other  descendants 
of  Noah,  became  the  leading  family  and  the 
line  in  which  the  church  descended.  The 
flood  seems  to  be  referred  to  in  Ps.  xxix.  10, 
where  mnbhul,  the  special  word  for  the  flood, 
is  used.  Isaiah  (liv.  9)  and  Ezekiel  (xiv.  14) 
both  allude  to  Noah.  Our  Lord  compares 
the  days  of  Noah  to  tho.se  which  should  pre- 
cede his  own  second  coming  (Mat.  xxiv.  37) ; 
the  patriarch's  faith  is  commended  in  Heb. 
xi.  7,  and  Peter  twice  alludes  to  the  eight 
saved  from  the  deluge  when  it  overwhelmed 
the  ungodly  (1  Pet.  iii.  20;  2  Pet.  ii.  5).  The 
Greeks  and  Eomans  had  a  story  about  a  flood 
from  which  onlj'  two  people  were  saved, 
Deucalion  and  his  wife  Pyrrha;  and  this 
Deucalion  may  be  Noah  under  a  diflerent 
name.  However  this  may  be,  the  Baby- 
lonians at  any  rate  preserved  a  tradition  of 
the  same  flood  of  which  the  Hebrews  had 
knowledge.  They  called  the  hero  of  it 
Sitnapishtim  and  Atrahasis.     See  Flood. 

No'ah  II.  [a  moving,  wandering]. 

A  daughter  of  Zelophehad  (Num.  xxvi.  33  ; 
xxvii.  1  ;  xxxvi.  11 ;  Josh.  xvii.  3). 

No-a'mon.     See  No. 

Nob  [elevation]. 

A  town  of  the  priests  (1  Sam.  xxii.  19),  in 
the  territory  of  Benjamin  (Neh.  xi.  32),  on 
the  north  and  apparently  within  sight  of 
Jerusalem  (Is.  x.  32).  After  the  capture  of 
the  ark,  the  tabernacle  was  for  a  time  pitched 
at  Nob,  with  Ahimekch  as  high  priest.  He 
was  ignorant  of  the  variance  between  Saul 
and  David,  and  when  the  latter  came  to  Nob, 
Ahimelech  allowed  him  and  his  men  to  eat 
the  showbread  and  gave  him  the  sword  of 
Goliath.  This  act  was  reported  to  Saul,  who 
summoned  the  priests  and  had  them  slain, 
and  smote  Nob,  men,  women,  and  children 
with  the  sword.  Abiathar,  however,  escaped 
and  told  David  (1  Sam.  xxi.,  xxii.).  The 
place  was  inhabited  after  the  exile  (Neh.  xi. 
32),  but  its  site  has  not  been  identified. 
Eobinson  contents  himself  with  locating  it 
"somewhere  upon  the  ridge  of  the  mount 
of  Olives,  northeast  of  the  city." 

No'bah  [barking]. 

1.  A  Manassite,  presumably,  who  captured 
the  town  of  Kenath,  on  the  western  slope 
of  the  Jebel  Hauran,  and  gave  it  his  own  name 


Nobai 


520 


Numbers 


(Num.  xsxii.  42).  The  old  name  was  prob- 
ably ere  long  restored.     See  Kenath. 

2.  A  town  mentioned  in  connection  with 
the  Gadite  town  of  Jogbehab.  A  road  lead- 
ing to  the  country  of  the  nomads  passed 
on  the  east  (Judg.  viii.  11).  The  site  of 
Nobali  is  accordingly  to  be  sought  near  the 
boundary  between  Gad  and  the  Arabian 
desert. 

No'bai,  in  A.  V.  and  margin  of  R.  V.  Ne- 
bai,  which  is  the  ti-aditional  pronunciation. 

One  of  the  chiefs  of  the  people  who  with 
Neheniiah  sealed  the  covenant  (Neh.  x.  19). 

Nod  [in  Hebrew,  wandering,  exile]. 

A  district  on  the  east  of  Eden  to  which 
Cain  went  and  there  abode  (Gen.  iv.  16). 
Not  identified. 

No'dab  [nobility]. 

An  Arab  tril^e  of  the  Syrian  desert,  to 
judge  from  their  allies  (1  Chron.  v.  19). 

No'e.     See  Noah. 

No'gah  [brilliance]. 

A  son  of  David  (1  Chron.  iii.  7 ;  xiv.  6). 

No 'hah  [rest]. 

The  fourth  son  of  Benjamin  (1  Chron.  viii. 
2).  who,  however,  did  not  give  rise  to  a  tribal 
family.  He  is  not  mentioned  among  those 
who  accompanied  Jacob  into  Egypt,  probably 
because  he  was  born  after  the  migration  into 
Egypt.  Keil  offers  a  'different  explanation. 
He  suppo.ses  that  Nohah  either  is  another 
name  for  Shephupham  (Num.  xxvi.  39,  E.  V.), 
or  else  was  a  celebrated  chief  who  was  de- 
scended from  Shei)hupham  and  whose  name 
supplanted  Shephupham  as  the  designation 
of  the  family. 

Non.     See  Nitist. 

Noph.     See  Memphis. 

No'phah  [possibly,  a  breeze]. 

A  Moabite  town  (Num.  xxi.  30),  not  else- 
where mentioned.  The  text  is  open  to  ques- 
tion. 

Nose  Jew'el. 

A  jewel  inserted,  generally  by  means  of 
a  ring,  into  the  side  of  the  nostril  for  orna- 
ment (Is.  iii.  21,  E.  V.).4 

Nose  Ring. 

A  ring  worn  as  an  ornament,  especially  by 
women  (U.  V.  of  Gen.  xxiv.  47;  Ezek.  xvi. 
12).  It  was  inserted  through  the  partition 
between  the  nostrils  or  in  the  side  of  the 
nose. 

Num'ber  and  Nu'mer-al. 

There  is  no  evidence  that  the  ancient  He- 
brews used  figures  to  denote  nnmbers.  The  nu- 
merals which  occur  in  the  present  text  of  the 
Hebrew  Scriptures,  in  the  Siloam  inscription, 
and  on  the  Moabite  stone,  are  spelled  in  full. 
Tlie  Hebrews  employed  the  letters  of  the 
alphabet  to  represent  numerals  as  early  as 
Maccabajan  times,  using  aleph  for  one,  beth 
for  two.  This  practice  is  exhibited  on  the 
coins  of  Simon  ;  see  Money.  In  the  Na- 
bathaean  inscriptions  of  the  first  century  the 


numerals  are  generally  spelled,  but  they  are 
occasionally  represented  by  signs,  upright 
strokes  for  the  smaller  units,  a  figure  like  5 
without  the  upper  horizontal  arm  for  five, 
and  other  marks.  In  the  Aramaic  inscrip- 
tions of  the  same  period  at  Palmyra  signs  are 
also  used.  On  the  lion  weights,  which  were 
used  by  Aramaean  traders  in  Nineveh  in  the 
eighth  century  B.  c,  the  weight  is  indicated 
by  upright  strokes  for  the  units  and  a  hori- 
zontal stroke  for  ten.  In  yet  earlier  cen- 
turies the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians  used 
cuneiform  signs  to  indicate  number. 

Numbers  were  used  symbolically  and  con- 
ventionally. Three  had  apparently  no  sym- 
bolism ;  but  emphasis  was  conventionally  ex- 
pressed by  it;  as  "The  temple  of  the  Lord, 
the  temjile  of  the  Lord,  the  temple  of  the 
Lord,  are  these "  (Jer.  vii.  4),  "  O  earth, 
earth,  earth"  (xxii.  29),  "I  will  overturn, 
overturn,  overturn  it"  (Ezek.  xxi.  27), 
"  Holy,  holy,  holy  "  (Is.  vi.  3),  and  the  triple 
blessing  (Num.  Vi.  24-26).  The  threefold 
character  of  the  baptismal  formula  and  the 
apostolic  benediction  resulted  from  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Trinity  (Mat.  xxviii.  19  ;  2  Cor. 
xiii.  14).  Four  does  not  play  an  important 
pai-t.  Four  corners  or  quarters  of  the  earth 
were  recognized,  north,  south,  east,  and  west 
(Is.  xi.  12),  and  hence  four  winds  (Dan.  vii. 
2),  and  four  chariots  (Zech.  vi.  1,  5).  Seven 
was  early  a  sacred  number  among  the  Sem- 
ites (Gen.  ii.  2  ;  iv.  24  ;  xxi.  28).  It  did  not 
derive  its  character  from  the  fact  that  it  was 
equal  to  three  plus  four.  Not  arithmetical, 
but  religious  considerations  were  involved  ; 
.see  Sabbath.  Ten  was  recognized  as  a  com- 
plete number,  and  was  constantly  used  as 
such  ;  there  were  ten  commandments  (Ex. 
xxxiv.  28),  ten  antediluvian  and  ten  post- 
diluvian patriarchs  (see  Chronology),  and 
a  tenfold  division  of  the  book  of  Genesis. 
Twelve  was  the  basis  of  the  duodecimal  sys- 
tem of  the  Babylonians,  and  as  a  result  found 
employment  in  common  life.  Something  of 
it  was  probably  inhei-ited  by  the  Hebrews, 
and  was  enhanced  by  the  fact  that  the  tribes 
of  Israel  were  twelve.  Forty  was  a  round 
number  much  in  vogue  (Ex.  xxiv.  18  ;  1  Kin. 
xix.  8  ;  Jonah  iii.  4  ;  Mat.  iv.  2  ;  and  Chro- 
nology, From  the  Exodus  to  the  Foundation 
of  Solomon's  Temple). 

Num'bers. 

The  fourth  book  of  the  Pentateuch.  It  is 
named  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  by  the 
phrase  "In  the  wilderness."  Its  modern 
designation  originated  with  the  Greek  trans- 
lators, and  was  chosen  on  account  of  the  two 
enumerations  of  the  peoi)le  which  the  book 
relates  ;  the  fir.st  at  Sinai  in  tlie  second  year 
of  the  exodus,  the  second  on  the  Jordan  in 
the  fortieth  year. 

It  may  be  divided  into  three  main  sections : 
1.  In  the  wilderness  at  Sinai  (i.  1-x.  11). 
Census  of  the  people,  exclusive  of  the  Le- 
vites,   with  assignment  of  a  place  for  each 


Numenius 


521 


Oak 


tribe  in  the  encauipuieut  (i.,  ii.)  ;  census  of 
the  Leviti's,  their  location  in  the  camp,  and 
specific  duties  (iii.,  iv.}.  Laws  regarding  im- 
purity, trespass,  jealousy,  Nazirites ;  and 
form  of  the  priest's  blessing  (v.,  vi.).  Offer- 
ing of  the  i)rinces  at  the  dedication  of  the 
tabernacle  (vii.).  Consecration  of  the  Levites 
(viii.).  Observance  of  the  passover  and  law 
of  the  supplementary  celebration  (ix.  1-14). 
The  guiding  i)illar  of  cloud  (15-23)  and  sil- 
ver signal  trumpets  (x.  1-10).  2.  On  the  way 
from  Sinai  to  the  Jordan  (x.  11-xsi.  35). 
Order  of  march  (x.  11-36).  Murmurs  against 
the  manna,  and  descent  of  quails  (xi.). 
Miriam's  leprosy  (xii.).  At'Kadesh:  the 
spies  and  their  report,  the  people  faithless 
and  condemned  to  die  in  the  wilderness 
(xiii.,  xiv.).  Supplementary  legal  specifica- 
tions (xv. ).  Eebellion  of  Korah,  Dathan, 
and  Abiram  ;  and  related  events  (xvi..  xvii.) ; 
in  consequence,  duties  and  privileges  of  the 
priests  and  Levites  affirmed  (xviii.).  Law 
for  purification  of  those  defiled  by  contact 
with  a  dead  body  (xix.).  Return  to  Kadesh  : 
death  of  iliriam,  sin  of  Moses  and  Aaron, 
embassy  to  Edom  (xx.  1-21).  Death  of  Aaron, 
journey  from  mount  Hor  around  Edom  to 
plains  of  Moab,  fiery  serpents,  conquest  of 
the  country  east  of  the  Jordan  (xx.  22-xxi. 
35).  3.  At  Shittim  opposite  Jericho  (xxii.  1- 
xxxvi.  13>.  Balaam  (xxii.-xxiv.).  Sin  of 
Baal-peor  (xxv.).  Census  of  the  new  gener- 
ation (xxvi.).  Laws  regarding  inheritance 
by  daughters  (xxvii.  1-11).  Public  announce- 
ment of  Joshua  as  Moses'  successor  (12-23). 
Further  regulation  of  the  daily  ofl'erings  and 
of  vows  (xxviii.-xxx.).  War  with  Midian 
(xxxi.).  Assignment  of  the  conquered  coun- 
try east  of  Jordan  to  the  Eeubenites,  Gadites, 
and  half-tribe  of  Manasseh  (xxxii.).  Itiner- 
ary from  Egyi)t  to  Shittim  (xxxiii.).  Bound- 
aries of  the  land  and  a  commission  on  allot- 
ment (xxxiv.).  Laws  of  the  cities  of  refuge 
(xxxv.).  Supplementary  law  concerning  in- 
heritance by  daughters  (xxxvi.). 

The  book  of  Numbers  is  recognized  by  all 
schools  of  criticism  to  reflect  the  same  social 
conditions  and  laws  as  Leviticus. 

Nu-me'ni-us  [pertaining  to  the  new  moon] . 

A  Jew,  son  of  Antiochus.  sent  as  ambassa- 
dor to  Rome  and  Sparta  in  144  b.  c.  by  Jona- 
than ^laccaba^us,  and  dispatched  a  second 
time  to  Rome  by  Simon  in  140  B.  c.  (1  Mac. 
xii.  16;  xiv.  24;  xv.  15). 

Nun,  in  A.  V.  and  Hebrew  text  once  Non 
(1  Chron.  vii.  27)  [fish]. 

1.  Father  of  Joshua,  the  military  leader 
(Ex.  xxxiii.  11 :  Josh.  i.  1 1.  descended  through 
Tahan  and  perhaps  Beriah  from  Ephraim 
(1  Chron.  vii.  27). 

2.  The  fourteenth  letter  of  the  Hebrew 
alphabet.  English  N  has  the  same  origin 
and  represents  it  in  anglicized  Hebrew  names. 
It  heads  the  fourteenth  section  of  Ps.  cxix., 
in  which  section  each  verse  of  the  original 
begins  with  this  letter. 


Nurse. 

1.  A  wet  nurse,  meneketh,  employed  to 
suckle  an  infant  (Ex.  ii.  7-9;  2  Kin.  xi.  2). 
Deborah,  who  had  nursed  Kebekah,  remained 
an  honored  servant  in  the  family  (Gen.  xxiv. 
59;  xxxv.  8),  as  was  frequently  the  case 
(Odyssey  xix.  15,  251). 

2.  A  male  or  female  attendant,  'omen,  who 
acted  as  nurse,  i.  <•.,  had  the  care  of  small 
children,  either  when  infants  (Num.  xi.  12; 
Ruth  iv.  16)  or  when  older  but  still  helpless 
(2  Sam.  iv.  4). 

Nuts. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Bolnim, 
pislacino  nuts  (Gen.  xliii.  11,  R.  V.  margin). 
The  true  pistachio  tree  (Pisfacia  rem)  belongs 
to  the  order  Anacardiacew  (anacards  or  tere- 
binths). Its  leaves  have,  as  a  rule,  three  or  four 
leaflets.  Its  fruit,  which  is  a  little  less  than 
an  inch  in  diameter,  consists  of  a  bony  shell 
surrounded  by  a  dry  covering  and  enclosing- 
a  sweet,  somewhat  oily  kernel.  The  nuts  are 
eaten  like  almonds  or  used  for  making  con- 
fectionery. It  is  a  native  of  western  Asia, 
from  which  it  has  been  introduced  into 
southern  Europe.  It  is  not  now  common  in 
Palestine.  Jacob  sent  some  of  its  fruit, 
with  other  vegetable  produce,  as  a  present  to 
the  Egyptian  prime  minister  (Gen.  xliii.  11). 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word 
"(70S.  walnut  (Song  vi.  11).  The  walnut  tree 
(Juglans  regia),  in  America  distinguished  as 
the  English  walnut,  is  native  from  the  Cau- 
casus to  the  mountains  of  northern  India. 
It  is  cultivated  in  Galilee  and  along  the 
slopes  of  Lebanon  and  of  Hcrmon. 

Njrm'plias  [sacred  to  the  muses]. 
A    Christian   at    Laodicea    or    Colo.s.sse,    to 
whom  Paul  sent  salutation  (Col.  iv.  15). 


0. 


Oak. 


1.  A  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  'Elah^ 
a  strong  tree.  The  Hebrew  word  occurs  in 
fifteen  passages  of  the  O.  T.  In  three  of 
these  it  serves  as  a  geographical  designation 
and  is  treated  as  a  proper  name,  valley  of 
Elah  (1  Sam.  xvii.  2.  19;  xxi.  9;  R.  Y.  mar- 
gin, terebinth).  In  two  pas.sages,  where  it  is 
associated  with  another  word,  'allon,  which 
is  rendered  oak.  it  is  translated  terebinth  in 
E.  v.,  but  teil  tree  and  elms  in  A.  V.  (Is.  vi. 
13;  Hos.  iv.  13).  In  the  remaining  ten  pas- 
sages it  is  rendered  oak,  with  terebinth  on 
the  margin  of  R.  V. 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  'Elon, 
strong  one,  in  the  text  of  nine  passages  of 
the  E.  v.,  terebinth  being  placed  on  the 
margin.  The  A.  V.,  following  the  Targums 
and  Vulgate,  uniformly  renders  'elon,  by 
plain,  but  on  the  margin  of  Judg.  ix.  6  it 
substitutes  oak.  There  were  the  oak  of 
Moreh  (Gen.  xii.  6;  Deut.  xi.  30).  the  oak  of 
Mamre  (Gen.  xiii.  IS  ;  xiv.  13 ;  xviii.  1),  the 


Oath 


522 


Obadiah 


oak  in  Zaanannim  (Judg.  iv.  11),  the  oak  of 
the  pillar  that  was  in  Shechem  (ix.  6),  the 
oak  of  the  augurs  (ix.  37,  E.  V.  margin),  and 
the  oak  of  Tabor  (1  Sam.  x.  3). 

3.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  'El, 
strong  tree,  in  Is.  i.  29. 

4.  The  uniform  and  doubtless  correct  ren- 
dering of  the  Hebrew  word  'Allan.  It  occurs 
in  eight  passages,  and  was  a  species  of  oak 
associated  with  Bashan  (Is.  ii.  13 ;  Ezek. 
xxvii.  6 ;  Zech.  xi.  2).  Under  a  tree  of  this 
species  near  Bethel  Deborah,  Rebekah's  nurse, 
was  buried  (Gen.  xxxv.  8).  It  was  probably 
the  prickly  oak  {Querms  coccifera) ;  see  illus- 
tration, article  Abraham. 

5.  The  rendering,  probably  correct,  of  the 
Hebrew  word  'Allah  (Josh.  xxiv.  26). 

Oak  is  the  meaning  of  'allon,  for  it  was  a 
characteristic  tree  of  Bashan.  'Elah  differed 
from  it  (Is.  vi.  13 ;  Hos.  iv.  13),  and  hence  is 
probably  the  terebinth  ;  and  the  three  re- 
lated words,  'elah,  'el,  and  'elon,  may  denote 
three  kinds  of  terebinth.  They  may,  how- 
ever, designate  any  large  tree,  and  not  spec- 
ify the  terebinth  in  particular.  Several 
species  of  oak  grow  in  Palestine.  Quercus 
sessiliflora  grows  high  up  on  Lebanon  and  in 
the  Hauran.  Four  varieties  of  the  prickly 
evergreen  oak  {Q.  coccifera)  occur:  one  is  Q. 
pseudococcifera,  and  is  found  on  Carmel,  in 
Oilead,  and  in  Bashan,  often  being  of  mag- 
nificent gi'owth ;  another  is  Q.  calUprinos, 
which  is  found  in  Lebanon,  on  Tabor,  and  in 
Gilead.  Valonia  oak  {Q.  legilops)  is  decidu- 
ous.    It  is  common  in  Galilee  and  Gilead. 

Oath. 

An  appeal  to  God  in  attestation  of  the 
truth  of  a  statement  or  of  the  binding  char- 
acter of  a  promise  (Gen.  xxi.  23  ;  xxxi.  53; 
Gal.  i.  20;  Heb.  vi.  16).  Its  violation  was 
an  offense  against  God  (2  Chron.  xxxvi.  13 ; 
Ezek.  xvii.  13,  18).  Sometimes  the  appeal 
was  to  the  sovereign  or  other  sacred  object 
(Gen.  xlii.  15;  2  Sam.  xi.  11;  Mat.  v.  33; 
xxiii.  16-22).  Jehovah  condescended  to  con- 
firm his  promise  to  the  patriarch  by  an  oath, 
swearing  by  himself  (Gen.  xxii.  16 ;  Heb.  vi. 
13-20).  An  oath  was  commonly  made  by 
lifting  the  hand  unto  God  (Gen.  xiv.  22 ; 
Ezek.  XX.  5,  6  ;  Rev.  x.  5  ;  Homer,  Iliad  xix. 
254),  but  it  was  sometimes  made  by  placing 
the  hand  under  the  thigh  of  the  person  to 
whom  the  promise  was  made  (Gen.  xxiv.  2  ; 
xlvii.  29),  probably  as  an  invocation  of  the 
posterity,  which  should  proceed  from  the 
loins,  to  guard  the  oath  and  avenge  its  viola- 
tion. The  oath  was  occasionally  taken  before 
the  altar  (1  Kin.  viii.  31).  Abraham  gave 
Abimelech  seven  ewe  lambs  as  witness  of  the 
oath  (Gen.  xxi.  27-31).  An  oath  was  some- 
times intensified  by  slaying  an  animal,  divid- 
ing it  into  two  parts,  and  passing  between  the 
pieces  (xv.  8-18).  Each  party  to  the  oath  in- 
voked upon  himself  the  fate  of  the  victim  if  he 
broke  the  covenant.  By  the  Mosaic  law,  in 
certain  judicial  investigations,  a  man  to  clear 


himself  was  required  to  swear  an  oath  of  the 
Lord  (Ex.  xxii.  11  ;  Num.  v.  19-22).  Any 
man  swearing  an  oath  or  making  a  vow  to 
God  was  required  to  carry  out  his  promise, 
as  was  a  woman,  if  being  a  virgin  her  father 
did  not  disallow  her  oath  when  she  uttered 
it,  or  being  married  her  husband  did  not  in- 
terfere. If  she  was  a  widow,  or  bad  been 
divorced,  her  oath  stood  (Num.  xxx.).  If 
anyone  swore  falsely  by  the  name  of  the  true 
God,  he  profaned  the  divine  name  (Lev. 
vi.  3  ;  xix.  12  ;  cp.  Is.  xlviii.  1 ;  Jer.  xii.  16  ; 
Mai.  iii.  5) ;  and  no  one  was  under  any  circum- 
stances to  swear  by  a  faLse  god  (Josh,  xxiii. 
7).  The  man'is  commended  in  Ps.  xv.  4  who 
does  not  change,  although  he  has  sworn  to 
his  hurt.  Our  Lord  condemned  the  use 
of  oaths,  even  when  taken  with  the  best  in- 
tention, declaring  that  whatever  went  be- 
yond "  yea.  yea,  or  nay,  nay,"  was  of  the 
evil  one  (Mat.  v.  33-37).  He  was  delivering 
the  sermon  on  the  mount  and  correcting 
various  perversions  of  the  law  which  the 
scribes  had  introduced  ;  and  among  other 
evils,  he  condemned  swearing  in  ordinary 
communications  between  man  and  man.  But 
the  judicial  oath  is  lawful;  for  it  was  en- 
joined by  God  (Ex.  xxii.  11),  and  Christ 
himself  did  not  hesitate  to  answer  when  he 
was  put  upon  his  oath  by  the  high  priest 
(Mat.  xxvi.  63).  The  oath  was  recognized  as 
lawful  by  the  apostles  also,  for  they  called  on 
God  to  witness  to  the  truth  of  what  they  said 
(2  Cor.  xi.  31;  Gal.  i.  20).  The  mischief 
which  may  arise  from  a  rash  oath  was  well 
illustrated  in  that  of  Herod  the  tetrarch, 
which  made  him  against  his  will  the  mur- 
derer of  John  the  Baptist  (Mat.  xiv.  3-12). 

O-ba-di'ah  [worshiper  of  Jehovah]. 

1.  A  man  of  Issachar,  family  of  Tola,  house 
of  Uzzi  (1  Chron.  vii.  3). 

2.  A  Gadite  hero  who  joined  David  at  Zik- 
lag  (1  Chron.  xii.  9). 

3.  Father  of  the  chief  of  the  Zebulunites 
in  David's  reign  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  19). 

4.  A  descendant  of  Jonathan  (1  Chron. 
viii.  38  ;  ix.  44). 

5.  The  governor  of  Ahab's  palace,  who 
during  the  persecution  of  Jehovah's  prophets 
by  queen  Jezebel,  hid  a  hundred  prophets,  in 
two  companies  of  fifty,  in  a  cave  (1  Kin. 
xviii.  3,  4).  He  was  sent  by  his  royal  master 
to  look  for  grass  for  the  horses  and  mules 
during  the  great  drought,  and  while  so  en- 
gaged fell  in  with  Elijah,  who  persuaded  him 
to  announce  to  the  king  the  presence  of  the 
prophet  (5-16).  Elijah's  interview  with  the 
king  led  to  the  contest  at  Carmel,  which  was 
followed  by  the  slaughter  of  Baal's  prophets. 

6.  One  of  the  princes  sent  by  Jehoshaphat  to 
teach  in  the  cities  of  Judah  (2  Chron.  xvii.  7). 

7.  A  prophet  of  Judah  (Obad.  1).  Jo- 
sephus  believed  that  he  was  the  God-fearing 
Obadiah  of  Ahab's  palace,  but  the  prophet 
probably  lived  at  least  a  century  after  Ahab. 

The  book  of  Obadiah  is  the  fourth  of  the 


Obadiah 


523 


Obed-edom 


minor  prophets.  It  consists  of  a  solitary 
fliapter,  and  foretells  tlie  destruction  of 
Edom  (1-9)  and  the  reason  of  it,  namely 
Edom's  uubrotherly  attitude  toward  the 
children  of  Jacob  (10,  11),  warns  Edom  ac- 
cordingly not  to  exult  over  the  children  of 
Judah  in  their  distress  (1"2-16),  and  predicts 
the  deliverance  and  enlargement  of  Israel 
(17-21).  Much  uncertainty  exists  as  to  the 
date  of  the  prophecy.  It  is  very  generally 
ascribed  to  the  Chaldean  period,  when  Jeru- 
salem was  alternately  subject  to  tlie  king  of 
Egypt  and  the  king  of  Babylon,  and  was 
fiuall}-  captured  bj'  Nebuchadnezzar  and 
razed  to  the  ground,  and  its  inhabitants  car- 
ried into  captivity.  This  view  is  based  on 
the  description  of  Judah's  calamity  (10-16), 
and  the  fact  is  appealed  to  that  prophets  of 
the  time  severely  denounce  Edom  (Jer.  xlix. 
7-22;  Ezek.  xxv.  12-14;  xxxv.).  The  proph- 
ecy may,  however,  be  much  earlier,  for  1.  No 
allusion  is  made  to  the  striking  features  of  the 
fall  of  Jerusalem,  the  burning  of  the  temple, 
the  razing  of  the  walls,  and  annihilation  of 
the  city.  2.  The  hostile  attitude  of  Edom 
was  of  long  standing  (Ezek.  xxxv.  5),  and 
the  feeling  against  Edom  expressed  by  Oba- 
diah was  voiced  by  Amos  more  than  a  cen- 
tury before  the  Chaldean  invasion  (Amos  i. 
(),  9,  especially  11,  12:  ix.  12;  cp.  Joel  iii. 
19).  3.  Historical  conditions,  which  are  pre- 
supposed by  the  prophet,  existed  as  early  as 
the  reign  of  Ahaz.  Jerusalem  had  been 
plundered  several  times  :  it  had  been  en- 
tered and  ravaged  by  Arabians  and  Philis- 
tines in  the  reign  of  Jehoram  (2  Chron.  xxi. 
16,  17;  cp.  Amos  i.  6) ;  and  in  the  reign  of 
Amaziah,  who  slaughtered  the  Edomites,  the 
king  of  Israel  entered  Jerusalem,  broke 
down  the  northern  portion  of  the  city  wall, 
plundered  temple  and  palace,  and  carried  off 
hostages  (2  Kin.  xiv.  14,  17 ;  2  Chron.  xxv. 
11,  12,  23,  24).  In  the  calamities  which  be- 
fell Judah  in  the  reign  of  Ahaz,  when  the 
king  of  Damascus  wrested  Edom  from  Judah, 
the  king  of  Israel  ravaged  to  the  gates  of  Je- 
rusalem, the  Philistines  took  the  cities  of  the 
lowland,  and  Ahaz  stripped  the  temple  of  its 
treasures  to  buy  aid  from  the  king  of  Assyria, 
did  homage  to  this  foreigner,  and  made 
Judah  a  vassal  state,  when  Israelites  also 
were  carried  into  captivity  (Obad.  20;  Amos 
1.  6,  9;  cp.  1  Chron.  v.  26),  then  the  Edomite 
did  violence  to  his  brother  Jacob,  refrained 
from  extending  aid,  and  became  as  one  of 
Judah's  enemies  (2  Chron.  xxviii.  17 ;  2  Kin. 
xvi.  6,  R.  V.  margin  ;  Obad.  10,  11).  It  was 
an  ap])ropriate  time  for  Obadiah  to  take  up 
his  prophecy  against  them,  rebuke  them  for 
their  inditference  to  Judah's  woes,  and  for 
their  open  hostility  in  the  past  and  present, 
and  warn  them  not  to  exult  over  Judah's 
present  distress,  for  their  owti  time  of  pun- 
ishment is  coming. 

8.  A  Levite,  one  of  the  overseers  over  the 
workmen  who  repaired  the  temple  in  the 
reign  of  Josiah  (2  Chron.  xxxiv.  12). 


9.  Founder  of  a  family,  presumably  of  the 
lineage  of  David  (1  Chron.  iii.  21). 

10.  A  descendant  of  Joab.  He  came  from 
Babylon  with  Ezra  (Ezra  viii.  9). 

11.  A  priest  who,  doubtless  in  behalf  of  a 
father's  house,  scaled  the  covenant  made  in 
the  time  of  Nehemiah  (Neb.  x.  5). 

12.  A  Levite,  apparently  founder  of  a 
family  of  porters  (Neh.  xii.  25).  He  seems 
to  have  been  the  Levite  Obadiah,  son  of  Shc- 
maiah  (1  Chron.  ix.  16),  called  Abda  in  Neh. 
xi.  17. 

O'bal  [corpulence]. 

A  people  descended  from  Joktan  (Gen.  x. 
28).  'Abil  is  the  name  of  one  of  the  oldest 
tribes  of  Arabia  (Delitzsch)  and  of  a  district 
in  Yemen  (Halevy).  Bochart  suggests  Pliny's 
Avalitfe  on  the  African  coast,  near  the  straits 
of  Bab  el-Mandeb.  In  1  Chron.  i.  22  the 
name  is  written  Ebal,  jod  being  used  instead 
of  vau.  These  letters  were  often  confused 
by  copyists. 

O'bed  [server,  worshiper]. 

1.  Sou  of  Ephlal,  of  the  house  of  Jerah- 
meel.  tribe  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  ii.  37). 

2.  Sou  of  Boaz  and  Ruth,  and  grandfather 
of  David  (Ruth  iv.  17,  21,  22). 

3.  One  of  David's  mightv  men  (1  Chron. 
si.  47). 

4.  A  Levite,  one  of  the  doorkeepers,  son 
of  Shemaiah,  house  of  Obed-edom  (1  Chron. 
xxvi.  7). 

5.  The  father  of  a  certain  Azariah,  in  the 
time  of  Athaliah  (2  Chron.  xxiii.  1). 

O-bed-e'dom  [serving  Edom,  or  Edom  is 
serving] . 

1.  A  Gittite,  that  is  a  native  either  of  the 
Philistine  Gath,  and,  if  so,  probably  a  mem- 
ber of  David's  bodyguard,  or  else  of  the  Le- 
vitical  city  of  Gath-rimmon  in  Dan.  He 
lived  between  Kirjath-jearim  and  Jerusalem, 
near  the  spot  where  Uzzah  was  struck  dead 
for  touching  the  ark.  The  ark  was  there- 
fore taken  to  his  house  by  David's  order, 
where  it  remained  three  months,  blessings 
attending  him  and  his  family  for  giving  it 
accommodation  (2  Sam.  vi.  10-12  ;  1  Cliron. 
xiii.  13,  14 ;  sv.  25).  If  a  Levite,  he  is 
doubtless  identical  with  Obed-edom  the  Kor- 
ahite  (see  number  3).  The  Korahites  were  a 
division  of  the  Kohathite  family  to  which 
Gath-rimmon  was  assigned,  and  the  .state- 
ment that  God  blessed  him  (1  Chron.  xxvi.  5) 
seems  to  refer  to  1  Chron.  xiii.  14  and  2  Sam. 
vi.  11. 

2.  A  Levite  of  the  second  degree,  who 
with  others  acted  as  doorkeeper  for  the  ark, 
and  was  moreover  a  musician  who  played 
the  harp  at  the  removal  of  the  ark  to  Jeru- 
salem, and  afterwards  as  a  regular  duty  in 
the  tent  erected  for  the  ark  (1  Chron.  xv.  18, 
21 ;  xvi.  5). 

3.  A  Levite,  who  as  doorkeeper  marched 
in  front  of  the  ark  at  its  removal  to  Jerusa- 
lem (1  Chron.  xv.  24).  He  is  probably  one 
with  Obed-edom,  son  of  Jeduthun,  a  door- 


Obil 


524 


Offerings 


keeper  for  the  ark  iu  the  tent  at  Jerusalem 
(xvi.  38),  and  who  is  generally,  though  on 
uncertain  grounds,  held  to  be  the  person 
mentioned  iu  the  preceding  clause  of  the 
verse.  He  appears  to  be  Obed-edom  the 
Korahite  (xxvi.  1,  4 ;  cp.  also  10  with  xvi. 
38),  whose  sons  and  grandsons,  with  their 
brethren,  sixty-two  in  number,  were  among 
the  ninety-three,  of  whom  the  courses  were 
formed  in  David's  reign  (xxvi.  8).  Their 
station  was  at  the  southern  gate  (15).  The 
family  was  still  on  duty  in  the  reign  of 
Amaziah  (2  Chron.  xxv.  24). 

O'bil  [a  camel  keeper]. 

An  Ishmaelite  who  had  charge  of  David's 
camels  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  30). 

Ob-la'tion.     See  Offering. 

O'both  [water  skins] . 

A  station  of  the  Israelites  before  their 
arrival  in  the  desert  east  of  Moab  (Num. 
xxi.  10,  11  ;  xxxiii.  43,  44).  Situation  un- 
known. 

Och'ran,  in  A.  V.  Ocran  [troubled]. 

An  Asherite,  father  of  Pagiel  (Num.  i. 
13). 

O'ded  [he  hath  restored]. 

1.  Father  of  the  prophet  Azariah  (2  Chron. 
XV.  1).  In  ver.  8  the  text  is  evidently  cor- 
rupt. 

2.  An  Israelite  prophet  in  the  reign  of 
Pekah.  Meeting  the  army  of  the  northern 
kingdom  returning  from  battle  with  many 
captives  of  Judah,  the  prophet  remonstrated 
with  them  on  their  unbrotherly  conduct, 
and  iu  the  name  of  Jehovah  called  on  them 
to  send  the  captives  home.  His  words  pro- 
duced a  great  effect.  Some  of  the  leading 
men  in  Samaria,  persuaded  by  him  as  to  the 
path  of  duty,  refused  to  allow  the  army  to 
bring  the  prisoners  inside  the  city.  They 
then  clothed  the  naked,  fed  the  hungry,  and, 
mounting  the  feeble  on  asses,  took  them  to 
Jericho,  and  handed  them  over  to  their 
countrymen  (2  Chron.  xxviii.  9-15). 

Od-o-me'ra,  in  A.  V.  Od-o-nar'kes. 

Chief  of  a  nomad  tribe,  or  possibly  an 
officer  under  Bacchides,  whom  Jonathan 
Maccabseus  smote  (1  Mac.  ix.  66). 

Of  fer-ings. 

Offerings  to  God  of  various  kinds  can  be 
traced  from  the  dawn  of  human  history.  In 
the  O.  T.  alone  there  are  mentioned  among 
others  of  early  times  the  vegetable  offering 
(Gen.  iv.  3),  the  sacrifice  of  the  firstling  of 
the  flock  (iv.  4),  the  burnt  oflering  (viii.  20; 
Ex.  X.  25),  the  sacrificial  meal  (Gen.  xxxi. 
54),  and  the  drink  offering  (xxxv.  14).  An 
elaborate  ritual  of  sacrifice  existed  among 
the  great  nations  of  antiquity,  notably  in 
Babylonia  and  Egypt,  long  before  the  days 
of  Moses. 

Offerings  of  many  kinds  to  God  constituted 
a  marked  feature  of  the  Israelitish  worship. 
Extended  information  on  the  subject  is  found 
in  Lev.  i.-vii.,  but  not    there    exclusively. 


Offerings  were  of  two  classes,  public  and 
private,  according  as  they  were  ofl'ered  at 
the  expense  of  the  nation  or  of  an  individ- 
ual, and  they  were  of  three  kinds :  drink 
ofie rings,  vegetable  or  meal  ofle rings,  and 
animal  ofierings  or  sacrifices.  The  shedding 
of  blood  was  a  necessary  accompaniment  of 
every  oflering  made  in  accordance  with  the 
religion  of  Jehovah.  Without  it  there  is  no 
remission  of  sins  ;  and  hence  a  bloodless  offer- 
ing could  not  be  accepted  from  man,  for  man 
by  nature  and  practice  is  a  sinner  and  has  no 
right  to  approach  God.  It  is  true  that  in 
certain  cases,  such  as  extreme  poverty,  a 
bloodless  offering  was  permitted  ;  but  it  was 
made  and  accepted  only  in  connection  with 
the  blood  of  the  great  public  altar  (Lev.  ii.  2, 
8  ;  V.  11-13). 

The  drink  offering  was  not  independent 
under  the  law.  It  was  made  only  in  connec- 
tion with  the  meal  oflering  which  accom- 
panied all  burnt  offerings,  except  perhaps 
that  of  Lev.  xii.  6,  and  all  peace  ofierings 
which  were  Nazirite,  votive  or  freewill 
(Num.  vi.  17  ;  xv.  1-12).  It  was  excluded 
from  sin  and  trespass  oft'erings. 

The  vegetable  offering,  called  meat  ofler- 
ing in  A.  V.  and  meal  offering  in  R.  V.,  con- 
sisted of  white  meal,  or  of  unleavened  bread, 
cakes,  wafers,  or  of  ears  of  grain  roasted, 
always  with  salt  and,  except  in  the  sin  offer- 
ing, with  olive  oil  (Lev.  ii.  1,  4,  13,  14 ;  v. 
11).  It  might  form  an  independent  offering : 
and  part  might  be  placed  on  the  altar  and 
the  rest  belong  to  the  jiriest,  as  in  private 
voluntary  offerings  (ii.),  and  when  accepted  as 
a  sin  offering  from  the  very  poor  in  lieu  of  an 
animal  (v.  11-13)  ;  or  else  the  whole  might  be 
consumed  on  the  altar.  In  this  latter  case  it 
corresponded  to  the  burnt  offering ;  and  was 
made  at  the  consecration  of  the  high  priest 
and  at  the  cleansing  of  the  leper  (vi.  19-23  ; 
xiv.  10,  20).  Or  the  vegetable  oflering  might 
be  subordinate,  an  accompaniment  of  a  sacri- 
fice. It  was  thus  the  invariable  concomitant 
of  the  burnt  offering,  excei)t  ]ierha]is  that  of 
Lev.  xii. ;  and  of  peace  offerings,  except  those 
obligatory  at  the  feast  of  weeks.  In  these 
cases,  according  to  tradition,  it  was  entirely 
consumed  on  the  altar.  In  other  cases,  part 
was  placed  on  the  altar  and  the  rest  went  to 
the  priest ;  namely,  the  wafers  at  the  conse- 
cration of  priests  (viii.  26-28),  in  the  thank 
offering  (vii.  12-15),  and  at  the  release  of  the 
Nazirite  (Num.  vi.  13-20). 

Animal  ofierings  or  sacrifices  called  for 
cattle,  sheep  and  goats  of  both  sexes,  rarely 
for  doves.  The  animal  was  required  to  be 
free  from  blemish  and  at  least  eight  days 
old.  Sacrifices  were  of  three  kinds,  in  each 
of  which  the  blood  made  atonement  (Lev.  i. 
4 ;  xvii.  11).  1.  The  burnt  offering,  for 
which  a  male  lamb,  ram,  goat,  or  bullock 
was  prescribed.  The  case  in  1  Sam.  vi.  14 
was  extraordinary.  The  blood  was  sprinkled 
round  about  upon  the  altar,  and  the  entire 
animal  was  consumed  on  the  altaR     It  was 


Offerings 


525 


Oholibamah 


expressive  of  the  entire  self-dedication  of 
the  otierer  to  Jehovah.  2.  The  siu  oflerinj; 
and  the  trespass  or  guilt  otieriug  ;  for  the  for- 
mer of  which  a  bullock,  a  male  or  female  goat, 
a  female  lamb,  a  dove,  or  a  pigeon  was  used 
(Lev.  iv.  4,  23,  28,  32  ;  v.  7),  while  for  the 
latter  a  ram  was  prescribed  or,  in  the  case  of 
the  leper  and  the  Nazirite,  a  male  lamb  (vi. 
6;  xiv.  12,  21  ;  Num.  vi.  12).  The  blood  was 
symbolically  displayed,  but  in  ditferent  ways. 
In  the  sin  ofieriug  a  portion  of  the  blood  was 
.s])rinkled  before  the  Lord  and  smeared  on  the 
horns  of  the  altar  of  incense,  and  the  rest 
was  poured  out  at  the  base  of  the  altar  of 
burnt  otiering,  when  the  siu  had  been  com- 
mitted by  the  high  priest  or  the  nation  ;  but 
in  the  case  of  other  sinners,  a  part  was  put 
on  the  altar  of  burnt  oflering,  and  the  rest 
was  poured  out  as  before  (Lev.  iv.  6, 7, 17, 18, 
25,  30,  3-1).  In  the  trespass  offering  all  the 
blood  was  scattered  over  the  altar.  The  fat 
only  was  burnt  on  the  altar.  The  flesh  of  those 
sin  offerings  of  which  the  blood  was  taken 
into  the  sanctuary  was  burnt  without  the 
camp,  whereas  the  flesh  of  other  sin  offer- 
ings and  of  trespass  offerings  belonged  to  the 
priests  (Lev.  vi.  20,  30  ;  vii.  6,  7 ;  cp.  Ex. 
xxix.  14;  Lev.  iv.  3,  12,  1.3,  21;  xvi.  27; 
Heb.  xiii.  11,  12).  No  part  of  these  offerings 
was  eaten  by  the  offerer,  as  in  the  peace  ofler- 
ings ;  for  the  sacrificer  came  as  one  unworthy 
of  communion  with  God,  and  these  offerings 
were  for  purposes  of  expiation.  The  sin 
offering  was  made  for  sins  of  which  the  ef- 
fect terminates  primarily  on  the  sinner ;  the 
trespass  offering  for  sins  of  which  the  effects 
terminate  primarily  on  another,  and  for 
which,  in  addition  to  the  sacrifice,  restitution 
was  made.  But  sins  committed  deliberately 
and  for  which  the  penalty  was  death  could 
not  be  exjiiated  (Num.  xv.  .30,  31^.  Atone- 
ment could  be  made  for  unintentional  sins  ; 
for  non-capital  sins,  like  theft,  for  which 
punishment  had  been  endured  and  restitu- 
tion made  ;  and  for  sins  which  the  guilty 
one  voluntarily  confessed  and  for  which  he 
made  compensation  when  possible.  3.  The 
peace  offering.  Tliree  kinds  are  distin- 
guished :  the  thank  offering  in  recognition  of 
unmerited  and  unexpected  blessings ;  the 
votive  offering,  in  payment  of  a  vow ;  and 
the  freewill  offering,  probably  not  in  grati- 
tude for  a  special  favor,  but  as  an  expression 
of  irrepressible  love  for  God  (Lev.  iii.).  Peace 
offerings  might  also  be  prompted  by  the  felt 
need  of  renewing  peaceful  communion  with 
God  (Judg.  XX.  26  ;  xxi.  4  ;  2  Sam.  xxiv.  25). 
Anj'  animal  authorized  for  sacrifice,  of  either 
sex,  might  be  used,  but  no  bird.  The  blood 
was  sprinkled  ;  the  fat  was  consumed  on  the 
altar  ;  and,  when  the  offering  was  private, 
the  breast  and  shoulder  went  to  the  priests, 
and  the  rest  of  the  flesh  was  eaten  by  the 
offerer  and  his  friends  before  the  Lord  at  the 
place  of  the  sanctuarv  (Lev.  iii.,  vii.  11-21  ; 
cp.  22-27  ;  Ex.  xxix.  20-28;  Deut.  xii.  7,  18  ; 
1  Sam.  ii.  15-17).     The  meal  before  Jehovah 


was  a  eucharistic  feast.     It  signified  that  Je- 
hovali  was  present  as  a  guest. 

The  sacrificial  acts  were  five  :  1.  Presenta- 
tion of  the  sacrifice  at  the  door  of  the  sanc- 
tuary by  the  offerer  himself  as  his  personal 
act.  2.  Laying  on  of  hands.  The  offerer 
placed  his  hands  on  the  victim's  head,  there- 
by dedicating  it  to  God  and  making  it  his 
own  representative  and  substitute  (cp.  Lev. 
xvi.  21)  ;  see  Laying  on  of  Hands.  3.  Slay- 
ing the  animal  by  the  offerer  himself,  who  thus 
symbolically  accepted  theitunishmentdue  for 
his  sin.  In  later  times  the  priests  slew  the  ani- 
mal. 4.  Symbolic  application  of  the  blood. 
The  priest  sprinkled  or  smeared  it  on  the  al- 
tar and  poured  it  out  at  the  base.  In  specified 
cases  a  part  was  put  on  the  offerer,  or  it  was 
sprinkled  before  the  veil  of  the  sanctuary 
(Lev.  iv.  6),  or  carried  into  the  holy  place 
(vi.  30),  or  even  into  the  holy  of  holies  (xvi. 
14).  5.  Burning  the  sacrifice,  the  whole  of 
it  or  its  fat  only,  on  the  altar  of  burnt  offer- 
ing, whereby  its  essence  and  flavor  ascended 
to  God. 

Og. 

A  king  of  the  Amorites  of  Bashan  (Deut. 
iii.  8,  10).  He  was  a  giant,  the  last  of  the 
Eephaim,  and  liad  an  iron  bedstead  or  .sar- 
cophagus 9  cubits  long  by  4  cubits  broad, 
which  was  of  course  longer  and  wider  than 
its  occupant.  This  relic  was  preserved  in 
Eabbath  Amnion  (Deut.  iii.  11).  He  had  resi- 
dences at  both  Ashtaroth  and  Edrei  (Josh.  xii. 
4,  5  ;  xiii.  12).  After  the  Israelites  had  con- 
quered Sihon,  they  left  their  families  and 
their  cattle  at  the  secure  camp  at  Pisgah,  and 
marched  against  Og.  They  defeated  and 
slew  him  at  Edrei  and  took  possession  of  his 
country  (Num.  xxi.  20,  32-35;  Deut.  iii.  14). 
This  territory  was  given  to  the  half-tribe  of 
Manasseh  (Deut.  iii.  13). 

O'had. 

A  son  of  Simeon  (Gen.  xlvi.  10  ;  Ex.  vi.  15). 
He  did  not  found  a  tribal  family. 

O'hel  [a  tent]. 

A  son  of  Zerubbabel  (1  Chron.  iii.  20). 

O-ho'lah,  in  A.  V.  Aholah  [her  tent]. 

Samaria  and  the  kingdom  of  Israel  per- 
sonified as  a  woman  of  bad  character  (Ezek. 
xxiii.  1-49). 

O-ho'li-ab,  in  A.  Y.  Aholial)  [father's tent]. 

An  artificer  of  the  tribe  of  Dan,  who  as- 
sisted Bezalel  in  making  furniture  for  the 
tabernacle  (Ex.  xxxi.  6;  xxxv.  34,  3.5). 

O-holl-bah,  in  A.  V.  Aholibah  [my  tent 
is  in  her]. 

Jerusalem  and  the  kingdom  of  Judah  per- 
sonified as  a  woman  of  bad  character  (Ezek. 
xxiii.  1-49). 

O-hol-i-ba'mah,  in  A.  V.  Aholibamali  [my 
tent  is  a  high  place]. 

A  wife  of  Esau,  daughter  of  Anah  the 
Hivite  (Gen.  xxxvi.  2).  She  gave  name  to 
an  Edomite  family,  organized  under  a  chief 


Oil 


526 


Old  Testament 


(41).     She  was  also  called  Judith,  the  praise- 
worthy (xxvi.  34  ;  cp.  Anah). 

OU. 

The  oil  used  by  the  ancient  Hebrews  was 
chiefly  olive  oil,  obtained  by  pressing  the 
fruit  of  the  olive  tree  (q.  v.).  It  was  so  im- 
portant a  product  of  Palestine  that  oil  and 
wine  are  frequently  mentioned,  with  or  even 
without  grain,  as  the  chief  harvest  gain 
(Num.  xviii.  12;  Deut.  vii.  13;  Neh.  x.  39  ; 
xiii.  5,  etc.).  Oil  was  used  for  illuminating 
purposes,  being  burned  in  lamps  (Ex.  xxv. 
6  ;  Mat.  xxv.  3).  Oil  was  used  for  food  (1 
Chron.  xii.  40  ;  Ezek.  xvi.  13).  It  was  mixed 
with  meal  and  made  into  bread  (1  Kin.  xvii. 
12) ;  and  cakes  of  fine  flour  mingled  with 
oil,  or  with  oil  poured  upon  them,  were  part 
of  the  meal  ofi'ering  (Lev.  ii.  1,  4-7),  the  oil 
being  prescribed  probably  on  account  of  its 
common  use  in  food.  Oil  was  used  in  medi- 
cine for  mollifying  wounds  (Is.  i.  6";  Mark 
vi.  13).  Sometimes  wine  was  added  to  the 
oil,  as  was  done  by  the  good  Samaritan  in  the 
case  of  the  wounded  Israelite  (Luke  x.  34). 
Herod  was  put  in  a  bath  of  warm  oil  in  the 
hope  of  alleviating  his  disease  (War  i.  33,  5). 
Oil  was  used  as  a  cosmetic  for  anointing  the 
body,  especially  after  a  bath,  and  for  render- 
ing the  hair  smooth  (Ps.  xxiii.  5 ;  civ.  15 ;  2 
Sam.  xiv.  2).  Olive  oil  was  used  for  anoint- 
ing kings  (1  Sam.  x.  1  ;  xvi.  1,  13  ;  1  Kin.  i. 
39 ;  2  Kin.  ix.  1,  6)  ;  and  was  called  holy  be- 
cause employed  in  behalf  of  God  (Ps.  Ixxxix. 
20).  A  holy  oil  of  composite  and  expensive 
character  was  used  for  the  anointing  of  high 
priests.  The  tabernacle,  the  ark,  the  table, 
the  candlestick,  the  altar,  the  laver  and  its 
foot  were  also  anointed  with  the  same  pre- 
cious compound  (Ex.  xsx.  22-33). 

Oil  Tree. 

The  literal  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  words 
'Es  shemen,  tree  of  oil,  in  Is.  xli.  19.  The 
words  are  translated  olive  wood  (1  Kin.  vi. 
23 ;  in  A.  V.  olive  tree)  and  wild  olive  (Neh. 
viii.  15;  in  A.  V.  pine  branch).  It  is  gener- 
ally believed  to  be  the  oleaster  (Elxagnus 
hortensis),  sometimes  called  the  wild  olive, 
but  which,  though  it  has  a  certain  super- 
ficial resemblance  to  the  true  olive,  is  not 
really  akin  to  it,  Elaeagnus  being  the  type 
genus  of  the  order  Elseagimcese  or  oleasters. 
They  are  trees  or  shrubs  more  akin  to  the 
willows  and  gales  than  to  the  olive  tree.  The 
oleaster  yields  an  oil,  but  much  inferior  to 
that  of  the  true  olive.  It  is  abundant  in 
Palestine,  especially  near  Hebron,  Samaria, 
and  mount  Tabor.  Other  investigators  iden- 
tify the  oil  tree  with  Balanites  segyptiaca, 
which  is  called  salchun  by  the  Arabs,  and 
from  which  they  extract  an  oil.  But  it  now 
grows  around  the  Dead  Sea,  and  not  on  the 
mount  of  Olives  (Neh.  viii.  15). 

Oint'ment. 

Fragrant  ointments  were  highly  prized 
among  the  Hebrews  (Eccl.  vii.  1).  They  were 
used  in  dressing  the  hair  and  in  purifying  and 


perfuming  the  skin  (Esth.  ii.  12 ;  Eccl.  ix.  8), 
and  Jesus  was  several  times  anointed  with 
ointment  brought  by  women  who  regarded 
him  with  adoration  (Mat.  xxvi.  G-13;  Luke 
vii.  3(t50).  Ointments,  with  other  spices, 
were  employed  on  the  dead  body  and  in  em- 
balming (Luke  xxiii.  56).  Balm  of  Gilead 
and  eye  salve  were  used  in  medicine  (Jer. 
viii.  22;  Rev.  iii.  18).  In  the  ritual  an  oint- 
ment or  holy  oil  was  used,  composed  of 
myrrh,  cassia,  cinnamon,  calamus,  and  olive 
oil  (Ex.  XXX.  25).  In  Palestine  the  usual 
ointment  consisted  of  perfumed  olive  oil. 
The  Hebrew  word  for  oil  is  sometimes  ren- 
dered ointment  in  A.  V.  (2  Kin.  xx.  13),  and 
this  rendering  is  allowed  to  stand  in  E.  V.  in 
Prov.  xxvii.  9;  Ecc.  vii.  1 ;  ix.  8;  x.  1 ;  Song 
i.  3  ;  iv.  10  ;  Is.  Ivii.  9  ;  Amos  vi.  6). 

Old  Tes'ta-ment. 

The  first  of  the  two  portions  into  which 
the  Bible  is  naturally  divided.  The  title 
was  borrowed  from  the  apostle  Paul,  who  in 
2  Cor.  iii.  14,  says:  "For  until  this  day  re- 
maineth  the  same  veil  untaken  away,  in  the 
reading  of  the  O.  T."  [in  E.  V.  covenant]. 
The  O.  T.  consists  of  thirty-nine  books 
which,  in  the  order  in  which  they  stand  in 
the  English  Bible,  naturally  divide  into 
three  classes  :  seventeen  historical  books 
(Genesis  to  Esther),  five  poetical  books  (Job 
to  Song  of  Solomon),  and  seventeen  propheti- 
cal books.  Poems  and  fragments  of  poems 
occur  in  the  historical  books  (Gen.  iv.  23,  24  ; 
ix.  25-27 ;  xlix.  2-27  ;  Ex.  xv.  1-18 ;  Judg.  v.), 
and  poetry  abounds  in  the  prophetical  books. 
The  Hebrew  Bible  contains  all  these  books 
and  no  more ;  but  there  is  a  difference  in 
the  arrangement  and  in  the  classification. 
See  Canon.  The  English  Bible  has  adopted 
the  arrangement  of  the  old  versions.  Nearly 
the  whole  of  the  O.  T.  was  written  originally 
in  Hebrew,  the  only  exceptions  being  Ezra  iv. 
8-vi.  18;  vii.  12-26;  Jer.  x.  11;  Dan.  ii.  4- 
vii.  28,  which  are  in  Aramaic.  The  letters 
of  the  Hebrew  and  Aramaic  alphabets  were 
similar.  An  early  form  of  them  is  seen  on 
the  Moabite  stone,  in  the  Siloam  inscription, 
and  on  Maccabseau  coins.  They  passed 
through  various  changes  of  form  until  they 
ultimately  became  the  familiar  square  char- 
acter of  the  extant  Hebrew  manuscripts  and 
printed  editions  of  the  Hebrew  Bible.  The 
books  of  the  O.  T.  were  written  in  the  older 
script;  but  in  the  course  of  their  multiplica- 
tion by  manuscriiit  copies,  the  older  charac- 
ters were  gradually  transliterated  into  the 
square.  An  approximation  to  this  character 
was  used  as  early  as  the  time  of  Christ  (Mat. 
V.  18),  for  the  allusion  to  jod  as  the  smallest 
letter  could  not  have  well  been  made  except 
to  the  more  modern  character.  Hebrew 
writing  consisted  of  consonants  only,  vowels 
being  supplied  by  the  reader.  But  between 
the  seventh  and  the  tenth  centuries  of  the 
Christian  era,  Jewish  scholars,  resident 
chiefly  at  Tiberias,    supplied   vowel  points 


Old  Testament 


527 


Olive 


which  indicated  the  proper  vocalization 
and  l\(ll()\vc'(l  the  traditional  pronunciation. 
These  vowel  sijius  gave  greater  fixity  to  the 
meaning  of  the  texts.  These  men  are  called 
Masoretes  or  Massoretes,  from  mdsonih  or 
lietter  massoruh.  tradition;  and  the  text,  as  sup- 
plied with  vowels  and  otherwise  improved,  is 
known  as  the  Masoretic  text.  They  also  added 
a  system  of  accents  to  indicate  the  proper 
accentuation  of  the  words  and  the  manner  in 
which  they  are  to  he  conjoined  or  disjoined. 
Two  stages  of  the  Hebrew  language  are  trace- 
able in  the  O.  T.  In  the  first  or  golden  age  of 
that  tongue,  the  Hebrew  is  comparatively 
pure  ;  in  the  second  or  silver  age,  it  is  tinged 
more  and  more  as  time  goes  on  with  Ara- 
maic, so  that,  speaking  broadly,  the  deeper 
the  Aramaic  tinge  the  more  modern  the 
book.  This  test,  however,  is  nut  infallible ; 
for  a  writer,  writing,  say  in  northern  Pales- 
tine, near  Syria,  in  which  the  Aramaic  was 
the  vernacular,  would  naturally  tend  to  use 
Aramaic  words  more  than  one  who  penned 
his  book  at  Jerusalem,  where  purer  Hebrew 
prevailed.  The  existence  of  Aramaic  forms 
in  an  O.  T.  book  may,  therefore,  in  some 
cases  indicate,  not  the  time,  but  the  place  of 
its  composition. 

It  is  believed  that  the  original  manuscripts 
of  the  O.  T.  books  were  written  on  skins ; 
see  Book.  That  many  of  them  were,  is 
certain  (Ps.  xl.  7 ;  Jer.  xxxvi.  14).  The  ex- 
isting manuscripts  are  usually  of  parchment 
or,  in  the  East,  of  leather.  They  are  not 
old.  A  roll  containing  the  Pentateuch, 
brought  from  Derbend  in  Daghestan,  is  be- 
lieved to  have  been  penned  before  A.  D.  580. 
The  oldest  extant  manuscript  of  which  the 
date  can  be  afhrmed  with  certainty  is  a  manu- 
script of  the  prophets,  punctuated  after  the 
less  perfect  Babylonian  system.  It  was  brought 
from  the  Crimea,  and  is  dated  a.  d.  916. 
The  oldest  manuscript  of  the  entire  O.  T.  is 
dated  a.  d.  1010.  The  scarcity  of  ancient 
Hebrew  manuscripts  is  to  a  large  extent  due 
to  the  practice  of  the  Jews,  which  is  alluded 
to  in  the  Talmud,  of  burying  all  sacred  manu- 
scripts which  became  defective  through  wear 
or  otherwise  faulty.  After  the  invention  of 
printing,  the  Book  of  Psalms  was  put  in  type 
and  ])ubli.shed  in  1477.  Eleven  years  later,  in 
1488,  the  whole  printed  Hebrew  Bible  was 
issued  in  folio  from  a  press  at  Soncino  in 
the  duchy  of  Milan.  A  printed  manual 
edition  was  first  issued  by  Bomberg  in  1517. 
Van  der  Hooght's  was  first  published  at 
Amsterdam  in  1705.  It  has  held  its  ground 
on  account  of  its  accuracy,  being  reprinted 
with  minor  corrections  bv  Aug.  Hahn  in 
1831  and  by  C.  G.  G.  Theile  in  1849.  It  has 
about  1,000  marginal  readings,  most  of  them 
of  considerable  antiquity.  Yet  more  im- 
portant is  the  edition  of  the  Masoretic  text, 
in  single  parts,  with  critical  and  Masoretic 
appendices,  prepared  by  S.  Baer  and  Franz 
Delitzsch.  Genesis  ai)peared  in  1869,  and  sev- 
eral other  books  have  followed  at  intervals. 


The  number  of  "various  readings"  is  less 
in  the  O.  T.  than  in  the  N.  T. ;  and  such  as 
they  are,  they  exist  more  in  numbers  and  in 
proper  names  than  in  narratives,  and  do  not 
vitiate  didactic  statements.  They  are  due  to 
transcribers  mistaking  one  Hebrew  charac- 
ter for  another  that  closely  rcsenil)k-d  it  (.see 
Beth,  Daleth),  improjierly  uniting  two 
words  into  one  or  separating  one  word  into 
two  (see  Mole  2),  attaching  an  initial  letter 
to  the  preceding  word,  or  accidentally  re- 
peating or  omitting  letters  or  words.  As  in 
the  case  of  the  X.  T.,  three  aids  exist  for 
biblical  critics  who  attempt  to  eliminate 
copyists'  errors  and  restore  the  text  to  its 
primitive  purity.  They  are,  first,  the  colla- 
tion of  Hebrew  manuscrii)ts,  which  has  been 
carried  on  with  perseverance,  portions  of 
from  1500  to  2000  manuscripts  having  been 
used  in  the  comparison  ;  second,  the  exami- 
nation of  early  versions  made  from  the  He- 
brew into  other  languages  before  the  Maso- 
retic text  was  established  ;  and  third,  the 
study  of  passages  c^uoted  or  alluded  to  in 
the  Apocrypha,  the  N.  T.,  or  other  writings. 

Ol'ive. 

A  tree  largely  cultivated  in  Palestine  in 
olive  yards  (Ex.  xxiii.  11,  Josh.  xxiv.  13; 
Judg.  XV.  5 ;  1  Sam.  viii.  14).  It  grew  also 
in  Assyria  (2  Kin.  xviii.  32).  Strabo  men- 
tions it  among  the  trees  of  Armenia,  and  it 
is  supposed  to  be  indigenous  in  northern 
India  and  other  temperate  regions  of  Asia. 
The  wood  was  used  for  timber  (1  Kin. 
vi.  23,  31,  32,  33).  The  fruit  was  obtained 
by  shaking  the  tree  (Is.  xvii.  6  ;  xxiv. 
13),  or  by  beating  it  (Deut.  xxiv.  20). 
Oil  was  expressed  from  the  berries  by 
treading  them  with  the  human  foot  (Deut. 
xxxiii.  24  ;  Mic.  vi.  15),  or  by  crushing  them 
in  a  basin  under  a  wheel,  and  squeezing  the 
pulp  in  a  press  constructed  for  the  purpose. 
The  oil  had  extensive  use  ;  see  Oil.  The 
process  of  grafting  a  cutting  from  the  wild 
olive  tree  into  one  of  the  cultivated  kind  is  al- 
luded to  in  Eom.  xi.  17,  24  to  illustrate  the 
grafting  of  the  gentile  converts  on  what  hith- 
erto had  been  the  Jewish  church.  In  garden- 
ing the  process  was  diflerent ;  it  was  the  graft- 
ing of  a  cutting  from  the  cultivated  tree  into 
a  stock  of  the  wild  olive  to  alter  and  im- 
prove its  nature.  It  was  from  an  olive  tree 
that  the  dove  plucked  the  leaf  when  the 
waters  of  the  flood  were  subsiding  (Gen. 
viii.  11).  An  olive  branch  is  now  an  emblem 
of  peace.  The  olive  was  also  a  symbol  of 
prosperity  and  divine  blessing,  of  beauty  and 
strength  (Ps.  Hi.  8  ;  Jer.  xi.  16 ;  Hos.  xiv.  6). 
The  aged  olive  tree  is  often  surrounded  by 
young  and  thrifty  shoots  (Ps.  cxxviii.  3). 
Women  sometimes  adorned  themselves  with 
garlands  of  olives  on  festal  occasions  (Judith 
XV.  13 1,  and  at  the  Olympic  games  in  Greece 
the  victor's  crown  was  composed  of  olive 
leaves.  The  tree  is  the  common  Olea  europxa. 
It  has  lanceolate,  entire,  leatherj-,  evergreen 


Olives,  Mount  of 


528 


Omri 


leaves  of  a  dusty  color,  and  small  whitish, 
monopetalous  flowers.  The  nearest  approach 
to  it  of  familiar  garden  plants  is  the  privet. 
The  olive  is  still  cultivated  through  nearly 
every  part  of  Palestine. 

Ol'ives,  Mount  of,  and  Ol'i-vet,  the  latter 
word  being  a  Latin  form,  borrowed  from  the 
Vulgate,  and  meaning  a  place  where  many 
olive  trees  grow. 

A  hill  which  is  before  Jerusalem  on  the 
east  (Zech.  xiv.  4),  separated  from  it  by  the 
valley  of  the  Kidron  (2  Sam.  xv.  14,  23,  30). 
Its  summit  with  the  farther  slope  was  reck- 
oned as  a  Sabbath-day's  journey  from  the 
city  (Acts  i.  12),  or,  according  to  Josephus,  at 
5  or  6  stades  (Antiq.  xx.  8,  6 ;  War  v.  2,  3). 
On  its  summit  God  was  wont  to  be  worshiped 
(2  Sam.  XV.  32).  The  glory  of  the  Lord  ap- 
peared there  to  Ezekiel  in  a  visioa  (Ezek.  xi. 
23),  and  Zechariah  prophetically  portraj'ed  Je- 
hovah standing  on  the  mountain  to  interpose 
in  behalf  of  his  people  (Zech.  xiv.  4).  Jesus 
went  often  to  the  mount  of  Olives  (Luke  xxi. 
37  ;  xxii.  39 ;  John  viii.  1).  He  was  descending 
its  slope  when  the  multitude  welcomed  him 
to  the  city  with  hosannas  (Luke  xix.  37,  38). 
He  had  rounded  its  shoulder  when  Jerusalem 
hurst  into  full  view,  and  he  wept  over  the  fate 
which  he  knew  awaited  the  city  (41-44).  He 
was  sitting  on  the  mount  with  his  disciples  gaz- 
ing across  the  valley  at  the  splendid  temple  and 
the  citv,  when  he  prophesied  the  destruction 
of  both  (Mat.  xxiv.  3  ;  Mark  xiii.  3).  After  his 
last  passover  he  retired  to  the  mount  of  Olives 
(Mat.  xxvi.  30;  Mark  xiv.  26).  The  garden 
of  Gethsemane  was  to  the  west  of  it,  either 
at  its  base  or  some  small  distance  up  its  as- 
cent. Bethany  and  Bethphage  were  on  the 
eastern  side  (Mat.  xxi.  1 ;  Mark  xi.  1 ;  Luke 
xix.  29).  It  was  near  the  former  of  these 
villages  that  our  Lord's  ascension  took  place 
(xxiv.  50).  The  mount  of  Olives  is  un- 
questionably the  eminence  now  called  by 
the  Arabs  Jebel  et-T6r,  east  of  Jerusalem. 
Properly  speaking,  it  is  a  chain  of  hills  rising 
into  three  or,  as  some  reckon,  four  summits, 
and  with  two  lateral  spurs.  One  spur  runs 
westward,  starting  at  the  bend  of  the  Kidron, 
about  a  mile  north  of  Jerusalem.  This 
northern  spur  is  generally  identified  with 
Josephus'  Scopus.  The  other  spur  is  sepa- 
rated from  the  main  ridge  by  the  Kidron. 
It  also  runs  westward,  and  faces  the  city  on 
the  south.  It  has  been  designated  the  hill 
of  Evil  Counsel,  a  single  tree  which  it  bears 
being  denominated  the  tree  of  Judas.  Of 
the  four  peaks  into  which  the  range  of  Olivet 
rises,  the  most  northerly  one,  called  Karem 
es-Seiyad,  is  the  highest,  being  2723  feet 
above  sea  level.  It  was  formerly  called  Gali- 
lee, either  because  Galilseans  encamped  there, 
or  because  it  was  believed  to  be  the  place  of 
the  ascension  where  the  angels  addressed  the 
disciples  as  men  of  Galilee.  The  second  peak 
is  called  the  Ascension.  As  early  as  a.  d. 
iJlo  it  was  crowned  by  Constantine  with  a 


basilica,  which  was  replaced  later  by  succes- 
sive churches  of  the  Ascension.  This  is  the 
mount  of  Olives  proper.  It  stands  directly 
opposite  to  the  eastern  gate  of  Jerusalem, 
and  rises  to  2037  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
ocean,  560  above  the  bed  of  the  Kidron,  and 
196  over  the  tenii)le  plateau.  At  its  foot,  at 
the  traditional  site  of  Gethsemane,  three 
roads  diverge.  Two  include  the  garden  with- 
in the  angle  which  they  make.  One  of  these 
two  winds  round  the  southern  shoulder  of 
Olivet,  the  other,  which  is  steep  and  rugged, 
leads  to  the  summit.  They  both  meet  again 
at  Bethany,  which  is  on  the  eastern  slope  of 
the  hill,  about  921  feet  lower  than  the  crest. 
The  way  to  Jericho  is  the  southern  road. 
The  third  hill  is  called  the  Prophets',  from 
what  are  called  the  prophets'  tombs  on  its 
side.  The  fourth  hill  is  named  the  mount 
of  Offense,  from  the  belief  that  Solomon 
there  built  the  idolatrous  shrines  for  his 
heathen  wives.  The  ascension  hill  and  the 
hill  of  the  prophets  are  so  slightly  dissevered 
that  some  reduce  the  four  summits  to  three. 

Ol'i-vet.     See  Olives,  Mount  of. 
0-lym'pas. 

A  Roman  Christian  to  whom  Paul  sent  his 
salutation  (Rom.  xvi.  15). 

O'mar. 

A  descendant  of  Esau  through  Eliphaz 
(Gen.  XXX vi.  11),  and  chieftain  of  a  tribe 
of  the  name  (15). 

0-me'ga. 

The  last  letter  of  the  Greek  alphabet, 
hence  used  figuratively  for  the  last  or  for  the 
end  (Rev.  i.  8,  11 ;  xxi.  6;  xxii.  13). 

O'mer. 

A  measure  for  dry  articles.  It  contained 
a  tenth  part  of  an  ephah  (Ex.  xvi.  36),  and 
was  one  hundredth  of  a  homer  (Ezek.  xiv. 
11).  The  omer  contained  nearly  6  pints. 
See  Measure. 

Om'ri  [untaught  or  impetuous  or  like  a 
sheaf ] . 

1.  A  man  of  Benjamin,  family  of  Becher 
(1  Chron.  vii.  8). 

2.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Perez  (1 
Chron.  ix.  4). 

3.  Son  of  Michael  and  prince  of  the  tribe 
of  Issachar  in  David's  reign  (1  Chron.  xxvii. 
18). 

4.  A  king  of  Israel.  Before  gaining  the 
throne  he  was  commander  of  the  Israelite 
army  in  the  reign  of  Elah  and  not  unlikely 
in  that  of  Baasha  also ;  and  he  may  have 
subjugated  Moab  at  this  time  (Moabite  Stone 
7,  8).  He  was  conducting  the  siege  of  Gib- 
bethon,  which  belonged  to  the  Philistines, 
when  news  arrived  that  Zimri  had  murdered 
Elah,  and  usurped  the  throne.  The  army  at 
once  proclaimed  Omri  king  of  Israel.  He 
accepted  the  honor,  and  led  his  troops  against 
the  town  of  Tirzah,  the  national  capital, 
where  Zimri  was.  The  latter,  despairing  of 
his   ability  to   hold    the   throne,  committed 


1 


On 


529 


Onion 


suicide  (1  Kin.  xvi.  15-20).  But  the  nation 
was  divided.  One  luilf  adhered  to  Omri  and 
the  other  half  supported  the  chiims  of 
Tibni ;  and  it  was  not  until  the  death  of 
Tibni  five  years  later  that  Omri  became  the 
undisputed  sovereign  of  all  Israel  (21-23). 
The  statement  of  ver.  23,  "in  the  thirty-first 
year  of  Asa  began  Omri  to  reign  over  Israel  " 
(in  Hebrew  simply  "Omri  reigned"),  re- 
fers, not  to  the  time  of  his  proclamation 
by  the  soldiery  and  his  assumption  of  the 
royal  title  (although  the  twelve  yeai-s  of  his 
reign  are  counted  from  this  event),  but  to  his 
attainment  of  the  sole  authority  in  the  king- 
dom (cp.  ver.  15,  29).  He  transferred  the 
seat  of  government  from  Tirzah  to  Samaria, 
which  he  built  for  the  pui-pose  (24).  He  fol- 
lowed the  idolatries  of  Jeroboam  and  acted 
in  other  respects  more  wickedly  than  any  of 
his  predecessors  on  the  throne  of  the  ten 
tribes  (2G ;  Mic.  vi.  16).  He  died  about  874 
B.  C,  and  was  buried  in  Samaria.  His  son 
Ahab  succeeded  him  on  the  throne  (1  Kin. 
xvi.  28).  Omri  made  an  impression  on  his- 
tory outside  of  Israel.  Not  only  did  the 
Moabites  remember  his  name ;  but  after  his 
death  and  the  annihilation  of  his  family  the 
Assyrians  for  a  time  still  attached  his  name, 
which  they  wrote  Humri,  to  the  reigning 
monarch  and  laud  of  Israel. 

On,  I.  [strength], 

A  Reubenite  chief  who  took  part  in  the 
rebellion  of  Korah  (Num.  xvi.  1) ;  see  Kokah. 

On,  II.  [Egyptian  An,  light]. 

An  old  and  renowned  city  of  Lower  Egypt, 
on  the  east  of  the  Nile,  in  the  delta,  sev- 
eral   miles   from    the    river  and    19    miles 


S"  jrr'  "  "'ifttiS/ 


Obelisk  at  Heliopolis. 
Erected  by  Usertesen,  second  king  of  the  twelfth  dyna.sty. 

north  of  Memphis.  It  was  the  principal  seat 
of  the  worship  of  the  sun ;  hence  called 
Heliopolis  by  the  Greeks  (cp.  Ex.  i.  11,  Sep- 
tuagint)  and  Beth-shemesh  by  Jeremiah 
(xliii.  13).  Apparently  Isaiah  had  this  city 
34 


in  mind  ;  and  by  a  slight  change  in  the 
tirst  letter  of  the  name  turned  city  of  the 
sun  into  city  of  destruction,  to  denote  the 
overthrow  of  idolatry  (Is.  xix.  18  ;  cp.  margin). 
With  the  temple  of  the  sun  were  connected 
a  training  school  for  priests  and  a  medical 
school,  and  these  institutions  were  visited  by 
all  the  Greek  philosojjhers  who  went  to 
Egypt  to  study.  In  Herodotus'  day  the 
priests  of  On  were  esteemed  the  most  learned 
in  history  of  all  the  Egyptians  (ii.  3).  It 
was  the  daughter  of  a  priest  of  On  whom 
Pharaoh  gave  to  Joseph  to  wife  (Gen.  xli. 
45,  50  ;  xlvi.  20). 

O'nam  [strong,  wealthy]. 

1.  A  Horite  (Gen.  xxxvi.  23  ;  1  Chron.  i.  40). 

2.  A  man  of  Judah,  house  of  Jerahmeel 
(1  Chron.  ii.  26,  28). 

O'nan  [strong]. 

A  son  of  Judah  by  a  Canaanite  woman. 
He  sinned,  and  was  cut  off  by  a  divine  judg- 
ment, leaving  no  posteritv  (Gen.  xxxviii. 
4-10;  xlvi.  12;  Num.  xxvi.   19). 

0-nes'i-mus  [useful,  profitable]. 

A  slave  of  Philemon,  whom  Paul  was  the 
means  of  converting  at  Eome,  and  whom  he 
sent  back  to  his  Christian  master  requesting 
that  he  might  be  received,  not  as  a  servant, 
but  as  a  brother  beloved  (Philem.  10-19).  He 
was  a  man  of  Colossse,  and  with  Tychicus 
carried  from  Rome  to  that  city  the  epistles  to 
the  Colossians  and  to  Philemon  (Col.  iv.  7-9). 

On-e-siph'o-rus  [bringing  advantage]. 

A  Christian  whose  home  was  probably  at 
Ephesus  (2  Tim.  i.  18).  When  he  was  at 
Rome  he  sought  out  the  apostle  Paul,  then  a 
prisoner,  and  showed  him  great  kindness 
(16).  The  members  of  his  household  were 
with  Timothy,  and  Paul  sent  them  his  salu- 
tations (iv,  19). 

0-ni'as,  in  A.  V.  once  0-ni'a-res  (1  Mac. 
xii.  19)  [Greek  for  perhaps  Coniah].  The 
form  Oniares  is  an  old  corruption,  in  which 
the  two  names  Onias  Arius  are  blended  (cp. 
Antiq.  xii.  4,  10). 

A  high  priest  of  the  Jews,  who  held  office 
from  about  323  to  300  b.  c.  He  was  a  con- 
temporary of  Arius,  king  of  Sparta,  who 
reigned  from  309  to  265  B.  c.  (1  Mac.  xii. 
7,  in  A.  y.  Darius,  a  corruption  of  Arius  ;  19, 
20).  Onias  succeeded  Jaddua,  and  was  the 
father  and  predecessor  of  Simon  the  Ju.st 
(Antiq.  xi.  8,  7;  xii.  2,  5).  He  is  probably 
referred  to  in  Ecclus.  1.  1.  Josephus  errs  in 
regarding  Onias  III.,  a  later  pontiff,  as  the 
recipient  of  the  letter  from  Arius. 

For  others  of  the  name,  see  High  Priest. 

On'ion. 

A  plant,  the  bulbous  root  of  which  was 
much  used  in  Egypt  as  an  article  of  food 
(Num.  xi.  5  ;  Herod,  ii.  125).  It  is  AUiiim 
cepa.  called  in  Hebrew  hesel,  in  Arabic  haxnl. 
It  has  been  cultivated  from  an  early  period 
in  Egypt  and  other  parts  of  the  east. 


Ono 


530 


Ophrah 


O'no  [strong]. 

A  town  of  Beujaraiu  (Neh.  xi.  35),  in  a 
plain  of  considerable  size  (vi.  2),  built  or 
rather  rebuilt  by  a  Benjamite  called  Shamed 
(1  Chron.  viii.  12).  Some  of  its  iuha))itauts 
returned  from  the  Babylonian  captivity 
(Ezra  ii.  33;  Neh.  vii.  37).  It  is  considered 
to  have  been  at  Kefr  'Ana,  about  7  miles  in- 
land east  by  south  from  Joppa. 

On'y-clia. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  HMielelh  (Ex. 
XXX.  34).  It  was  one  of  the  ingredients  in  a 
perfume  made  for  the  service  of  the  taber- 
nacle. It  is  believed  to  have  been  the  oper- 
culum (lid)  of  a  shell  mollusc  called  stromb 
or  wing-shell,  which  being  burnt  gave  out  a 
certain  perfume. 

O'nyx  [a  fingc^r  nail,  an  onyx]. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Shoham. 
The  Hebrew  word  denotes  a  precious  stone 
(.Job  xxviii.  l(i,  R.  V.  margin  beryl ;  Ezek. 
xxviii.  13).  It  was  found  in  the  land  of 
Havilah  (Gen.  ii.  12).  Two  of  these  stones, 
each  graven  with  the  names  of  sis  Israelite 
tribes,  were  put  on  the  shoulder  pieces  of  the 
high  priest's  ephod  (Ex.  xxviii.  9,  12),  and 
another  was  the  second  stone  in  the  fourth 
row  on  his  hreastplate  (xxviii.  20).  David 
gathered  such  stones  for  the  service  of  the 
future  temple  (1  Chron.  xxix.  2).  The  onyx 
is  a  cryptocrystalline  yariety  or  subvariety  of 
quartz.  It  is  in  layers  of  different  colors, 
which  alternate  with  each  other  and  bear 
some  risi'inhlauce  to  the  white  and  flesh-col- 
ored bands  of  the  finger  nail. 

O'phel  [a  swelling,  a  hill]. 

The  southern  and  lower  portion,  or  per- 
haps originally  only  an  eminence  on  this 
southern  portion,  of  the  eastern  or  temple 
hill  at  Jerusalem,  enclosed  by  the  city  walls. 
This  general  locality  is  indicated  by  the 
proximity  of  the  pool  of  Shelah,  i.  e.  doubt- 
less Siloam,  the  court  of  the  guard,  the  water 
gate,  and  the  horse  gate  (Neh.  iii.  15-27;  see 
Jerusalem,  paragraph  on  the  walls)  ;  the 
pool  of  Siloam,  the  eastern  court  of  the  tem- 
ple, and  the  Kidron  valley  (War  v.  4,  1  and 
2 ;  6,  1).  Jotham  built  much  on  its  walls, 
and  Manasseh  increased  their  height  (2 
Chron.  xxvii.  3  ;  xxxiii.  14).  After  the  ex- 
ile, if  not  before,  the  Nethinim  bad  their 
residence  in  this  quarter,  because  of  its  con- 
venience to  the  temple  (Neh.  iii.  26;  xi.  21). 
Sir  Charles  Warren,  in  the  course  of  his  ex- 
cavations on  this  pfirtion  of  the  ridge,  came 
upon  a  wall  more  than  70  feet  high,  which 
he  felt  disposed  to  identify  with  that  of  Ma- 
nas.seh  {Recovery  of  Jerusalem,  285-6). 

O'pliir. 

A  tribe  descended  from  Joktan  (Gen.  x. 
29;  1  Chron.  i.  23),  and  the  country  which 
they  inhabited.  This  region  was  celebrated 
for  its  gold  (xxix.  4;  Job  xxii.  24 ;  xxviii. 
16  ;  Ps.  xlv.  9  ;  Is.  xiii.  12),  to  obtain  which, 
Hiram,  in  conjunction  with  Solomon,  sent  a 
navy  from  Ezion-geber  (1  Kin.  ix.  28).     The 


ships  brought  back   algum   or  almug  trees 

as  well  as  gold  (x.  11),  and  probably  also 
silver,  ivory,  apes,  and  peacocks  (22 ;  cp. 
xxii.  48).  Jehoshaphat  attempted  to  imitate 
the  enterprise,  but  his  ships  were  wrecked  at 
Ezion-geber  (xxii.  48).  As  this  port  was 
on  the  gulf  of  Akaba,  the  route  to  Ophir  was 
by  the  Ked  Sea  and  not  by  the  Mediterranean. 
The  voyage  out  and  back  in  the  ships  of  that 
day,  with  the  peculiar  winds  of  the  Red  Sea, 
and  including  the  lying  in  port,  lasted,  it  may 
be  judged,  three  years  (x.  22;  cp.  xxii.  48)  ; 
see  Red  Sea.  Three  opinions  exist  as  to  its 
situation :  1.  Ophir  was  at  Sofala,  on  the  east- 
ern coast  of  Africa,  opposite  the  island  of 
Madagascar.  In  favor  of  this  view  is  the 
fact  that  it  was  formerly  an  emporium  for 
gold.  But  when  it  is  noted  that  the  algum 
or  almug  tree  is  apparently  the  sandalwood, 
which  is  a  native  of  India,  and  is  not  be- 
lieved to  occur  either  in  Arabia  or  Africa,  and 
that  other  products  of  Ophir  brought  by  the 
seamen  had  also  Indian  names,  it  is  probable 
that  Ophir  was  in  India,  or  else  was  a  mart 
of  exchange  for  Indian  goods.  2.  Josephus 
says  that  it  was  the  Golden  Land  in  India 
(Antiq.  viii.  6,  4),  perhaps  on  the  river 
Cophen  (i.  6,  4) ;  and  hence  it  has  been  con- 
jecturally  located  at  Abhira,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Indus.  3.  Ophir  was  in  southern  or 
southeastern  Arabia.  This  opinion  is  prob- 
ably correct ;  for  the  majority  of  the  Jok- 
tanites,  perhaps  all  of  them,  settled  in  Arabia. 
Moreover,  Ophir  is  mentioned  between  Sheba 
and  Havilah. 

Oph'ni  [perhaps,  the  musty  or  the  Oph- 
nite].     The  Hebrew  uses  the  definite  article. 

A  village  of  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii.  21). 
Robins(m  suggests  its  identity  with  Gophna, 
on  the  highway  from  Samaria  to  Jerusalem, 
a  day's  march  north  of  Gibeah  (War  v.  2,  1)  ; 
the  modern  Jufna,  3  miles  northwest  by  north 
of  Bethel.  This  identification  assumes  that 
the  boundary  of  Benjamin  turned  northward 
near  Bethel,  for  Bethel  was  on  the  northern 
boundary. 

Oph'rah  [hind]. 

1.  A  son  of  Meiaothai,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah 
(1  Chron.  iv.  14). 

2.  A  town  of  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii.  23 ;  1 
Sam.  xiii.  17).  Robinson  dcnibtfully  identi- 
fied it  with  et-Taiyibeh,  on  a  conical  hill  4 
miles  northeast  by  east  of  Bethel,  with  a 
splendid  view  from  its  summit,  which  he  felt 
could  not  have  been  left  unoccupied  in  an- 
cient times.  His  opiuicm  has  been  widely 
accepted,  although  the  place  seems  far  north 
for  a  town  of  Benjamin. 

3.  A  village  west  of  the  Jordan,  occupied 
by  the  Abiczrites,  a  family  of  Manasseh 
(Judg.  vi.  11,  15;  cp.  Josh.  xvii.  1,  2).  It 
was  the  home  of  Gideon,  where  be  was  called 
to  his  mission  and  built  an  altar,  where  he 
made  an  ephod  to  the  ensnaring  of  Israel, 
and  where  he  was  buried  (Judg.  vi.-viii.). 
Conder,   pointing  out  that  according  to  the 


Orator 


531 


Ossifrage 


Samaritau  Chronicle,  Ophrah  was  the  aucient 
name  of  Fer'ata,  (5  niik's  west  by  south  of 
Shecheiii,  suggests  this  viHage  as  its  site. 
Fer'ata  is,  however,  commonly  regarded  as 
Pirathon  (q.  v.). 

Or'a-tor. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  LaJinsh,  an 
incantation,  preceded  by  n'bon,  skillful  in  en- 
chantment (Is.  iii.  3).  The  R.  V.  accurately 
translates  the  phrase  by  skillful  enchanter. 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Greek  Rhetor,  pub- 
lic speaker,  pleader,  in  Acts  xxiv.  1,  api>lied 
to  Tertullus.  He  was  a  i)rofessional  advo- 
cate engaged  by  Paul's  Jewish  enemies  to 
prosecute  the  apostle  before  the  Eomau  proc- 
urator. 

Or'chard.     See  Garden. 

O'rel)  [a  raven]. 

1.  One  of  two  Midianite  princes  defeated, 
captured,  and  put  to  death  by  Gideon.  He 
was  slain  at  a  rock,  which  came  to  be  called 
in  consequence  the  rock  of  Oreb  (Judg.  vii. 
25  ;  viii.  ;i  ;  Ps.  Ixxxiii.  11 :  Is.  x.  26). 

2.  A  rock  on  wiiich  the  Midianite  prince 
Oreb  was  killed  by  Gideon  (Judg.  vii.  25 ; 
Is.  X.  26).  Exact  situation  unknown  ;  but 
doubtless  it  was  west  of  the  Jordan  near  the 
river  (Judg.  vii.  25  ;  viii.  4). 

O'ren  [a  species  of  pine  tree]. 
A  man  of  Judah,  house  of  Jerahmeel  (1 
Chron.  ii.  25). 

Or'gan.     See  Pipe. 

0-ri'on. 

A  constellation  (Job  ix.  9 ;  xxxviii.  31  ; 
Amos  V.  8),  in  Hebrew  K'sil,  a  man  without 
understanding,  an  irreligious  person,  a  fool. 
The  ancient  versions  unite  in  this  identifica- 
tion. The  Targums  and  the  Syriac  version 
render  the  word  by  giant,  and  the  Septuagint 
and  Vulgate  employ  the  name  Orion.  In  the 
classic  mythology  Orion  is  represented  as  a 
man  of  great  strength,  celebrated  as  a  worker 
in  iron  and  as  a  hunter.  Being  killed  by  the 
goddess  Diana,  he  was  transferred  to  the 
heavens  and  bound  to  the  sky  (cp.  Job 
xxxviii.  31),  and  became  the  constellation 
Orion. 

The  constellation  is  visible  in  all  latitudes. 
It  disputes  with  the  Great  Bear  the  dis- 
tinction of  lieing  the  finest  constellation  of 
the  sky.  Two  of  its  stars — Betelgeuse  at 
the  upper  part  of  his  right  arm  as  he  faces 
the  spectator,  and  Eigel  at  his  uplifted  left 
foot — are  of  the  first  magnitude.  About  100 
stars  in  the  constellation  are  visible  to  the 
naked  eye,  and  2000  or  more  may  be  seen 
under  the  telescope. 

Or'na-ments. 

Orientals  adorn  themselves  with  orna- 
ments to  an  extent  deemed  excessive  by 
occidental  taste.  It  has  ever  been  so.  He- 
brews, Egyptians,  Jlidianites.  Syrians,  both 
men  and  women,  were  fond  of  wearing  orna- 
ments (Gen.  xxiv.  22 ;  Ex.  iii.  22 ;  xi.  2  ;  xxxii. 


2;  Num.  xxxi.  50).  Women  wore  beads  and 
Iiearls,  and  articles  of  gold,  silver  and  hni.ss 
(Song  i.  10,  11  ;  1  Tim.  ii.  9)  ;  earrings,  nose 
rings,  pendants,  necklaces,  chains,  brazen 
mirrors,  armlets,  bracelets,  finger  rings, 
anklets  (Gen.  xxiv.  22,  47;  xxxv.  4;  Ex. 
XXXV.  22;  Num.  xxxi.  .50;  Is.  iii.  18-23). 
Men  of  all  classes  except  the  poorest  wore 
.seal  rings  (Gen.  xxxviii.  18),  which  were 
useful  in  business  as  well  as  ornamental. 
Nor  did  they  regard  rings  for  the  aims  as 
efi'eminate.  Saul,  like  the  kings  of  Assyria, 
wore  a  ring  about  the  arm  or  wrist  (2  Sam. 
i.  10).  It  was  a  national  custom  with  the 
Lshmaelites  for  the  men  to  wear  earrings 
(Judg.  viii.  25,  26),  and  men  among  tlie  He- 
brews sometimes  did  so  (Ex.  xxxii.  2).  Men 
of  high  rank  wore  a  gold  chain  as  badge  of 
otBce  (Gen.  xli.  42  ;  Dan.  v.  29). 

Ornaments  were  laid  aside  in  time  of 
mourning  (Ex.  xxxiii.  4-6). 

Or'nan  [perhaps,  piny].     See  Akaunaii. 

Or'pah  [neck,  mane]. 

The  wife  of  Mahlon,  and  the  sister-in-law 
of  Ruth.  She  consented  to  remain  in  her 
native  country,  Moab,  when  Ruth,  drawn  by 
affection  to  her  mother-in-law,  Naomi,  in- 
sisted on  accompanying  her  to  Palestine 
(Ruth  i.  4,   14,  1.5). 

Or-tho-si'a,  in  A.  V.  Ortbosias. 

A  city  on  the  coast  of  Pha>nicia.  between 
Tripoli  and  the  river  Eleutherus  (1  Mac.  xv. 
.37;  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  v.  17). 

Os-nap'per.     See  Asnappkr. 

Os'pray,  oh.solete  form  of  Osprey. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  'Osniyyah 
(Lev.  xi.  13;  Dent.  xiv.  12),  an  unclean  bird. 
It  is  either  a  species  of  eagle  or  more  vaguely 
the  eagle  genus.  The  Septuagint  translates 
it  'aiinietos,  that  is,  Pandion  halin'etus.  It 
is  a  dark  brown  eagle  widely  distributed 
throughout  the  world,  frecjuenting  seacoasts, 
and  living  on  fish.  In  Palestine  it  occurs 
along  the  Mediterranean,  especially  in  the 
lagoons  at  the  mouth  of  the  Kishon. 

Os'si-frage  [hone  breaker]. 

The  rendering  in  A.  V.  of  the  Hebrew 
Peres,  breaker.  It  was  an  unclean  bird  (Lev. 
xi.  13;  and  Deut.  xiv.  12).  The  R.  V.  trans- 
lates it  gier  eagle.  It  is  believed  to  be  the 
lammergeycr,  or  bearded  eagle  ((rypaetiis  bar- 
batiis).  The  English  name  ossifrage  and  the 
Hebrew  jieres  both  refer  to  the  fact  that 
the  bird  delights  in  bones,  snakes,  and  tor- 
toises, which  it  breaks.  This  it  sometimes 
docs  by  taking  them  up  to  a  great  heiglit  in 
the  air  and  dropping  them  on  a  stone.  The 
ossifrage  is  3^-  feet  high  ;  the  expansion  of 
its  wings  is  about  9  feet.  Its  claws  are  not 
adapted  for  carrying  off  living  prey,  and  its 
disposition  is  cowardly.  In  Palestine  the 
ossifrage  is  rare  and  tending  to  extinction, 
its  chief  haunts  being  the  ravines  of  the 
Arnon,  east  of  the  Dead  Sea. 


Ostrich 


532 


Owl 


Os'tricli. 

1.  Tlie   rendering  of  the  Hebrew   Ya'en, 
feminine     Va"'nah,   probably    the   voracious 


Ostrich. 


bird.  It  was  ceremonially  unclean  (Lev.  xi. 
l(i;  Deut.  xiv.  15),  makes  a  mournful  sound 
(Mic.  i.  8),  inhabits  the  wilderness  (Is.  xiii. 
21 ;  xxxiv.  13),  and  was  believed  to  forsake 
its  eggs  (Lara.  iv.  3).  The  A.  V.  translates 
the  masculine  form  by  ostrich,  the  feminine 
form  by  owl. 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Rannn, 
utterer  of  tremulous  sounds  (Job  xxxix.  13, 
in  A.  V.  ])eacock).  The  female  deposits  her 
eggs  on  the  ground  to  be  warmed  in  the  dust ; 
and  it  was  commonly  supposed  that  she 
abandoned  them  to  their  fate,  forgetting 
that  the  foot  might  crush  them  or  that  the 
wild  beast  might  trample  them  (14,  15).  The 
speed  of  the  ostrich  is  such  that  it  distances 
a  man  on  liorseback  (18). 

3.  The  A.  V.  inaccurately  renders  Nosah 
by  ostrich  in  Job  xxxix.  13.  It  means  a 
feather,  as  in  Ezek.  xvii.  3,  7. 

The  ostrich  {Stnithio  camelns)  belongs  to 
the  aberrant  subclass  or  division  called 
Ratitse,  or  struthious  birds.  They  are  among 
the  largest  in  size  of  the  class,  but  are  not 
able  to  fly,  the  deprivation  being  compen- 
sated by  great  power  of  running.  The  com- 
mon ostrich  is  6  or  8  feet  high.  The  ostrich 
feathers  which  are  used  for  ladies'  hats  are 
the  quill  feathers  of  the  wings  and  tail. 
Tlie  bird  jirepares  a  nest  by  rolling  in  the 
sand  and  scooping  out  a  hole  about  6  feet  in 


diameter.  An  egg  is  laid  every  other  day, 
until  the  eggs  numl)er  ten,  twelve,  or  more. 
Each  egg  is  about  three  pounds  in  weight. 
They  appear  to  be  hatched  partly  by  the  heat 
of  the  sun,  but  mainly  by  incu))ation,  the 
male  bird  sitting  on  them  for  about  twenty 
hours  to  the  hen's  four.  The  male  takes 
charge  of  the  young  brood.  At  night  the  bird 
utters  a  hoarse,  complaining  cry,  alluded  to 
in  Mic.  i.  8.  The  ostrich  is  diffused  over  the 
greater  part  of  Africa.  It  still  occurs  in 
Arabia,  but  its  area  there  seems  to  have  been 
diminished  since  O.  T.  times. 

Oth'ni  [probably,  lion  of  (God)]. 
A  porter,  the  son  of  Shemaiah  (1  Chron. 
xxvi.  7). 

Otli'ni-el  [lion  of  God,  powerful  one  of 
God] . 

A  son  of  Kenaz  and  brother  or  half  brother 
of  Caleb,  son  of  Jephunneh  the  Kenizzite 
(Josh.  XV.  17;  1  Chron.  iv.  13);  see  Caleb. 
Caleb  promised  to  give  his  daughter  Achsah 
in  marriage  to  any  hero  who  took  the  town 
of  Debir  or  Kii-jath-sepher.  Othniel  eflected 
its  capture  and  received  Achsah  (Josh.  xv. 
15-17  ;  Judg.  i.  11-13).  He  subsequently  de- 
livered the  Israelites  from  the  tyranny  of 
Cushan-rishathaim,  king  of  Mesopotamia,  and 
became  judge,  and  the  laud  had  rest  forty 
years  (iii.  8-11). 

Ov'en.     See  Bkead. 

Owl. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Bath 
hai/ya"'nah  (Lev.  xi.  16,  A.  V.).   See  Ostrich  1. 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Kos,  a 
cup,  an  owl.  It  was  ceremonially  unclean 
(Lev.  xi.  17;  Deut.  xiv.  16,  little  owl),  and 
frequented  waste  places  (Ps.  cii.  6).  Prob- 
ably the  southern  little  owl  (Aihene  glaiiz)  is 
intended,  which  is  universally  distributed 
through  Palestine,  occurring.in  olive  yards, 
rocks,  thickets,  and  among  ruins  and  tombs. 

3.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Yanshuph. 
It  was  ceremonially  unclean  (Lev.  xi.  17; 
Deut.  xiv.  16,  great  owl)  and  frequented 
waste  places  (Is.  xxxiv.  11 ;  R.  V.  margin, 
bittern).  It  is  rendered  il>is  in  the  Septua- 
gint  and  Vulgate,  and  owl  in  the  Targums 
and  the  Syriac  version.  Tristram  believes 
that  the  species  was  the  Egyptian  eagle  owl 
{Bubo  ascalaphufi).  It  lives  in  caves  and 
among  ruins,  and  is  common  about  Petra 
and  Beer-sheba. 

4.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Tiuslienieih 
(Lev.  xi.  18  ;  in  A.  V.  swan).  The  Septuagint 
renders  it  heron,  and  the  Vulgate  swan. 

5.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Lilith, 
nocturnal  specter  (is.  xxxiv.  14;  in  A.  V. 
screech  owl,  in  R.  V.  night  monster).  The 
screech  or  barn  owl  {f^trix  flammca)  is  found 
in  Palestine  frequenting  ruins. 

6.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Kippos 
(Is.  xxxiv.  15;  in  R.  V.  arrow  snake).  The 
corresponding  word  in  Arabic,  Mffdza,  de- 
notes the  arrow  snake. 


Ox 


533 


Paint 


Little  Owl  of  Palestine. 


Ox. 


The  male  of  the  species  Bos  tni(rus,  though 
ox  frequently  siguilies  any  animal  of  the 
kind,  without  respect  to  sex  (Ex.  xx.  17), 
and  the  plural  oxen  is  often  synonymous 
with  cattle  (Gen.  xii.  16).  The  ox  was  early 
domesticated.  Abraham  had  sheep  and  oxen 
(Gen.  xii.  KJ;  xxi.  27) ;  so  had  his  contempo- 
rary Abimelech  (xx.  14),  and  the  Egyptians  at 
the  time  of  the  ten  plagues  (Ex.  ix.  3).  The 
ox  was  used  for  plowing  (1  Kin.  xix.  19), 
for  dragging  carts  or  wagons  (Num.  vii.  3  ; 


Egyptian  Oxen  treading  out  Grain. 

2  Sam.  vi.  6,  etc.),  aud  for  treading  out  grain 
(Deut.  XXV.  4).  They  were  eaten  (1  Kin.  i. 
25 ;  cp.  Mat.  xxii.  4).  and  were  largely  sacri- 
ficed, especially  in  connection  with  the  burnt 
offerings  (Num.  vii.  87,  88  ;  2  Sam.  xxiv.  22; 
2  Chron.  v.  6  ;  vii.  5,  etc.).  A  yoke  of  oxen 
was  two  oxen  designed  to  be  yoked  together 
for  the  plow,  for  a  cart,  or  for  anything  simi- 


lar. Tristram  says  that  the  common 
cattle  of  southern  and  central  Pales- 
tine are  small  in  size,  those  of  north- 
ern Palestine  are  larger.  The  largest 
herds  are  now  beyond  the  Jordan. 

The  word  t'o,  rendered  wild  ox 
(Deut.  xiv.  5,  A.  V.)  and  wild  bull 
(Is.  li.  20,  A.  v.),  is  translated  in  K. 
V.  by  antelope  (q.  v.).  See  Unicorn. 

Ox'goad.     Sec  Goad. 

O'zem. 

1.  A  son  of  Jesse  (1  Chron.  ii.  1.'')). 

2.  A  son  of  Jerahmeel  (1  Chron. 
ii.  25). 

0-zi'as.    See  Uzziah. 

Oz'ni  [eared,  attentive]. 

A  son  of  Gad,  and  founder  of  a 
tribal  family  (Num.  xxvi.  l(j).  He 
was  either  called  also  Ezbon  ((ien. 
xlvi.  16),  or  else  on  Ezbon's  death  ho 
took  his  place  and  founded  a  tribal 
family,  as  did  Hezron  and  Hamul  in 
Judah  (Num.  xxvi.  19-21). 


Pa'a-rai. 

One  of  David's  mighty  men  (2  Sam.  xxiii. 
35,  most  probably  a  diverse  reading  of  1  Chron. 
xi.  37). 

Fad'dan  and  Pad-dan-a'ram,  in  A.  V. 
Fa'dan  and  Pa-dan-a'ram  [plain,  jjlain  of 
Aram,  i.  e.,  Syria]  ;  see  Aeam  2  (1). 

Pa'don  [freedom,  redemption]. 

Founder  of  a  family  of  Nethinim,  mem- 
bers of  which  returned  from  captivity  (Ezra 
ii.  44;  Neh.  vii.  47). 

Pa'gi-el  [a  meeting  with  God]. 

Head  of  the  tribe  of  Asher  in  the  wilder- 
ness (Num.  i.  13;  ii.  27;  vii.  72,  77;  x.  26). 

Pa-hath-mo'ab  [governor  of  Moab] . 

Founder  of  a  family,  members  of  which 
returned  from  the  Babylonian  captivity 
(Ezra  ii.  6;  viii.  4 ;  Neh.  vii.  11).  Some  of 
them  married  heathen  wives,  from  whom 
Ezra  persuaded  them  to  separate  (Ezra  x.  30). 
The  representative  of  the  family  signed  the 
covenant  (Neh.  x.  14),  and  Hashub,  a  mem- 
ber of  the  family,  rebuilt  or  replaced  part  of 
the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (iii.  11). 

Pa'i.    See  Pau. 

Paint. 

In  ancient  Egypt  and  Assyria  the  custom 
of  painting  a  black  rim  around  the  eyes  pre- 
vailed among  the  women.  The  Hebrews 
seem  to  have  regarded  the  practice  as  a  mere- 
tricious art,  unworthy  of  a  woman  of  higli 
character  (2  Kin.  ix.  .30;  Jer.  iv.  30;  Ezck. 
xxiii.  40;  War  iv.  9,  10).  The  eyeball  under 
the  lids  and  the  edge  of  the  lids,  and  some- 
times the  eyebrows,  were  blackened.    Doubt- 


Palace 


534 


Palestine 


less  various  dye  stuffs  were  used  for  the 
purpose.  Antimony,  burnt  to  blackness  and 
pulverized,  was  employed  (Septuagint). 
Probably  lead  also  was  used,  as  it  is  in  Per- 
sia. The  ordinary  kohl,  which  is  used  by 
women  in  Egypt  at  the  present  day,  is  a  pow- 
der obtained  from  almo!id  shells  or  by  burn- 
ing a  fragrant  resin.  The  powder  was  kept 
in  small,  covered  jars  ;  and  was  applied,  both 
dry  and  moistened  with  oil,  by  means  of  a 
prolie  made  of  wood,  silver,  or  ivory,  and 
blunt  at  the  end. 

For  cosmetics  applied  to  other  parts  of  the 
body,  see  Henna  ;  and  for  pigments  used  to 
color  walls  and  other  objects,  see  Colors. 

Pal'ace. 

David  occupied  a  royal  residence  at  Jeru- 
salem (2  Sam.  V.  9  ;  vii.  1,  2),  but  Solomon's 
commodious  and  magnificent  abode  was  the 
first  in  Jerusalem  to  be  constructed  on  a 
grand  scale  (1  Kin.  vii.  1-12).  It  was  thir- 
teen years  in  counse  of  erection,  whereas  the 
temple  was  completed  in  seven  years  (vi.  38  ; 
vii.  1).  It  contained  the  house  of  the  forest 
of  Lebanon  (2-5),  which  took  its  name  from 
its  numerous  cedar  pillars.  This  house  was 
100  cubits  or  150  feet  long,  50  cubits  wide, 
and  30  cubits  high.  Its  walls  were  of  solid 
masonry.  Within  were  four  rows  of  cedar 
pillars.  Probably  one  row  ran  parallel  with 
each  wall,  and  the  four  rows  formed  the  four 
sides  of  a  rectangular  court,  about  30  by  80 
cubits  in  dimension  :  or  else  the  pillars  were 
disposed  in  two  double  rows  parallel  to  the  long 
sides  of  the  building  and  left  a  court  in  the 
center.  Beams  extended  from  the  pillars  to 
the  walls  and  supported  three  tiers  of  cham- 
bers. These  chambers  looked  down  into  the 
court.  This  building  was  at  once  armory 
and  treasure  house  (x.  17,  21 ;  Is.  xxii.  8), 
and  may  have  served  other  purposes  as  well. 
A  hall  of  pillars  was  the  reception  and  wait- 
ing room  of  the  palace  (1  Kin.  vii.  6).  It  was 
50  cubits  in  length  and  30  cubits  in  breadth, 
and  had  a  portico  in  front  of  its  portal.  This 
portico  was  not  unlikely  the  main  entrance  to 
the  palace.  Next  came  the  hall  of  judgment 
(ver.  7),  open  in  front,  but  probably  clo.sed  on 
the  other  three  sides  by  solid  walls  pierced  by 
doors  only.  It  was  the  throne  room.  The 
great  ivory  throne  overlaid  with  gold  stood 
there  (x.  18-20).  These  three  buildings  prob- 
ably opened  on  a  rectangular  court,  the  sides 
of  which  were  the  portal  in  the  central  part 
of  the  inner  long  wall  of  the  house  of  the 
forest  of  Lebanon,*  the  inner  doors  and  wall 
of  the  hall  of  pillars,  and  the  open  front  of 
the  throne  room.  Behind  the  throne  room 
was  the  inner  court  where  the  king  dwelt. 
The  principal  entrance  to  it  was  probably 
through  the  throne  room,  so  that  the  king  pro- 
nounced judgment  and  granted  audiences  in 
the  gate  of  his  palace.  This  court  was,  of 
course,  adorned  with  flowers  and  fountains, 
and  surrounded  by  cloisters.  The  palace  of 
Pharaoh's  daughter  (vii.  8)  was  next  to  the 


throne  room,  according  to  Josephus  (Antiq. 
viii.  5,  2).  Solomon's  palace  was  constructed 
on  the  general  model  which  prevailed  in 
western  Asia,  and  which  is  now  familiar  from 
the  remains  of  the  royal  abodes  unearthed 
in  Assyria,  Babylonia,  and  Persia.  Some 
conception  of  its  elegance  and  beauty  may 
be  formed  from  casual  references  in  the  Book 
of  Esther  to  the  palace  of  the  Persian  king 
at  Shushan  (Esth.  i.  5,  6,  9  ;  ii.  3,  14  ;  v.  1,  2 ; 
vii.  7).  See  House;  Asmon^ans,  Palace 
OF  the;  Herod's  Palace;   and  Pr.etor- 

lUM. 

Pa'lal  [a  judge,  or  he  hath  judged]. 

A  son  of  Uzai.  He  helped  to  rebuild  the 
wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  25). 

Pal-an-quin'. 

A  covered  conveyance,  arranged  both  for 
sitting  and  reclining,  and  carried  by  means 
of  poles  on  the  shoulders  of  two,  four,  or  six 
men  or  borne  as  a  litter  between  two  camels, 
horses,  or  mules.  The  royal  palanquin,  pro- 
vided by  Solomon  for  his  bride,  consisted  of 
a  frame  made  of  cedar,  with  small  orna- 
mental pillars  of  silver,  a  bottom  of  gold, 
costly  coverings  of  purple  for  the  seat,  and 
perhaps  embroideries  lovingly  made  by  the 
daughters  of  Jerusalem  (Song  iii.  9,  in  A.  V. 
chariot ;  by  Ewald  and  Delitzsch  rendered 
bed  of  state). 

Pal'es-tine  (Joel  iii.  4)  and  Pal-es-ti'na 
(Ex.  XV.  14  ;  Is.  xiv.  29,  31),  in  R.  V.  always 
Philistia. 

In  the  O.  T.  the  name  denotes  the  country 
of  the  Philistines  (cp.  Herod,  vii.  89).  The 
name  now  designates  a  country  in  the  south- 
west corner  of  Asia,  constituting  the  southern 
portion  of  Syria,  and  which  for  along  time  was 
in  the  possession  of  the  Hebrews.  That  portion 
of  this  territory  which  lies  west  of  the  Jor- 
dan the  ancient  Hebrews  called  Canaan  as 
distinguished  from  the  land  of  Gilead  on  the 
east  of  the  river.  After  the  conquest  the  en- 
tire country  became  known  as  the  laud  of 
Israel  (1  Sam.  xiii.  19  ;  1  Chron.  xxii.  2 ;  Mat. 
ii.  20),  but  after  the  division  of  the  kingdom 
this  name  was  often  given  to  the  northern 
realm.  In  the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews  (xi.  9) 
it  is  called  the  land  of  promise.  Soon  after 
the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era  Greek  and 
Latin  writers  denominate  it  Palie.stina.  lu 
the  Middle  Ages  it  became  known  as  the 
Holy  Land  (cp.  Zech.  ii.  12 ;  2  Mac.  i.  7). 

1.  Boundnries  and  Exfenf  of  Palesfive.  The 
Hebrews  occupied  the  region  from  Kadesh- 
barnea  and  the  wady  el-'Arish  on  the  south 
to  mount  Hermon  on  the  north,  and  from 
the  Mediterranean  Sea  on  the  west  to  the 
desert  on  the  east,  except  the  plain  of  the  Phi- 
li.stines  and  the  country  of  Moab.  In  pros- 
perous reigns  powerful  kings  extended  their 
sway  beyond  these  limits  and  held  dominion 
over  Hamath  and  Damascus  and  beyond,  as 
far  as  the  river  Euphrates,  and  over  Ammon, 
Moab,  and  Edom.  The  Hebrews  themselves 
were  accustomed  to  say  that  their  country 


Palestine 


535 


Palestine 


extended  from  Dan  to  Beer-sheba,  a  distance 
of  150  miles.  The  southern  boundary  was 
then  the  wady  el-Fikreh  and  the  river  Amon. 
These  limits  included  the  thickly  populated 
portion  of  the  land.  Taking  the  smaller 
limits,  which  exclude  most  of  the  territory 
occupied  by  the  tribe  of  Simeon  and  part  of 
that  occupied  by  Naphtali.  the  boundaries 
form  a  parallelogram,  the  altitude  of  which, 
measured  by  the  latitudes  of  Dan  and  the 
southern  extremity  of  the  Dead  Sea.  is  145 
miles,  and  the  base  TO  miles.  The  area  is 
10.150  square  miles.  This  includes  the  Phi- 
listine country,  which,  at  its  utmost  extent 
from  Carmel  to  Beer-sheba,  had  an  area  of 
1765  square  miles,  leaving  83S5  square  miles 
as  the  territory  occupied  by  the  Hebrews. 
The  survey  as.signs  to  eastern  Palestine,  from 
Hermon  to  the  Arnon.  about  3800  square 
miles  ;  and  to  western  Palestine,  as  far  south 
as  Beer-sheba  and  including  Philistia,  6040 
square  miles. 

2.  Popiilaiion  of  PnJentine.  The  Hebrews 
at  the  time  of  the  conquest  numbered  600,- 
000  males  above  twenty  years  of  age.  which 
represents  a  total  population  of  2,160,000. 
They  were  distributed  over  something  more 
than  8300  square  miles.  Massachusetts,  with 
an  area  of  8315  square  miles,  had  a  popula- 
tion of  2,238,943  in  1890,  and  New  Jersey, 
with  an  area  of  7815  square  miles,  had  a 
population  of  1,444,933.  David  took  the 
census  of  a  much  larger  region.  The  present 
population  is  estimated  at  600.000.  That  it 
was  formerly  much  larger  is  evident  from  the 
statements  of  the  Bible  and  Josephus.  and 
from  the  numerous  ruins  of  former  towns. 
Scarcely  a  hilltop  of  the  multitude  always 
in  sight  but  is  crowned  with  a  city  or  village, 
inhabited  or  in  ruins. 

'■'.  The  Geology  of  Palestine.  A  band  of 
Nubian  or  Petra  sandstone  extends  along  the 
eastern  coast  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  along  part 
of  the  wall  of  rock  flanking  the  Jordan  val- 
ley on  the  east,  and  appears  on  the  western 
slopes  of  Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon.  It  is 
generally  of  a  dark  red  or  blackish  color. 
Above  this  lies  the  most  important  geological 
formation  in  Palestine,  the  cretaceous  lime- 
stone which  constitutes  the  main  part  of  the 
table-land  of  the  country  both  east  and  west 
of  the  Jordan.  At  Jerusalem  there  are  two 
beds  of  the  limestone,  an  upper  or  harder 
layer,  called  by  the  inhabitants  misseh.  and 
an  inferior  soft  one.  denominated  melekeh. 
The  reservoirs,  sepulchers.  and  cellars  under 
and  around  the  city  have  been  excavated  in 
the  soft  melekeh.  while  the  foundations  of 
the  buildings  are  on  the  hard  misseh.  The 
large  quarries  near  the  Damascus  gate  are  in 
the  melekeh.  From  them  came  the  stone  of 
which  the  temple  walls  were  constructed. 
These  beds  of  cretaceous  limestone  underlie 
a  newer  series  which,  commencing  at  mount 
Carmel.  runs  nearly  south  to  Beer-sheba.  from 
which  it  then  curves  in  a  southwesterly 
direction  parallel  to  the  Mediterranean.   Out- 


liers of  it  exist  also  northeast,  east,  and 
southwest  of  Jerusalem  and  around  Shechem. 
P>om  the  abundance  in  them  of  the  little 
foraminifeia  called  nummulites,  the  beds  are 
named  the  nummulitic  limestone.  They  be- 
long to  the  Eocene  Tertiary,  and  probably  to 
the  Middle  Eocene.  This  rock  is  so  connected 
with  the  cretaceous  limestone  that  the  two 
are  generally  held  to  constitute  but  a  single 
formation,  called  the  cretaceo-nummulitic 
series.  Flanking  the  nummulitic  limestone 
on  the  west  a  long  continuous  band  of  cal- 
careous sandstone  extends  throtigh  the  Phi- 
listine country  and  appears  in  scattered 
patches  farther  north,  to  near  mount  Car- 
mel. As  a  rule,  it  is  porous  and  soft,  and  as 
it  easily  weathers  away,  it  exposes  the  harder 
limestone  of  the  table-land  which  dips  be- 
neath it,  and  makes  the  descent  from  the 
uplands  to  the  lowlands  of  Judaea  and 
Samaria  more  abrupt  than  it  otherwi.se 
would  be.  Between  this  sandstone  and  the 
Mediterranean  lie  raised  beaches  belonging 
to  the  upper  Pliocene,  or  to  recent  times. 
All  these  are  sedimentary  beds.  A  few 
igneous  rocks,  however,  exist  in  the  land. 
A  minute  patch  of  very  old  igneous  rocks, 
an  outlier  of  the  great  mass  of  granite, 
porphyrj-,  diorite,  and  felsite,  which  occurs 
farther  south  in  the  Arabah  and  especially 
at  Sinai,  is  combined  with  the  carboniferous 
rocks.  On  the  eastern  side  of  the  Jordan, 
nearly  all  the  way  from  the  roots  of  mount 
Hermon  to  south  of  the  sea  of  Galilee,  and 
east  and  southeast  to  the  Hauran,  beyond 
the  limits  of  Palestine,  the  country  is  over- 
spread by  an  immense  mass  of  volcanic 
material,  basalt,  dolerite,  felsite,  none  of  it 
older,  and  some  of  it  apparently  more  re- 
cent, than  the  Pliocene  Tertiary.  There  are 
detached  portions  of  the  same  volcanic  rocks 
in  western  Palestine,  west  and  northwest  of 
the  sea  of  Galilee,  with  fragments  in  other 
quarters.  Along  the  Mediterranean  coast  of 
Palestine,  wherever  the  ground  is  low  and 
level,  there  is  a  row  of  sand  dunes,  some 
rising  200  feet  in  height.  Those  on  the 
southwest  of  the  country  may  have  been  at 
least  partly  formed  by  the  blowing  of  sand 
from  the  Egyptian  and  Sinaitic  deserts.  Those 
farther  north  obtained  the  sand  from  the 
weathering  of  the  calcareous  sandstone  of 
Philistia.  They  tend  to  encroach  upon  the 
cultivated  parts  adjacent,  the  wind  continu- 
ally blowing  particles  from  them  inland. 
Palestine  lies  in  one  of  the  lines  in  which 
earthquake  action  is  potent ;  and  both  in 
ancient  times  and  more  recently  jiortions  of 
the  country  have  been  seriously  convulsed. 
To  recapitulate,  the  geological  structure  of 
Palestine  con.sists  of  a  layer  of  red  sandstone 
over  the  primitive  rocks;  then  comes  the 
chalky  limestone  which  forms  the  mass  of 
the  country,  overlaid  with  nunimulite  lime- 
stone and  alluvial  soil;  and  lastly  in  the 
northeast  appear  colossal  erupted  masses  of 
volcanic  rock. 


Palestine 


536 


Palestine 


4.  The  Physical  Geography  of  Palestine. 
The  physical  divisions  of  I'alestine  are  five  : 
the  maritime  plain,  the  low  country  or 
Shephelah,  the  central  mountain  range,  the 
Jordan  valley,  and  the  eastern  table-land. 
These  form  parallel  zones,  and  with  certain 
modifications  extend  through  the  entire 
length  of  the  country  from  north  to  south. 
They  are  broken  only  by  the  plain  of 
Esdraelon,  which  lies  athwart  the  mountain 
range  and  connects  the  seacoast  with  the 
Jordan  valley.  1.  The  maritime  plain  lies 
along  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea  for 
the  entire  length  of  the  country,  being 
broken  only  by  mount  Carmel.  North  of 
Carmel  it  is  quite  narrow,  but  south  of  that 
mountain  it  is  6  miles  wide  and  increases  in 
width  southward.  It  is  an  undulating  plain 
100  to  200  feet  above  sea  level,  and  very 
fertile.  Between  Carmel  and  the  'Aujah, 
•which  empties  into  the  sea  north  of  Joppa, 
it  was  called  Sharon,  south  of  Joppa  it  was 
occupied  by  the  Philistines.  2.  The  low 
country  or  Shephelah  is  a  region  of  low  hills 
situated  between  the  maritime  plain  south 
of  Carmel  and  the  high  central  range.  It 
forms  a  terrace  with  an  elevation  of  about 
500  feet  above  the  sea  level.  The  name  is 
applied  almost  exclusively  to  that  part  of  the 
low  hilly  country  which  extends  from  the 
latitude  of  Joppa  southward  to  Bcer-sheba, 
and  which  is  sharply  separated  from  the 
central  range  by  a  series  of  valleys  running 
north  and  south.  3.  The  central  mountain 
range  is  a  continuation  of  the  Lebanon 
mountains.  South  of  the  river  Leontes  the 
lofty  ridge  drops  to  a  high  plateau  which 
reaches  southward  as  far  as  the  northern  end 
of  the  sea  of  Galilee  and  Acre.  This  is 
Upper  Galilee.  It  contains  a  number  of  hills 
between  2000  and  3000  feet  in  elevation ; 
while  several  rise  considerably  above  that 
height,  like  Jebel  Jermuk  which  is  3934  feet. 
Lower  Galilee  is  triangular,  having  the  sea 


of  the  sea  of  Galilee.    Southwest  of  the  sea  is 
mount  Tabor,  1843  feet  high;  and  farther  south 


Mount  f/ermon^ 


■VA'M'f.z^L 


mount  Gilboa,  with  one  peak  1698  feet  and 
another  1648  feet.  The  southern  part  of 
Lower  Galilee  descends  into  the  plain  of 
Esdraelon,  most  of  the  places  in  which  do  not 
exceed  200  or  300  feet  in  height.  South  of  the 
plain  of  Esdraelon  the  ranjge  is  broken  by 
many  wadies,  mountains  are  scattered  into 
groups,  and  its  inner  recesses  are  accessible 
from  the  maritime  plain,  Esdraelon,  and  the 
Jordan  valley.  Carmel  is  thrust  out  as  a 
spur  toM-ard  the  northwest.  The  average 
watershed  is  2000  feet  high.  But  mount  Ebal 
rises  3077  feet  and  its  coimpanion  Gerizim 
2849.  This  was  Samaria.  From  Bethel  to 
Hebron  and  almost  to  Beer-sheba,  a  distance 
of  about  45  miles,  the  range  forms  one  c<)m- 
pact  mass  with  precipitous  sides  on  the  east 
and  west  and  with  an  average  height  of  2200 
feet.  Bethel,  however,  has  an  elevation  of 
2930  feet  above  sea  level,  the  highest  part  of 
Jerusalem  2598,  Bethlehem  2550,  and  Hebron 
3040.  About  15  miles  south  of  Hebron  it 
slopes  down  to  the  desert  of  the  wandering. 
The  summit  of  the  range  is  the  narrow 
table-land  which  was  occupied  by  the  tribes 
of  Benjamin  and  Judah.  4.  The  Jordan 
valley  is  a  remarkable  chasm  which  begins 

// 


Sca.te   of  Miles 


Cross  Sections  of  Palestine  on  the  Parallels  of  Hebron,  Jerusalem,  and  Shiloh. 


of  Galilee  and  the  Jordan  as  far  as  Beth- 
shean  on  its  eastern  side  and  the  plain  of 
Esdraelon  on  the  southwestern  side.  It  con- 
sists of  a  series  of  low  ridges  running  east 
and  west.  Its  elevation  is  considerably  less 
than  that  of  Upper  Galilee,  many  of  its  hills 
being  only  400,  500,  or  600  feet  high,  though 
there  are  a  few  loftier  peaks  immediately  west 


at  the  foot  of  mount  Hermon,  1700  feet 
above  sea  level,  but  with  lofty  mountains  on 
each  side,  and  grows  rapidly  deeper  as  it  goes 
southward  until  at  the  surface  of  the  Dead 
Sea  it  is  1290  feet  lower  than  sea  level ;  see 
Dead  Sea  and  Jordan.  Though  not  an 
impassable  barrier,  it  prevented  free  inter- 
course between  the  peoples  who  dwelt  east 


PALESTIXE 

ill    1 1  It-- 

Time  of  Christ. 

SCALE  OF  MILES. 


S^owing  Elevations  aud  Depressions. 

[~I  Below  Sea  Level  Aelizit 


I       ^  I  Sea  Level  to  300  ft.  alwve 
I         [500  ft.  to  1.000  fi.  a 
I         I  1,000  ft.  to  2.000  ft 


k 


Palestine 


537 


Palestine 


of  it  south  of  the  Jabhok  as  far  as  Edom, 
aud  the  tribes  of  Judah  and  Kenjaniiu  on 
the  west.  .").  The  eastern  table-land  is  a 
great  fertile  jilaiu,  much  of  it  more  than 
3000  feet  in  elevation,  stretching  from  the 
blutfs  which  overlook  the  Jordan  valley  to 
the  Syrian  desert.  It  is  cut  in  twain  by  the 
gorge  of  the  Jabbok  aud  the  uorthern  por- 
tion is  further  cleft  by  the  Yarmuk,  imme- 
diately south  of  the  sea  of  Galilee. 

5.  The  Principal  Roads  of  Palestine.  The 
physical  structure  determined  the  course  of 
travel.  The  great  commercial  and  military 
highway  between  Egypt  and  the  empires  of 
the  east  passed  through  Palestine.  It  crossed 
the  wady  el-"Arish  near  its  mouth,  followed 
the  seacoast  to  Gaza,  where  it  was  met  by  a 
road  from  Elath  and  Arabia,  and  continued 
through  the  phiin  of  the  Philistines  to  Ash- 
dod.  Beyond  Ashdod  it  forked.  One  branch 
followed  the  coast  by  Joppa  and  Dor,  and 
avoided  mount  Carmel  by  keeping  to  the  sea- 
shore at  the  base  of  the  headland  ;  but  the 
way  is  only  600  feet  wide  under  the  head- 
land, and  is  broken  by  rocks.  The  other 
branch,  and  the  maiu  line  of  travel,  continued 
from  Ashdod  through  Ekron  and  Lod  and 
crossed  the  mountains  to  the  plain  of  Esdra- 
elon  by  one  of  three  passes.  The  western 
road  emerged  by  Tell  Keimun  and  led  to 
Acre,  Tyre,  Sidon.  and  the  north.  The  cen- 
tral road  crossed  to  el-Lejjun  (Megiddo), 
traversed  the  plain  of  Esdraelon  and  Lower 
Galilee  to  the  plain  of  Gennesaret,  followed 
the  Jordan  northward,  and  by  one  branch 
entered  the  valley  of  the  Leontes  between 
Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon,  and  led  to  Ha- 
math  and  the  north.  The  other  branch 
crossed  the  Jordan  between  the  waters  of 
Merojn  and  the  sea  of  Galilee,  and  went 
northeastward  to  Damascus.  The  third  and 
most  frequented  route  from  the  maritime 
plain  passed  through  the  plain  of  Dothan  to 
En-gannim,  where  it  divided,  one  branch 
joining  the  aforementioned  road  across  Lower 
Galilee,  and  the  other  leading  to  Beth-shean, 
and,  dividing  again,  continuing  to  Gilead  or 
to  Damascus.  By  any  of  the  northern  routes 
Carchemish  on  the  Euphrates  might  be 
reached.  There  was  another  road  from  the 
plain  of  Esdraelon  to  Egypt.  It  traversed 
the  hill  country,  passing  by  Samaria,  vShe- 
chem,  Bethel,  Jerusalem,  Bethlehem,  Hebron, 
and  Beer-sheba.  At  this  point  the  road 
branched,  and  there  was  a  choice  of  routes ; 
the  highway  along  the  seacoast  might  be 
gained  by  diverging  to  the  west,  or  the 
journey  might  be  continued  by  way  of  Ke- 
hoboth  and  'Ain  Muweileh,  and  thence  across 
the  desert  to  Egypt.  A  route  from  Beth- 
shean  to  Edom,  which  was  also  used  by  trav- 
elers to  Jerusalem,  passed  down  the  Jordan 
valley  to  Jericho,  where  persons  going  to  Je- 
rusalem took  the  steep  road  up  the  mountains 
to  the  capital.  From  Jericho  the  road  con- 
tinued along  the  western  shore  of  the  Dead 
Sea  to  En-gedi,  where  it  was  joined  by  a  road 


from  Jerusalem  and  Bethlehem,  and  thence 
continued  to  Edom  and  Elath  at  the  head  of 
the  Red  Sea,  where  it  joined  the  caravan 
routes  from  Egypt  and  Gaza  to  southern 
Arabia.  East  of  the  Jordan  a  caravan  route 
led  from  Damascus  along  the  edge  of  the 
desert  southward  to  Arabia ;  see  Decapolis. 
It  was  joined  by  roads  running  from  Beth- 
shean  across  Gilead  ;  by  a  road  from  Shechem 
down  the  wady  Far'ah  to  the  ford  of  the 
Jordan  below  the  mouth  of  the  Jabbok,  and 
thence  across  Gilead  to  Rabbath  Amnion ; 
and  by  another  from  the  ford  at  Jericho  by 
way  of  Heshbon.  West  of  the  Jordan  Gali- 
lee was  crossed  by  a  road  running  almost 
due  east  from  Acre,  which  joined  the  road 
to  Damascus  near  the  point  where  it  crossed 
the  Jordan,  midway  between  the  waters  of 
Merom  and  the  sea  of  Galilee.  The  high 
table-land  occupied  by  the  tribes  of  Benjamin 
aud  Judah  was  not  easy  of  access  from  the 
maritime  plain.  A  way,  however,  led  from 
the  plain  of  Sharon  aud  the  Nahr  el-'Aujah 
at  Ras  el-'Ain  (Antipatris)  southeastwardly 
into  the  hill  country,  and  joined  the  road 
from  Samaria  to  Jerusalem  at  a  point  two 
miles  southwest  of  Bethel.  From  the  sea- 
port of  Joppa  a  road  led  to  Jerusalem  by  the 
valley  of  Aijalon  and  Beth-horon.  From 
Ashdod  the  capital  was  most  readily  reached 
by  wady  es-Surar  and  Beth-shemesh  ;  but  a 
route  to  Jerusalem  and  also  to  Bethlehem 
was  aflbrded  by  the  wady  es-Sunt  past  Socoh. 
Access  to  the  hill  country  in  the  vicinity  of 
Hebron  was  had  through  the  wady  el-'Afranj 
by  Beit  Jibrin,  aud  by  the  wady  el-Hesy  by 
Lachish. 

6.  The  Meteorology  of  Palestine.  The  great 
contrasts  in  physical  features  have  given  Pal- 
estine a  remarkable  range  of  climate,  from  the 
perpetual  snow  on  mount  Hermon  to  the 
tropical  heat  of  the  Jordan  valley  at  Jericho 
and  En-gedi.  The  average  temperature  at 
Jerusalem  in  January,  which  is  the  coldest 
month,  is  about  49.4°  F.,  and  the  greatest 
cold  28°.  In  August  the  average  is  79.3°, 
and  the  greatest  heat  is  92°  in  the  shade. 
See  also  Ye^r. 

7.  The  Botany  of  Palestine.  In  consequence 
of  the  great  diversity  of  surface  and  climate, 
the  flora  is  extensive  and  plants  of  many 
latitudes  flourish.  Tristram  showed  that  of 
3002  flowering  plants  and  ferns  known  to 
exist  in  Palestine,  a  large  number  for  so 
small  a  country,  2563  are  Palsearctic,  and 
most  of  them  belong  to  its  Mediterranean 
section  ;  161  are  Ethiopian,  27  Indian,  and 
251  peculiar.  In  the  region  which  lies  be- 
tween the  Taurus  mountains  and  the  south- 
ern point  of  the  peninsula  of  Sinai,  and  be- 
tween the  Mediterranean  Sea  and  the  Syrian 
desert.  Dr.  Post  has  found  850  genera  and 
about  3500  species. 

8.  The  Zoology  of  Palestine.  The  distribu- 
tion of  the  several  .species  of  animals  essential- 
ly agrees  with  that  of  the  Palestinian  plants. 
Of  113  mammalia  known  to  occur  in  Pales- 


Palestine 


538 


Palestine 


tine,  Tristram  found  55  to  belong  to  the 
Palsearctic  region,  the  same  to  which  our 
European  species  belong  ;  34  were  Ethiopian, 
16  Indian,  and  13  peculiar  to  the  land.  The 
same  species  sometimes  belongs  to  two  regions. 
Of  348  species  of  birds,  271  were  Palsearctic,  40 
Ethiopian,  7  Indian,  and  30  peculiar.  Of  the 
91  reptiles  and  amphibians,  49  were  Palse- 
arctic,  27  Ethiopian,  4  Indian,  and  11  pecu- 
liar. Of  43  fresh-water  lishes,  8  were  Palje- 
arctic,  2  Ethiopian,  7  Indian,  and  26  pecu- 
liar. In  the  case  of  both  plants  and  animals, 
tlie  African  and  Indian  types  come  chiefly 
from  the  low-lying  region  around  the  Dead 
Sea,  and  to  a  less  extent  from  the  low  valley 
of  the  Jordan. 

9.  The  Ethnology  of  Palestine.  The  aborig- 
inal inhabitants  of  Palestine  were  a  tall,  stal- 
wart race,  consisting  of  Anakim  (Josh.  xi. 
21,  22),  Eephaim  (Gen.  xiv.  5),  Emim,  Zam- 
zummim,  and  Horites  (Deut.  ii.  10-23).  Traces 
of  the  primitive  ])opulatiou  continued  to  ex- 
ist as  late  as  the  time  of  the  monarchy 
(2  Sam.  xxi.  16-22).  When  Abraham  arrived, 
the  country  was  occupied  chiefly  by  the 
Amorites  and  other  smaller  tribes  of  Canaan- 
ites,  but  Philistines  aud  Phoenicians  were  set- 
tled on  the  seacoast  and  Hittites  dwelt  ou  the 
northern  border  and  at  Hebron.  The  Hit- 
tites are  regarded  as  a,  Turanian  people  from 
the  Taurus  mountains.  The  Philistines  came 
from  the  west.  The  Caiiaanites,  including 
the  Phoenicians,  either  belonged  to  the  Ham- 
itic  race  by  blood  or  became  incorporated 
with  it  (Gen.  x.  6,  15-20).  They  early  spoke 
a  Semitic  language.  These  various  peoples 
were  conquered,  but  not  utterly  extermi- 
nated, by  the  Hebrews  under  the  leadership 
of  Moses  and  Joshua.  The  occasional  intro- 
duction of  Edomites,  Ammonites,  and  Moab- 
ites  by  conquest  and  immigration  did  not 
bring  a  new  strain  into  the  blood,  for  these 
peoples  were  Semitic  and  like  the  Hebrews 
descended  from  Abraham.  The  conquest  of 
Aramsean  tribes,  so  far  as  it  resulted  in  add- 
ing foreigners  to  the  commonwealth  of  Israel, 
added  Semites.  After  the  fall  of  Samaria, 
the  Assyrians  dejjorted  the  northern  and 
eastern  tribes  of  the  Israelites  and  intro- 
duced colonists  from  Hamath,  Babylonia, 
and  Elam  (2  Kin.  xvii.  24  ;  Ezra  iv.  9).  They 
were  largely  Semites  and  Aryans.  A  large 
immigration  of  Greeks  followed  in  the  wake 
of  the  conquest  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
colonized  Ptolemais,  built  the  Greek  towns 
of  the  Decapolis,  and  introduced  the  Greek 
language,  customs,  and  culture.  Later,  Roman 
ofiicials  and  a  Roman  army  of  occujiation 
were  in  the  country,  and  ultimately  Roman 
colonists  came.  In  the  second  quarter  of  the 
seventh  century  of  the  Christian  era  the 
country  was  subjugated  by  the  Mohanimed- 
ans,  and  in  many  of  the  towns  and  villages 
Arabian  military  colonies  were  planted.  The 
Turks  made  their  appearance  as  conquerors 
in  western  Asia  A.  D.  1086,  and  excei)t  for 
short  periods  Palestine  has  ever  since  been 


under   their  rule ;    but    people    of  Turkish 
descent  are  very  few  in  the  country. 

10.  The  Hist'orn  of  Pnlestine.  The  early 
history  of  Palestine,  before  the  arrival  of 
Abraham,  is  involved  in  obscurity.  The 
succession  of  races  who  inhabited  the  coun- 
try may  be  gathered  from  the  Hebrew  records, 
as  already  pointed  out.  The  kings  of  Baby- 
lonia early  began  their  invasions  of  the  west, 
and  the  campaign  of  Chedorlaomer  in  eastern 
Palestine  in  the  time  of  Abraham  is  described 
in  Gen.  xiv.  The  Babylonians  impressed 
their  culture,  including  their  comjilicated 
script  and  their  language  as  a  medium  of 
international  communication,  upon  the  in- 
habitants. After  the  expulsion  of  the  shep- 
herd kings  from  the  country  of  the  Nile,  the 
great  Pharaohs  of  the  eighteenth  dynasty 
extended  their  sway  far  into  Asia.  Thothmes 
III.  conquered  Canaan  and  exacted  tribute 
from  the  nations  dwelling  as  far  as  the 
Euphrates.  During  the  reigns  of  Amen- 
ophis  III.  and  lY.,  who  succeeded  him  after 
an  interval,  Canaan  was  garrisoned  by  Egyp- 
tian troops  and  governed  by  Egyptian  of- 
ficials. But  in  the  latter  reign  the  gra.sp  of 
Egypt  was  evidently  weakening.  The  Hit- 
tites were  threatening  the  northern  frontier, 
lawlessness  prevailed  in  various  parts  of  the 
land,  travel  was  insecure,  individual  states 
were  in  a  foment  of  discontent  or  in  rebellion, 
and  various  tribes  were  extending  their  ter- 
ritory at  the  expense  of  Egjq^t.  Under  the 
succeeding  dynasty  Seti  I.  passed  through 
Palestine  and  waged  war  with  the  Hittites 
on  the  Orontes ;  Ramses  II.  invaded  Pales- 
tine and  penetrated  beyond  ;  and  Meneptah's 
armies  ravaged  southern  Palestine  and  the 
coast  of  Philistia,  and  wasted  the  crops  of  the 
Israelites,  who  were  ])erhaps  in  the  wilder- 
ness of  the  wandering  near  Kadesh-barnea ; 
see  Egypt  and  Pharaoh.  Ramses  III.,  of 
the  twentieth  dynasty,  overran  Palestine 
while  the  Israelites  were  still  in  the  desert. 
When  the  i)ower  of  the  country  had  been  re- 
duced by  these  wars,  the  Hebrews  ajijieared 
on  the  scene.  Under  the  leadership  of  Moses, 
they  conquered  the  region  east  of  the  Jordan  ; 
aud  in  the  following  year,  under  Joshua, 
they  crossed  the  river,  and  after  repeated 
campaigns  took  jiossession  of  Canaan.  From 
this  time  onward,  until  the  fall  of  Jerii.salem 
in  the  first  century  of  the  Christian  era,  the 
history  of  Palestine  is  largely  the  history  of 
the  Hebrew  peoi)le.     See  History. 

11.  The  Topoiiiupln/ of  Palestine.  As  nearly 
as  can  be  estimated,  622  towns  west  of  the  .Tor- 
dan  are  mentioned  in  the  Bible  and  the  Apoc- 
rypha. Other  early  documents  refer  to  many 
of  these  towns  by  name.  In  1874  Mariette  Bey 
I)ublished  geogra])hical  lists  taken  from  tab- 
lets round  the  necks  of  the  figures  of  cap- 
tives represented  on  the  great  gateway  of  the 
temple  at  Karnak.  Tliey  belong  to  the  reign 
of  Thothmes  III.  Tliere  are  118  names,  of 
which  no  fewer  than  one-third  throw  light 
on  the  tojiography  of  Palestine  and  the  Book 


Pallu 


539 


Palm 


of  Joshua.  References  to  towns  of  Palestine 
in  tlie  time  of  Anienophis  111.  and  IV.  oc- 
cur in  the  letters  which  were  discovered  at 
Tell  el-Amarna.  Later  references  are  found 
in  contemporary  records  of  Assyria,  especial- 
ly in  documents  which  relate  to  campaigns 
conducted  in  Palestine.  Eusebius,  bishoj)  of 
Csesarea  in  the  first  half  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury of  the  Christian  era,  wrote  a  tract  con- 
cerning the  names  of  places  in  the  sacred 
Scriptures.  It  was  translated  and  enlaiged 
by  Jerome,  resident  at  Bethlehem  a  century 
later.  The  M'ork  is  commonly  known  as  the 
Onomasticon  of  Eusebius  and  Jerome.  The 
notices  regarding  the  situation  of  ancient 
places  in  Palestine,  according  to  the  informa- 
tion possessed  by  the  learned  authors,  are 
often  valuable,  sometimes  absurd.  The  in- 
formation gathered  by  Reland  and  published 
by  him  in  1714,  and  the  travels  of  Seetzen 
and  Burckhardt,  esi)ecially  east  of  the  Jor- 
dan, in  the  beginning  of  the  present  century, 
prepared  the  way  for  the  systematic,  scien- 
tific investigation  conducted  by  Dr.  Robinson. 
He  visited  Palestine  in  1838,  accompanied  by  a 
former  pu])il  of  his,  Rev.  Dr.  Eli  Smith,  Amer- 
ican missionary  at  Beirut,  who  greatly  aided 
the  inquiry  by  his  knowledge  of  Arabic. 
They  found  by  asking  the  natives  what  cer- 
tain ruins  or  yet  inhabited  villages  were 
called,  that  they  often  bore  the  old  Hebrew 
names  still,  a  little  modified  as  pronounced 
by  Arab  lips.  Their  discoveries  in  the  to- 
pograjthy  of  Palestine  were  very  important, 
and  were  given  to  the  world  by  Prof.  Robin- 
son in  1841  in  three  octavo  volumes.  Return- 
ing from  America,  Dr.  Robinson  resumed  his 
researches  in  Palestine  in  1852,  accompanied 
again  by  Rev.  Dr.  Eli  Smith  and  others.  He 
made  fresh  discoveries,  embodied  in  his  Later 
Biblical  Bexearches,  18.56.  Dr.  Robinson 
brought  to  bear  on  his  inquiry  not  merely 
keen  observation  and  a  sound  judgment,  but 
great  learning  ;  and  his  conclusions,  many 
of  them  ilLsputed  at  the  time,  are  now  much 
more  largely  accepted.  On  June  22,  1865,  a 
society  named  The  Palestine  Exploration 
Fund,  was  formed  in  England  to  prosecute 
in  a  .scientific  spirit  all  branches  of  inquiry 
regarding  the  Holy  Land.  Since  then  it  has 
conducted  an  ordnance  survey  of  a  great 
part  of  Palestine,  and  constructed  a  superb 
map  of  the  countrj-  in  twenty-six  sheets. 
This  result  is  a  permanent  and  sjjlendid 
achievement.  The  .society  has  also  carried 
on  excavations,  especially  at  Jerusalem  and 
Lachish.  As  a  result  of  all  past  investigations, 
about  one-half  of  the  biblical  sites  have  been 
identified  with  certainty  or  great  probability. 

Pal'lu,  in  A.  V.  once  Phallu  (Gen.  xlvi.  9) 
[distinguished]. 

A  son  of  Reuben,  and  founder  of  a  tribal 
family  (Gen.  xlvi.  9 ;  Ex.  vi.  14 ;  Num. 
xxvi.  5). 

Palm. 

A  tree,  called  in  Hebrew  tamar,  timmorah, 


and  fomer,  and  in  Greek  plwi)iix.  It  is  a  tall 
tree  (Song  vii.  7,  8),  straight  and  upright  (Jer. 
x.  5).  It  is  a  fruit  tree  (Joel  i.  12),  and  suffi- 
ciently ornamental  to  have  been  carved  in  va- 
rious parts  of  Solomon's  temple  and  other  sane- 


Date  Palm. 

tuaries  (1  Kin.  vi.  29,  32,  35  ;  Herod,  ii.  169). 
Its  great  leaves  were  used  as  tokens  of  victory 
and  peace  (1  Mac.  xiii.  51 ;  2  Mac.  x.  7  ;  John 
xii.  13  ;  Rev.  vii.  9  ;  imitated  in  2  Esdr.  ii. 
43-47).  These  leaves  are  often  popularly 
called  branches ;  and  this  designation  is  em- 
ployed in  the  English  versions  (Lev.  xxiii. 
40 ;  Neh.  viii.  15 ;  John  xii.  13),  but  is  not 
botanically  correct.  Scarcely  any  palms  have 
branches  at  all ;  and  the  date  palm,  the  spe- 
cies common  in  Palestine,  is  not  one  of  the 
few  exceptions  to  the  rule.  The  leaves  are 
large  and  feathery,  from  4  to  6  feet  in  length ; 
they  are  quite  accessible,  as  there  are  gener- 
ally a  number  of  young  plants  around  the 
foot  of  the  parent  stem.  Palm  trees  flour- 
ished on  the  banks  of  the  Nile.  They  grew 
at  Elim,  in  the  wilderness  near  the  Red  Sea 
(Ex.  XV.  27),  and  in  Edom  (Virgil,  Georg.  iii. 
12).  They  grew  in  various  parts  of  Judfea 
also  (Pliny  Hist.  Nat.  v.  14)  ;  as  in  the  valley 
of  the  Jordan,  at  Jericho,  and  En-gedi,  and 
on  the  coast  of  the  .sea  of  Galilee  (Gen.  xiv. 
7,  in  the  proper  name ;  Deut.  xxxiv.  3 ; 
Ecclus.  xxiv.  14  ;  Antiq.  ix.  1,  2  ;  War  i.  6,  6  ; 
iii.  10,  8j ;  in  the  south  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  31, 
49,  in  the  names  Sansannah  and  Kirjath-san- 
nah).  in  mount  Ephraim  near  Bethel  (Judg.  iv. 
5;  XX.  33),  near  Jerusalem  (Neh.  viii.  15  ;  John 


Palmer-worm 


640 


Papyrus 


xii.  13).  They  grew  also  in  the  desert  cast  of 
Damascus,  at  the  towu  named  from  them, 
Tadmor,  Tamar,  and  Palmyra.  They  flour- 
ished also  in  the  lower  valleys  of  the  Tigrisand 
Euphrates  (Herod,  i.  193).  The  tree  was  re- 
garded by  the  Greeks  and  Romans  as  peculiar- 
ly characteristic  of  Palestine  and  the  neigh- 
boring regions.  Phoenicia  took  its  name  in 
Greek  from  the  date  palm ;  and  the  coin 
struck  at  Rome  to  commemorate  the  capture 
of  Jerusalem  represented  a  woman,  emblem  of 
the  country,  sitting  disconsolate  under  a  date 
palm  ;  see  Jerusalem  and  Money.  The 
tree  which  was  once  so  common  has  almost 
disappeared  from  Palestine,  except  in  the 
maritime  plain  of  Philistia  and  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Beirut,  but  it  is  being  cultivated 
anew  near  Jericho.  The  palm  tree  in  Scrip- 
ture almost  always  means  the  date  palm 
{Phoenix  dactyUfera),  which  grows  about  60  or 
80  feet  high,  having  a  single  upright  stem  of 
uniform  thickness  through  its  entire  length 
and  marked  by  the  scars  of  fallen  leaves. 
The  stem  terminates  above  in  a  circle  of 
great  feathery  leaves,  perennially  green. 
It  is  believed  to  attain  a  great  age,  from 
a  hundred  to  two  hundred  years.  The  do- 
mestic uses  of  the  palm  are  numerous.  The 
leaves  are  employed  for  covering  the  roofs 
and  sides  of  houses,  for  fences,  mats,  and 
baskets.  When  the  tender  part  of  the  spatha 
is  pierced,  a  sweet  juice  exudes,  from  which 
sugar  is  obtained  by  evaporation,  and  a  strong 
drink  called  arrack  by  fermentation  or  dis- 
tillation (War  iv.  8,  3  ;  Herod,  i.  193).  The 
fruit,  which  it  produces  annually  in  numer- 
ous clusters  and  great  abundance,  constitutes 
its  chief  value,  being  largely  used  as  an  arti- 
cle of  food.  Even  the  stony  seeds  are  ground, 
and  yield  nourishment  to  the  camel  of  the 
desert.  Another  palm  tree  may  have  been 
known  to  many  Israelites:  the  Palmyra, 
which  grows  at  Tadmor  in  the  wilderness. 
It  is  BoniNSHS  flabelUformis,  the  specific  name 
implying  that  it  has  fan-shaped  leaves. 

Palm'er-worm. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Gnsam,  de- 
vourer,  an  insect  which  devoured  vines,  fig 
trees,  olive  trees,  and  the  produce  of  the 
gardens  and  fields  generally  (Joel  i.  4 ;  ii.  25 ; 
Amos  iv.  9).  Probably  a  kind  of  locust,  or 
a  locust  in  a  certain  stage  of  its  growth 
(R.  V.  margin).  When  the  A.  V.  was  made, 
palmer-worm  denoted  a  sort  of  hairy  cater- 
pillar which  has  no  fixed  abode,  but  wanders 
like  a  palmer  or  pilgrim  from  place  to  place. 

Pal'sy. 

A  disease,  or  rather  a  series  of  morbid 
symptoms,  characterized  by  partial  or  total 
loss  of  sensibility,  motion,  or  both,  in  one  or 
more  parts  of  the  body  (Mark  ii.  3,  9-12 ;  Acts 
ix.  33-35).  It  is  produced  by  disease  of  the 
brain,  the  spinal  cord,  or  particular  nerves. 

Pal'ti,  in  A.  V.  once  Phalti  (1  Sam.  xxv. 
44)  [abbreviation  of  Paltiel,  deliverance  by 
God]. 


1.  The  representative  spy  from  the  tribe 
of  Benjamin  (Num.  xiii.  9). 

2.  The  man  to  whom  Saul  married  Michal, 
David's  wife,  and  from  whom  she  was  later 
wrested  away  and  restored  to  David  (1  Sam. 
xxv.  44 ;  2  Sam.  iii.  15,  where  the  unab- 
breviated form  is  used). 

Pal'ti-el,  in  A.  V.  once  Phaltiel  (2  Sam. 
iii.  15)  [deliverance  by  God]. 

1.  Prince  of  the  tribe  of  Issachar  and  a 
contemporary  of  Moses  (Num.  xxxiv.  26). 

2.  The  same  as  Palti  2  (2  Sam.  iii.  15). 
Pal'tite. 

A  memlier  of  the  family,  or  an  inhabitant 
of  the  town,  of  Pelet  or  Palti.  To  judge 
from  2  Sam  xxiii.  26  compared  with  1  Chron. 
xxvii.  10,  the  Paltites  were  reckoned  to 
Ephraim. 

Pam-phyl'i-a  [popularly  interpreted  by 
the  Greeks  as  meaning  an  assemblage  of 
mingled  tribes]. 

A  stretch  of  coast  land  in  Asia  Minor.  It 
was  bounded  on  the  north  by  Pi.sidia  ;  on  the 
south  by  a  gulf  of  the  Mediterranean,  called 
the  sea  of  Pamphylia,  across  which  Paul 
sailed  (Acts  xxvii.  5) ;  on  the  east  by  Cilicia  ; 
and  on  the  west  by  Lycia  and  part  of  Phrygia. 
Pamphylia  contained  Jewish  communities 
(ii.  10).  Its  towns,  Perga  and  Attalia, 
were  visited  by  Paul  on  his  first  missionary 
journey  (xiii.  13;  xiv.  24,  25;  xv.  38). 

Pan'nag. 

A  product  of  Palestine  which  the  Tyrians 
purchased  (Ezek.  xxvii.  17).  The  R.  V.,  fol- 
lowing the  Jewish  Targum,  suggests  that 
perhaps  it  was  a  kind  of  confection. 

Pa'per.    See  Papyrus. 

Pa'per  Reed. 

Papyrus ;  the  rendering  in  the  A.  V.  of 
the  Hebrew  'Arah,  nakedness  (Is.  xix.  7) ; 
see  Papyrus.  The  corresponding  word  in 
Arabic  means  an  open  place  ;  and  R.  V.  ren- 
ders the  Hebrew  word  by  meadow. 

Pa'phos. 

A  town  at  the  southwestern  extremity  of 
Cyprus,  near  cape  Zephyrion.  It  was  called 
Old  Paphos  to  distinguish  it  from  the  newer 
mercantile  town  some  miles  to  the  northwest. 
It  was  the  capital  of  the  Roman  province  of 
Cyprus,  and  the  residence  of  the  proconsul. 
In  its  vicinity  was  a  celebrated  temple  of  the 
Cyprian  Venus  (Homer,  Odyssey  viii.  362). 
The  town  was  visited  by  Paul  (Acts  xiii. 
6-13).     It  is  now  called  Kuklia. 

Pa-py'rus. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  Gome' ;  a 
plant  which  grows  in  mire  (Job  viii.  11,  R.  V. 
margin ;  in  Is.  xxxv.  7  rendered  rush),  and 
of  which  the  ark  in  which  Moses  was  ex- 
posed as  an  infant  on  the  Nile  (Ex.  ii.  3, 
R.  V.  margin),  and  also  larger  boats  (Is. 
xviii.  2,  R.  V.)  were  made.  The  plant  re- 
ferred to  is  the  paper  reed  (Papyrus  anti- 
qiiontm).  Though  the  word  reed  is  often 
widely  applied,  yet  it  is  most  closely  asso- 


Parable 


541 


Parable 


ciated  with  the  pciius  Anuido,  which  is  a 
grass.  But  the  pui)ynis  is  not  a  grass,  nor  is 
it  a  rush  :  it  is  a  giant  sedge,  with  a  triangu- 
lar stock  8  or  10  feet  high,  terminating  in  a 
tuft  of  flowers.     It  grows  in   the  waters  of 


i-"-  ¥''>- 


Papyrus. 

Merom  and  elsewhere,  and  formerly  did  so 
on  the  Nile,  though  now  extinct  upon  that 
river.  The  Egyptians  made  shoes,  haskets, 
boats,  and  other  articles  of  it;  and  used 
sheets,  formed  of  strips  of  the  pith,  as 
writing  paper.  On  such  material,  called  in 
Greek  chaiies,  the  apostle  John  wrote  his 
Second  Epistle  (2  John  12). 

Par'a-ble. 

A  method  of  speech  in  which  moral  or  re- 
ligious truth  is  illustrated  from  the  analogy 
of  common  experience.  The  comparison 
may  be  expressed,  as  by  the  word  like,  or  be 
implied.  The  limits  between  the  parable 
and  simile  and  metaphor  are  not  well  de- 
fined. Often  thei'e  is  scarcely  any  difference, 
except  that  the  simile  and  metaphor  are 
short  and  the  parable  comparatively  long. 
"Ye  are  the  light  of  the  world  "  is  a  meta- 
phor; "'like  a  lamb  dumb  before  his  shear- 
er" is  a  simile;  but  "the  kingdom  of 
heaven  is  like  unto  leaven,  which  a  woman 
took,  and  hid  in  three  measures  of  meal,  till 
it  was  all  leavened,"  is  a  parable  (Mat.  xiii. 
33).  The  parable  has  certain  advantages. 
One  is,  that  this  means  of  conveying  truth 
makes  it  adhere  to  the  memory  much  more 
than  a  plain  didactic  statement  would  do. 
For  instance,  no  didactic  statement  as  to  the 


willingness  of  our  Loi-d  to  receive  penitent 
sinners  would  have  Imd  an  etlect  at  all  equal 
to  that  jiroduced  by  the  parable  of  the  jjrodi- 
gal  son  (Luke  xv.  11-32).  A  second  advan- 
tage in  a  parable  is  that  when  it  is  needful 
for  a  prophet  or  a  jtreacher  to  censure  a 
powerful  personage,  who  will  not  allow  liim- 
self  to  be  directly  found  fault  with,  it  is 
possible  by  a  skillfully  framed  parable  to 
make  him  not  merely  listen  patiently,  but 
condemn  him.self  before  he  discovers  that  it 
is  himself  he  is  condemning.  This  was  done 
with  much  skill  by  the  prophet  Nathan 
when  he  went  to  reprove  David  for  his  great 
sin  in  the  matter  of  Uriah  the  Hittite. 

The  following  are  the  chief  ]ia rabies  in 
the  O.  T.:  the  trees  anointing  a  king  (.ludg. 
ix.  8-20),  the  ewe  lamb  (2  Sam.  xii.  1-14), 
the  widow,  one  of  whose  two  sons  slew  the 
other  (2  8am.  xiv.  4-20),  the  soldier  who  let 
his  captive  escape  (1  Kin.  xx.  3.5-42),  the 
thistle  which  asked  for  the  cedar's  daughter 
as  a  wife  for  his  son  (2  Kin.  xiv.  9-11),  the 
vineyard  (Is.  v.  1-7),  the  two  eagles  and  a  vine 
(Ezek.  xvii.  1-10),  the  lion's  whelps  (xix.  1-9), 
Oliolah  and  OhoHbah  (xxiii.  1-49),  the  boil- 
ing pot  (xxiv.  1-14). 

An  important  part  of  our  Lord's  teaching 
was  by  means  of  parables ;  and  when  Scrip- 
ture parables  are  spoken  of,  generally  those 
of  Jesus  are  meant.  Christ  used  the  para- 
bolic form  of  teaching  at  every  period  of 
his  public  ministry  (Mark  iii.  23;  Luke  vi. 
39;  vii.  40-50),  but  there  came  a  time  when 
a  distinct  change  took  place  and  he  gave  a 
larger  place  to  parables  in  his  public  instruc- 
tion (Mat.  xiii.  3;  Mark  iv.  2).  Two  reasons 
are  assigned  why  he  adopted  to  such  an  ex- 
tent this  method  of  teaching.  One  given  by 
Matthew  is  that  it  was  prophesied  (Mat.  xiii. 
34,  35;  cp.  Ps.  xlix.  4;  Ixxviii.  2,  3).  The 
other,  emanating  from  our  Lord,  explains 
the  former.  He  used  parables  because  it  was 
not  given  unto  his  auditors  to  know  the 
mysteries  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven,  since 
seeing  they  saw  not  and  hearing  they  did 
not  understand  (Mat.  xiii.  10-16).  This 
statement  of  Jesus  has  been  interi>retcd  to 
mean  that  he  clothed  the  truths  of  the  king- 
dom in  images  in  order  to  make  them  more 
intelligible  to  his  hearers  and  to  impress 
them  indelibly  on  their  memory.  But  this 
was  true  of  a  certain  class  of  hearers  only  and 
in  many  cases,  even  in  respect  to  them,  only 
after  the  parable  had  been  explained.  Jesus 
rather  meant  that  his  auditors  generally 
were  unprepared  to  hear  and  heartily  be- 
lieve the  spiritual  truths  of  the  kingdom ; 
and  while  the  time  had  come  to  teach  these 
doctrines  to  his  followers  who  were  to  carry 
on  his  work  after  his  departure  (Mark  iv.  33, 
34),  the  truth  was  henceforth  hidden  from 
those  who  had  heard  without  repentance, 
was  cautiously  uttered  in  the  hearing  of  ob- 
durate enemies  who  were  watching  to  seize 
upon  his  words  and  employ  them  against 
him,  and  was  veiled  from  the  fickle  multi- 


Paraclete 


542 


Faran 


tude  who  would  refuse  to  listen  to  his  words 
if  they  perceived  the  full  import  of  them 
(Mark  iv.  11,  12). 

With  perhaps  only  one  exception  (Mat. 
xviii.  23-35),  the  recorded  parables,  which 
were  spoken  after  this  form  of  instruction 
became  prominent  in  Jesus'  i)ublic  teaching, 
fall  into  three  groups  :  I.  Eight  illustrating 
the  nature  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven  (Mat. 
xiii.  1-50;  Mark  iv.  26-29),  followed  by  one 
by  way  of  application  (Mat.  xiii.  51,  52). 
These  were  spoken  during  one  day  on  the 
shore  of  the  sea  of  Galilee  (xiii.  1,  53).  They 
contain  five  fundamental  truths:  1.  Sower 
and  seed :  the  varied  reception  of  the  gospel 
by  different  classes  of  hearers.  2.  Tares  and 
wheat :  evil  springs  up  among  the  good.  3. 
Seed  growing  secretly,  mustard  seed,  and 
leaven  :  growth  of  the  church  imperceptibly, 
externally,  internally.  4.  Hid  treasure,  and 
pearl  of  great  price :  value  of  the  kingdom, 
necessity  of  sacrifice  to  obtain  it.  5.  Net 
gathering  all  kinds  of  fish :  mixed,  condition 
of  the  visible  church  until  the  end  of  the 
world.  II.  Nineteen,  or  thereabout,  illus- 
trating the  kingdom  of  heaven  in  the  indi- 
vidual life  (Luke  x.  25-xix.,  except  xiii.  18- 
21).  Most  of  them,  if  not  all,  were  delivered 
after  Christ's  departure  from  Galilee,  in  the 
interval  of  six  months  between  the  feast  of 
tabernacles  and  his  last  passover.  They  in- 
clude the  parables  of '  the  good  Samaritan, 
the  friend  at  midnight,  the  rich  man  and  his 
barns,  the  waiting  servants,  the  shut  door, 
the  chief  seat,  the  supper  and  excuses  for 
not  attending  it,  the  lost  sheep,  the  lost 
money,  the  prodigal  son,  the  unjust  steward, 
the  rich  man  and  Lazarus,  the  servant's 
duty,  the  importunate  widow,  the  Pharisee 
and  the  publican,  and  the  pounds.  III.  Five 
or,  with  Mat.  xxiv.  32-35,  six,  which  were 
delivered  during  the  last  week  at  Jerusalem, 
and  point  to  judgment  and  the  consumma- 
tion of  the  kingdom.  The  attitude  of  those 
called  is  illustrated  by  the  parables  of  the 
two  sons  and  the  wicked  husbandmen  (Mat. 
xxi.  28-4(5),  and  the  need  of  the  wedding 
garment,  of  watchfulness,  and  of  fidelity  is 
shown  by  the  parables  of  the  marriage  of 
the  king's  son,  the  ten  virgins,  and  the  five 
talents  (Mat.  xxii.  1-14  ;  xxv.  1-.30). 

In  interpreting  the  parables,  rigid  inquiry 
should  be  made  into  the  circumstances  in 
which  each  was  delivered  at  first,  and  the 
doctrine  or  argument  which  it  was  intended 
primarily  to  convey.  This  done,  it  is  at  once 
seen  that  the  teaching  of  the  parable  is  of 
universal  application,  suited  for  all  analo- 
gous circumstances  and  for  all  succeeding 
time. 

Par'a-clete  [Greek  parakletos,  a  legal  as- 
sistant, advocate,  or  intercessor] . 

The  word  occurs  in  R.  V.  on  the  margins 
of  John  xiv.  16,  26 ;  xv.  26 ;  xvi.  7,  where 
helper  or  advocate  is  given  as  the  English 
equivalent.     In  the  text  of  these  passages 


the  translation  is  comforter,  but  in  1  John 
ii.  1  it  is  advocate.     It  is  applied  to : 

1.  The  Lord  .lesus  Christ.  He  was  the 
advocate,  by  implication  in  John  xiv.  16, 
who  guided,  counseled,  and  strengthened  the 
disciples  while  he  was  present  with  them, 
and  he  is  now  the  Christian's  advocate  with 
the  Father,  and  pleads  the  believer's  cause 
with  God  (1  John  ii.  1)  as  he  did  while  on 
earth  (Luke  xxii.  31,  32;  John  xvii.). 

2.  The  Holy  Spirit,  who  is  Christ's  advo- 
cate with  the  believer,  glorifying  Christ  and 
declaring  him  (John  xv.  26 ;  xvi.  14),  vindi- 
cating him  from  man's  unworthy  thoughts, 
showing  him  to  be  chief  among  ten  thousand 
and  altogether  lovely,  and  exhibiting  him  as 
man's  great  need ;  and  he  is  the  Spirit  of 
truth,  who  teaches  the  believer  and  guides 
him  into  the  truth  (xv.  26  ;  xvi.  13,  14),  con- 
victing of  sin,  righteousness,  and  judgment 
(ver.  8),  who  teaches  to  pray  and  makes  in- 
tercession with  groanings  that  cannot  be 
uttered  (Rom.  viii.  26,  27). 

Par'a-dise. 

A  pleasure  ground,  orchard,  or  park,  in 
Hebrew  pardes  (Ecc.  ii.  5;  Song  iv.  13,  R.  V. 
margin  ;  in  Neh.  ii.  8  rendered  forest).  Solo- 
mon's gardens  at  Etham  and  the  hanging 
gardens  at  Babylon  are  called  paradises  in 
the  Greek  text  of  Josephus  (Antiq.  viii.  7,  3  ; 
con.  Apion.  i.  20),  and  the  garden  of  Eden 
is  called  the  paradise  (paradetsos)  of  Eden  in 
the  Septuagint  (Gen.  ii.  8). 

Paradise  was  the  region  of  bliss  which 
man  had  lost,  and  it  naturally  came  to  be  a 
desiguation  for  the  place  of  the  righteous 
dead.  The  later  Jews  distinguished  between 
a  supernal  and  an  infernal  paradise,  the 
former  being  a  part  of  heaven,  the  latter  a 
division  of  hades  assigned  to  the  souls  of  the 
just. 

In  the  N.  T.  paradise  means  heaven  in 
two  instances  (2  Cor.  xii.  4  ;  cp.  2 ;  Rev.  ii. 
7;  cp.  xxii.  2) ;  see  Heaven.  Accordingly  it 
naturally  denotes  heaven  in  the  remaining 
instance  (Luke  xxiii.  43). 

Pa'rati  [heifer,  young  cow]. 

A  village  of  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii.  23), 
commonly  identified  with  the  ruins  Farah  in 
the  wady  Farah,  52  miles  northeast  of  Jeru- 
salem. 

Pa'ran  [perhaps,  a  region  abounding  in 
caverns]. 

A  wilderness  between  mount  Sinai,  or  more 
exactly  between  Hazeroth,  several  days' 
march  from  Sinai,  and  Canaan  (Num.  x.  12; 
xii.  16).  It  was  on  the  south  of  Judah 
(1  Sam.  xxv.  1-5).  In  it  Kadesh  was  situated 
(Num.  xiii.  26),  and  apparently  also  Elath  on 
the  Red  Sea  (Gen.  xiv.  6 ;  see  El-paran). 
It  lay  east  of  the  wildernesses  of  Beer-sheba 
and  Shur  (Gen.  xxi.  14,  21  ;  cp.  xxv.  9,  12- 
18;  xxviii.  9).  It  included  the  wilderness 
of  Zin,  or  insensibly  merged  itself  in  it 
without  a  sharply  defined  boundary  (Num. 
xiii.  26  with  xx.  1).     These  data  indicate  the 


Parbar 


543 


Farthians 


plateau  or  mountain  land  (Deut.  xxxiii.  2 ; 
Hab.  iii.  3),  lying  south  of  Canaan,  and 
bounded  on  the  other  sides  by  the  wilderness 
of  Shur,  the  curved  range  of  mountains 
known  as  Jebel  et-Tih  or  mountain  of  the 
wandering,  and  the  Arabah.  It  is  the  wil- 
derness where  the  Israelites  wandered  thirty 
and  eight  years.  Most  of  it  is  from  2000  to 
2500  feet  above  sea  level.  There  is  a  wady,  or 
valley,  in  the  Sinaitic  Peninsula,  called  wady 
Feiran,  which  looks  very  much  like  Paran 
altered.  Niebuhr  thought  that  they  might 
be  identified  ;  but  it  is  so  difficult  to  harmon- 
ize the  Scripture  location  of  the  place  with 
this  view,  that  Robinson,  Stanley,  and  most 
inquirers,  decline  to  accept  the  identification. 
The  wady  Feiran  is  between  mount  Sinai 
and  the  Red  Sea.  Paran  is  not  reached  till 
after  the  departure  from  Sinai  in  the  opposite 
direction. 

Par'bax  [probably,  colonnade]. 

A  precinct  on  the  western  side  of  the  outer 
court  of  the  temple  (1  Chron.  xxvi.  18).  It 
contained  chambers  for  officials  and  stalls  for 
cattle  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  11,  where  the  plural  is 
rendered  suburbs  and  precincts). 

Parch'ed  Corn. 

Roasted  grain  used  as  food  (Lev.  xxiii.  14 ; 
Ruth  ii.  14 ;  1  Sam.  xvii.  17).  Thomson  de- 
scribes the  method  of  preparing  it  at  present 
in  vogue.  A  number  of  the  best  ears  of 
grain,  not  too  ripe,  are  plucked,  with  the 
stalks  attached.  After  being  tied  in  small 
parcels,  a  blazing  fire  of  dry  grass  and  thorn 
bushes  is  kindled  under  them,  which  burns 
oflT  the  chatl"  and  roasts  the  grain. 

Parch'ment. 

The  skin  of  .sheep  or  goats  prepared  for 
use  as  a  writing  material  or  for  other  pur- 
poses. The  skin  is  first  soaked  in  lime  to 
remove  the  hair,  and  is  then  shaved,  washed, 
dried,  stretched,  and  smoothed.  Herodotus 
relates  that  the  ancient  lonians  used  the 
skins  of  goats  and  sheep,  because  of  the 
scarcity  of  papyrus  (Herod,  v.  58).  In 
Herodotus'  own  time  papyrus  was  the  com- 
mon writing  material.  Parchment  was  first 
obtained  at  Pergamos;  and  when  Ptolemy  for- 
bade the  export  of  papyrus,  Eumenes  II..  king 
of  Pergamos,  adopted  parchment  for  the  books 
of  his  great  library,  and  such  skins  became 
kuo^vn  as  chaiix  peigamenx,  whence  the  word 
parchment  is  derived.  In  the  time  of  Josephus 
and  earlier,  parchment  was  used  by  the  Jews 
for  the  manuscripts  of  their  sacred  writings 
(Antiq.  xii.  2,  11) ;  and  it  was  a  provision  of 
the  Talmud  that  the  law  should  be  written 
on  the  skins  of  clean  animals,  tame  or  wild, 
and  even  of  clean  birds.  Papyrus  was  a 
common  writing  material  (2  John  12,  in  E.  V. 
paper),  but  Paul  refers  to  parchments  of  his, 
about  which  he  is  especially  solicitous  (2 
Tim.  iv.  13). 

Par'ents. 

The  fifth  commandment  inculcates  upon 
children     th«    duty    of    reverencing    their 


parents  and  attaches  a  promise  to  its  ful- 
fillment (Ex.  XX.  12;  Deut.  v.  16;  Ephes.  vi. 
1,  21.  Upon  the  parents  rests  the  obligation 
of  bringing  up  the  children  in  the  fear  of 
the  Lord,  and  not  provoking  them  to  wrath 
(Gen.  xviii.  19;  Deut.  vi.  7;  Ephes.  vi.  4). 
According  to  the  Mosaic  law,  a  son  that 
smote  father  or  mother,  or  cursed  them,  was 
punished  with  death  (Ex.  xxi.  15,  17  ;  Lev. 
XX.  9;  Deut.  xxvii.  16) ;  and  as  an  extreme 
measure,  parents  were  enjoined  to  bring  a 
stubborn  and  rebellious  son  before  the  elders 
for  trial  and  execution  (Deut.  xxi.  18-21). 
The  Mosaic  law  thus  regulated  the  power  of 
parents.  According  to  Roman  law,  as  set 
forth  in  the  twelve  tables,  the  life  and  lib- 
erty of  children  were  in  the  father's  hands. 
In  Hebrew  law  the  right  of  life  and  death 
did  not  rest  with  the  parents,  but  was  vested 
in  the  judicial  body.  Cu.stom  permitted  an 
impoverished  parent  to  sell  a  daughter  to  be 
a  maidservant,  but  the  Mosaic  law  carefully 
guarded  her  rights  (Ex.  xxi.  7-11).  Israel- 
itish  custom  further  permitted  a  creditor  to 
seize  a  bankrupt  debtor  and  enslave  his  wife 
and  children  (2  Kin.  iv.  1;  Neh.  v.  5:  Is.  1. 
1 ;  Mat.  xviii.  25) ;  and  in  cases  of  grave  sin 
the  entire  family  was  involved  in  the  exter- 
mination of  the  offender  (Josh.  vii.  24). 

Par 'lor. 

Eglon's  summer  parlor  was  an  upper  cham- 
ber exposed  to  the  cool  breezes  (Judg.  iii.  20, 
cp.  R.  V.  margin).    See  House. 

Par-mash'ta  [probably,  a  Persian  name, 
very  great,  superior]. 

A  son  of  Haman  (Esth.  ix.  9). 

Par'me-nas  [probably,  faithful]. 

One  of  the  seven  men  elected  to  look  after 
the  Greek-speaking  widows  and,  apparently, 
the  poor  and  financial  affairs  generally  in. 
the  apostolic  church  (Acts  vi.  5). 

Par'nach. 

A  Zebulunite  (Num.  xxxiv.  25). 

Pa'rosh,  in  A.  V.  once  Pharosh  (Ezra  viii. 
3)  [a  flea]. 

Founder  of  a  family,  members  of  which 
returned  from  the  Babylonian  captivity 
(Ezra  ii.  3;  viii.  3).  One  of  the  clan  was 
called  Pedaiah  (Neh.  iii.  25).  Other  mem- 
bers of  it  married  foreign  wi%'es,  whom  Ezra 
induced  them  to  put  away  (Ezra  x.  25). 

Par-shan'da-tha  [a  Persian  name,  given 
to  Persia]. 

A  son  of  Haman  (Esth.  ix.  7). 

Par'thi-ans. 

A  people  who,  when  first  heard  of,  occu- 
pied a  region  nearly  corresponding  to  the 
modern  Persian  province  of  Khorasan,  a 
considerable  distance  southeast  of  the  Cas- 
pian Sea.  The  length  of  Parthia  proper  was 
about  300  miles,  its  breadth  from  100  to  120, 
its  area  about  33,000  .square  miles,  or  slightly 
more  than  that  of  Scotland  and  nearly  that  of 
Indiana.  The  first  mention  of  the  Parthians  is 
in  the  inscriptions  of  Darius  Hystaspis.  They 


Partridge 


544 


Pashhur 


revolted  against  the  Persians,  521  b.  c,  but 
were  soon  subdued  again.  From  the  Per- 
sians, they  passed  to  Alexander  the  Great, 
and  then  to  his  eastern  successors,  the  Seleu- 
cidie.  About  256  B.  c.  Baetria  successfully- 
revolted  against  Seleucidan  domination,  and 
Parthia,  under  Arsaces  I.,  immediately  fol- 
lowed the  example.  His  successors  are  gen- 
erally known  as  the  Arsacidte.  Mith- 
ridates  I.,  who  reigned  thirty-eight  years, 
from  174  to  136  B.  c,  raised  the  kingdom 
founded  by  Arsaces  into  an  empire,  extending 
1500  miles  from  east  to  west,  with  a  varying 
breadth  from  north  to  south  of  100,  300,  or 
400  miles.  The  western  boundary  was  the 
Euphrates.  The  chief  city  was  Ctesiphon 
on  the  Tigris,  opposite  Seleucia.  After  rid- 
ding themselves  of  the  Macedonian-Greek 
domination,  the  Parthians  came  into  frequent 
collision  with  the  Eomans,  one  standing  bone 
of  contention  between  them  being  the  pos- 
session of  Armenia.  From  64  B.  C.  to  A.  D. 
225  they  set  limits  to  the  Eoraan  empire  in 
the  East.  In  40-37  B.  c.  their  armies  over- 
ran Asia  Minor  and  Syria,  took  and  plun- 
dered Jerusalem,  and  placed  Antigonus,  the 
last  of  the  Asmonieans,  on  the  throne  (Antiq. 
xiv.  13,  3;  War  i.  13,  1).  Jews  from  Parthia 
were  present  at  Jerusalem  on  the  day  of 
Pentecost  (Acts  ii.  9),  and  may  have  carried 
the  gospel  to  Parthia, when  they  returned 
home.  After  wielding  power  for  nearly  500 
years,  the  Parthians  became  enervated  by 
luxury,  and  the  Persians  about  A.  d.  224, 
rose  in  revolt,  and  under  the  leadership  of 
Ardashir,  family  of  Sassan,  terminated  the 
Parthian  dominion,  substituting  the  second 
Persian  or  Sassanian  empire  in  its  room. 

Par'tridge. 

A  wild  bird,  called  in  Hebrew  lore',  the 
crier  or  caller,  in  Greek  perdix,  which  was 


Greek  Partridge. 

hunted  on  the  mountains  of  Palestine  (1 
Sam.  xxvi.  20).  The  caged  partridge  was 
used  as  a  decoy  bird  (Ecclus.  xi.  30).  Jere- 
miah compares  the  amasser  of  ill-gotten 
wealth  to  the  partridge  which,  according  to 


the  belief  of  the  Israelites  of  his  time, 
gathers  young  which  it  has  not  brought  forth 
(Jer.  xvii.  11,  R.  V.),  or  .sitteth  on  eggs  which 
it  has  not  laid  (R.  Y.  margin).  Two  species 
are  found  in  Palestine,  the  desert  or  Hey's 
sand  partridge  {Ammoperdix  heyi),  which  is 
the  only  species  at  En-gedi,  in  the  wilder- 
ness of  which  David  was  when  he  compared 
himself  to  a  hunted  partridge ;  and  the 
chukar  partridge  iCaccabis  chiikar),  which  is 
abundant  in  all  the  hilly  parts  of  Palestine. 
It  has  richly  barred  feathers  on  the  flanks, 
deep  red  legs  and  bill,  and  deep  black  gorget. 
It  is  a  large  and  fine  bird,  a  variety  of  the 
Greek  partridge  ( Caccabis  saxatilis),  but  larger, 
and  it  exceeds  the  chukar  partridge  of  India 
in  size. 

Pa-ru'ah  [flourishing]. 

The  father  of  Solomon's  purveyor  in  Issa- 
char  (1  Kin.  iv.  17). 

Par'va-im. 

A  designation  of  gold  used  for  the  orna- 
mentation of  Solomon's  temple  (2  Chrou.  iii. 
6).  Gesenius  derived  it  from  Sanscrit  purva, 
in  front,  eastward,  and  gave  it  the  sense  of 
eastern  or  oriental  gold  ;  but  most  investiga- 
tors believe  that  it  denotes  a  locality  in 
Ophir. 

Pa'sach  [perhaps,  a  divider] . 

An  Asherite,  of  the  family  of  Beriah  (1 
Chron.  vii.  33). 

Pas-dam'mim.    See  Ephes-dammim. 
Pa-se'ah,  in  A.  V.  once  Phaseah  (Neh.  vli. 
51)  [lame]. 

1.  A  man  of  Judah,  descended  from  Che- 
lub  (1  Chron.  iv.  12). 

2.  The  father  of  a  certain  Jehoiada,  who 
repaired  the  old  gate  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii. 
6).  He  was  the  founder  of  a  family  of 
Nethinim,  members  of  which  returned  from 
captivity  (Ezra  ii.  49  ;  Neh.  vii.  51). 

Pash'hur,  in  A.  V.  Pashur. 

1.  Son  of  Malchiah,  and  one  of  several 
officials  who  had  influence  with  king  Zede- 
kiah  and  bitterly  opposed  the  prophet  Jere- 
miah (Jer.  xxi.  1  ;  xxxviii.  1,  4  ;  cp.  xxi.  9 
with  xxxviii.  2).  It  is  natural  to  suppose 
that  his  father  is  the  Malchiah  mentioned  in 
xxxviii.  6,  a  royal  prince  into  whose  dungeon 
the  prophet  was  cast.  His  identity  with  the 
priest  Pashhur,  the  son  of  Malchijah  (1 
Chron.  ix.  12).  is  doubtful  :  especially  as  to 
his  companion,  but  not  to  him,  is  given  the 
priestly  title  (Jer.  xxi.  1). 

2.  A  son  of  Immer,  a  priest.  He  put  Jere- 
miah in  the  stocks  on  account  of  his  discour- 
aging ])redictions  (Jer.  xx.  1-6). 

3.  The  father  of  an  opponent  of  Jeremiah 
named  Gedaliah  (Jer.  xxxviii.  1). 

4.  The  founder  of  a  priestly  family,  mem- 
bers of  which  returned  from  the  Babylonian 
captivity  (Ezra  ii.  38  ;  Neh.  vii.  41,  and  per- 
haps 1  Chron.  ix.  12).  Some  of  his  descend- 
ants married  foreign  wives,  whom  Ezra  in- 
duced them  to  put  away  (Ezra  x.  22). 


Passages,  The 


545 


Patara 


5.  A  priest,  doubtless  bead  of  a  father's 
■house,  who,  with  others,  sealed  the  covenant, 
made  in  the  days  of  Nehemiah,  to  forbid  the 
internuirriasie  of  their  ehildren  with  foreign- 
ers and  to  keej)  the  law  of  God  (Neb.  x.  [<). 

Pas'sa-ges,  The.     See  Abarim. 

Pass'o-ver  [passing  over  (Ex.  xii.  23 ;  An- 

tiq.  ii.  14,  fi)]. 

1.  The  first  of  the  three  annual  festivals 
at  which  all  the  men  were  required  to  appear 
at  the  sanctuary  (Ex.  xii.  43 ;  Deut.  xvi.  1), 
known  also  as  the  feast  of  unleavened  bread 
(Ex.xxiii.  15;  Deut.  xvi.  16).  It  was  instituted 
in  Egypt  to  commemorate  the  culminatiug 
event  in  the  redemption  of  the  Israelites  (Ex. 
xii.  1,  14,  42;  xxiii.  15;  Deut.  xvi.  1,  3). 
That  night  was  to  be  much  observed  unto 
the  Lord,  when  he  smote  all  the  firstborn  in 
the  land  of  Egypt,  but  passed  over  the 
houses  of  the  Israelites  where  the  blood  had 
been  sprinkled  and  the  inmates  were  stand- 
ing, stafi"  in  hand,  awaiting  the  deliverance 
promised  by  the  Lord.  The  festival  began 
on  the  fourteenth  of  Abib  at  evening,  that  is 
in  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  day,  with 
the  sacrificial  meal  (Lev.  xxiii.  5).  A  lamb 
or  kid  was  slain  between  the  evenings,  that  is 
in  the  evening  at  sunset  (Ex.  xii.  6  ;  Deut. 
xvi.  6).  It  was  roasted  whole,  and  was  eaten 
with  unleavened  bread  and  bitter  herbs  (Ex. 
xii.  8).  The  shed  blood  denoted  expiation, 
the  bitter  herbs  symbolized  the  bitterness  of 
Egyptian  bondage,  the  unleavened  bread  was 
an  emblem  of  purity  (cp.  Lev.  ii.  11 ;  1  Cor. 
V.  7,  8).  The  Israelites  pleading  the  blood, 
mindful  of  the  afilictions  from  which  they 
awaited  deliverance,  and  putting  away  wick- 
edness, were  the  peo])le  of  the  Lord  in  holy, 
glad  communion  befcjre  him.  The  supper  was 
partaken  of  by  the  members  "of  every  house- 
hold. If  the  family  was  small,  neighbors 
joined  until  the  company  was  large  enough 
to  consume  the  entire  lamb  (Ex.  xii.  4).  The 
head  of  the  household  recited  the  history  of 
the  redemption.  At  the  first  institution  the 
participants  stood,  in  later  times  they  re- 
clined. Other  minor  features  were  intro- 
duced :  four  successive  cups  of  wine  mixed 
with  water,  to  which  there  is  no  reference  in 
the  law ;  singing  of  Psalms  cxiii.-cxviii.  (cp. 
Is.  XXX.  29 ;  Ps.  xlii.  4) ;  a  dish  of  fruits  re- 
duced with  vinegar  to  the  consistency  of 
lime  as  a  reminder  of  the  mortar  used 
during  the  Egyptian  bondage.  The  paschal 
supper  was  the  introductory  ceremony  and 
chief  feature  of  the  festival,  which  lasted 
until  the  twenty-first  day  of  the  month  (Ex. 
xii.  18;  Lev.  xxiii.  5,  6;  Deut.  xvi.  6,  7). 
That  the  event  was  to  be  commemorated  by 
a  festival  of  seven  days'  duration  (Ex.  xii. 
14-20)  was  not  communicated  to  the  people 
until  the  day  of  the  flight  (xiii.  3-10).  They 
were  directed  regarding  one  evening  only 
(xii.  21-23),  and  informed  that  the  service  was 
to  be  kept  perpetually  (24,  25).  The  attend- 
35 


ance  of  the  pilgrims  was  required  at  the 
supper  only.  They  were  at  liberty  to  depart 
on  the  morrow  (Deut.  xvi.  7).  The  first  day, 
that  is  the  fifteenth,  was  kept  as  Sabbath 
and  likewise  the  seventh  ;  no  work  was  done 
and  there  was  a  holy  convocation  (Ex.  xii. 
16 ;  Lev.  xxiii.  7  ;  Num.  xxviii.  18,  25 ;  of 
which  only  the  last  is  emphasized  in  Ex. 
xiii.  6  ;  Deut.  xvi.  8).  On  the  morrow  after 
the  Sabbath,  that  is  on  the  second  day  of  the 
festival,  a  sheaf  of  the  first  ripe  barley  was 
waved  by  the  priest  before  the  Lord  to  con- 
secrate the  opening  harvest  (Lev.  xxiii.  10- 
14  ;  cp.  .Tosh.  v.  10-12,  E.  V.  margin ;  Septu- 
agint  of  Lev.  xxiii.  7,  11  ;  Antiq.  iii.  10,  5) ; 
see  Weeks,  Feast  of.  This  was  an  inci- 
dental feature  :  the  act  consecrated  the  open- 
ing harvest,  but  it  held  a  subordinate  place  ; 
the  second  day,  when  it  was  performed,  was 
not  observed  as  a  Sabbath  ;  and  altogether 
the  relation  of  the  passover  to  the  agricul- 
tural year  was  less  marked  than  in  the  festi- 
vals of  weeks  and  tabernacles.  During  the  pass- 
over  day  by  day  continuallj%  in  addition  to  the 
regular  sacrifices  of  the  sanctuary,  two  bul- 
locks, one  ram,  and  seven  lambs  M'ere  oflered 
as  a  burnt  offering,  and  a  he  goat  as  a  sin  ofl'er- 
ing  (Lev.  xxiii.  8 ;  Num.  xxviii.  19-23). 
During  the  seven  days  also  unleavened  bread 
was  eaten.  They  had  no  leaven  in  their 
houses  on  the  night  of  the  passover,  and 
consequently  the  dough  which  they  seized  in 
their  hurried  flight  was  unleavened  (Ex.  xii. 
8,  34,  39).  It  was  baked  thus.  Henceforth 
unleavened  bread  was  associated  in  their 
minds,  not  only  with  the  thought  of  sin- 
cerity and  truth,  which  was  the  essential 
idea,  but  also  with  that  of  the  hurried  flight 
from  Egypt  (Deut.  xvi.  3).  Celebrations  of 
the  passover  are  recorded  at  Sinai  (Num.  ix. 
1-14).  on  entering  Canaan  (.Tosh.  v.  11),  un- 
der Hezekiah  (2  Chron.  xxx.  1-27;  with 
reference  to  Solomon,  5,  26),  under  Josiah  (2 
Kin.  xxiii.  21-23 ;  2  Chron.  xxxv.  1-19),  in 
the  days  of  Ezra  (Ezra  vi.  19-22).  See  also 
Mat.  xxvi.  17  seq. ;  Mark  xiv.  12  seq. :  Luke 
xxii.  7  seq. ;  John  xviii.  28 ;  Antiq.  xvii.  9,  3 ; 
XX.  5,  3;  War  vi.  9,  3). 

2.  The  lamb  or  kid  killed  at  the  festival 
of  the  passover  (Ex.  xii.  21 ;  Deut.  xvi.  2  ;  2 
Chron.  xxx.  17).  Christ  is  our  passover  (1 
Cor.  V.  7).  Like  the  paschal  lamb,  he  was 
without  blemish  (Ex.  xii.  5  with  1  Pet.  i. 
18,  19),  not  a  bone  was  broken  (Ex.  xii.  46 
with  John  xix.  36),  his  blood  was  a  token  be- 
fore Ciod  (Ex.  xii.  13),  and  the  feast  was 
eaten  with  unleavened  bread  (18  and  1  Cor. 


Pat'a-ra. 

A  maritime  city  on  the  southwest  of  Lycia. 
Paul  took  ship  there  for  Phoenicia  on  his  last 
voyage  to  Palestine  (Acts  xxi.  1).  It  pos- 
sessed a  famous  oracle  of  Apollo.  It  still  ex- 
ists as  a  ruin  under  its  old  name,  though 
gradually  becoming  overwhelmed  by  moving 
sand  dunes. 


Pathros 


546 


Paul 


Path'ros  [laud  of  the  south  (Gesenius, 
Bruf^sch),  house  of  the  goddess  Hathor  in  the 
south  (Ebers)]. 

The  country  of  southern  or  Upper  Egypt. 
It  is  mentioned  between  Egypt  and  Cash  (Is. 
xi.  11) ;  and  is  known  in  Egyptian  texts  as 
Pa-to-ris,  with  Tliebes  as  its  capital.  It  was 
the  original  seat  of  the  Egyptians  themselves 
(Ezek.  xxix.  14)  ;  and  the  first  historical  king 
of  Egypt,  Meues,  is  reported  to  have  resided  in 
Upper  Egypt,  in  whose  timeall  the  lower  coun- 
try north  of  lake  Mceris  was  a  swamp  (Herod. 
ii.  4,  15,  99).  Isaiah  foretold  the  dispersion 
of  Israel  to  the  remotest  regions  and  their 
eventual  return,  among  other  places  from 
Pathros  (Is.  xi.  11 ;  cp.  vii.  18).  After  the  cap- 
ture of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  Jews, 
probably  refugees,  were  dwellers  in  Pathros 
(Jer.  xliv.  1,  2,  15). 

Path-ru'sim. 

One  of  seven  peoples  proceeding  from  Miz- 
raim.  Tliev  are  the  inhabitants  of  Pathros 
(Gen.  X.  14;  1  Chron.  i.  12). 

Pat'mos. 

An  island  to  which  the  apostle  John  was 
banished  for  the  word  of  God,  and  for  the 
testimony  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  where  he  saw 
the  visions  recorded  in  the  book  of  Revela- 
tion (Rev.  i.  9).  It  is  a  small,  rocky  island, 
one  of  the  Sporades,  in  the  Grecian  Archi- 


Hebrew  race  and  nation.  It  is  applied  to 
Abraham  (Heb.  vii.  4),  to  the  twelve  sons 
of  Jacob  (Acts  vii.  8,  9),  and  to  king  David 
(ii.  29).  The  title  is  commonly  given  to  the 
godly  men  and  heads  of  families,  whose 
lives  are  recorded  in  the  O.  T.  previous  to 
the  time  of  Moses,  as  the  antediluvian  patri- 
archs whose  lineage  is  given  in  Gen.  v.  In 
the  patriarchal  system  the  government  of  a 
clan  is  regarded  as  the  paternal  right.  It 
resides  in  the  first  instance  in  the  progenitor 
of  the  tribe,  and  descends  from  him  to  the 
firstborn  son  or  eldest  lineal  male  descendant. 
The  head  of  each  several  family,  into  which 
the  increasing  tribe  expands,  exercises  a 
similar  government  within  his  own  limited 
sphere. 

The  patriarchal  dispensation  was  the  period 
before  the  establisliiiient  of  the  theocracy  at 
Sinai,  when  each  patriarchal  head  of  a  family 
was  the  priest  of  his  own  household,  and 
God  communed  with  him  as  such. 

Pat'ro-bas. 

A  Christian  at  Rome,  to  whom  Paul  sent 
salutations  (Rom.  xvi.  14). 

Pa'u  [bleating  (of  sheep)]. 

A  town  of  Edom,  the  city  of  king  Hadar 
(Gen.  xxxvi.  39).  Site  unknown.  Called  in 
1  Chron.  i.  50  Pai,  van  and  jod  being  inter- 
changed ;  see  Vau. 


Patmos  and  the  Harbor  of  La  Scala. 


pelage,  and  is  now  called  Patino.  It  lies  off 
the  southwestern  coast  of  Asia  ]\Iinor,  about 
30  miles  south  of  Samos ;  and  is  about  15  miles 
in  circumference,  and  generally  barren. 

Pa'tri-arch. 

The  father  or  chief  of  a  race ;  a  name 
given  in  the  N.  T.  to  the  founders  of  the 


Paul  ((xreek  Paulos,  from  Latin  Pauha^, 
little). 

The  great  apostle  to  the  gentiles.  His 
Jewish  name  was  Saul  (Hebrew  Sha'nh  Greek 
Sunlos).  He  is  .so  called  in  The  Acts  until 
after  the  account  of  the  conversion  of  Sergius 
Paulus,   proconsul   of   Cyprus,   from  which 


Paul 


547 


Paul 


point  in  the  narrative  (Acts  xiii.  9)  the  name 
Paul  alone  is  given  him.  In  his  epistles  the 
apostle  always  rails  himself  Paul.  It  is  not 
strange  that  some  have  supjiosed  that  he 
took  the  name  Paul  from  the  proconsul.  But 
this  is  in  reality  quite  improbable  in  itself, 
and  fails  to  observe  the  delicacy  with  which 
Luke  introduces  the  ajiostle's  gentile  name 
when  his  work  among  the  gentiles,  by  whom 
he  was  known  as  Paul,  began.  It  is  more 
probable  that,  like  many  Jews  (Acts  i.  23; 
xii.  12;  Col.  iv.  11),  and  especially  in  the  dis- 
persion, the  apostle  had  from  the  beginning 
l)0th  names.  He  was  born  in  Tarsus,  the 
chief  city  of  Cilicia  (Acts  ix.  11 ;  xxi.  39 ; 
xxii.  3),  and  was  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin 
(Phil.  iii.  5).  It  is  not  known  how  the  family 
came  to  reside  in  Tarsus,  though  one  ancient 
tradition  represents  it  as  having  removed 
there  from  Gischala  in  (ralilee  after  the  latter 
place  had  been  captured  by  the  Romans.  It 
is  po.ssible,  however,  that  the  family  had  at 
an  earlier  time  formed  part  of  a  colony  set- 
tled in  Tarsus  by  one  of  the  Syrian  kings 
(Ramsay,  ^7.  rui'd  the  Traveler,  p.  31),  or 
they  may  have  voluntarily  migrated,  as  so 
many  Jews  did,  for  commercial  purposes. 
Paul  seems,  however,  to  have  had  a  large 
and  even  influential  family  connection.  In 
Rom.  xvi.  7,  11  he  salutes  three  persons  as 
his  kinsmen,  two  of  whom,  Andronicus  and 
Junias  (R.  V.),  are  said  to  have  been  "of 
note  among  the  apostles,"'  and  to  have  be- 
come Christians  before  Paul  did.  From  Acts 
xxiii.  16  we  learn  that  his  "sister's  son," 
who  seems  to  have  resided,  perhaps  with  his 
mother,  in  Jerusalem,  gave  information  to 
the  chief  captain  of  the  plot  to  kill  Paul, 
from  which  it  may  be  inferred  that  the 
young  man  was  connected  with  some  of  the 
leading  families.  This  is  also  confirmed  by 
the  prominence  of  Paul,  though  himself  a 
young  man,  at  the  time  of  Stephen's  death. 
He  was  apparently  already  a  member  of 
the  council  (Acts  xxvi.  10),  and  soon  after- 
wards the  high  priest  intrusted  to  him  the 
work  of  persecuting  the  Christians  (ix.  1, 
2;  xxii.  5).  His  language  in  Phil.  iii.  4-7 
further  implies  that  he  occupied  originally  a 
position  of  large  influence,  and  that  oppor- 
tunities of  honor  and  gain  had  been  open  to 
him.  His  family  connections,  therefore,  can- 
not have  been  obscure.  Though  he  was 
brought  up  in  the  strict  observance  of  the 
Hebrew  faith  and  traditions,  his  father  hav- 
ing been  a  Pharisee  (Acts  xxiii.  6),  he  was 
born  a  free  Roman  citizen.  We  do  not  know 
by  what  means  his  ancestor  obtained  citizen- 
ship. It  may  have  been  for  service  to  the 
state  or  possibly  by  purchase.  Its  possession 
may  have  had  some  connection  with  the 
apostle's  Roman  name  Paulus.  But,  how- 
ever acquired,  his  Roman  citizenship  became 
fif  great  importance  in  the  prosecution  of  his 
Christian  work  and  more  than  once  saved 
his  life.  Tarsus  was  one  of  the  intellectual 
centers  of  the  East,  and  the  seat  of  a  famous 


school  of  learning  in  which  Stoicism  was  the 
dominant  philosophy.  It  is  scarcely  prob- 
able, howevi'r,  that  Paul  came  under  these 
influences  when  a  boy,  for  his  parents  were 
strict  Jews,  and  he  was  early  sent  to  Jerusa- 
lem to  be  educated.  Like  other  Jewish  l)oys 
he  was  taught  a  trade,  which  in  his  case  was 
the  manufacture  of  tents,  such  as  were  used 
by  travelers  Ixviii.  3).  But,  as  he  him- 
self sjiys  (xxii.  3),  he  was  brought  up  in 
Jerusalem.  He  must,  therefore,  have  been 
sent  there  when  quite  young.  And  his  edu- 
cation in  Jerusalem  tended  to  deepen  the 
hold  upon  him  of  his  inherited  Pharisaic 
traditions.  He  was  instructed  "according  to 
the  perfect  manner  of  the  law  of  the  fathers" 
(ibid.).  He  had  for  his  teacher  one  of 
the  most  learned  and  distinguished  rabbis 
of  the  day.  This  was  Gamaliel,  the  grand- 
son of  the  yet  more  famous  Hillel.  It  was 
this  Gamaliel  whose  speech,  recorded  in  Acts- 
v.  34-.39,  prevented  the  sanhedrin  from  at- 
tempting to  slay  the  apostles.  Gamaliel,  in- 
deed, had  some  leaning,  strangely  fcvr  a  Phar- 
isee, toward  Greek  culture,  and  his  speech 
in  The  Acts  shows  the  reverse  of  a  bitter, 
persecuting  spirit.  But  he  was  famous  for 
rabbinical  learning,  and  at  his  feet  the  young: 
man  from  Tarsus  became  versed  not  only  in 
the  teaching  of  the  O.  T.,  but  in  the  subtle- 
ties of  rabbinical  interpretation,  while  it  is 
plain  also  that  his  zeal  for  the  traditions  of 
the  fathers  and  his  narrow  Pharisaism 
burned  with  the  fiery  intensity  of  youth. 
Thus  the  future  apostle  grew  up  an  ardent 
Pharisee,  trained  in  the  religious  and  intel- 
lectual ideas  of  his  people,  and  from  his  per- 
sonal qualities,  his  course  of  education,  and 
probably  his  family  connections  prepared  to 
take  a  high  position  among  his  countrymen. 
He  first  appears  in  Christian  history  as  the 
man  at  w'hose  feet  the  witnesses  who  stoned 
Stephen  laid  their  clothes  (Acts  vii.  58).  He 
is  described  as  being  then  a  young  man. 
The  po.sition  he  is  here  said  to  have  occupied 
was  not  an  official  one.  It  seems  to  imply, 
however,  especiallj'  when  taken  with  the 
.statement  (viii.  1)  that  he  "was  consent- 
ing unto  his  death,"  that  Paul  was  active 
in  the  persecution  of  the  first  Christian  mar- 
tyr. He  was  doubtless  one  of  the  Hellenists, 
or  Greek-speaking  Jews,  mentioned  in  Acts 
vi.  9  as  the  original  instigators  of  the  charge 
against  Stephen.  We  cannot  be  wi'ong  in 
supposing  that  Paul's  hatred  of  the  new  sect 
had  already  been  aroused  ;  that  he  not  only 
despised  their  crucified  Messiah,  but  regarded 
them  as  being  both  politically  and  religiously 
dangerous ;  and  that  he  was  already  pre- 
pared, with  bitter  but  conscientious  fanati- 
cism, to  oppo.se  them  to  the  death.  So  we 
find  him,  immediately  after  Stephen's  death, 
taking  a  leading  part  in  the  persecution  of 
the  Christians  which  followed  (Acts  viii.  3  : 
xxii.  4  ;  xxvi.  10,  11 ;  1  Cor.  xv.  9 ;  Gal.  i.  13  ; 
Phil.  iii.  6;  1  Tim.  i.  13).  He  did  this  with 
the  fierceness  of  a  misguided  conscience.   He 


Paul 


548 


Paul 


was  the  type  of  the  religious  inquisitor.  Not 
content  with  waging  the  persecution  in  Jeru- 
salem, he  asked  of  the  high  priest  letters  to 
the  synagogues  in  Damascus  that  he  might 
bring  from  thence  any  Christian  Jews  whom 
he  might  find  (Acts  ix.  1,  2).  Large  powers 
of  internal  administration  were  granted  to 
the  Jews  even  by  the  Romans,  and  in  Da- 
mascus, which  was  under  the  control  of 
Aretas,  king  of  the  Nabathaeans.  the  gover- 
nor was  particularly  favorable  to  them  (ix. 
23,  24  ;  2  Cor.  xi.  32),  so  that  Paul's  persecu- 
tion of  the  Christians  is  not  in  the  least  in- 
credible. The  important  thing  to  observe, 
however,  is  that  according  to  the  express 
testimony  of  Luke  and  of  Paul  himself,  he 
was  filled  with  fury  against  them  up  to  the 
Yery  moment  of  Ills  conversion,  and  believed 
that  in  persecuting  them  he  was  rendering 
the  highest  service  to  God.  He  did  not  have 
a  doubt  as  to  the  righteousness  of  his  course, 
nor  did  his  heart  fail  him  in  its  execution. 

It  was  on  the  way  to  Damascus  that  his 
sudden  conversion  occurred.  Paul  and  his 
companions,  probably  on  horseback,  had  been 
following  tlie  usual  road  across  the  desert 
from  Galilee  to  the  ancient  city.  Damascus 
had  been  nearly  reached.  It  was  the  hour 
of  noon  and  the  suu  was  blazing  in  the  zenith 
(Acts  xxvi.  13).  Suddenly  a  light  from 
heaven,  brighter  than  the  sun,  streamed 
round  about  them,  and,  overcome  by  its 
blinding  brilliance,  Paul  fell  upon  the  ground. 
His  companions,  too,  fell  to  the  ground 
(14),  though  they  appear  to  have  afterwards 
arisen,  while  he  remained  prostrate  (ix.  7). 
Out  of  the  light  he  heard  a  voice,  say- 
ing in  the  Hebrew  language:  "Saul,  Saul, 
why  per.secutest  thou  me?  it  is  hard  for 
thee  to  kick  against  the  goad"  (xxvi.  14 
E.  v.).  He  replied  :  "  Who  art  thou.  Lord  ?  " 
He  heard  in  answer :  "  I  am  Jesus  whom 
thou  persecutest"  (15).  "Arise,  and  go 
into  the  city,  and  it  shall  be  told  thee 
what  thou  must  do"  (ix.  6;  xxii.  10).  His 
companions  heard  the  sound  of  the  voice 
(ix.  7),  but  did  not  understand  what  was 
said  (xxii.  9).  Paul,  however,  was  found  to 
be  blinded  by  the  light,  so  they  led  him  by 
the  hand  into  Damascus,  where  he  lodged  in 
the  house  of  a  certain  Judas  (ix.  11).  For 
three  days  he  remained  blind  and  fasting, 
praying  (9,  11)  and  meditating  on  the  reve- 
lation which  had  been  made  to  him.  On  the 
third  day  the  Lord  commanded  a  certain 
Jewish  Christian,  named  Ananias,  to  go  to 
Paul  and  lay  his  hands  on  him  that  he  might 
receive  his  sight.  The  Lord  assured  .\nanias, 
who  was  afraid  of  the  persecutor,  that  the 
latter  had  already  seen  him  in  a  vision  com- 
ing to  him.  Thereupon  Ananias  obeyed. 
Paul  confessed  his  faith  in  Jesus,  received 
his  sight,  accepted  baptism,  and  forthwith, 
with  his  characteristic  energy  and  to  the  as- 
tonishment of  the  Jews,  began  to  preach  in 
the  synagogues  that  .fesus  was  the  Christ,  the 
Son  (if  God  (ix.  10-22). 


Such  is  the  narrative  of  tlie  conversion  of 
Saul  of  Tarsus.  Three  recitals  of  it  are 
given  in  The  Acts ;  one  by  Luke  (ix.  3-22)  ; 
one  by  Paul  himself  before  the  Jews  (xxii. 
1-16) ;  again  by  Paul  before  Festus  and 
Agrippa  (x.xvi.  1-20).  The  three  accounts 
entirely  agree,  though  in  each  of  them  par- 
ticulars are  dwelt  on  which  are  not  found  in 
the  others.  The  story  in  each  case  is  told 
with  special  regard  to  the  purpose  of  the  nar- 
rator. Paul  in  his  epistles  also  frequently 
alludes  to  his  conversion,  attributing  it  to  the 
grace  and  power  of  God,  though  he  does  not 
describe  it  in  detail  (1  Cor.  ix.  1,  16;  xv.  8- 
10;  Gal.  i.  12-16;  Ei)h.  iii.  1-8  ;  Phil.  iii.  5-7; 
1  Tim.  i.  12-16;  2  Tim.  i.  9-11).  The  fact, 
therefore,  is  supported  by  the  strongest  i)ossi- 
ble  testimony.  It  is  certain  also  that  Jesus 
not  onlj'  spoke  to  Paul,  but  visibly  appeared 
to  him  (Acts  ix.  17,  27;  xxii.  14  ;  xxvi.  16  ; 
1  Cor.  ix.  1).  While  the  form  in  which  he 
appeared  is  not  described,  we  may  be  sure 
that  it  was  a  glorious  one ;  so  that  Paul  real- 
ized at  once  that  the  crucified  Jesus  was  the 
exalted  Son  of  God.  He  himself  describes 
it  as  "the  heavenly  vision"  (Acts  xxvi.  19), 
or  spectacle,  a  word  elsewhere  used  only  in 
Luke  i.  22  and  xxiv.  23  to  describe  the  mani- 
festation of  angelic  beings.  There  is  no 
ground  therefore  for  the  allegation  that  it 
was  an  illusion  of  any  kind.  At  the  same 
time  the  mere  appearance  of  Christ  did  not 
convert  Paul.  This  was  the  work  of  the 
Spirit  in  his  heart,  enabling  him  to  appre- 
hend and  accept  the  truth  which  had  been 
revealed  to  him  (see  especially  Gal.  i.  15). 
Ananias  also  was  evidently  made  use  of  in 
order  to  connect  Paul's  new  life  with  the 
already  existing  church.  The  various  ration- 
alistic attempts  which  have  been  made  to  ex- 
plain Paul's  conversion  without  acknowledg- 
ment of  the  objective  and  supernatural  in- 
terposition of  the  Lord  are  wrecked  upon 
the  testimony  of  Paul  himself  that  he  had 
thought  up  to  the  time  of  his  conversion 
that  it  was  his  religious  duty  to  persecute 
Christianity,  and  that  his  change  was  due  to 
the  sovereign  exercise  of  God's  power  and 
grace.  The  expression,  "It  is  hard  for  thee 
to  kick  against  the  goad,"  does  not  imply 
that  he  had  been  an  unwilling  jiersecutor  or 
that  he  already  believed  that  Christianity 
might  be  true,  but  describes  the  folly  of  any 
resistance  to  the  purpose  of  God  with  him. 
At  the  same  time  his  previous  history  had 
been  an  unconscious  prei)aration  for  his  fu- 
tui'e  work.  His  Eoman  citizenship,  his  rab- 
binical training,  as  well  as  his  natural  quali- 
ties of  mind  fitted  him  for  his  life  task. 
There  is  reason  to  believe  also  that  with  all 
his  zeal  he  had  not  found  spiritual  peace 
in  Judaism  (Eom.  vii.  7-25).  If  so,  the 
manner  of  his  conversion  must  have  made 
him  vividly  realize  that  salvation  is  alone 
through  the  grace  of  God  in  Christ.  His  re- 
ligious experience  therefore  was  also  part  of 
his    preparation    to    become    the  great  ex- 


Paul 


549 


Paul 


pouuder  of  the  gospel  as  providing  justifica- 
tiou  for  the  sinner  i)n  the  ground  of  Christ's 
merits  received  through  faith  alone.  As 
soon  as  he  was  converted  Paul  began  evan- 
gelistic work.  This  was  partly  due  to  his 
natural  energy,  but  also  to  the  fact  that  it 
had  been  revealed  to  him  that  God's  purpose 
in  calling  him  was  to  make  him  a  mission- 
ary and  apostle  (Acts  ix.  15;  xxvi.  Ki-iiO ; 
Gal.  i.  15,  IG).  He  began  work  in  the  syna- 
gogues of  Damascus  and  pursued  it  with  suc- 
cess. This  raised  against  him  persecution  from 
the  Damascene  Jews,  who  were  aided  by  the 
governor  of  the  city  (2  Cor.  xi.  32)  ;  so  that  he 
was  compelled  to  dee  secretly,  being  let  down 
by  his  disciples  in  a  basket  from  a  window  in 
the  city's  wall  (Acts  ix.  23-25;  2  Cor.  xi.  33). 
Instead  of  returning  to  Jerusalem,  however, 
he  went  to  Arabia  and  afterwards  returned 
to  Damascus  (Gal.  i.  17).  We  do  not  know 
where  he  went  in  Arabia,  nor  how  long  he 
stayed,  nor  what  he  did  there.  It  is  not  im- 
probable that  the  time  was  mainly  spent  in 
meditation  upon  the  great  change  which  had 
come  over  his  life  and  the  truth  as  it  had 
now  been  revealed  to  him.  But  three  years 
after  his  conversion  he  determined  to  leave 
Damascus  and  visit  Jerusalem  again.  He 
tells  us  (Gal.  i.  18,  19)  that  his  main  i)urpose 
was  to  visit  Peter;  that  he  remained  in  Je- 
rusalem only  fifteen  days  ;  and  that  of  the 
apo.stles  he  saw  Peter  only,  though  he  men- 
tions that  he  also  saw  James,  the  Lord's 
brother.  Luke,  however  (Acts  ix.  26-29), 
gives  further  particulars.  It  appears  that 
the  Christians  in  Jerusalem  were  afraid  of 
him  because  of  his  former  reputation  and 
did  not  believe  he  was  really  a  di.sciple  ;  but 
that  Barnabas,  with  that  generosity  of  mind 
which  was  ever  characteristic  of  him,  took 
Paul  to  the  apostles  and  related  the  story  of 
his  conversion  and  subsequent  changed  life. 
We  are  also  told  that  Paul  preached  as  fear- 
lessly in  Jerusalem  as  he  had  done  at  Damas- 
cus and  directed  his  eflbrts  especially  toward 
his  old  friends,  the  Greek-speaking  .Tews  (ix. 
28,  29).  These,  too,  plotted  at  once  against  his 
life.  The  tlireatening  danger  caused  the 
brethren  to  send  him  away,  so  they  took  him 
to  Csessirea  and  sent  him  from  there  to  Tar- 
sus (29,  ,30;  Gal.  i.  21).  He  departed  the 
more  willingly  because  in  the  temple  the 
Lord  had  appeared  to  him  in  a  vision  bidding 
him  go  and  telling  him  distinctly  that  his 
mission  was  to  the  gentiles  (Acts  xxii.  17-21). 
The  two  accounts  in  The  Acts  and  Galatians 
of  this  visit  to  Jerusalem  have  sometimes  been 
thought  inconsistent,  but  they  may  be  natur- 
ally harmonized.  It  is  highly  probable  that 
Paul  would  want  to  visit  Peter  in  order  that 
his  work  might  proceed  in  unison  with  that 
of  the  original  apostles,  of  whom  Peter  was 
the  most  prominent.  It  is  equally  natural 
that  the  Jerusalem  Christians  should  be  at 
first  afraid  of  him;  and  the  conduct  of  Bar- 
nabas, who  was,  like  Paul,  a  Hellenistic 
Jew,  is  in  keeping  with  his  action  through- 


out tlie  whole  history.  Fifteen  days,  more- 
over, are  not  too  .sliort  a  time  for  tlie  events 
described  in  Tlie  Acts.  It  is,  in  fact,  confirmed 
by  the  Lord's  command  to  Paul  to  dejiait 
quickl}'  (xxii.  18).  Nor  is  Luke's  statement 
that  Barnabas  brought  Paul  "  to  the  apostles  " 
inconsistent  with  Paul's  statement  that  he 
saw  Peter  only,  together  with  James.  Tlie 
reception  of  the  new  convert  even  by  Peter 
alone,  not  to  speak  of  James,  who  occupied 
almost  an  apostolic  position  (see  Gal.  ii.  9), 
was  equivalent  to  apostolic  recognition  of  him, 
and  this  is  all  that  Luke's  expression  was 
meant  to  describe.  It  is  further  worthy  of  re- 
mark that  it  was  now  realized  fully,  both  by 
Paul  and  the  leaders  in  Jerusalem,  that  the 
new  convert  was  a  chosen  apostle  of  Christ, 
and  that  his  mission  was  to  the  gentiles.  At 
the  same  time  the  question  does  not  appear 
to  have  been  raised  of  what  would  be  the  re- 
lation of  gentile  converts  to  the  Mosaic  law. 
Neither  did  any  foresee  how  important  Paul's 
mission  was  to  become.  His  commission, 
however,  was  admitted,  and  he  was  sent 
forth  to  Tarsus  to  engage  in  such  work  as 
might  open  before  him. 

Paul's  stay  in  Tarsus  is  nearly  a  blank  to 
us.  It  probably  lasted  six  or  seven  years ;  see 
below  on  the  chronology  of  Paul's  life.  No 
doubt  he  engaged  in  missionary  work,  and 
probably  founded  the  churches  of  Cilicia, 
which  are  mentioned  incidentally  in  Acts 
XV.  41.  If  at  any  time  he  felt  the  intellec- 
tual influences  of  Tarsus,  this  must  have 
been  the  period.  As  already  remarked.  Tar- 
sus was  one  of  the  centers  of  the  Stoic  ]iliil- 
osophy,  and  Paul's  appreciation  of  Stoicism 
plainly  appears  in  his  speech  at  Athins.  But 
we  must  be  content  with  the  little  informa- 
tion that  has  been  given  us.  While  doubt- 
less not  inactive,  Paul  was  waiting  for  the 
Lord  by  his  providence  to  make  i)lain  the  way 
in  which  his  chosen  ambassador  was  to  go. 

At  length,  however,  the  purpose  of  God 
began  to  appear.  Some  of  the  Greek-speak- 
ing .Jewish  Christians  who  had  been  driven 
from  Jerusalem  by  the  persecution  whi(;h 
followed  Stejihen's  death  came  to  the  great 
city  of  Antioch  in  Syria.  It  was  situated  on 
the  Orontes,  north  of  the  Lebanon  range, 
had  been  the  cajiital  of  the  Syrian  king- 
dom, and  was  then  the  residence  of  the  Rou'an 
governor  of  the  province.  It  was  rated  as 
one  of  the  chief  cities  of  the  empire.  Its 
mixed  population  and  its  extensive  com- 
merce made  it  a  center  of  wide  influence. 
Lying  just  outside  of  Palestine  and  at  the 
entrance  to  Asia  Minor,  connected  also  by 
traffic  and  politics  with  the  whole  empire,  it 
formed  a  natural  base  of  operations  from 
wliich  the  new  faith,  if  it  was  to  he  separated 
from  Judaism,  could  go  forth  to  the  conquest 
of  the  world.  In  Antioch  the  Christian  ref- 
ugees began,  we  are  told  (Act^s  xi.  20),  to 
preach  to  the  gentiles  (A.  V.  Grecians;  R. 
V.  Greeks).  There  is  a  difficult  question  of 
the  text  in  the  original ;    but  the   context 


Paul 


550 


Paul 


leaves  no  room  for  doubt  that  the  work  was 
amoug  gentiles.  Many  were  converted,  so 
that  a  distinctively  gentile  church  sprang 
up  in  the  metropolis  of  Syria.  Wlien  the 
fact  was  reported  at  Jerusalem,  Barnabas  was 
sent  to  investigate.  With  noble  breadth  of 
view,  he  saw  the  Lord's  hand  in  the  new  de- 
velopment in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  con- 
verts were  uncircumcised.  He  also  seems  to 
have  realized  that  this  was  the  divine  open- 
ing for  Paul ;  for  he  went  to  Tarsus  to  seek 
him  and  brought  him  to  Antioch.  Together 
they  labored  for  a' year  in  Antioch.  Many 
more  gentiles  were  converted,  and  the  non- 
Jewish  character  of  the  church  was  signal- 
ized by  the  fact  that  to  the  di.sciples  in  Anti- 
och was  the  name  Christians  first  given,  evi- 
dently by  their  heathen  neighbors.  Thus 
began  Paul's  connection  with  Antioch.  Thus 
also  aro.se  on  the  page  of  church  history  the 
first  gentile  Christian  organization.  It  was 
to  be  the  starting  point  for  Paul's  mission  to 
the  pagan  world. 

While  Paul  was  at  Antioch,  a  prophet  from 
Jerusalem,  named  Agabus,  predicted  in  the 
Christian  asseniltly  that  a  famine  was  soon  to 
occur.  This  was  seized  upon  by  the  brethren 
at  Antioch  as  an  occasion  for  evincing  their 
love  to  and  fraternity  with  the  Christians  of 
Judsea.  Tlie  fact  is  a  remarkable  proof  of 
the  sense  of  obligation  which  these  gentiles 
had  to  those  from  whom  they  had  received 
their  new  faith,  as  well  as  of  the  extent  to 
which  the  gospel  broke  down  at  once  the 
barriers  which  had  existed  between  races 
and  classes.  Contributions  for  the  relief  of 
the  Judaean  Christians  were  made  at  Anti- 
och, and  the  same  were  sent  to  the  elders  at 
Jerusalem  by  the  hands  of  Barnabas  and 
Saul  (Acts  xi.  29,  30).  This  visit  of  Paul 
to  Jerusalem  probably  occurred  in  A.  D.  44, 
or  shortly  after.  It  is  not  mentioned  by 
Paul  in  Galatians,  no  doubt  because  he  did 
not  see  any  of  the  apostles.  Some  writers 
indeed  have  tried  to.  identify  it  with  the 
visit  recorded  in  Gal.  ii.  1-10 ;  but  that 
plainly  occurred  after  the  dispute  concerning 
the  circumcision  of  gentiles  had  sprung  up, 
and  Luke  distinctly  assigns  the  rise  of  that 
controversy  to  a  later  date  (Acts  xv.  1).  The 
purpose  of  Paul  in  Galatians  was  to  recount 
the  opportunities  he  had  had  of  obtaining 
his  gospel  from  the  older  apostles  ;  and  if  on 
this  occasion,  as  Luke  intimates  (xi.  30),  he 
met  only  the  elders  of  the  church,  and  if  the 
brief  visit  was  purely  on  a  matter  of  charity, 
his  argument  in  Galatians  did  not  require 
him  to  mention  the  journey.  Barnabas  and 
Paul  soon  returned  to  Antioch,  taking  with 
them  John  Mark  (xii.  2.^). 

The  time  had  at  length  arrived  when 
Paul's  historic  missionary  work  to  the  gen- 
tiles was  to  begin.  It  was  indicated  by  tlie 
Spirit  to  the  jtrophets  belonging  to  the 
church  in  Antioch  (Acts  xiii.  1-3).  They  were 
directed  to  .set  ajiart  two  of  their  number, 
Barnabas  and   Paul,  for  the  work  to  which 


God  had  called  them.  Thus  by  divine  direc- 
tion and  under  the  auspices  of  the  church  at 
Antioch, the  apostle's  first  missionary  journey 
began.  Its  exact  date  is  uncertain.  We  can 
only  assign  it  to  the  years  between  a.  d. 
45-50  ;  perhaps,  46-48.  Neither  is  there  any 
clear  indication  how  long  a  time  it  occupied. 
Barnabas,  who  was  the  older,  is  mentioned 
as  the  leader ;  but  Paul  speedily  took  the 
chief  place  through  his  ability  in  speaking. 
John  Mark  also  went  as  their  helper.  The 
party  went  from  Antioch  to  Seleucia,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Orontes,  and  thence  sailed 
to  Cyprus,  the  original  home  of  Barnabas. 
Landing  at  Salamis,  on  the  east  coast  of 
Cyprus,  they  began  work,  as  was  natural,  in 
the  Jewish  synagogues.  Then  they  moved 
through  the  island  from  place  to  place  until 
they  reached  Paphos  on  the  southwest  coast. 
Here  they  attracted  the  notice  of  Sergius  Pau- 
las, the  Roman  proconsul,  and  were  violently 
opposed  by  a  Jewish  sorcerer,  Bar-jesus, 
who  called  himself  Elymas,  learned  one, 
and  who  had  previously  won  the  patronage 
of  the  proconsul  (Acts  xiii.  ti,  7).  Paul,  with 
much  indignation,  rebuked  the  sorcerer  and 
smote  him  with  blindness ;  and  the  effect 
of  the  miracle  and  of  the  missionaries' 
teaching  was  the  conversion  of  Sergius  (8- 
12).  Then  leaving  Cyprus,  the  party,  of 
whom  Paul  was  now  the  recognized  head 
(13),  sailed  north  toward  Asia  Minor  and 
came  to  Perga  in  Pamphylia.  There  John 
Mark,  for  some  unexplained  reason,  left 
them  and  returned  to  Jerusalem.  Nor  do 
Paul  and  Barnabas  appear  to  have  remained 
in  Perga,  but  journeyed  northward  into 
Phrygia  until  they  reached  Antioch,  called 
Pisidian  because  it  lay  toward  Pisidia. 
This  was  the  chief  city  of  the  Roman  prov- 
ince of  Galatia.  There  they  entered  the 
Jewish  synagogue  and,  on  invitation  of  the 
rulers  of  the  synagogue,  Paul  made  the  great 
address  recorded  in  Acts  xiii.  16-41,  the  first 
recorded  specimen  of  his  preaching.  After 
rehearsing  the  divine  leading  of  Israel  with 
a  view  to  the  coming  Messiah,  he  related  the 
testimony  of  the  Baptist  and  the  rejection 
of  Jesus  by  the  Jewish  rulers,  but  declared 
that  God  had  raised  him  from  the  dead,  that 
in  him  the  ancient  promises  to  Israel  were 
being  fulfilled,  and  that  only  through  faith  in 
him  could  men  be  justified.  He  also  warned 
the  Jews  not  to  repeat  the  crime  of  their 
rulers  in  Jerusalem.  The  .speech  aroused 
the  enmity  of  the  leading  Jews ;  but  it  made 
an  impression  on  some  others,  and  yet  more 
on  those  gentiles  who  were  already  under 
the  influence  of  the  synagogue  and  who 
ever  formed  the  connecting  link  for  Paul  be- 
tween the  synagogue  and  the  i)agan  world. 
The  next  Sabbath  the  break  took  place  be- 
tween the  missionaries  and  the  synagogue, 
and  the  former  began  to  address  their  work 
directly  to  the  gentiles.  The  chief  people 
of  the  city,  however,  were  excited  by  the 
Jews  against  the  Christians,  and   Paul  and 


Longiinde East        30'      from nrevuwich        js'- 


Second  Joaraev 


East         30"        from 


Third  Jouruey 


ST.  PAUL'S 

JOIJUNEY   TO    ROME. 


20°  Lniigitucic E list 20 j; 


Greenwich  30° 


Paul 


551 


Paul 


Barnabas  were  expelled  (Acts  xiii.  50).  From 
Autioeh  they  went  to  Iconium.  another  city 
of  Phrygia,  where  many  converts,  both 
Jewish  and  gentile,  were  made  (51).  But 
the  Jews  again  succeeded  in  raising  per- 
secution, and  the  missionaries  passed  on  to 
Lystra  and  Derbe,  important  cities  of  Ly- 
caonia  (xiv.  1-6).  At  Lystra  the  miracu- 
lous cure  of  a  lame  man  by  Paul  led 
to  an  attempt  on  the  jjart  of  the  heathen 
populace  to  otfer  worship  to  the  missionaries, 
calling  them  Jupiter  and  Merc\iry  ;  and  this 
occasioned  the  second  recorded  speech  of 
Paul  (15-18),  in  which  he  reasoned  against 
the  folly  of  idolatry.  At  Lystra  Timothy 
was  probably  converted  (see  Acts  xvi.  1; 
2  Tim.  i.  2:  iii.  11).  The  brief  popularity 
of  the  apostle  was,  however,  soon  followed 
by  renewed  persecution  under  Jewish  in- 
stigation (Acts  xiv.  19),  so  that  he  was 
stoned,  dragged  out  of  the  city,  and  left  for 
dead.  When  he  revived  he  departed  with 
Barnabas  to  Derbe,  which  was  probably  at 
the  southeastern  limit  of  the  province  of 
Galatia  (20).  It  would  have  been  possible  for 
the  missionaries  to  cross  the  mountains  into 
Cilicia,  and  so  go  directly  by  way  of  Tarsus, 
back  to  Syrian  Autioeh.  Their  route  had 
followed  a  rough  circle.  But  they  would  not 
return  until  they  had  placed  the  new  churches 
on  a  firm  basis.  Hence  they  returned  from 
Derbe  to  Lystra,  from  Lystra  to  Iconium,  from 
Iconium  to  Pisidiaii  Antioch,  and  from  An- 
tioch  to  Perga,  in  each  place  organizing  the 
church  and  encouraging  the  disciples.  At 
Perga  they  preached,  as  they  had  seemingly 
not  done  at  the  former  \isit ;  then,  going  to 
its  seaport,  Attalia,  they  returned  to  Antioch 
in  Syria  (Acts  xiv.  21-26).  Thus  the  first 
missionary  tour  of  the  apostle  was  com- 
pleted. It  covered  the  regions  next  toward 
the  west  of  those  already  occupied  by  the 
gospel.  His  method  was  to  offer  the  gospel 
first  to  the  Jews  and  then  to  the  gentiles. 
He  found  a  large  number  of  the  latter 
already  influenced  by  Judaism,  and  there- 
fore somewhat  prepared  to  receive  Chris- 
tianity. His  method  was  to  found  churches 
in  the  principal  cities,  and  his  journeys  were 
facilitated  by  the  fine  roads  which  the 
Roman  government  had  made  between  her 
military  posts.  The  Greek  language  also 
was  everywhere  understood.  Providence 
had  thus  prepared  the  way  for  the  prepared 
herald  of  the  gospel  to  the  world.  [On  the 
missionary  journeys  of  Paul,  the  student 
should  consult  C'onybeare  and  Howson's 
Life  (uid  Epistles  of  St.  Paul;  and,  especially 
for  the  first  journey,  the  first  part  of  Eam- 
say's  Church  in  the  Roman  Empire.] 

The  success  of  Paul's  work  among  the 
gentiles  led,  however,  to  controversy  within 
the  church.  Certain  strict  Jewish  Christians 
from  Jerusalem  went  to  Antioch  and  de- 
clared that  unless  the  converted  gentiles 
were  circumcised,  they  could  not  be  saved 
<Acts  XV.  1).   Some  years  before  this  time  God 


had  revealed  to  the  church  through  Peter 
that  gentiles  were  to  be  received  without 
observance  of  the  Mo.saic  law  (x.  1-xi.  18). 
But  the  strict  Jewish  party,  made  up 
mostly  of  converted  Pharisees  (xv.  5),  would 
not  abide  by  this  teaching;  and  the  an- 
nouncement of  their  doctrines  in  Antioch 
so  disturbed  the  church  there  that  the 
brethren  determined  to  .send  Paul  and  Bar- 
nabas, with  others,  to  Jerusalem  to  consult 
with  the  apostles  and  elders  about  this  ques- 
tion. This  is  the  visit  described  in  Acts  xv.  i 
and  Gal.  ii.  1-10.  Both  accounts  are  entirely 
harmonious,  though  written  from  different 
points  of  view.  Paul  tells  us  that  a  revela- 
tion from  God  directed  him  to  go  (Gal.  ii.  2). 
It  was  a  great  crisis.  The  wiiole  future  of 
the  new  religion  was  depending  on  the  issue. 
But  the  result  was  a  triumph  of  Christian 
loyalty  and  charity.  Paul  and  Barnabas 
proclaimed  to  the  mother  church  what  God 
had  done  through  them.  When  the  strict 
Jewish  Christians  opposed  them,  a  council 
was  held  of  the  apostles  and  elders  (Acts  xv. 
6-29).  Peter  reminded  the  church  of  God's 
will  as  shown  in  the  case  of  Cornelius;  Paul 
and  Barnabas  related  the  mighty  attestations 
which  God  had  given  to  their  mission; 
James,  the  Lord's  brother,  pointed  out  that 
prophecy  had  foretold  the  calling  of  the 
gentiles.  It  was  resolved  to  heartily  recog- 
nize the  uncircumcised  converts  as  brethren, 
but  to  direct  them  to  avoid  certain  practices 
which  were  specially  oflensive  to  the  Jews. 
Paul  tells  us  in  Galatians  that  the  church  in 
Jerusalem  stood  by  him  against  the  "  false 
brethren;"  and  also  that  James,  Peter,  and 
John  gave  him  the  right  hand  of  fellowship, 
he  to  go  to  the  gentiles,  they  to  the  Jews. 
Thus  Paul  retained  fellowship  with  the  other 
apostles  while  at  liberty  to  go  on  his  own 
divinely  appointed  mission.  How  bitter  the 
controversy  was  on  the  part  of  the  Judaizers 
is  shown  by  their  subsequent  hatred  and  hos- 
tility to  Paul.  But  he  had  gained  his  point. 
The  unity  of  the  church  was  preserved. 
The  liberty  of  the  gentiles  was  preserved.  A 
practical  adjustment  was  made  by  which 
reasonable  Jewish  prejudice  was  conciliated, 
while  the  way  was  open  for  the  carrying  of  the 
go.spel  to  all  peoples,  unencumbered  by  Jew- 
ish ceremonialism.  A  brief  reminder  of  the 
controversy  occurred  indeed  soon  after  in 
Antioch  which  ought  to  be  mentioned  (Gal. 
ii.  11-21).  Peter  had  gone  there  and,  being 
in  entire  agreement  with  Paul,  had  lived  in 
free  association  with  the  gentiles.  But  when 
Jews  from  Jerusalem  came  to  Antioch,  Peter 
and  even  Barnabas  withdrew  from  this  asso- 
ciation. This  led  Paul  publicly  to  rebuke 
Peter,  and  in  his  rebuke  he  outlined  the 
doctrinal  ground  on  which  he  rested  the 
rights  of  the  gentiles  in  the  church.  Salva- 
tion is  by  faith  alone,  he  said,  because  the 
believer  has  died  with  Christ  to  the  law  ;  i.  e. 
Christ  by  dying  has  met  all  the  obligations 
of   the  law  for    his  people,   and   therefore 


Paul 


552 


Paul 


nothing  more  than  faith  in  Christ  can  be 
made  the  condition  of  any  one's  becoming  a 
Christian.  We  thus  see  that  the  rights  of 
the  gentiles  in  the  church  involved  for  Paul 
much  more  thau  a  question  of  church  unity. 
He  saw  that  it  involved  the  essential  principle 
of  the  gospel.  By  his  defense  of  this  prin- 
ciple, as  well  as  by  his  missionary  work, 
Paul  was  the  chief  agent  in  the  establish- 
ment of  universal  Christianity. 

The  council  at  Jerusalem  was  probably 
held  in  a.  d.  50  ;  see  the  chronology  below. 
Not  long  after  it  Paul  proposed  to  Barnabas 
a  second  missionary  journey  (Acts  xv.  36). 
He  was  unwilling,  however,  that  John  Mark 
should  again  go  with  them,  and  this  led  to 
the  final  separation  of  the  two  great  mis- 
sionaries. Paul  thereupon  took  with  him 
Silas ;  see  Silas.  They  first  visited  the 
churches  of  Syria  and  Cilicia,  and  then 
passed  northward,  through  the  Taurus  moun- 
tains, to  the  churches  which  had  been 
founded  on  Paul's  first  journey.  They  thus 
came  first  to  Derbe,  then  to  Lystra.  At  the 
latter  place  Paul  determined  to  take  Timothy 
with  hira,  and  circumcised  him  to  prevent 
giving  ofl'ense  to  the  Jews,  for  Timothy's 
mother  was  a  Jewess.  Paul  thus  showed 
willingness  to  conciliate  Jewish  prejudice  ; 
though  he  would  not  yield  an  inch  when 
the  principles  of  the  gospel  were  at  stake. 
From  Lystra  they  appear  to  have  gone  to 
Iconium  and  Pisidian  Antioch.  Their  move- 
ments here,  however,  are  much  disputed  by 
scholars.  Ramsay  and  others,  who  believe 
that  the  churches  of  the  first  journey  were 
the  "  churches  of  Galatia  "  to  which  the  epis- 
tle with  that  name  was  afterwards  written 
(see  Galatia,  Galatians,  Epistle  to  the), 
hold  that  Paul  went  directly  north  from 
Pisidian  Antioch  through  the  Roman  prov- 
ince of  Asia,  but  without  preaching,  since 
he  was  "forbidden  of  the  Holy  Ghost  to 
preach  the  word  in  Asia"  (Acts  xvi.  6) ;  that 
when  they  came  "over  against  Mysia"  (7, 
R.  V.)  they  attempted  to  go  into  Bithyn- 
ia,  but  were  again  forbidden  ;  then  passing 
by  (or,  as  the  original  may  mean,  neglect- 
ing) Mysia  they  turned  westward  through  or 
alongside  of  Mysia  to  Troas.  The  commoner 
view  is  that  from  Pisidian  Antioch  the 
travelers  moved  northeastward  into  Galatia 
proper;  that  on  the  way  Paul  was  for  a 
while  disabled  by  sickness,  and  that  this  led 
him  to  improve  the  opportunity,  sick  though 
he  was,  of  preaching  in  Galatia  and  so  of 
founding  the  "churches  of  Galatia"  (Gal. 
iv.  1.3-15)  ;  that  this  movement  to  the  north- 
east from  Pisidian  Antioch  was  due  to  the 
command  not  to  preach  in  Asia  ;  that  when 
his  work  in  Galatia  proper  was  done,  he  at- 
tempted to  enter  Bithynia,  but  was  again 
forbidden  ;  and  so,  as  on  the  former  theory, 
he  turned  west  through  or  alongside  of 
Mysia  to  Troas.  This  whole  period  is  very 
briefly  described  by  Luke.  The  Spirit 
■was  directing  the  missionaries  to   Europe, 


and   Luke's  narrative  likewise  hastens  for- 
ward. 

At  Troas  there  appeared  the  vision  of  the 
man  of  Macedonia  (Acts  xvi.  9)  ;  in  response 
to  whose  call  the  missionaries,  now  joined  by 
Luke  himself,  took  ship  for  Europe,  and 
landing  at  Neapolis,  went  forward  to  the  im- 
portant city  of  Philippi.  Here  a  church  was. 
founded  (xvi.  11-40),  which  ever  remained 
specially  dear  to  the  apostle's  heart  (see  Phil, 
i.  4-7;  iv.  1,  15).  Here,  too,  Paul  fir.st  came 
into  conflict  with  Roman  magistrates  and 
found  that  his  citizenship  was  a  protection 
for  his  work  (Acts  xvi.  20-24  ;  37-39).  From 
Philippi,  where  Luke  remained.  Paul,  Silas, 
and  Timothy  went  on  to  Thessalonica.  The 
brief  account  in  Acts  xvii.  1-9  of  the  work 
done  there  is  supplemented  by  the  allusions 
made  to  it  in  his  two  epistles  to  that  church. 
He  had  much  success  among  the  gentiles;  he 
laid  with  great  care  the  foundations  of  the 
church ;  and  he  gave  the  example  of  indus- 
try and  sobriety  by  supporting  himself  by 
his  trade  while  preaching  the  gospel  (1  Thes. 
ii.,  etc.).  But  persecution  arose,  instigated 
by  the  Jews,  so  the  brethren  sent  Paul  to- 
Beroea,  and  from  there,  after  marked  success 
even  in  the  synagogue,  to  Athens.  His  so- 
journ at  Athens  was  rather  disappointing, 
and  is  memorable  chiefly  for  the  address  be- 
fore the  philosophers  on  Mars'  hill  (Acts- 
xvii.  22-31),  in  which  Paul  showed  his  appre- 
ciation of  the  truths  which  the  gospel  had  in 
common  with  Stoicism,  while  he  yet  faithfully 
proclaimed  to  a  critical  audience  their  duty 
to  God  and  what  God  required  them  to  be- 
lieve. At  Corinth,  on  the  contrary,  to  which 
he  next  went,  he  remained  eighteen  months, 
and  his  work  was  most  successful.  Here  he 
made  the  acquaintance  of  Aquila  and  Pris- 
cilla  and  abode  with  them  (xviii.  1-3).  At  first 
he  preached  in  the  synagogue,  but  afterwards, 
because  of  the  opposition  of  the  .Tews,  in  the 
house  of  a  gentile,  Titus  Justus,  who  lived  next 
to  the  synagogue  (5-7,  R.  V.).  In  both  The 
Acts  (xviii.  9,  10)  and  1  Cor.  (ii.  1-5)  there  are 
allusions  to  the  great  anxiety  of  mind  with 
which  the  apostle  prosecuted  his  mission  in 
Corinth,  and  to  his  earnest  determination  to 
proclaim  in  Greece  as  elsewhere  the  simple 
gospel  of  the  Crucified  ;  while  1  Cor.  amply 
testifies  both  to  his  success  and  to  the  many 
temptations  to  which  the  Christians  of  Corinth 
were  exposed,  and  which  from  the  beginning 
occasioned  the  apostle  special  solicitude.  The 
needs  of  other  churches  also  pressed  upon 
him,  so  that  from  Corinth  he  wrote  the  two 
epistles  to  the  Thessalonians  for  the  purpose 
of  warning  against  certain  doctrinal  and 
practical  perils  by  which  that  church  was 
threatened.  The  hostility  of  the  Jews  also- 
did  not  cease,  and,  on  the  coming  to  Corinth 
of  the  new  proconsul,  Gallio,  they  accused 
Paul  of  violation  of  the  law.  But  the  pro- 
consul properly  decided  that  the  matter  per- 
tained to  the  synagogue  itself  and  that  the 
apostle  had  broken  no  law  of  which  the  gov- 


Paul 


553 


Paul 


eminent  could  take  cognizance.  The  empire 
thus  at  this  jieriod  protected  the  Christians 
from  Jewish  violence  hy  identifying  them 
with  the  Jews,  and  Paul  was  i)ermitted  to 
continue  his  work  unmolested.  His  mission 
to  Corinth  was  one  of  the  most  fruitful  in 
the  history  of  the  early  Christian  church. 
At  length,  however,  Paul  turned  his  face 
again  to  the  east.  From  Corinth  he  sailed  to 
Ej)hesus.  He  did  not  remain  there,  however, 
but,  promising  to  return,  sailed  to  Ciesarea, 
made  apparently  a  hasty  journey  to  Jerusa- 
lem, and,  having  saluted  the  church  there, 
returned  to  Autioch,  whence  he  had  orig- 
inally started  (Acts  xviii.  '22).  Thus  was 
completed  his  second  missionary  journey.  Its 
result  had  been  the  estalili>liuient  of  Chris- 
tianity in  Europe.  ^Macedonia  and  Achaia 
had  been  evangelized.  The  gospel  had 
thereby  taken  a  long  step  forward  toward 
the  conquest  of  the  empire.  After  remain- 
ing some  time  at  Antioch,  Paul,  probably  in 
A.  D.  54,  began  his  third  journey.  He  first 
traversed*"  the  region  of  Galatia  and  Phry- 
gia  in  order,  stablishing  all  the  disciples " 
(23),  and  then  settled  in  Ephesus.  It  thus 
appears  that  the  previous  divine  prohibition 
to  preach  in  the  province  of  Asia  had  been 
removed.  Ephesus  was  the  capital  of  Asia 
and  one  of  the  most  influential  cities  of  the 
East.  Hence  the  apostle  for  3  years  made  it 
his  center  of  operations  (xix.  8,  9  ;  xx.31).  For 
3  months  he  taught  in  the  synagogue  (xviii. 
8),  and  then  for  2  years  in  the  school  or 
lecture  hall  of  a  certain  Tyrannus  (9).  His 
work  in  Ephesus  was  marked  by  great 
thoroughness  of  instruction  (xx.  18-31)  ;  by 
the  exercise  of  astonishing  miraculous  power 
(xix.  11,  12)  ;  by  great  success,  so  that  "all 
they  which  dwelt  in  Asia  heard  the  word  of 
the  Lord  "  (10).  and  even  some  of  the  chief 
officers  of  Asia  became  Paul's  friends  (31)  ; 
yet  also  bv  constant  and  tierce  opposition 
(2.3-41 :  1  Cor.  iv.  9-13  ;  xv.  32) :  and  finally, 
by  the  care  of  all  the  churches  (2  Cor.  xi.  28). 
This  period  of  the  apostle's  life  is  especially 
rich  in  incidents.  Much  occurred  of  which 
The  Acts  tells  nothing.  Here  Paul  heard  of 
attacks  made  on  him  and  his  doctrine  by  Ju- 
daizing  teachers  in  Galatia  ;  and  in  reply  he 
wrote  the  famous  Epistle  to  the  Galatians,  in 
which  he  defends  his  apostolic  authority, 
and  gives  the  first  formal  statement  and 
proof  of  the  doctrines  of  grace.  The  condi- 
tion of  the  Corinthians  also  occasioned  him 
much  anxiety.  In  reply  to  inquiries  from 
Corinth  he  wrote  a  letter,  now  lost,  concern- 
ing the  relations  of  believers  to  the  pagan 
society  about  them  (1  Cor.  v.  9).  But  later 
reports  showed  that  more  serious  troubles 
had  arisen.  Hence  our  1  Cor.  was  written, 
an  ejnstle  which  finely  exhibits  the  apostle's 
practical  wisdom  in  the  instruction  and  dis- 
cipline of  the  infant  churches.  Even  so, 
however,  the  seditious  elements  in  the  Co- 
rinthian church  would  not  yield.  Many 
think  that  Paul,  before  writing  1  Cor.,  had 


himself  made  a  hurried  visit  to  Coriulh  fttr 
disciplinary  purposes  (cp.  2  Cor.  xii.  14  ;  xiii. 
1).  At  any  rate,  before  leaving  Ephesus  he 
sent  Titus  to  Corinth,  probably  with  a  let- 
ter, to  secure  the  discipline  of  a  refractory 
member  of  the  church.  Titus  was  to  rejoin 
him  in  Troas.  When  he  failed  to  do  so,  Paul 
passed  on  in  much  anxiety  to  Macedonia, 
whither  Timothy  and  Erastus  had  preceded 
him  (Acts  xix.  22).  At  length,  however, 
Titus  rejoined  him  (2  Cor.  ii.  12-14;  vii.  5- 
16),  with  the  good  news  that  the  Corinthian 
church  had  obeyed  the  apostle  and  were 
loyal  in  their  love  for  him.  Whereupon  Paul 
wrote  our  2  Cor.,  the  most  biographical  of 
all  his  epistles,  in  which  he  rejoices  in  their 
obedience,  gives  directions  concerning  the 
collection  he  was  making  for  the  Juda?an 
saints,  and  once  more  defends  his  authority 
as  an  apostle  of  Christ.  From  Macedonia  he 
himself  went  to  Corinth  and  passed  the  win- 
ter of  A.  D.  57-58  there.  No  doubt  he  com- 
pleted the  discipline  and  organization  of  the 
Corinthian  church;  but  the  visit  is  most 
memorable  because  he  then  wrote  the  Epistle 
to  the  Eomans.  In  it  he  states  most  com- 
pletely the  doctrine  of  the  way  of  salvation. 
He  evidently  regarded  Eome  as  the  place 
where  his  labors  should  culminate.  He  could 
not,  however,  go  there  at  once,  because  he 
felt  it  necessary  to  return  to  Jerusalem  with 
the  gifts  of  the  gentiles  to  the  mother  church. 
Christian  work  had  already  been  begun  at 
Eome,  and  was  being  carried  on  mainly  by 
Paul's  own  friends  and  disciples  (cp.  Eom. 
xvi.).  Hence,  he  sent  the  epistle  from  Cor- 
inth that  the  Christians  of  the  capital  might 
possess  complete  instruction  in  the  gospel 
which  Paul  was  proclaiming  to  the  world. 
Paul  now  set  out  on  his  last  journey  to 
Jerusalem.  He  was  accompanied  by  friends 
who  represented  various  gentile  churches 
(Acts  XX.  4).  The  apostle's  work  among  the 
gentiles  had  been  much  opposed  by  Juda- 
izers,  and  even  the  ordinary  Jewish  Christians 
often  regarded  him  and  it  with  distrust. 
Hence  arose  his  scheme  of  proving  the  loy- 
alty of  the  gentile  churches  by  inducing 
them  to  send  a  liberal  offering  to  the  poor 
Christians  of  Judsea.  It  was  to  carry  this 
offering  that  he  and  his  friends  left  Corinth 
for  Jerusalem.  His  plan  had  first  been  to 
sail  direct  to  Syria,  but  a  plot  of  the  Jews 
led  him  to  change  his  route  and  to  return  by 
way  of  Macedonia  (xx.  3).  He  lingered  at  Phi- 
lippi  while  his  companions  went  on  to  Troas, 
but  he  was  rejoined  at  that  place  by  Luke 
(5).  After  the  passover  he  and  Luke  went 
on  to  Troas,  where  the  others  were  waiting 
for  them  and  where  all  remained  seven  days 
(6).  A  church  had  grown  up  at  Troas,  and 
an  interesting  account  is  given  by  Luke  of 
the  events  of  the  apostle's  interview  with  it 
on  the  day  and  night  before  he  left  it  (7-12'. 
From  Troas  Paul  went  by  foot  about  twenty 
miles  to  Assos,  whither  his  companions  had 
already   gone   by   boat   (13).      Thence   they 


Paul 


554 


Paul 


sailed  to  Mitylene,  on  the  eastern  shore  of 
the  island  of  Lesbos,  and  then,  coasting 
southward,  they  passed  between  the  main- 
land and  the  island  of  Chios,  touched  the 
next  day  at  the  island  of  Sanies,  and  the 
day  following  reached  Miletus  (14,  15).  The 
A.  V.  states  (Acts  xx.  15)  that  they  "  tarried 
at  Trogy Ilium  "  after  leaving  Samos ;  see  Tro- 
GYLLiUM.  The  R.  V.  with  the  best  manu- 
scripts omits  this  clause.  Miletus  was  about 
36  miles  from  Ephesus,  and  as  Paul  was  in 
haste,  he  determined  not  to  go  to  Ephesus. 
but  to  send  for  the  elders  of  the  church.  At 
Miletus  he  took  leave  of  them  in  the  affec- 
tionate address  recorded  in  Acts  sx.  18-35. 
No  words  could  more  strongly  exhibit  the 
apostle's  devotion  to  his  work,  and  his  love 
for  his  converts,  and  his  realization  of  the 
spiritual  perils  to  which  they  would  be  ex- 
posed. Leaving  Miletus,  the  ship  went  with 
a  straight  course  to  Cos  (Acts  xxi.  1,  in  A. 
v.,  Coos),  an  island  about  40  miles  to  the 
south  ;  then,  the  next  day,  Ehodes,  an  island 
and  city  about  50  miles  southeast  of  Cos,  was 
reached ;  and  from  Ehodes  the  course  lay 
eastward  to  Patara,  on  the  coast  of  Lycia  (Acts 
xxi.  1).  At  Patara  a  ship  for  Phojnicia  (Syria) 
was  found  and  the  party  went  on  board  (2), 
and,  passing  west  of  Cyprus,  reached  Tyre 
(3).  There  they  remained  a  week,  and  the 
disciples  of  Tyre  urged  Paul  not  to  go  to 
Jerusalem  (4) ;  but  after  an  affectionate  fare- 
well he  sailed  (5,  6)  to  Ptolemais,  the  modern 
Acre,  and  came  the.  next  day  to  Csesarea 
(7,  8).  At  Csesarea  the  company  abode  with 
Philip  the  evangelist.  There  too  the  prophet 
Agabus,  who  at  an  earlier  time  had  foretold 
the  famine  (xi.  28),  bound  his  own  hands  and 
feet  with  Paul's  girdle,  and  predicted  that  so 
would  the  Jews  bind  Paul  and  deliver  him 
to  the  gentiles.  But  in  spite  of  this  warning 
and  the  lamentation  of  the  brethren,  Paul 
insisted  on  going  forward  (xxi.  11-14).  So, 
in  company  with  a  number  of  the  disciples, 
he  went  on  to  Jerusalem,  thus  completing 
what  is  known  as  his  third  missionary 
journey. 

The  prediction  of  Agabus  was  soon  fulfilled. 
Paul  was  at  first  indeed  well  received  by  the 
brethren  in  Jerusalem,  and  on  the  day  fol- 
lowing his  arrival  went  in  to  James,  the 
Lord's  brother,  and  the  elders  of  the  church. 
When  he  had  related  his  work  among  the 
gentiles,  they  glorified  God.  At  the  same 
time  they  reminded  him  that  many  of  the 
Jewish  Christians  had  heard  evil  reports 
about  him  and  doubted  his  fidelity  to  Moses. 
It  was  proposed,  therefore,  that  he  should 
give  an  ocular  proof  that  he  still  held  the 
Jewish  customs  in  honor.  He  was  to  join 
with  four  men,  who  at  that  time  were  per- 
forming a  Nazirite  vow  in  the  temple.  To 
this  Paul  assented,  for  he  was  ever  anxious 
not  to  give  needless  offense  to  the  Jews,  and 
the  observance  proposed  was  probably  little 
more  than  what  he  had  done  of  his  own  will 
at  Corinth  (xviii.  18).     While  Paul  insisted 


that  no  gentile  should  observe  the  Mosaic 
law,  and  while  he  maintained  that  no  Chris- 
tian Jew  was  bound  to  observe  it,  he  found 
no  fault  with  Jews  who  chose  to  observe  it, 
and  held  himself  at  liberty  to  observe  its 
regulations  or  not  as  circumstances  might' 
seem  to  make  expedient.  His  assent  to  this 
proposal,  therefore,  was  not  inconsistent  with 
his  action  on  other  occasions.  But  the  ex- 
pedient proved  unavailing  for  the  purpose 
for  which  it  was  intended.  Certain  Jews 
from  Asia  saw  him  in  the  temple  and  raised 
a  tumult.  They  falsely  charged  him  with 
having  brought  gentiles  into  the  temple,  and 
declared  to  the  populace  that  he  had  every- 
where taught  men  to  dishonor  both  the  tem- 
ple and  the  law  (xxi.  27-29).  A  riot  speedily 
ensued  in  which  Paul  would  probably  have 
been  slain,  had  not  the  commander  of  che 
Eoman  garrison,  Claudius  Lysias,  hastened 
with  soldiers  to  quell  the  uproar.  He  was 
leading  Paul,  bound  with  two  chains,  into 
the  castle  for  examination  and  the  Jews  were 
following  with  many  outcries,  when  the 
apostle  desired  liberty  to  speak.  The  com- 
mander was  surprised  that  the  prisoner  could 
use  Greek,  for  he  had  taken  him  to  be  an 
Egyptian  insurrectionist  who  had  recently 
given  trouble  to  the  government  (38).  When 
Paul  explained  that  he  was  a  Tarsiau  Jew, 
Lysias  allowed  him  to  address  the  multitude. 
He  did  so  in  the  Hebrew  tongue  (xxii.  2).  He 
related  his  early  life  and  the  story  of  his 
conversion.  They  heard  him  till  he  uttered 
the  word  "gentiles,"  when  the  uproar  was 
renewed,  and  Lysias  withdrew  him  into  the 
castle  for  .safety  and  further  examination. 
The  examination  would  have  been  by  scourg- 
ing, had  not  Paul  remarked  to  the  centurion 
that  he  was  a  Eoman  citizen  (25).  When 
this  was  reported  to  Lysias,  he  unbound 
Paul  and,  feeling  that  the  matter  was  a  seri- 
ous one,  directed  the  priests  to  convoke  the 
sanhedrin  on  the  following  day  that  the 
prisoner  might  be  tried. 

The  appearance  of  Paul  before  the  council 
led,  however,  to  another  tumult  (Acts  xxiii. 
1-10).  The  apostle  was  now  fighting  for  his 
life.  He  had  no  hope  of  justice,  and  should  the 
council  condemn  him,  Lysias  might  give  him 
over  to  execution.  With  much  shrewdness 
he  succeeded  in  dividing  his  enemies.  He 
claimed  to  be  a  Pharisee,  and  to  be  on  trial 
for  teaching  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection 
of  the  dead.  This  was  true,  as  far  as  it 
went,  and  it  served  Paul's  purpose.  The 
hatred  of  the  Pharisees  and  Sadducees  for 
each  other  was  greater  than  their  hostility  to 
Paul,  and  the  two  sects  quickly  arrayed 
themselves  on  opposite  sides.  The  com- 
mander feared  that  Paul  would  be  juilled  to 
pieces  between  liis  defenders  and  his  oppo- 
nents, so  by  his  orders  the  soldiers  removed 
the  prisoner  again  to  the  castle. 

That  night  the  Lord  appeared  to  Paul  in 
a  vision  and  bade  him  be  of  good  cheer, 
since  he  was  certainly  to  bear  his  testimony 


Paul 


555 


Paul 


at  Konie  (Acts  xxiii.  11).  This  consumma- 
tion was  to  be  eflected,  however,  in  an  unex- 
pected way.  Some  of  the  Jews  formed  a 
plot  to  kill  Paul  and,  to  accomplish  thi.s,  it 
was  determined  to  request  the  commander 
to  bring  the  prisoner  once  more  before  the 
council.  But  Paul's  nephew  heard  of  the 
plot  and  managed  to  inform  his  uncle  and 
the  commander  (l'2-"22).  Thereupon  Lysias 
sent  Paul  under  a  strong  guard  to  Caesarea 
with  a  letter  to  Felix,  the  procurator,  re- 
ferring the  case  to  him.  When  Felix  learned 
that  the  accused  was  from  Cilicia,  he  declared 
that  he  would  wait  until  the  accusers  came, 
and  meanwhile  placed  Paul  for  .safe  keeping 
in  Herod's  palace,  which  was  used  as  the  prae- 
torium  or  residence  of  the  procurator.  Then 
followed  two  years  of  imprisonment  in  Csesa- 
rea.  When  the  Jews  appeared  before  Felix, 
they  made  a  general  accusation  against  Paul 
of  sedition  aud  especially  of  profanation  of 
the  temple,  complaining  of  the  violeuce  with 
which  Lysias  had  taken  their  prisoner  out 
of  their  hands  (Acts  xxiv.  1-9).  To  this 
Paul  replied  by  au  explicit  denial  and  a 
demand  that  witnesses  should  be  produced 
against  him  (10-21).  Felix  appears  to  have 
been  sufficiently  acquainted  with  the  matters 
in  dispute  to  perceive  that  Paul  had  not  com- 
mitted any  ci'ime  worthy  of  jiunishment. 
He  dismissed  the  accusers  on  the  plea  that 
he  must  learn  further  particulars  from  Lysias, 
and  directed  that  Paul  should  be  kept  in  con- 
tinement.  but  that  his  friends  should  be 
allowed  to  visit  him  freely.  Felix  and  his 
wife  Drusilla  were  also  much  impressed  by 
what  Paul  had  said  and  "heard  him  con- 
cerning the  faith  in  Christ''  (24).  In  fact, 
the  apostle  seems  to  have  exercised  a  strange 
fascination  over  the  procurator,  who  trembled 
before  his  solemn  preaching  and  promised  to 
send  for  him  again.  He  hoped  also  that 
Paul  would  pay  for  his  liberty  (25,  26).  But 
the  apostle  would  not  bribe  the  procurator, 
and  the  latter  deferred  decision  of  the  case, 
so  that  vrhen.  after  two  years,  Porcius  Festus 
succeeded  Felix,  Paul  was  still  a  prisoner 
(27). 

The  Jews  hoped  that  the  new  governor 
would  prove  more  favorable  to  their  desires 
than  Felix  had  been.  But  Festus  refused  to 
send  Paul  to  Jerusalem  for  trial,  and  re- 
quired his  accusers  to  confront  him  again  in 
Csesarea  (Acts  xxv.  1-fi).  Again,  however, 
they  were  unable  to  prove  any  crime  against 
him,  while  he  persistently  maintained  his 
innocence  (7,  8).  Festus,  however,  willing  to 
please  the  Jews,  asked  Paul  if  he  would  go  to 
Jerusalem  to  be  tried.  Paul  knew  that  such 
a  course  would  probably  prove  fatal  to  him. 
He  availed  himself,  therefore,  of  his  right  as  a 
Eoman  citizen  and  appealed  unto  Caesar  (9- 
111.  This  took  the  case  out  of  the  procurator's 
hands  and  necessitated  the  prisoner's  trans- 
mission to  Rome.  Before  he  could  be  sent, 
however,  Agrippa  II.  and  his  sister  Bernice 
came  to  visit  Festus,  doubtless  to  congratu- 


late him  on  his  accession  to  office;  and  the 
procurator,  who  was  not  well  versed  in 
Jewish  disputes  and  yet  was  bound  to  send 
to  the  emperor  a  full  account  of  the  case, 
related  the  matter  to  Agripi)a,  who  expressed 
his  desire  to  hear  what  the  prisoner  had  to 
say.  Forthwith  it  was  arrangfd  that  Paul 
should  state  his  cause  before  the  assembled 
company.  Agrippa's  familiarity  with  Jewish 
afl'airs  would  be  of  service  to  the  procurator 
in  preparing  his  report  to  the  emperor  (12-27). 
Paul's  defense  before  Agrippa  forms  one 
of  his  most  notable  speeches.  In  it  he  dis- 
played the  courtesy  of  a  gentleman,  the  elo- 
quence of  an  orator,  and  the  fearlessness  of 
a  Christian.  He  reviewed  his  life  in  order  to 
show  that  he  had  been  governed  only  bj^  the 
wish  to  obey  the  God  of  Israel,  and  main- 
tained that  his  course  as  a  Christian  had  not 
only  been  determined  by  God's  direction, 
but  had  been  the  fulfillment  of  the  Hebrew 
prophecies  themselves  (Acts  xxvi.  1-23). 
When  Festus  interrupted  him  with  the  ex- 
clamation that  he  was  mad,  Paul  appealed 
earnestly  to  Agrippa.  But  the  king  was  not 
disposed  to  be  more  than  au  observer  and  critic 
of  what  he  deemed  a  new  fanaticism.  He 
replied  with  some  contempt :  "  With  but  little 
persuasion  thou  wouldest  fain  make  me  a 
Christian"  (28,  E.  V.).  Nevertheless  he  ad- 
mitted that  Paul  had  done  no  crime,  and 
n)ight  have  been  set  at  liberty  if  he  had  not 
appealed  unto  Csesar  (31,  32).  In  the  autumn 
of  the  same  year,  a.  D.  60  (see  chronology  be- 
low), Paul  was  sent  to  Rome.  He  was  com- 
mitted, with  other  prisoners,  to  the  care  of  a 
centurion,  Julius,  of  the  Augustan  band  or 
cohort.  He  was  accompanied  by  Luke  and 
Aristarchus,  a  Thessalonian  (xxvii.  1,  2). 
The  account  of  the  voyage  is  related  by 
Luke  with  singular  detail  and  accuracy  (see 
James  Smith,  The  Voyage  and  Shipureclc  of  f>t. 
Patil).  The  apostle  was  treated  also  with 
notable  courtesy  by  the  centurion.  Leaving 
Csesarea  in  a  coasting  ship  of  Adramyttium, 
they  touched  at  Sidon  and  then  sailed  to 
Myra  in  Lycia.  There  they  were  transferred 
to  an  Alexandrian  merchant  ship  bound  for 
Italy.  The  wind,  however,  was  not  favor- 
able. They  were  compelled  at  first  to  keep 
coasting  northeastward  until  over  against 
Cnidus  on  the  coast  of  Caria.  Then  putting 
southward,  they  rounded  with  difficulty 
cape  Salmone,  on  the  eastern  extremity  of 
Crete,  and  managed  to  reach  Fair  Havens,  a 
port  on  the  southern  shore  of  the  same  island 
(Acts  xxvii.  3-8).  It  was  now  after  the  Fast, 
i.  e.  the  10th  of  Tishri  or  day  of  atonement  (9), 
when  the  season  of  navigation  was  drawing  to 
a  clo.se.  The  weather  also  continued  threaten- 
ing. Paul  counseled  against  sailing  further, 
but  the  centurion  followed  the  advice  of  the 
master  and  the  owner  of  the  ship,  who  wished 
to  go  on  to  PhcBnix,  further  west  on  the 
coast  of  Crete,  where  there  was  a  better 
harbor  (9-12).  But  when  they  had  left  Fair 
Havens,  a  tierce  northeast  wind  came  down 


Paul 


556 


Paul 


upon  them  and  drove  them  to  the  south. 
Passing  south  of  Cauda  (or  Clauda  A.  V.,  the 
modern  Gozzo),  and  having  lightened  the 
ship,  they  were  driven  for  fourteen  days  be- 
fore the  gale  in  a  westerly  direction.  Paul 
alone  maintained  his  courage  and  that  of  the 
rest,  for  an  angel  of  the  Lord  assured  him 
that  no  life  would  be  lost  (13-26).  On 
the  fourteenth  night  the  sounding  lead 
told  of  their  approach  to  land  ;  and,  casting 
four  anchors,  they  waited  for  the  day.  When 
daylight  came,  they  perceived  in  the  un- 
known land  a  small  bay  with  a  beach ;  so 
cutting  otf  their  anchors,  they  hoisted  the 
foresail  to  the  wind  and  made  for  the  beach 
(27-40,  K.  v.).  The  ship,  however,  grounded, 
and  soon  began  to  break  up  under  the  vio- 
lence of  the  waves.  Thereupon  the  whole 
company  cast  themselves  overboard  and,  as 
Paul  had  predicted,  all  reached  land  in  safety 
(41-44).  In  this  thrilling  adventure,  which 
Luke  relates  with  so  much  detail,  the  conduct 
of  Paul  beautifully  illustrates  the  courage  of 
the  Christian  and  the  influence  over  others 
which  a  man  of  faith  can  exercise  in  times 
of  peril. 

The  land  on  which  they  had  been  cast  was 
the  island  of  Melita,  the  modern  Malta,  which 
lies  58  miles  south  of  Sicily.  The  inhabitants 
kindly  received  the  shipwrecked  company, 
and  Paul  by  his  works  -gained  special  honor 
among  them  (Acts  xxviii.  1-10).  After  three 
months,  however,  they  were  put  on  board 
another  Alexandrian  ship,  which  had  win- 
tered in  the  island,  and,  after  touching  at 
Syracuse  and  Rhegiiim,  arrived  at  Puteoli,  a 
harbor  of  southwestern  Italy.  There  Paul 
found  Christian  brethren  with  whom  he 
tarried  seven  days  (11-14).  Meanwhile  word 
of  his  arrival  had  reached  the  Christians  in 
Rome,  so  that  some  of  them  went  to  meet 
him  at  the  Market  of  Appius  and  the  Three 
Taverns,  two  places  distant  from  Rome  about 
4.3  and  33  miles  respectively  (15,  R.  V.).  Ac- 
cording to  the  A.  V.  (16)  the  centurion  deliv- 
ered his  prisoners  to  the  captain  of  the 
guard,  and  this  has  been  usually  understood 
to  mean  the  prefect  of  the  prjetorian  guard, 
who  at  this  time,  a.  d.  61,  was  the  celebrated 
Burrus.  The  R.  V.,  however,  with  the  best 
manuscripts,  omits  this  statement.  Mommsen, 
followed  by  Ramsay,  thinks  that  the  prison- 
ers were  delivered  to  the  captain  of  another 
corps,  to  which  Julius  the  centurion  him- 
self belonged,  and  whose  duty  it  was  to 
superiuteml  the  transportation  of  grain  to 
the  capital  and  to  perform  police  duty.  We 
really  cannot  tell  to  whose  custody  Paul  was 
delivered.  We  only  know  that  he  was  held 
in  military  confinement,  chained  to  a  soldier 
(xxviii.  16:  Phil.  i.  7,  13),  but  allowed  to 
lodge  by  himself.  Appeals  to  Ciesar  were 
slow  processes.  Paul  soon  hired  a  dwelling 
and  continued  in  it  for  two  years  (Acts 
xxviii.  30). 

So  began  Paul's  first  imprisonment  in 
Rome.     The  Acts  closes  with  an  account  of 


how  after  three  days  he  summoned  the  chief 
of  the  Jews,  related  the  reason  of  his  pres- 
ence in  the  capital,  and  on  an  appointed  day 
expounded  to  them  the  gospel  ;  but  that  when 
they,  like  their  countrymen  elsewhere,  dis- 
believed, Paul  again  declared  that  he  would 
turn  to  the  gentiles.  His  imprisonment, 
therefore,  did  not  prevent  his  missionary  ac- 
tivity. The  last  verses  of  The  Acts  relate  that 
for  two  whole  years  he  received  all  who  came 
to  him  and  preached  the  kingdom  of  God 
and  the  things  concerning  the  Lord  Jesus 
Christ  without  hindrance  from  the  authori- 
ties (xxviii.  17-31).  But  still  more  light  is 
thrown  on  this  period  of  Paul's  life  by  the 
epistles  which  he  wrote  during  it.  They  are 
those  to  the  Colossians,  to  Philemon,  to  the 
Ephesians,  and  to  the  Philippians.  The  first 
three  were  probably  written  in  the  earlier 
part  of  the  period  and  that  to  the  Philip- 
pians toward  its  close.  These  epistles  show 
that  the  apostle  in  Rome  had  many  faithful 
friends  working  with  him.  Among  these 
were  Timothv  (Col.  i.  1 ;  Phil.  i.  1 ;  ii.  19 ; 
Philem.  i.),  Tychicus  (Eph.  vi.  21 ;  Col.  iv.  7), 
Aristarchus  (Col.  iv.  10  ;  Philem.  24),  John 
Mark  (Col.  iv.  10  ;  Philem.  24),  and  Luke  (Col. 
iv.  14  ;  Philem.  24).  His  friends  had  unhin- 
dered access  to  him  ;  they  acted  as  his  mes- 
sengers to  the  churches  and  also  as  his  co- 
workers in  Rome ;  and  they  made  the  im- 
prisoned apostle  the  center  and  head  of  the 
gentile  Christian  work  throughout  the  em- 
pire. The  epistles  further  show  the  personal 
activity  of  the  apostle's  life.  With  great 
zeal  and  success,  in  spite  of  his  bonds,  did 
he  preach  the  gospel.  He  was  an  ambassador 
in  bonds  (Eph.  vi.  20).  He  desired  his  friends 
to  pray  that  God  would  open  for  him  a  door 
of  utterance  (Col.  iv.  3).  In  Onesimus,  the 
runaway  slave,  we  see  an  example  of  the 
fruit  of  his  labors  (Philem.  10).  As  time  went 
on  the  success  of  his  work  increased.  He 
wrote  to  the  Philippians  (i.  12,  13,  R.  V.)  that 
the  things  which  had  happened  unto  him  had 
fallen  out  unto  the  i)rogress  of  the  gospel,  so 
that  his  bonds  were  manifest  in  Christ 
throughout  the  whole  prsetorian  guard  and 
to  all  the  rest.  He  sent  greetings  also  (iv. 
22)  from  them  of  Ca?sar's  household.  At  the 
same  time  he  was  opposed  even  by  some  of 
the  Christians,  probably  of  the  Jewish  Chris- 
tian type  (i.  15-18).  But  he  regarded  their 
opposition  with  equanimity,  and  was  confi- 
dent that  he  would  be  finally  released  (Phil.  i. 
25  ;  ii.  17,  24  ;  Philem.  22).  His  imprisonment 
was  only  God's  way  of  enabling  his  ambassa- 
dor to  fulfill  to  the  uttermost  his  chosen 
mission.  Finally,  the  epistles  testify  to  the 
apostle's  continued  superintendence  of  the 
churches  throughout  the  empire.  New  her- 
esies had  arisen  in  Asia.  In  the  epistles  of 
the  imprisonment  Paul  gave  his  ripest  in- 
structions concerning  the  person  of  Christ 
and  the  eternal  purpose  of  God  revealed  in 
the  gospel,  while  the  practical  directions 
which  they  contain  disclose  the  breadth  of 


n 


Paul 


557 


Paul 


his  grasp  on  Christian  duty  and  the  fervor  of 
his  own  Christian  life. 

Although  the  book  of  The  Acts  leaves  Paul 
a  prisoner  at  Eome,  there  is  abundant  reason 
to  believe  that  he  was  released  after  two 
years'  confinement  and  resumed  his  mission- 
ary journeys.  The  evidence  for  this  may  be 
summarized  as  follows  :  (1)  The  closing  verse 
of  The  Acts  accords  better  with  this  view 
than  with  the  supposition  that  the  imprison- 
ment which  has  been  described  ended  in  the 
apostle's  condemnation  and  death.  Luke 
emphasizes  the  fact  that  no  one  hindered  his 
work,  thus  certainly  giving  the  impression 
that  the  end  of  his  activity  was  not  near. 
Moreover  (2)  Paul  fullv  expected  to  be  released 
(Phil.  i.  25  ;  ii.  17.  24 ;  Philem.  22),  and  this 
expectation  was  fully  justified  by  the  treat- 
ment which  he  had  always  received  at  the 
hands  of  Roman  officials.  It  should  be  re- 
membered that  Nero's  persecution  of  the 
Christians  had  not  yet  begun  ;  that  it  was  a 
sudden  outbreak,  preceded  by  no  official  ill- 
treatment  of  them  ;  and  that  in  the  view  of 
Roman  law,  the  Christians  were  as  yet  only 
a  sect  of  the  Jews,  whose  liberty  to  maintain 
their  religion  was  fully  recognized.  It  is, 
therefore,  altogether  probable  that,  when 
Paul's  case  came  before  the  imperial  tri- 
bunal, he  was  acquitted  of  any  crime  of 
which  Roman  law  could  take  cognizance. 
No  doubt  also  the  report  of  Festus  was  a 
favorable  one  (see  Acts  xxvi.  31),  nor  do  the 
Jews  appear  to  have  sent  any  accusers  to 
Rome  to  appear  against  him    (xxviii.   21). 

(3)  The  tradition  that  he  was  released  and 
resumed  his  journeys,  and  was  again  arrested 
dates  from  an  early  period.  Clement  of 
Eome,  A.  D.  96,  seems  clearly  to  imply  that 
Paul  went  to  Spain,  for  he  says  that  in 
his  journeys  "  he  reached  the  limit  of  the 
west."  His  journey  to  Spain  is  also  men- 
tioned in  the  so-called  Muratori  Fragment, 
A.  D.  170.  With  this  agrees  the  history  of 
Eusebius,  a.  d.  324,  which  reports,  as  the 
common  tradition,  that  "after  he  [Paul]  had 
made  his  defense,  the  apostle  was  sent  again 
on  the  ministry  of  preaching,  and  a  second 
time  having  come  to  the  same  city  [Rome], 
he  suffered  martyrdom."  It  must  be  ad- 
mitted that  this  traditional  evidence  is  not 
sufficiently  strong  to  be  absolutely  demon- 
strative ;  but  it  is  early  and  strong  enough  to 
confirm  the  rest  of  the  evidence,  and  no  suf- 
ficient   counter-evidence    can    be    adduced. 

(4)  The  epistles  to  Timothy  and  Titus  may 
be  proved  to  be  Pauline  by  abundant  ex- 
ternal and  internal  evidence.  No  place  for 
them,  however,  can  be  found  in  the  history 
of  Paul  related  in  The  Acts.  They  must, 
therefore,  have  been  written  later,  and  that 
fact  compels  vis  to  accept  the  tradition  given 
by  Eusebius. 

We  must,  therefore,  believe  that  Paul's 
appeal  from  Festus  to  Caesar  resulted  in  his 
release.  His  subsequent  movements  can  only 
be  inferred  from  the  allusions  contained  in 


the  epistles  to  Timothy  and  Titus  and  from 
tradition.  We  may  su])pose  that  after  his  re- 
lease he  went,  as  he  had  intended  (Phil.  ii.  24  ; 
Philem.  22).  to  Asia  and  Macedonia.  From 
1  Tim.  i.3we  learn  that  he  had  left  Timothy 
in  charge  of  the  churches  about  Ephesus 
when  he  himself  went  to  Macedonia.  Where 
he  was  when  he  wrote  1  Tim.  is  not  clear, 
but  he  hoped  soon  to  be  able  to  return  to 
Ephesus  (1  Tim.  iii.  14).  From  Titus  we 
learn  that  he  had  left  Titus  in  charge  of  the 
churches  of  Crete,  and  expected  to  winter  in 
Nicopolis  (Titus  iii.  12).  There  were,  how- 
ever, three  cities  by  that  name  to  which  this 
reference  may  apply,  one  in  Thrace,  near 
Macedonia,  another  in  Cilicia,  and  a  third  in 
Epirus  ;  so  that  the  name  does  not  help  us 
much  to  fix  the  apostle's  locality.  It  is  prob- 
able, however,  that  Nicopolis  in  Epirus  M-as 
the  one  referred  to.  If  we  accept  the  early 
tradition  that  Paul  went  to  Spain  (see  above), 
we  may  suppose  that  he  did  so  after  having 
been  in  Asia  and  Macedonia  ;  that  after  that, 
on  his  return  from  Spain,  he  stopped  at  Crete 
and  left  Titus  on  that  island  ;  then  that  he 
returned  to  Asia,  from  which  place  he  doubt- 
less wrote  the  Epistle  to  Titus.  We  learn 
from  2  Tim.  iv.  20  that  he  had  passed  through 
Corinth  and  Miletum,  the  one  in  Greece,  the 
other  in  Asia.  There  is  nothing  to  show 
whether  he  carried  out  his  intention  of  win- 
tering in  Nicopolis.  Many  suppose,  how- 
ever, that  he  did  go  to  Nicopolis  in  Epirus, 
and  was  there  rearrested  and  sent  to  Rome. 
But  while  the  apostle's  movements  during 
this  closing  period  of  his  life  are  somewhat 
uncertain,  the  epistles  then  written  show 
that  he  occupied  himself,  in  addition  to 
evangelizing  new  regions,  with  the  perfect- 
ing of  the  organization  of  the  already  exist- 
ing churches.  He  evidently  felt  that  his 
career  must  soon  close,  and  that  the  churches 
would  be  exposed  to  new  dangers,  from  both 
without  and  within.  Hence  the  pastoral 
epistles,  as  they  are  called,  round  out  the 
apostle's  instruction  of  the  churches  by  solid- 
ifying their  organization  and  practically 
equipping  them  for  their  future  work. 

The  release  of  Paul  from  his  first  Roman 
imprisonment  probably  occurred  in  a.  d.  63, 
and  his  subsequent  activity  lasted  about  four 
years.  According  to  Eusebius,  his  death 
took  place  in  A.  D.  67 ;  according  to  Jerome, 
in  A.  D.  68.  How  he  came  to  be  rearrested 
we  do  not  know.  There  are  a  few  slight 
hints  furnished,  however,  by  the  Second 
Epistle  to  Timothy,  which  was  written  from 
Eome  shortly  before  his  death.  We  should 
remember,  moreover,  that  in  A.  D.  64  Nero's 
persecution  of  the  Christians  in  Rome  broke 
out ;  and  it  was  doubtless  followed  by  sporad- 
ic outbreaks  against  them  in  the  provinces 
(1  Pet.  iv.  13-19).  It  may  be,  as  some  have 
supposed,  that  Paul  was  informed  against  as 
a  leader  of  the  now  proscribed  sect  by  the 
Alexander  mentioned  in  2  Tira.  iv.  14.  At  any 
rate,  and  wherever  he  was  arrested,  he  waa 


Paul 


558 


Paul 


sent  to  Rome  for  trial,  either  because,  as  before, 
he  appealed  to  Csesar,  or  because  he  was 
charged  with  a  crime  committed  in  Italy, 
perhaps  with  complicity  in  the  burning  of 
Rome,  or  because  the  i)roviucials  wished  to 
gratify  Nero  by  sending  so  notable  a  prisoner 
to  the  capital.  Only  Luke,  of  his  former 
friends,  was  with  him  when  2  Tim.  was  writ- 
ten (2  Tim.  iv.  11).  Some  had  even  deserted 
him  (i.  15  ;  iv.  10,  16),  while  others  had  gone 
away  on  various  errands  (10,  12).  Yet  when 
arraigned  before  the  tribunal  he  was  at  first 
not  condemned  (17),  though  he  continued  to 
be  held  on  .some  other  charge.  Possibly  he 
was  able  to  disprove  a  charge  of  criminal 
conduct,  but  was  retained  in  custody  because 
he  was  a  Christian.  He  speaks  of  himself  as 
a  prisoner  (i.  8)  in  bonds  (16),  as  if  an  evil- 
doer (ii.  9),  and  regards  his  fate  as  sealed 
(iv.  6-8).  No  doubt  he  was  finally  con- 
demned to  death  simply  because  he  was  a 
Christian,  in  accordance  with  the  policy 
begun  by  Nero  in  a.  d.  64.  Tradition  relates 
that  the  apostle  was  beheaded,  as  became  a 
Roman  citizen,  on  the  Ostian  Way. 

In  giving  this  outline  of  the  life  of  the  apos- 
tle Paul,  we  have  necessarily  followed  the  ex- 
press testimony  of  The  Acts  and  epistles.  But 
it  should  not  be  forgotten  that  many  other 
events  occurred  in  his  active  and  checkered 
career.  To  some  of  these  allusions  are  made 
in  his  epistles  (Rom.  xv.  18,  19 :  2  Cor.  xi. 
24-33).  Yet  the  well-known  events  of  his 
life,  taken  with  his  epistles,  make  plain  the 
character  of  the  man  and  the  supreme  value 
of  his  work.  It  is  difficult  to  gather  into  one 
picture  the  many  features  of  his  versatile 
character.  He  was  by  nature  intensely  re- 
ligious and  his  religion  controlled  his  whole 
being.  This  was  true  of  him  even  as  a  Jew, 
much  more  after  his  conversion.  Keenly 
intellectual,  he  grasped  truth  at  its  full  value 
and  logically  wrought  out  its  implications. 
Yet  truth  posses,sed  his  heart  equally  with 
his  intellect,  and  his  emotions  were  as  fervid 
as  his  logical  processes  were  vigorous.  At 
the  same  time  the  practical  aspects  of  truth 
were  seen  by  him  no  less  than  its  theoretical 
side.  If  on  the  one  hand  he  fully  wrought 
out  dialectically  the  content  of  his  doctrinal 
ideas,  on  the  other  hand  he  applied  Christi- 
anity to  life  with  the  wisdom  and  complete- 
ness of  a  ])ractical  man  of  atfairs.  He  w'as 
intense  in  his  affections,  at  times  ecstatic  in 
his  religious  experiences,  ever  progressive  in 
his  statements  of  truth,  capable  of  soaring  to 
the  loftiest  heights  of  religious  thought,  and 
of  embodying  in  action  the  truth  for  which 
he  stood.  This  versatility,  intensity,  purity, 
breadth  of  mental  and  spiritual  life,  when 
used  by  the  all-controlling  Spirit  of  God, 
fitted  Paul  for  the  work  for  which  the  provi- 
dence of  God  intended  him. 

And  that  work  consisted  in  authoritatively 
interpreting  to  the  gentile  world,  in  action 
and  in  written  statement,  the  mission  and 
message  of  Christ.     How  Paul  did  this  in 


action  is  narrated  in  the  book  of  The  Acts. 
Through  his  agency  the  universalism  of 
Christianity,  its  independence  of  the  Jewish 
ritual,  its  adajitatinn  to  all  mankind,  was 
historically  established.  Other  men  also  con- 
tributed to  the  result.  But  it  was  Paul's 
divinely  given  task  to  bear  the  burden  of 
this  achievement,  and  to  him,  as  to  no  other 
man,  Christianity  owes  its  possession  of  a 
worldwide  destiny.  All  this  was  done,  of 
course,  in  accordance  with  the  purpose  of 
Christ  and  under  his  direction.  But  the 
student  of  Christian  history  must  recognize 
in  Paul  the  principal  agent  used  to  accom- 
plish the  result.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
epistles  of  Paul  disclose  in  written  state- 
ment the  doctrinal  and  ethical  interpretiition 
of  Christ's  word  and  work,  which  accompa- 
nied Paul's  missionary  activity  and  made  it 
profound  and  permanent.  It  is,  therefore, 
to  Paul  as  a  theologian  that  we  rightly  look 
with  the  greatest  admiration.  His  theology 
took  shape  from  the  peculiar  experience  of 
his  own  conversion.  By  that  sudden  transi- 
tion he  was  made  to  realize  the  impossibility 
of  man's  saving  himself,  the  dependence  of 
the  sinner  on  the  sovereign  grace  of  God, 
and  the  completeness  of  the  redeeming  work 
which  Jesus,  the  Son  of  God,  had  done 
through  death  and  resurrection.  It  followed 
that  only  by  union  with  Christ  through  faith 
can  any  man  be  saved.  Salvation  consists  in 
justification  of  the  sinner  by  God  on  the 
ground  of  Christ's  obedience,  and  when  thus 
justified  the  sinner,  being  united  to  Christ, 
is  made  to  partake  of  all  the  spiritual  bene- 
fits, external  and  internal,  in  heaven  and  on 
earth,  which  Christ  has  purchased  for  him. 
The  Spirit  inspired  Paul  to  set  forth  on  this 
foundation  the  truth  of  Christ's  whole  work 
and  person.  In  the  epistles  to  the  Galatians 
and  Romans  the  way  of  salvation  itself  is 
most  fully  elaborated,  while  in  the  epistles 
of  the  imprisonment  the  exalted  dignity  of 
Christ,  and  the  whole  breadth  and  end  of 
God's  eternal  purpose  of  grace  in  Christ  and 
his  church  find  their  full  expression.  Be- 
sides these  principal  themes,  almost  every 
phase  of  Christian  truth  and  duty  is  touched 
upon  in  his  epistles.  His  is  emphatically 
the  theology  of  grace.  He  sounded  the 
depths  of  this  truth.  He  interpreted  the 
Hebrew  Messiah  to  the  gentile  world.  He 
was  raised  up  to  explain  to  the  world  the 
Saviour  in  whom  it  was  invited  to  believe 
and  the  work  which  the  Saviour  had  done. 
Paul  was  preeminently  the  theologian  of  the 
apostles  as  well  as  the  most  aggressive  mis- 
sionary. It  is  not  i)ossi))le  to  understand 
Christianity,  unless  we  unite  with  the  teach- 
ing and  work  of  Jesus  Christ  the  interpreta- 
tion thereof  furnished  by  his  ajiostle  Paul. 

ChronoUxiy  of  PniiVs  life.  While  the  order 
of  events  in  Paul's  life  and  the  relative  dates 
of  his  epistles  are  in  the  main  quite  clear, 
there  is  some  dispute  concerning  the  preci.se 
years  to  which  both  events  and  epistles  are 


Paul 


559 


Paul 


to  be  assigned.  In  the  book  of  The  Acts  two 
dates  may  be  rejjarded  as  certain,  viz.,  the 
a.scension  of  Christ  in  .v.  D.  30  (though  some 
scholars  assign  this  to  .\.  D.  2ft)  and  the  deatli 
of  Herod  Agrippa  (Acts  xii.  23),  which  all  ad- 
mit to  have  taken  place  in  a.  d.  44.  Neither 
of  these  dates,  however,  is  of  much  assistance 
in  determining  the  absolute  chronology  of 
I'auTs  life.  That  depends  mainly  on  the 
date  assigned  to  the  accession  of  Festus  as 
procurator  of  Judtea.  According  to  the 
common  and  most  probable  opinion  Festus 
became  governor  (xxiv.  27)  in  A.  d.  60. 
Josephus  assigns  nearly  all  the  events  during 
the  governorship  of  Felix  to  the  reign  of 
Nero,  which  began  in  October,  a.  d.  54,  and 
Paul  (10)  speaks  of  Felix  as  having  been 
"of  many  years  a  judge  unto  this  nation." 
It  is  hardly  possible,  therefore,  to  assign 
Paul's  arrest  when  he  appeared  before  Felix 
to  a  date  earlier  than  A.  D.  58.  Then  Paul 
was  kept  two  years  in  confinement  in 
Cfpsarea,  which  would  make  the  accession 
of  Festus,  who  then  succeeded  Felix,  to  have 
taken  place  in  a.  d.  60.  It  can  hardly  have 
been  later,  since  Festus  was  succeeded  by 
Albinus  in  A.  D.  62.  and  the  events  recorded 
of  him  imply  that  he  was  governor  for  more 
than  a  year.  Rut  if  Festus  became  governor 
in  A.  D.  60,  Paul  was  sent  to  Rome  in  the 
autumn  of  that  year,  and  arrived  at  Eome 
in  the  spring  of  A.  D.  61,  having  spent  the 
winter  on  the  way.  Then  the  close  of  The 
Acts,  and  probably  the  apostle's  release  from 
his  fii^st  Roman  imprisonment,  are  to  be  dated 
in  A.  D.  63  (xxviii.  30). 

For  the  earlier  events  of  Paul's  life,  we 
date  back  from  the  accession  of  Festus.  As- 
suming the  latter  to  have  been  in  a.  d.  60, 
then  Paul's  arrest,  which  occurred  two  years 
before  (.\cts  xxiv.  27),  was  in  a.  d.  58.  This 
was  at  the  close  of  his  third  journey.  The 
winter  preceding  his  arrest  he  had  spent  in 
Corinth  (xx.  3),  the  preceding  autumn  in 
^Macedonia  (2),  and  before  that,  for  three 
years,  he  had  been  in  Ephesus  (31),  to  which 
lie  had  gone  from  Antioch  after  a  rapid  tour 
through  Galatia  and  Phrygia  (xviii.  23). 
Hence  four  years  must  be  allowed  for  the 
third  journey.  If  he  was  arrested  in  Jeru- 
salem in  the  spring  of  A.  D.  58,  he  must  have 
begiin  this  journey  in  the  spring  of  A.  D.  54. 
The  third  journey  followed  the  second  by  a 
moderate  interval  (23),  and  for  the  latter  at 
least  two  years  and  a  half  must  be  allowed, 
since  eighteeen  months  were  spent  at  Corinth 
(11),  and  the  preceding  events  of  the  tour 
may  fairly  be  supposed  to  have  occupied  a 
year  more  (xv.  .'J6-xvii.  34).  If,  therefore, 
the  second  journey  closed  in  the  autumn  of 
A.  D.  53,  it  probably  began  in  the  spring  of 
A.  D.  51.  The  second  journey  in  turn  began 
some  days  (xv.  36)  after  the  council  of  Jerusa- 
lem. This  latter  epoch-making  event  may, 
therefore,  be  assigned  to  the  year  a.  d.  50. 
The  first  mi.s.sionary  journey  can  only  be 
roughly  located  between  a.  d.  44,  the  date 


of  Herod's  death  (xii.),  and  a.  d.  50,  the  date 
of  the  council  (xv.).  We  may  probably  assign 
it  to  the  years  A.  D.  46-48,  though  it  is  not 
possible  to  say  how  long  a  time  it  consumed. 
For  the  date  of  Paul's  conversion,  we  must 
combine  the  results  given  above  with  his 
statements  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians. 
In  Gal.  ii.  1  he  says:  "Then  fourteen  years 
after  I  went  up  again  to  Jerusalem  with 
Barnal)as."  This  visit  is  undiiubiedly  the 
one  to  the  council  which  we  have  located  in 
a.  d.  50.  But  from  what  event  are  these 
fourteen  years  to  be  counted?  According  to 
some  conmientators.  they  are  to  be  reckoned 
from  his  conversion  mentioned  in  Gal.  i.  15. 
If  so,  his  conversion  was  in  A.  d.  36  or  37, 
according  as  we  count  the  fourteen  years  ex- 
clusively or  inclusively  of  the  first  one  of 
them.  But  in  Gal.  i.  18  Paul  notes  that  he 
first  visited  Jerusalem  three  years  after  his 
conversion.  Hence  it  is  more  natural  to  date 
the  fourteen  j'ears  of  Gal.  ii.  1  from  the  close 
of  the  previously  mentioned  three  years.  In 
that  case,  according  as  we  reckon  exclusively 
or  inclusively,  his  conversion  was  in  a.  d.  33 
or  35.  It  is  most  in  accordance  with  Hebrew 
custom  to  reckon  inclusively.  Hence  we 
may  assign  bis  conversion  to  A.  D.  35,  his  first 
subsequent  visit  to  Jerusalem  (Gal.  i.  18)  to 
A.  D.  37,  and  the  fourteen  years  after  (ii.  1) 
to  A.  D.  50.  As  already  remarked,  all  of 
these  dates  are  disputed.  Some  assign  the 
accession  of  Festus  to  A.  D.  55,  and  therefore 
push  back  all  the  other  dates  five  years  ear- 
lier than  those  given  above.  Other  critics 
vary  on  special  points.  Some  assign  Paul's 
death  to  A.  T>.  64,  supposing  that  he  died  in 
the  first  year  of  Nero's  persecution.  But  the 
dates  given  above  appear  to  be  by  far  the 
most  probable.  They  yield,  with  some  other 
details,  the  following  table  : 
Death,  resurrection,  and  ascension 

of  Christ A.  D.  30 

Conversion  of  Paul "    35  (?) 

First  subsequent  visit  to  Jeru.salem 

(Gal.  i.  18) "37 

Paul  at  Tarsus "    37-43 

Visit  to  Jerusalem  with  the  gifts 

from  Antioch  (Acts  xi.  30)  .   .      "44 

First  missionary  journey "    46-48  (?) 

Council  at  .Ternsalem    .  ". "50 

Second  missionary  journey    ....      "    51-53 

1  and  2  Thes.s"alonians "52 

Third  missionary  journey "    54-58 

Galatians     "55 

1  Corinthians "    56  or  57 

2  "  "57 

Romans "    57-58 

Arrest "58 

Imprisonment  in  Ca;sarea "    58-60 

Accession  of  Festus "60 

Paul  arrives  at  Rome "61 

Colossians,  Philemon,  Ephesians    "    61  or  62 

Philippians ■   •   .   .      "    62  or  63 

Release  from  first  Roman  impris- 
onment       "63 

1  Timothy "    64  or  65 

Titus "    65  or  66 

Hebrews,  if  by  Paul "    66  or  67 

2  Timothy "67 

Death  of  Paiil "67 

G.  T.  P. 


Pavement 


560 


Pekah 


Pave'ment.    See  Gabbatha. 

Pe. 

The  seventeenth  letter  of  the  Hebrew  al- 
phabet. It  comes  from  the  same  source  as 
English  P,  but  was  pronounced  like  ))  or  ph, 
according  to  its  position.  It  is  accordingly- 
represented  in  anglicized  Hebrew  names, 
though  too  often  arbitrarily,  by  either  p  or 
ph.  It  heads  the  seventeenth  section  of  Ps. 
cxix.,  in  which  section  each  verse  of  the 
original  begins  with  this  letter. 

Copyists  sometimes  experienced  difficulty 
in  distinguishing  pe  from  beth  (q.  v.). 

Peace   Of  fer-ing.    See  Offerings. 

Pea'cock. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word 
Tiihki.  The  rendering  is  doubtless  correct, 
for,  along  witli  ivory  and  apes,  tukkiyyim 
were  imported  by  Solomon  in  ships  of  Tar- 
shish  (1  Kin.  x.  22;  2  Chron.  ix.  21).  Now 
the  words  for  ivory  and  ape  are  of  Indian 
origin,  and  tuhki  also  finds  a  satisfactory 
origin  in  Malabar  tofiei,  Old  Tamil  tokei, 
togei,  a  peacock.  The  peacock  {Pavo  cristatus) 
is  a  native  of  India,  where  it  may  be  found 
in  the  jungles,  generally  running  pretty  rap- 
idly away  when  disturbed.  As  the  natives 
do  not  allow  it  to  be  molested,  it  often  makes 
its  Avay  into  the  villages. 

2.  See  OsTKicH  2.    - 
Pearl. 

A  precious  article  of  commerce  (Mat.  xiii. 
45,  46 ;  Rev.  xxi.  21 ;  also  Job  xxviii.  18,  in 
E.  V.  crystal),  used  as  an  ornament  by  women 
(1  Tim.  ii.  9;  Rev.  xvii.  4).  Pearls  are  found 
inside  the  .shells  of  several  species  of  Mulliisca. 
They  consist  of  carbonate  of  lime  interstrati- 
fied  with  animal  membrane,  and  are  formed 
by  the  deposit  of  the  nacreous  substance 
around  some  foreign  body  within  the  mantle 
lobes,  such  as  a  grain  of  sand,  which  acts  as 
an  irritant  and  serves  as  a  nucleus.  This 
substance  is  the  same  as  the  mother  of  pearl, 
which  forms  the  lustrous  inner  lining  of  the 
shell.  Pearls  of  large  size  and  fine  quality 
are  yielded  by  the  pearl  oyster  {Meleagrhia 
margarififera),  which  abounds  in  the  Indian 
seas,  especially  in  the  Persian  Gulf  and  near 
Ceylon.  It  sometimes  attains  a  length  of  10 
or  12  inches. 

Ped'a-hel  [God  hath  saved]. 

A  prince  of  the  tribe  of  Naphtali  in  the 
■wilderness  (Num.  xxxiv.  28). 

Pe-dah'zur  [a  rock,  i.  e.,  God,  hath  saved]. 

Father  of  the  prince  of  Manasseh  in  the 
wilderness  (Num.  i.  10;  ii.  20). 

Pe-da'iah  [Jehovah  hath  saved]. 

1.  The  father  of  Joel,  prince  of  Manasseh 
(1  Chron.  xxvii.  20). 

2.  A  citizen  of  Rumah  and  maternal  grand- 
father of  king  Jehoiakim  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  36). 

3.  A  brother  of  Shealtiel  or  possibly,  though 
not  probably,  his  son  (1  Chron.  lit.  18,  19). 
See  Zerubbabel. 

4.  A   descendant  of   Parosh.      He  rebuilt   I 


and  rei)aired  part  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem 
(Neh.  iii.  2.5). 

5.  One  of  those,  jtrobably  priests,  who 
stood  on  Ezra's  left  hand  when  he  addressed 
the  people  (Neh.  viii.  4). 

6.  A  Benjamite  of  the  family  of  Jeshaiah 
(Neh.  xi.  7). 

7.  A  Levite;  one  of  those  appointed  by 
Nehemiah  over  the  treasures  (Neh.  xiii.  13). 

Pe'kah  [an  opening  (of  the  eyes),  deliver- 
ance] . 

Son  of  Ecmaliah.  He  was  a  captain  under 
Pekahiah  ;  but  he  conspired  against  his  king, 
slew  him,  and  reigned  in  his  stead.  He  ad- 
hered to  the  calf  worship  of  Jeroboam  I.  (2 
Kin.  XV.  25-28).  When  Jotham's  reign  was 
drawing  to  a  close,  Pekah  entered  into  an  alli- 
ance with  Rezin,  king  of  Syria,  against  Judah. 
They  purposed  to  dethrone  the  king,  anl 
place  the  crown  on  a  creature  of  their  own. 
The  allied  kings  began  their  great  invasion 
of  Judah  just  as  the  reins  of  government 
l)assed  from  Jotham  into  the  hands  of  Ahaz. 
The  Syrians  advanced  through  the  country- 
east  of  the  Jordan  to  Elath,  intending  to 
rendezvous  at  Jerusalem.  Pekah  led  his 
army  directly  toward  the  capital  of  Judah, 
burning  and  pillaging  as  he  went.  The  in- 
habitants of  .Jerusalem  were  greatly  alarmed. 
Isaiah,  however,  was  directed  to  encourage 
the  king  and  the  people  with  the  assurance 
that  the  plan  of  the  enemy  would  fail,  and 
to  exhort  them  to  put  their  trust  in  Jehovah. 
Ahaz  spurned  the  advice,  preferring  to  trust 
to  the  king  of  Assyria,  and  purchased  the 
aid  of  Tiglath-pileser.  The  advance  of  the 
Assyrian  army  through  Galilee  (2  Kin.  xv. 
29)  to  Philistia,  in  734  B.  c,  compelled  the 
allied  kings  to  withdraw  their  troops  from 
Judah  in  order  to  protect  their  own  domin- 
ions. Pekah  carried  ofi"  a  multitude  of  ca]i- 
tives  as  he  departed  ;  but  on  the  remonstrance 
of  the  prophet  Oded,  he  clothed  and  fed  them 
and  sent  them  home  (2  Kin.  xvi.  5-9;  2 
Chron.  xxviii.  5-15  ;  Is.  vii.  1-13).  During 
the  next  two  years  Tiglath-pileser  was  at 
Damascus,  doubtless  leading  his  army  across 
the  territory  of  Israel  as  he  marched  from 
Philistia.  From  Damascus  detachments  of 
the  A.ssyrian  army  were  sent  forth,  which 
overran  the  country  east  of  the  Jordan  and 
carried  ofl"  many  Israelites  captive  (1  Chron. 
V.  26).  lu  730  B.C.  Hoshea  murdered  Pekah 
and  ascended  the  throne  in  his  stead  (2  Kin. 
XV.  30).  This  deed  was  accomplished  with 
the  connivance  of  Tiglath-pileser,  as  the  As- 
syrian records  relate.  The  present  Hebrew 
text  assigns  twenty  years  to  the  reign  of 
Pekah  (2  Kin.  xv.  27).  It  is  impossible  that 
he  occui)ied  the  throne  of  Samaria  during  all 
these  years,  ft)r  Menahcm,  a  predecessor  of  his, 
was  on  the  throne  about  7.38  B.  c,  in  the  reign 
of  Tiglath-pileser  (2  Kin.  xv.  19).  Critics 
of  all  schools  accordinglj'  admit  that  twenty 
years  are  much  too  long.  There  is  a  bare 
possibility,  however,  that  the  Hebrew  writer, 


1 


Fekahiah 


561 


Pelican 


when  he  summarizes  the  reign  of  Pekah, 
and  states  that  "in  the  tifty-socoud  year  of 
Uzziah  Pekah  reigued  ovei*  Israel  in  Samaria 
— twenty  years,"  does  not  mean  that  Pekah 
reigned  all  of  these  twenty  years  in  Samaria. 
Pekaii  was  associated  with  Gileadites  (2  Kin. 
XV.  2.")).  It  is  just  possible  that  he  set  up  his 
authority  in  northern  Gilead  and  Galilee  in 
749  B.  c,  during  the  confusion  which  accom- 
panied the  death  of  Jeroboam  II..  and  main- 
tained his  power  during  the  greater  part  of 
Menahem's  reign,  being  the  cause  of  Mena- 
hem's  feeling  of  insecurity  until  Tiglath- 
jiileser  invaded  the  north  and  established 
^lenahem's  swav  over  the  whole  country 
(2  Kin.  XV.  19)'.  Then  Pekah,  like  Abner 
before  him,  abandoned  opposition,  professed 
loyalty,  and  was  given  a  high  military  posi- 
tion in  the  service  of  the  king  to  whom  he 
had  hitherto  refused  obedience.  After  Men- 
ahem's  death  and  in  the  absence  of  Tiglath- 
pileser,  and  perhaps  backed  by  Rezin,  he 
seized  the  throne  in  the  fifty-second  year  of 
Uzziah    and    again    reigned.      See    Cheo- 

NOLOCiY. 

Pek-a-hi'ah  [Jehovah  hath  given  sight  or 
delivered]. 

Son  and  successor  of  Menahem  in  the  king- 
dom of  Israel.  He  came  to  the  throne  about 
7.37  B.  c,  and  reigned  two  years,  adhering  to 
the  calf  worship  of  Jeroboam  I.  He  was 
assassinated  in  his  palace  at  Samaria  by 
Pekah,  a  captain  of  his.  who  then  usurped 
the  throne  (2  Kin.  xv.  23-26). 

Pe'kod. 

A  locality  in  Babylonia  and  its  inhabitants 
(Jer.  1.  21;  Ezek.  xxiii.  23);  doubtless  the 
Pukudu,  a  Babylonian  people. 

Pe-la'iah  [Jehovah  hath  made  illustrious]. 

1.  One  of  the  Levites  who  with  Ezra 
caused  the  people  to  understand  the  law 
(Neh.  viii.  7)  and  sealed  the  covenant  (x.  10). 

2.  A  man  of  Judah,  descended  from  Shec- 
aniah  (1  Chron.  iii.  24). 

Pel-a-li'ah  [Jehovah  hath  judged]. 
A  ])riest  descended  from  Malchijah  (Neh. 
xi.i2). 

Pel-a-ti'ah  [Jehovah  hath  set  free]. 

1.  One  of  the  Simeonite  captains  in  the 
successful  war  between  that  tribe  and  the 
Amalekites  (1  Chron.  iv.  42). 

2.  A  prince  of  Israel,  and  son  of  Benaiah. 
He  misled  the  people.  In  vision  Ezekiel  saw 
him,  and  he  proi)hesied  against  him,  and 
Pelatiah  suddenly  died  (Ezek.  xi.  1-13:  cp. 
viii.  1,  3;  xi.  24). 

3.  A  sou  of  Hananiah,  and  a  grandson  of 
Zerubbabel  (1  Chron.  iii.  21).  Perhaps  he 
was  the  person  of  this  name  who  was  a  chief 
of  the  jieople  and  with  Nehemiah  sealed  the 
covenant  (Neh.  x.  22). 

Pe'leg,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Phalec  [division]. 

A  son  or  descendant  of  Eber  (Gen.  x.  2.5; 
xi.  16).  He  takes  his  name  from  the  fact 
that  in  his  days  the  earth  was  divided.  The 
36 


division  alluded  to  may  be  the  separation  of 
the  descendants  of  Arpachshad  from  the 
Joktanide  Arabs  (x.  24-29) ;  or  it  may  refer 
to  the  .scattering  of  the  descendants  of  Noah 
in  consequence  of  the  confusion  of  tongues 
at  Babel. 

Pe'let  [liberation]. 

1.  A  son  of  Jahdai,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah 
(1  Chron.  ii.  47). 

2.  A  Benjamite  who  joined  David  while 
he  was  at  Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  3). 

Pe'leth  [swiftness]. 

1.  A  Eeubenite,  father  of  that  On  who 
joined  in  Korah's  rebellion  (Num.  xvi.  1). 

2.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Ilezron, 
house  of  Jerahmeel  (1  Chron.  ii.  33). 

Pel'e-thites. 

Certain  members  of  David's  bodyguard. 
Apparently  they  were  from  the  Philistine, 
country,  as  were  the  Cherethites  and  the 
men  of  Gath,  who  were  their  comrades  in 
arms.  They  were  faithful  to  David  during 
the  calamities  of  his  later  years,  and  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  war  in  which  Absalom 
lost  his  cause  and  his  life  (2  Sam.  xv.  18-22). 
They  also  helped  in  the  fight  with  Sheba 
(xx.  7).  The  name  which  they  bear  is  doubt- 
less a  gentile  adjective,  like  those  with  which 
it  is  connected ;  but  it  is  not  a  contraction 
of  P'lishti,  Philistine,  as  some  scholars  have 
supposed. 

Pel'i-can. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  Ka'ath, 
probably  meaning  the  vomiter.  The  word  is 
twice  translated  cormorant  in  the  text  of 
A.  V.  (Is.  xxxiv.  11 ;  Zeph.  ii.  14) ;  but  else- 
where pelican,  as  everywhere  in  E.  V.  The 
bird  was  ceremonially  unclean  (Lev.  xi.  18  ; 


Pelieaii. 

Dent.  xiv.  17),  lived  in  the  wilderness  (Ps. 
cii.  6),  and  frequented  ruins  (Isa.  xxxiv.  11; 
Zeph.  ii.  14).  It  is  probably  the  common  or 
roseate  pelican  (Pelecanus  onocrofalus),  though 
rivers  and  lakes,  rather  than  ruined  cities,  un- 
less the  ruins  are  interspersed  with  marshes, 


Pelonite 


562 


Pentateuch 


are  its  appropriate  place  of  abode.  Its  four 
toes,  beiug  all  connected  by  large  webs,  adapt 
it  for  aquatic  life.  It  sometimes,  however, 
perches  on  trees.  Its  bill  is  large  and  fur- 
rowed, and  has  under  it  a  large  pouch  in 
which  the  bird  carries  the  fish  on  which  its 
young  feed.  Its  height  is  from  5  to  6  feet ; 
the  expansion  of  its  wings  12  or  13.  A  few 
individuals  are  found  on  the  sea  of  Galilee ; 
a  much  larger  number  on  the  shallow  lakes 
of  Egypt  and  on  the  Nile. 

Pel'o-nite. 

A  word  corresponding  in  1  Chron.  xi.  27; 
xxvii.  10  to  Paltite  in  2  Sam.  xxiii,  2H,  and 
in  1  Chron.  xi.  36  apparently  to  Gilouite  in 
2  Sam.  XV.  12;  xxiii.  34.  In  1  Chron.  xxvii. 
10  the  person  who  is  designated  by  this 
epithet  is  further  said  to  be  of  the  children 
of  Ephraim.  No  person  or  place  is  known 
from  which  this  adjective  could  be  derived  ; 
certainly  not  from  Pallu,  who  was  a  Reubenite 
and  whose  descendants  were  called  Palluites 
(Num.  xxvi.  5).  In  view  of  these  circum- 
stances, Pelonite  is  not  unreasonably  believed 
to  be  either  a  corruption  of  the  text  or  else 
to  mean  "such  and  such  a  one,"  as  it  does 
in  other  connection  (e.  g.  1  Sam.  xxi.  2),  and 
to  have  been  inserted  in  the  passages  men- 
tioned by  a  scribe  who  could  not  read  the  orig- 
inal word  in  the  text  which  he  was  copying. 

Pen. 

1.  A  stylus  or  graving  tool  made  of  iron 
and  used  by  writers  for  cutting  letters  on 
stone  (Job  xix.  24 ;  Ps.  xlv.  1 ;  Jer.  viii.  8 ; 
xvii.  1).  In  Hebrew  it  is  called  'et  and  once 
heret  (Is.  viii.  1). 

2.  A  reed  pen  used  for  writing  with  ink  on 
papyrus  (3  John  13 ;  cp.  2  John  12).  The 
mention  of  a  penknife  or  knife  of  a  writer 
in  Jeremiah  xxxvi.  23,  and  of  a  roll  in  which 
the  prophet's  words  were  written,  imply  that 
reed  pens  had  beeu  introduced  among  the 
Israelites  by  the  time  of  Jehoiakim. 

The  Hebrew  words  rendered  pen  of  the 
writer  in  Judg.  v.  14,  A.  V.  mean  literally 
staff  of  a  marshal  or  scribe  (E.  V.). 

Pe-ni'el.     See  Penuel  2. 

Pe-nin'nah  [ruby  or  coral]. 
One   of   Elkanah's  two   wives,   the  other 
being  Hannah  (1  Sam.  i.  2-6). 

Pen.'ny. 

The  rendering  of  the  Greek  Denarion.  It 
was  the  denarius,  a  silver  coin  of  the  Eomans 
(Mat.  xxii.  19-21),  worth  about  17  cents  in  the 
time  of  Christ  (xviii.  28,  R.  V.  margin).  See 
Money.  It  was  the  ordinary  pay  of  an 
agricultural  laborer  for  a  day  (Mat.  xx.  2,  9, 
13).  Two  were  given  to  the  innkeeper  by 
the  good  Samaritan  for  looking  after  the 
wounded  Jew,  though  he  promised  to  sup- 
plement this  sura  if  the  expense  should  ex- 
ceed it  (Luke  X.  35).  The  apostles  calculated 
that  200  would  be  needed  to  buy  sufficient 
bread  to  feed  5000  people  (Mark  vi.  37). 
This  would  be  one  denarius  for  each  twenty- 


five,  or  two  thirds  of  a  cent  to  each  person. 
The  prices  in  Rev.  vi.  6  were  those  asked 
during  a  dearth. 

Pen'ta-teuch  [Greek  pentaieuchos,  consist- 
ing of  five  books]. 

The  first  five  books  of  the  O.  T.,  viz., 
Genesis,  Exodus,  Leviticus,  Numbers,  and 
Deuteronomy.  The  word  nowhere  occurs  in 
Scripture,  the  Israelites  calling  these  books 
collectively  the  law  (Josh.  i.  7 ;  Mat.  v.  17), 
the  law  of  Moses  (1  Kin.  ii.  3 ;  Ezra  vii.  6  ; 
Luke  ii.  22),  the  law  of  the  Lord  (2  Chron. 
xxxi.  3;  Luke  ii.  23),  the  book  of  the  law 
(Josh.  i.  8),  the  book  of  Moses  (2  Chron.  xxv. 
3,  4),  the  book  of  the  law  of  Moses  (Josh, 
viii.  31),  the  book  of  the  law  of  God  (Josh, 
xxiv.  26),  the  book  of  the  law  of  the  Lord 
(2  Chron.  xvii.  9).  This  fact  suggests  that 
the  five  books  were  considered  as  one  ;  and 
they  still  are  so  in  Hebrew  manuscripts, 
though  severally  cited  by  their  opening 
words.  The  division  into  five  distinct  books  is 
mentioned  by  Josephus  (con.  Apion.  i.  8).  It 
may  have  originated  with  the  Greek  trans- 
lators or  been  ancient.  But  whether  or  not 
the  Septuagint  translators  adopted  or  origin- 
ated this  five-fold  division,  from  them  at 
least  emanated  the  modern  names  Genesis, 
Exodus,  Leviticus,  Numbers,  and  Deuteron- 
omy.* 

*  The  division  of  the  law  of  Moses  into  five 
books  furnished  the  model,  it  is  thought,  for  the 
similar  division  of  the  Psalter.  If  it  did,  it  is 
ancient:  fur  the  Psalter  was  early  divided  into 
five  books.  Proof  that  it  did  is  sought  in  the 
alleged  discovery  that  the  contents  of  each 
book  are  so  arranged  that  the  opening  psalm 
sliall  correspond  to  the  respective  book  of  the 
Pentateuch.  Ps.  i.,  with  its  comparison  of  the 
righteous  to  a  tree  planted  by  the  rivers  of 
water,  is  a  reminder  of  the  garden  of  Eden  in 
the  first  book  of  the  Pentateuch.  Ps.  xlii.,  with 
which  the  second  book  of  the  Psalter  opens,  is 
the  cry  of  a  man  in  distress,  oppressed  by  the 
enemy,  and  thinking  liimself  forgotten  by  God, 
but  anticipating  deliverance  out  of  all  his 
trouble.  It  recalls  the  affliction  of  Israel  in 
Egypt  and  their  deliverance,  as  related  in  Ex- 
odus. In  Ps.  l.xxiii.,  with  which  tlie  third  boo]j 
begins,  the  doubts  of  the  psalmist  regardingthe 
justice  of  God's  dealing  with  men  vanish  when 
he  considers  the  end  of  the  wickiMl.  Tlie  psahn 
is  supposed  to  reflect  gratitude  for  God's  good- 
ness in  giving  the  law  of  Leviticus,  which  was 
an  abiding  mercy.  Ps.  xc,  a  prayer  of  .Moses, 
in  which  God  is  besought  to  teach  iisto  number 
our  days,  corresponds  to  Numbers.  Ps.  cvii., 
wliicli  begins  the  fifth  book,  speaks  of  the  good- 
ness of  the  Lord  in  the  days  of  trouble,  and  is 
thus  like  Deuteronomy,  which  recapitulates  the 
instances  of  God's  loving  kindness  to  Israel.  It 
must  be  confessed  tliat  the  correspondence  is 
ratlier  fanciful :  and  if  an  editor  set  alj(mt  secur- 
ing correspondence,  it  is  strange  tliat  he  did  not 
a(]opt  a  more  appropriate  arrangement.  Ps. 
viii.,  with  its  reference  to  the  heavens,  the  work 
of  God's  fingers,  to  tlie  moon  and  stars  which  he 
ordained,  and  to  man  whom  he  made  and  to 
whom  he  gave  dominion  over  all  creatures, 
would  have  better  corresponded  with  Gen.  i. 
Ps.  Ixvi.  of  the  second  book,  which  tells  of  the 
works  of  God,  how  he  turned  the  sea  into(]ry 
land  for  the  people  to  pass  through,  and  how  he 
tried  the  Israelites,  laid  sore  burdens  on  them 


Pentateuch 


563 


Pentateuch 


The  events  recorded  iu  the  first  book  of 
the  Pentateuch  were  transmitted  to  the  time 
of  Moses,  as  is  now  known,  by  tradition  oral 
and  written  ;  the  subsequent  occurrences 
fell  under  his  own  observation,  and  he  was 
himself  an  actor  in  the  most  stirring  events. 
Writing  was  practiced  long  before  the  time  of 
Moses.  It  was  common  in  Egypt,  where  he  was 
educated  ;  iu  Arabia,  through  a  portion  of 
which  he  passed  ;  and  iu  Canaan  where  his 
ancestors  had  sojourned  and  whither  he  was 
leading  the  people.  Though  the  five  books 
themselves  are  not  attributed  as  a  whole  to 
Moses  in  any  verse  which  they  contain,  yet 
the  Pentateuch  testifies  expressly  to  the 
Mosaic  authorship  of  its  contents.  Two  pas- 
sages of  the  narrative  portion  are  attributed 
to  his  pen ;  the  account  of  the  victory  over 
Amalek  (Ex.  xvii.  14),  and  the  itinerary  of 
the  march  of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt  to 
the  plains  of  Moab  opposite  Jericho  (Num. 
xxxiii.  2).  A  didactic  song,  reciting  the 
dealing  of  the  Most  High  with  Israel,  is  de- 
clared to  have  been  written  and  uttered  by 
iloses  (Deut.  xxxi.  19,  2J,  30;  xxxii.  44j. 
The  legal  portion  consists  of  three  distinct 
bodies  of  law.  The  first  is  entitled  the  book 
of  the  covenant,  and  comprises  the  ten  com- 
mandments which  formed  the  fundamental 
law  of  the  nation,  and  specific  regulations 
based  on  them  (Ex.  xx.-xxiii.).  This  book 
Moses  is  expressly  said  to  have  written  ( Ex. 
xxiv.  4).  The  second  body  of  laws  pertains 
to  the  sanctuary  and  service  (Ex.  xxv.-xxxi., 
XXXV. -xl.,  Leviticus,  and  major  legal  part 
of  Numbers).  This  legislation  is  constantly 
declared  to  have  been  revealed  by  the  Lord 
to  Moses  (Ex.  xxv.  1,  etc.).  The  third  body 
of  legislation  expressly  and  repeatedly  claims 
to  be  the  address  of  Moses  to  the  new  gen- 
eration of  people  on  the  eve  of  their  entrance 
into  Canaan.  It  contains  a  brief  rehearsal 
of  the  way  which  God  has  led  them  and 
then  repeats  sundry  portions  of  the  law  with 
the  special  object  of  exhibiting  its  spiritu- 
ality, emphasizing  the  features  which  are  of 
vital  religious  importance  in  the  new  circum- 
stances in  which  the  people  will  soon  be 
placed,  and  modifying  details  to  adapt  the 
laws  to  the  new  requirements  of  the  settled 
life  in  Canaan.  Closes  wrote  this  address 
and  delivered  it  into  the  custody  of  the 
Levites  (Deut.  xxxi.  9,  •24-*26).  These  are 
the  explicit  claims,  scattered  throughout  the 
Pentateuch  itself,  to  its  Mosaic  authorship. 
The  remainder  of  the  O.  T.  refers  to  the  law 
as  the  work  of  Moses  and  written  in  a  book 
(Josh.  i.  7,  8;  Ezra  vi.  18;  Xeh.  viii.  1.  18); 
and  abounds  in  explicit  references  to  the  law 
of  Moses  (Josh.  i.  7, 8  ;  viii.  31-35 ;  Judg.  iii.  4 ; 

and  caused  men  to  ride  over  their  heads,  and 
then  brought  them  out  into  a  wealthy  place, 
should  have  opened  the  book.  It  has  an  obvious 
reference  to  the  events  recorded  in  Exodus, 
whereas  Ps.  xlii.  has  not.  Ps.  Ixxvi.  or  Lxxviii. 
should  form  the  opening  of  the  third  book  in 
order  to  correspond  appropriately  to  Leviticus. 


1  Kin.  ii.  3 ;  2  Kin.  xviii.  6,  12 ;  cp.  Deut. 
xxiv.  ]() ;  2  Kin.  xxi.  7,  8  ;  Dan.  ix.  11,  13  ; 
Ezra  iii.  2;  vi.  18;  vii.  6;  Neh.  viii.  1,  Is ; 
Mai.  iv.  4).  One  feature  of  this  law,  namely, 
the  law  of  the  one  altar,  was  in  abeyance 
during  the  captivity  and  seclusion  of  the 
ark  after  the  Lord  had  forsaken  Shiloh 
(1  Sam.  iv.  11,  21,  22;  vi.  1;  vii.  2;  Ps. 
Ixxviii.  60;  Jer.  vii.  12-15;  xxvi.  (i).  Dur- 
ing this  period  the  people  under  the  leader- 
shij)  of  Samuel  sacrificed  where  they  could 
(1  Kin.  iii.  2-4),  as  their  fathers  had  done 
in  the  olden  time  before  the  covenant  had 
been  entered  into  between  Jehovah  and  the 
Israelites,  of  which  the  law  and  the  ark 
were  the  sign  and  pledge.  Once  again  this 
specific  law  was  in  abeyance.  The  pious  Israel- 
ites of  the  northern  kingdom  were  i)revented 
from  going  up  to  Jerusalem  to  worsliiji. 
They  had  to  choose  between  refraining  from 
sacrifice  altogether  or  worshiping  God  as  did 
Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob.  They  properly 
chose  the  latter  alternative.  All  other  cases 
of  sacrifice  otlered  elsewhere  than  at  the 
central  sanctuary  were  strictly  in  accord 
with  the  law  which  exjiressly  provided  that 
wherever  Jehovah  manifested  his  name,  there 
sacrifice  was  fitting  (Ex.  xx.  24;  and  see 
Judg.  ii.  1,  5;  vi.  19-24;  xiii.  15-22).  The 
law  of  Moses  was  known  and  its  authority 
acknowledged  even  in  the  northern  king- 
dom. The  prophets  Hosea  and  Amos,  who 
labored  among  the  ten  tribes,  although 
they  do  not  mention  the  name  of  Moses, 
constantly  refer  to  the  laws  recorded  in  the 
Pentateuch  and  use  its  very  language.  At 
a  still  later  time  the  temple  copy  of  the  book 
of  the  law  was  unused  and  cast  aside  during 
the  half  century  of  Mauasseh's  reign  when 
the  religion  of  Jehovah  was  neglected  ;  but 
when  the  temple  was  being  cleaned,  prepara- 
tory to  the  restoration  of  .Jehovah's  worship, 
the  book  was  found,  or  so  much  of  it  at  lea.st 
as  contained  Deuteronomy  (2  Kin.  xxii.  b  ; 
'xxiii.  25).  Daniel,  Ezra,  and  Xeheniiah 
allude  to  the  written  law  of  Moses.  That 
Closes  was  the  author  of  the  Pentateuch  was 
the  opinion  of  the  Jews  of  Christ's  time 
(Mark  xii.  19  :  John  viii.  5 ;  Antici.  preface  4  ; 
con.  Apion.  i.  6).  Christ  and  the  evan- 
gelists call  the  Pentateuch  Moses  and  the 
book  of  Moses  (Mark  xii.  26  ;  Luke  xvi.  2!) ; 
xxiv.  27.  44),  and  speak  of  its  having  been 
given  by  Moses  and  committed  to  writing  by 
Moses  (Mark  x.  5  ;  xii.  19;  John  i.  17;  v.  46, 
47 ;  vii.  19). 

The  Mosaic  authorship  of  the  Pentateuch 
is  impugned.  The  principal  objections  for- 
merly urged  again.st  it  were  several  verses 
in  which  reference  has  been  found  to  times 
subsequent  to  the  death  of  Moses.  1.  In 
Gen.  xii.  6  we  read:  "And  the  Canaanite 
was  then  in  the  land  "  (cp.  xiii.  7).  The 
meaning  assigned  to  these  words  is  that  the 
Canaanites  had  ceased  to  be  there  when  the 
writer  lived.  The  words,  however,  actually 
state  only  that  the  Canaanites  were  in  the 


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564 


Pentateuch 


c'oimtry  when  Abraham  was  there,  and  were 
occupying  the  promised  laud.  2.  lu  Gen. 
xiv.  14  we  read  that  Abraham  pursued 
the  defeated  confederates  to  Dan.  In  the 
l)atriarch's  time,  however,  the  place  was 
called  Laish,  the  name  Dan  not  having  been 
gi%'en  it  till  the  time  of  the  judges  (Judg. 
xviii.  29).  The  question  is,  however,  whether 
Dan  in  Genesis  is  the  place  mentioned  in 
the  Book  of  Judges.  If  it  is,  the  more 
familiar  name  may  have  been  substituted  in 
the  place  of  Laish  in  the  course  of  repeated 
transcription.  The  Hebrew  text  has  not 
been  preserved  in  absolute  purity.  3.  In 
Gen.  xxxvi.  31  the  words  occur:  "Before 
there  reigned  any  king  over  the  children  of 
Israel,"  as  if  the  Hebrew  monarchy  under 
Saul  had  already  been  established  when  the 
author  wrote.  But  the  kings  of  Edom  who 
are  mentioned  in  ver.  32-43  reigned  before 
Moses ;  and  Moses  notes  that  the  descendants 
of  Esau  already  had  kings,  although Hhe  Isra- 
elites, to  whom  the  promise  had  been  given 
that  kings  should  arise  among  them  (Gen. 
xvii.6, 16;  xxxv.  11),  as  yet  had  none.  4.  Moses 
is  said  to  be  beyond  Jordan,  meaning  east  of 
the  river,  as  though  the  writer  himself  were 
in  Canaan  (Deut.  i.  1).  The  expression,  how- 
ever, does  not  imply  this.  Abraham,  Isaac, 
and  Jacob  spoke  of  that  region  as  "beyond 
Jordan,"  and  the  designation  became  a  fixed 
geographical  term.  Moreover  that  country 
was  not  Canaan,  not  the  promised  land. 
Moses  was  still  beyond  Jordan.  No  matter 
on  which  side  of  the  river  the  people  were, 
they  designated  the  mountains  east  of  the 
Dead  Sea  Abarim,  those  beyond,  and  in  later 
times  they  called  the  country  between  the 
Jabbok  and  the  Arnon  Persea,  region  beyond. 
5.  It  is  univei'sally  admitted  that  Deut.  xxxiv. 
5-12,  in  wliitli  the  death  of  Moses  is  recorded 
andcomi)arisoii  made  between  him  and  proph- 
ets subsequently  raised  up  (5, 10,  etc.),  cannot 
have  been  from  his  pen.  But  an  addition  of 
this  sort  does  not  militate  against  the  Mosaic 
authorship  of  the  Pentateuch  as  a  whole. 

The  orthodox  theologian  and  commentator 
Vitringa  expressed  the  opinion  in  1707,  in 
the  interest  of  the  credibility  of  Genesis, 
that  Moses  edited  and  supplemented  records 
left  by  the  fathers  and  preserved  among  the 
Israelites.  In  1753,  Jean  Astruc,  a  French 
physician  of  ability,  but  profligate,  attempted 
to  discriminate  two  leading  authors  in  Gene- 
sis, whose  writings  Moses  used  and  who  are 
distinguished  by  their  employment  respec- 
tively of  the  words  Elohim,  that  is  God,  and 
Jehovah.  Besides  the  writings  of  these 
two,  he  thought  he  could  detect  ten  minor 
documents  relating  chiefly  to  foreign  nations 
and  in  which  no  name  of  God  is  found.  Tliis 
hypothesis  was  adopted  by  Eichhorn,  and 
elaborated  with  learning  and  ingenuity.  He 
steadfastly  insisted  that  Moses  compiled  Gen- 
esis, and  was  the  author  of  the  rest  of  the 
Pentateuch.  It  was  soon  discovered,  how- 
ever, that  the  principles  which   govern  the 


partition  of  Genesis  were  capable  of  being 
applied  with  similar  results  to  the  entire 
Pentateuch  ;  and  if  so,  the  original  docu- 
ments covered  the  history  of  Moses'  own 
time,  and  were  scarcely  put  together  by 
Moses  to  form  the  present  Pentateuch.  The 
grounds  on  which  the  partition  is  made  are 
chiefly  four :  1.  The  alternate  use  of  the 
divine  names  God  and  Lord  in  successive 
paragraphs  or  sections.  2.  The  continuity 
of  each  so-called  document  when  taken  sepa- 
rately. 3.  The  diversity  of  style,  diction, 
and  ideas  in  the  ditterent  documents.  4. 
Repetitions  or  parallel  passages,  often  contra- 
dictory, indicative  of  distinct  documents. 
Starting  in  simple  form,  the  hypothesis  un- 
derwent constant  modification  under  careful 
criticism  in  order  to  remove  the  difiiculties 
which  beset  it.  The  form  which  it  now  as- 
sumes is  that  four  principal  original  docu- 
ments were  used  by  an  editor  or  redactor  in 
compiling  the  Pentateuch :  an  Elohistic,  in 
which  the  divine  title  is  Elohim,  and  which 
supplies  about  one-half  the  matter;  a  Jeho- 
vistic  and  another  Elohistic,  which  have 
many  mutual  likenesses  and  are  closely 
united ;  and  finally  the  document  of  the 
Deuteronomist.  The  second  and  third  docu- 
ments, referred  to  as  J  E,  are  regarded  as 
the  oldest  and  dated  about  1000-bOO  B.  C. 
Deuteronomy  or  D  is  assigned  to  the  year 
621  B.  c.  (2  Kin.  xxii.  8).  And  the  first  men- 
tioned, usually  denominated  P  to  indicate 
that  its  author  was  a  priest,  is  commonly 
dated  at  the  close  of  the  exile.  To  each  of 
these  main  divisions  there  is  a  code  of  law  ; 
to  J  E,  Ex.  xx.-xxiii. ;  to  D,  Deut.  xii.-xxvi. ; 
and  to  P  the  priestly  and  other  legislation 
of  Exodus,  Leviticus,  and  Numbers.  It  will 
be  observed  that  there  are  two  distinct 
matters  involved  in  the  modern  theory : 
first,  the  existence  of  documents  out  of 
which  the  Pentateuch  was  constructed,  and, 
second,  the  date  of  these  documents.  Well- 
hausen  dates  them  as  above,  holding  that  the 
legislation  of  Leviticus  is  later  than  that  of 
Deuteronomy.  But  1.  This  theory  involves 
the  denial  of  the  truth  of  the  historical  narra- 
tive in  the  O.  T.,  not  the  assertion  of  occa- 
sional or  minute  inaccuracies,  but  the  rejec- 
tion of  the  credibility  of  the  O.  T.  narrative 
almost  as  a  whole.  Wellhauscn  makes  no  con- 
cealment of  the  fact.  2.  Furthermore,  to  date 
the  so-called  documents  so  late  is  forbidden  by 
the  fact  of  the  development  of  doctrine.  In 
the  Pentateuch,  the  conceptions  entertained 
and  the  doctrine  taught  concerning  the  future 
state,  divine  retribution,  the  spiritual  char- 
acter of  true  worship,  angels,  and  the  Mes- 
siah are  rudimentary.  They  appear  in  de- 
veloped form  in  late  books,  in  Job,  the  Psalms, 
and  the  prophets;  a  strong  argument  that 
the  writer  of  the  Pentateuch  lived  at  an 
earlier  age  and  in  a  different  intellectual  en- 
vironment. Dillmann,  while  accepting  the 
existence  of  documents,  opposed  Wellhau- 
sen's  arrangement,  insisting  that  history  re- 


Pentateuch 


565 


Pentateuch 


quired  the  existence  of  the  Levitical  legisla- 
tion before  that  of  Deuteronomy,  and  so  far 
he  is  more  in  accord  witli  the  teaching  of 
.Scripture.  3.  The  early  existence  of  the  laws 
and  institutions  of  the  IVutateuch  is  attested 
by  the  traces  of  them  in  the  writings  of  the 
early  projihets.  A  short  time  since,  it  was 
customary  to  admit  the  geuuinene.ss  of  the 
pas.sages  where  these  traces  are  found,  but  to 
deny  that  they  were  derived  from  Deuter- 
onomic  or  priestly  documents.  Now  it  is 
universally  conceded  that  these  laws  and  in- 
stitutions were  in  full  force  when  the  pas- 
sages were  written  ;  but  the  logical  result  of 
this  concession,  namely  that  the  Pentateuchal 
law  and  organization  were  in  existence  in  the 
eighth  century  B.  c,  is  avoided  by  declaring 
that  these  references  are  late  interpolations 
in  the  genuine  writings  of  the  prophets.  As 
a  rule  no  proof  for  this  dechiration  is  offered. 
The  decision  is  magisterial.  It  is  pronounced 
without  appeal  from  the  master's  mere  as- 
sertion. Believers  in  the  Mosaic  authorship 
of  the  Levitical  and  Deuteronomic  law  point 
with  confidence  to  the  evident  indissoluble- 
ness  of  these  references  from  the  context  and 
their  inseparable  connection  with  the  original 
argument,  which  show  that  they  are  not  in- 
terpolations, but  an  essential  part  of  the  dis- 
course of  the  prophets  of  the  eighth  century. 
What  are  the  objections  to  the  theory  of 
documents?  1.  The  impossibility  of  separa- 
ting the  documents  from  each  other  in  strict 
adherence  to  the  principle  that  certain  words 
are  characteristic  of  the  several  writers.  To 
take  an  example  from  the  use  of  different 
divine  names,  which  is  the  starting  point  of 
the  hypothesis  and  the  phenomenon  most 
evident  to  English  readers,  the  name  Lord 
betokens  J,  and  should  not  occur,  according 
to  the  theory,  in  Genesis  in  the  documents 
E  and  P.  But  it  does  occur  in  v.  29  ;  vii.  16  ; 
xiv.  22;  XV.  1,  2;  xvii.  1;  xx.  18;  xxi.  1  b, 
33  ;  xxii.  11, 14,  15, 16  ;  xxviii.  21.  Nor  should 
the  name  God  appear  in  the  document  J ; 
yet  it  does  in  iii.  1-5  ;  iv.  25 ;  vi.  2,  4  ;  vii.  9  ; 
ix.  26,  27;  xxxiii.  5,  11 ;  xliii.  14,  etc.  Here 
are  more  than  a  score  of  instances  in  Genesis 
alone  and  in  respect  to  but  two  characteristic 
words,  where  the  critical  priuciple  fails. 
When  obstinate  facts  like  these  oppose  the 
critical  theory,  they  are  exscinded.  The 
compiler  is  .said  to  have  introduced  the  awk- 
ward words  arbitrarily  or  from  another  docu- 
ment. In  some  cases  J  is  said  to  have  used 
the  name  God  discriminatingly,  which  is  a 
virtual  abandonment  of  the  theory.  If  the 
writer  used  the  divine  name  discriminatingly 
in  some  cases,  he  may  have  done  so  in  all,  as 
the  defenders  of  the  Mosaic  authorship  main- 
tain. On  the  theory  of  the  Mosaic  authorship, 
these  words  are  in  place  ;  and  it  is  ordinarily 
apparent  that  they  are  discriminatingly  em- 
ployed. God  denotes  the  divine  being  in  his 
relation  to  the  universe  at  large  as  creator,  jire- 
server,  and  governor  of  all  his  creatures  and 
all  their  actions.    Jehovah  denotes  God  as  he 


reveals  himself  to  man,  especially  in  grace. 
2.  The  asserted  continuity  of  the  documents 
when  taken  separately  is  fictitious.  .T's  nar- 
rative ending  in  iv.  25,  26  is  continued  in  v. 
28  b,  29;  vi.  (1-4)  .5-8.  These  passages  do 
not  relate  unbroken  history,  they  are  discon- 
nected fragments,  there  is  no  continuity.  J's 
narrative  in  vi.  5-8  is  continued  in  vii.  1-5. 
The  account  is  fragmentary  again,  not  con- 
tinuous. Whence  came  the  ark  into  which 
Noah  was  commanded  to  enter?  J's  nar- 
rative embraces  X.  21,  25-30  ;  xi.  (1-9),  28-30; 
xii.  1-4  a.  Who  was  Terah,  and  who  were 
Haran  and  Abram?  Where  is  the  snujoth- 
uess  of  continuous  narrative?  P  narrated  i. 
1-ii.  4  a,  concluding  with  the  emphatic  decla- 
ration that  God  saw  everything  that  he  had 
made;  and  behold,  it  was  very  good.  Then 
after  listing  the  genealogj'  of  Adam  (v.  1-28  a, 
30-32),  he  suddenly  said:  "And  the  earth 
was  corrupt  before  God  "  (vi.  9-22).  How  did 
that  become  corrupt  which  God  had  pro- 
nounced very  good?  Again,  P's  uncouth  nar- 
rative of  the  early  history  of  Abraham  is  cut 
out  of  J's  account,  thus :  xi.  27,  31,  32 ;  xii. 
4  b,  ;  5  xiii.  6  a,  11  b,  12  a.  It  is  continued  in 
xvi.  1  a,  3,  1.5,  16  ;  xvii.  Over  against  this 
uncouthness  in  the  hypothetical  documents, 
believers  in  the  Mosaic  authorship  are  able 
to  show  unity  of  theme,  unbroken  continuity 
of  thought,  balanced  treatment  of  the  parts, 
and  progressive  narrative.  See  Genesis.  3. 
The  theory  that  there  are  parallel  accounts 
marked  by  difference  of  style  fails  as  a  trust- 
worthy priuciple  in  the  only  case  where  it 
can  be  tested  by  external  evidence.  It  is 
asserted  that  in  the  narrative  of  the  flood 
the  storm  which  produced  the  deluge  is 
described  twice  in  three  successive  verses : 
"The  same  day  were  all  the  fountains  of 
the  great  deep  broken  up,  and  the  win- 
dows of  heaven  were  opened"  (vii.  11,  P), 
and  "  It  came  to  pass  after  the  seven  days 
that  the  waters  of  the  flood  were  upon  the 
earth,  and  the  i-ain  was  upon  the  earth  forty 
days  and  forty  nights  "  (10, 12,  J).  It  is  urged 
also  that  there  are  two  literary  styles  appar- 
ent here :  the  former  exuberant,  vivid, 
poetic,  the  latter  a  bald  statement  of  the 
facts  in  simple  prose.  But  the  account  of 
the  flood  was  also  handed  down  by  the  Baby- 
lonians and  Assyrians;  and  when  the  Assyro- 
Babylonian  narrative  is  compared  with  the 
Hebrew  record,  it  is  found  to  show  the  same 
repetitions  which  occurring  in  Genesis  are 
called  parallel  narratives,  and  to  exhibit  like 
differences  ofstyle  in  the  corresponding  places. 
The  narrator  depicts  the  breaking  and  raging 
of  the  storm  with  equal  picturesqueness  and 
even  greater  exuberance  than  the  Hebrew 
writer  ;  but  when  he  comes  to  state  how  long 
the  storm  lasted,  he  naturally  expresses  him- 
self simply.  He  .says  :  "Six  days  and  nights 
wind,  storm  and  rain  prevailed  :  on  the 
seventh  day  the  rain  abated,  the  storm  whii  h 
had  struggled  like  a  woman  in  travail, 
rested ;    the    sea  withdrew  to    its    bed,   the 


Pentecost 


566 


Perga 


violent  wind  and  the  flood-storm  ceased ; " 
see  the  Assyrian  account  in  article  Flood. 
On  the  theory  of  Mosaic  authorship,  there  is 
no  difficulty  in  accounting  for  difference  of 
style.  Different  themes  require  different 
statement.  Dates,  genealogies,  and  the  like 
do  not  call  the  imagination  into  exerci.se. 
Vivid  and  picturesque  description  belongs  to 
the  narration  of  lively  and  vivid  incidents. 
4.  The  critical  theory  that  there  are  parallel 
accounts  of  the  .same  event  which  are 
marked  by  contradictions  likewise  fails  to 
stand  the  test  of  external  evidence.  It  is  con- 
tended that  according  to  P  God  forewarns 
Noah  of  an  impending  destructive  flood  of 
waters,  but  does  not  reveal  to  him  whether 
it  will  be  caused  by  melting  snows  or  con- 
tinuous rains  or  tidal  wave  ;  and  thus  P  con- 
tradicts J,  who  states  that  the  Lord  bade 
Noah  enter  into  the  ark,  because  in  yet  seven 
days  he  would  cause  it  to  rain  uj)on  the  earth. 
But  again  the  Assyrian  account  shows  that 
the  Hebrew  narrative  does  not  embody  two 
divergent  accounts,  but  is  the  record  of  suc- 
cessive progressive  events.  For  according  to 
it,  as  in  Genesis,  man  was  first  warned  of 
coming  destruction  and  bidden  build  a  boat. 
The  ruin  was,  accordingly,  to  be  wrought  by 
a  flood  of  water,  but  whether  the  deluge 
would  be  due  to  rain,  or  a  freshet,  or  the  in- 
flowing sea  was  not  disclosed.  When  the 
appointed  time  approached,  however,  the 
]irophecy  became  deflnite  and  foretold  rain. 
The  Hebrew  account,  with  its  present  ma- 
terial and  the  present-  arrangement  of  that 
material,  is  essentially  the  ancient  account 
handed  down  from  the  fathers.  And  the 
criticism  which  distributes  the  narrative 
among  different  writers  on  the  ground  of 
differences  of  style  or  alleged  contradictions 
is  demonstrably  invalid.  [For  full  discussion 
of  the  subject,  see  William  Henry  Green,  The 
Higher  Ciiticixm  of  the  Pentuteitch  and  The 
Unity  of  the  Book  of  Gene.sis] . 
Pen'te-cost.     See  Weeks,  Feast  of. 

Pe-nu'el  and  once  Peniel  (Gen.  xxxii.  31) 
[face  of  God]. 

1.  Originally  an  encampment  east  of  the 
Jordan,  first  named  by  Jacob  because  he  had 
there  .seen  God  face  to  face,  yet  his  life  had 
been  preserved  (Gen.  xxxii.  30,  31).  In  the 
time  of  the  judges  there  was  a  tower  there, 
which  Gideon  broke  down,  and  a  city,  the 
inhabitants  of  which  he  slew  (Judg.  viii.  8, 
9, 17).  It  was  fortified  bv  Jeroboam  I.  (1  Kin. 
xii.  2.''>). 

2.  A  man  of  Judah,  and  the  ancestor  of 
the  inhabitants  of  Gedor  (1  Chron.  iv.  4). 

3.  A  Benjamite,  family  of  Shashak  (1  Chron. 
viii.  25). 

Pe'or  [an  opening,  a  cleft]. 

1.  A  mountain  in  Moab  looking  toward  the 
desert,  or  Jeshimon  (Num.  xxiii.  28).  From 
it  the  camp  of  Israel  at  Shittim  was  in  full 
view  (xxiv.  2).  A  mountain  still  bore  the 
name  in  the  time  of  Eusebius  and  Jerome. 


It  stood  opposite  Jericho,  on  the  road  to 
Heshbon,  above  or  to  the  east  of  Livias,  now 
Tell  er-Rameh.  Accordingly  Peor  was  a  peak 
of  the  Abarim  range  near  wady  Hesban. 

2.  A  Moabite  divinity  worshiped  in  mount 
Peor,  and  often  called  Baal-peor.    See  Baal- 

PEOK. 

Pe-rae'a  or  Perea  [the  land  beyond]. 

The  region  between  the  Jabbok  and  the 
Arnon,  beyond  Jordan  (War  iii.  3,  3)  ;  cp. 
significaticm  and  location  of  Abarim.  The 
name  was,  however,  used  in  a  wider  sense  ; 
for  Josephus  calls  Gadara,  on  the  banks  of 
the  Yarmuk,  the  capital  of  Persea  (War  iv. 
7,  3). 

Per'a-zim.     See  Baal-perazim. 

Pe-re'a.    See  Per^a. 

Pe'res.     See  Mene. 

Pe'resh  [distinction,  separation,  dung]. 

A  man  of  Manasseh  (1  Chron.  vii.  16). 

Pe'rez,  in  A.  V.  of  O.  T.  Pharez  except 
thrice  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  3  ;  Neh.  xi.  4,  6)  ;  in 
A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Phares  [a  breach] . 

A  son  of  Judah,  one  of  twins  whom  Tamar 
bore  (Gen.  xxxviii.  24-30).  He  became  the 
founder  of  a  tribal  family  which  took  its 
name  from  him,  and  of  two  other  tribal  fam- 
ilies which  sprang  from  his  sous  and  were 
named  from  them  (Num.  xxvi.  20,  21 ;  1 
Chron.  ii.  4, 5).  He  was  an  ancestor  of  David 
and  consequently  of  Christ  (Ruth  iv.  12-18 ; 
Mat.  i.  3). 

Pe-rez-uz'za  and  Perez-uzzah  [breach  of 
Uzza]. 

The  name  given  by  David  to  the  place 
where  Uzza  was  struck  dead  for  touching 
the  ark  (2  Sam.  vi.  8;  1  Chron.  xiii.  11).  Ex- 
act situation  unknown. 

Per-fum'er-y. 

Spices  of  various  kinds,  such  as  aloes,  cas- 
sia, cinnamon,  myrrh,  frankincense,  spike- 
nard, which  were  raised  in  the  Jordan  val- 
ley or  imported  from  Arabia  and  elsewhere, 
formed  the  basis  of  perfumery  (Ecclus.  xxiv. 
15).  The  spice  was  compelled  to  yield  its 
fragrance  by  at  least  four  difl'erent  methods. 
It  was  tied  in  a  bundle  or  enclosed  in  a  bag 
(Song  i.  13)  ;  it  was  reduced  to  powder  and 
burned  as  incense  (iii.  6) ;  its  aromatic  matter 
was  separated  by  boiling,  and  the  exti-act  was 
carried  as  scent  in  smelling-bottles  suspended 
from  the  girdle,  or  was  mixed  with  oil  and 
used  as  an  ointment  (i.  3 ;  Is.  iii.  20 ;  John 
xii.  3).  Frequently  several  spices  were  com- 
pounded (Ex.  XXX.  23,  24;  John  xix.  39). 
Perfumery  was  applied  to  the  person  and 
garments  and  furniture  (Ps.  xlv.  8:  Prov. 
vii.  17 ;  Song  iv.  11).  It  was  used  in  the  tem- 
ple service  both  as  incense  and  as  ointment 
(Ex.  XXX.  22-38). 

Per'ga  [doubtless  citadel,  burg]. 

A  seaport  in  Pamphylia,  and  capital  of  the 
province,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  Kes- 
tros,   60  stades  from  its  mouth.      Paul  and 


Pergamum 


567 


Persia 


Barnabas  visited  the  town  on  the  first  mis- 
sionary journey,  both  going  and  returning 
(Acts  xiii.  13,  14  ;  xiv.  25).  In  the  vicinity 
was  a  celebrated  temple  of  the  goddess  Ar- 
temis, the  Eoraan  Diana. 

Per'ga-miim,  in  A.  V.  Pergamos  [citadel, 
burg].  Both  forms  of  the  name  were  used 
by  the  ancients. 

The  most  important  city  of  Mysia,  situated 
on  the  north  bank  of  the  river  C'aicus,  about 
•20  miles  from  the  .sea.  It  was  once  the  cap- 
ital of  a  wealthy  kingdom  ruled  over  by  a 
dynasty  of  kings,  several  of  them  called  At- 
tains. The  first  of  the.se  came  to  the  throne 
in  the  year  241  B.  c.  His  sou  Eumenes,  who 
succeeded  him,  197  B.  c,  founded  a  cele- 
brated library,  which  ultimately  was  second 
only  to  that  of  Alexandria.  Attains  III.,  who 
died  in  the  year  133  B.  c,  bequeathed  to  the 
Eomaus  his  movable  property.  They  misin- 
terjireted  the  bequest  to  mean  the  kingdom, 
and  appropriated  it  at  once.  Marc  Antony 
promised  the  library  (which  did  not  belong 
to  him)  to  his  mistress,  Cleopatra,  and  had  it 
removed  to  Egypt,  where  it  was  added  to  the 
renowned  Alexandrian  library.  Pergamos 
possessed  a  celebrated  temple  of  ^sculapius, 
god  of  medicine.  Parchment,  called  in  Latin 
perfjiimeufi,  and  in  Greek  pergamene,  was  so 
named  because  it  was  first  obtained  at  Per- 
gamos. The  third  of  the  seven  churches  of 
Asia  addressed  in  the  book  of  Eevelation  was 
that  at  Pergamos.  It  is  said  that  Satan's  seat 
was  there,  and  that  a  faithful  martjT,  An- 
tipas,  had  been  put  to  death  in  the  place.  It 
must,  therefore,  have  been  a  stronghold  of 
antichristian  idolatry  (Eev.  i.  11 ;  ii.  12-17). 
It  is  now  called  Bergama  or  Bergma,  and 
still  exists  as  a  town  of  mean-looking  wooden 
houses  interspersed  with  the  more  splendid 
relics  of  antiquity. 

Pe-ri'da.     See  Pekuda. 

Per'iz-zites  [dwellers  in  unwalled  vil- 
lages]. 

An  important  section  of  the  Canaanites, 
often  enumerated  as  one  of  the  tribes  of 
Palestine  (Gen.  xv.  20;  Ex.  iii.  8;  Josh.  ix. 
l),and  perhaps,  like  the  Eephaim,  an  aborig- 
inal people  who  were  of  different  race  from 
the  Canaanites  and  in  the  land  before  them 
(cp.  Gen.  xiii.  7 ;  Josh.  xvii.  15 ;  and  the 
omission  of  them  in  Gen.  x.  15  seq.).  They 
were  in  the  country  as  early  as  the  days  of 
Abraham  and  Lot  (Gen.  xiii.  7).  In  Joshua's 
time  they  inhabited  the  mountain  region 
(Josh.  xi.  3),  dwelling  in  the  territory  after- 
wards given  over  to  the  tribes  of  Ephraim, 
Manasseh  (xvii.  15),  and  Judah  (Judg.  i.  4,  5). 
They  were  not  extirpated,  but,  contrary  to 
the  law  of  Moses  (Deut.  vii.  3).  allowed  to 
enter  into  marriage  alliances  with  their  con- 
querors, seducing  them  into  idolatry  (Judg. 
iii.  5,  6).  Solomon  imposed  upon  these  Per- 
izzites  a  voke  of  bondservice  (1  Kin.  ix.  20, 
21 ;  2  Chron.  viii.  7). 


Per'se-us. 

Son  and  successor  of  Philip  III.,  and  last 
king  of  Macedon.  In  171  b.  c.  he  resumed 
the  war  with  the  Eomans  which  his  father 
had  waged ;  but,  after  three  years  of  desul- 
tory fighting  and  occa.sioual  success,  he  was 
completely  defeated  (1  Mac.  viii.  5)  by  L. 
^milius  Paulus  in  the  battle  of  Pydna, 
which  ended  the  Macedonian  monarchy.  He 
fled,  but  was  captured  and  taken  to  Eome, 
where  he  graced  the  triumph  of  his  con- 
queror. 

Per'si-a. 

Persia  proper,  the  seat  of  the  Persians 
when  they  first  became  known  to  the  West- 
ern nations  as  a  settled  people,  lay  southeast 
of  Elam  and  nearly  corresponded  to  the 
province  of  modern  Persia  called  Pars,  or 
Farsistan,  a  modification  of  the  original  native 
name  Parfa.  Persia,  in  this  limited  sense,  was 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Great  Media  (Media 
Magna),  on  the  southwest  by  the  Persian 
Gulf,  on  the  east  by  Carmania  (now  called 
Kerman),  and  on  the  northwest  by  Susiana. 
Its  length  was  at  most  about  250  miles  ;  its 
average  breadth  about  200 ;  its  area  consid- 
erably less  than  50,000  square  miles.  In 
looser  usage,  the  term  Persia  denoted  the 
plateau  of  Iran,  the  region  bounded  by  the 
Persian  Gulf,  the  valleys  of  the  Tigris  and 
the  Cyrus,  the  Caspian  Sea,  the  rivers  Ox  us, 
Jaxartes,  and  Indus  (1  Mac.  vi.  1  ;  2  Mac.  i. 
19).  But  when  the  Persian  empire  was  at 
the  height  of  its  power,  it  stretched  from  the 
empire  of  India  on  the  east  to  the  Grecian 
Archipelago  on  the  west ;  and  from  the 
Danube,  the  Black  Sea,  mount  Caucasus, 
and  the  Caspian  Sea  on  the  north,  to  the  Ara- 
bian and  Nubian  deserts  on  the  south  (Esth. 
i.  1  ;  X.  1) ;  and  it  was  nearly  3000  miles  long, 
with  a  varying  breadth  of  500  to  1500  miles. 
It  had  an  area  of  2,000,000  square  miles,  half 
that  of  Europe.  The  race  inhabiting  Persia 
proper  was  Aryan,  and  closely  related  to  the 
Median  race. 

The  Persians  are  not  mentioned  in  the 
table  of  nations  (Gen.  x.).  They  did  not 
attain  to  prominence  until  many  centuries 
after  Moses.  About  700  b.  c.  the  country  of 
Parsu,  i.  e.  Persia,  was  one  of  the  allies  of 
Elam.  But  soon  Teispes,  a  chief  of  the  tribe 
and  a  member  of  the  family  of  the  Acha?- 
menidpe,  conquered  Elam  and  established 
himself  as  king  in  the  district  of  Ansan  or 
Anzan,  as  the  name  is  also  written.  His  de- 
scendants branched  into  two  lines,  one  reign- 
ing in  Ansan  and  the  other  remaining  in 
Persia.  His  great-grandson,  Cyrus  II.,  king 
of  Ansan,  united  the  divided  power,  con- 
quered Media  about  550  B.  c,  Lydia  in  Asia 
Minor  a  little  1,-iter,  and  Babylonia  in  539. 
He  allowed  the  Hebrew  exiles  to  return  to 
their  own  land  ;  see  Cyri's.  Dying  in  529 
B.  c,  he  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Cambyses, 
but  reserved  a  small  portion  of  his  vast  do- 
minions for  his  younger  son,  Smerdis.     The 


Persia 


568 


Peruda 


arrangement  worked  badly.  Cambyses 
became  jealous  of  Smerdis,  and  had  him 
privately  put  to  death.  In  5'25  the  king  con- 
quered Egypt.  As  he  was  returning  to  Per- 
sia, the  news  readied  iiim  that  Smerdis, 
whom  he  believed  to  be  dead,  was  really 
alive  (which  was  not  true),  and  had  assumed 
the  sovereignty,  the  Persian  army  supporting 
his  claim.  Troubled  by  the  tidings,  the  mon- 
arch drew  a  short  sword  from  its  sheath  and 
gave  himself  a  wound  which  in  a  few  days 
proved  latal.  He  died  522  B.  c  The  so- 
called  Smerdis,  who  was  really  one  of  the 
Magi,  now  ascended  the  throne.  When  it 
was  discovered  that  he  was  not  the  true 
Smerdis,  a  conspiracy  was  foi'uied  against 
him,  and  he  was  slain.  Darius,  son  of  Hys- 
taspes,  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  plot  and  ap- 
parently the  next  heir  to  the  throne  when 
the  family  of  Cyrus  became  extinct,  began 
to  reign,  521  b.  C,  being  then  about  twenty- 
eight  years  of  age.  The  accession  of  the  new 
king  was  the  signal  for  a  general  revolt  of 
the  provinces,  but  the  insurrection  was  sup- 
pressed, and  Darius  organized  a  new  empire 
which  extended  from  India  to  the  Grecian 
Archipelago  and  the  Danube.  It  was  under 
him  that  the  temple  at  Jerusalem  was  re- 
built. He  died  486  B.  c. ;  see  Darius  2.  His 
son  and  successor  was  Xerxes,  the  Ahasuerus 
of  the  Book  of  Esther  and  probably  of  Ezra 
iv.  H.  He  reconquered  the  Egyptians ;  and 
he  attempted  an  invasion  of  Greece,  but  was 
repulsed  with  gi-eat  loss  to  the  Persians ;  see 
Ah.\suerus  2.  After  a  reign  of  twenty  years, 
he  was  assassinated  in  465  b.  c.  His  sou  and 
successor,  a  much  more  respectable  charac- 
ter, but  still  fickle  and  feeble,  was  Artaxerxes 
Longimanus.  He  was  not  unfriendly  to  the 
Jews.  He  allowed  Ezra  to  lead  a  large  num- 
ber of  them  back  to  Jerusalem,  and  he  per- 
mitted Nehemiah  to  rebuild  the  walls  of  the 
city ;  see  Artaxerxes.  He  reigned  forty 
years,  dying  in  425  b.  c.  His  successors  were 
Xerxes  II.,  425 ;  Sogdianus,  425 ;  Darius 
Nothus,  the  Illegitimate,  424 ;  Artaxerxes 
Mnemon,  of  good  memory,  404 ;  Artaxerxes 
Ochus,  359 ;  Arses  338 ;  and  Darius  Codo- 
mannus,  336.  The  last  king  was  conquered 
by  Alexander  the  Great  in  331  b.  c,  and 
with  him  the  first  Persian  empire  passed 
away.     See  Darius  3. 

The  royal  residences  were  Persepolis  (2 
Mac.  ix.  2),  Shushan  (Neh.  i.  1 ;  Esth.  i.  2), 
Ecbatana,  that  is  Achmetha  (Ezra  vi.  2; 
Antiq.  x.  11,  7),  and  to  an  extent  Babvlon 
(Ezra  vi.  1). 

When  Cyrus  the  Great  allowed  the  Jews 
to  return  to  their  own  land  538  B.  c,  he  did 
not  grant  them  their  independence.  They 
were  placed  under  governors  appointed  by 
the  Persian  emperor  (Neh.  iii.  7),  and  formed 
part  of  the  satrapy  beyond  the  river  (Ezra 
viii.  36)  which  consisted  of  Syria,  Pales- 
tine, Phoenicia,  and  Cyprus  (Herod,  iii. 
91).  They  were  subjects  of  Persia  for  207 
years,   from  539,  the  year  in  which  Cyrus 


entered  Babylon,  to  332,  that  in  which  Alex- 
ander the  Great  completed  the  conquest  of 
Palestine. 

The  faith  of  their  imperial  lords  was 
Zoroastrianism,  but  no  effort  was  made  to 
enforce  it  on  the  subject  peoples.  It  was  a 
spiritual  religion,  recognizing  the  distinction 
between  God  and  nature,  between  spirit  and 
matter,  and  consequently  being  averse  to 
images  of  God.  Its  fundamental  ethical 
principle  was  the  essential  contradiction  be- 
tween good  and  evil,  light  and  darkness.  It 
conceived  of  two  realms  of  spirits  :  one  with 
a  hierarchy  of  angels  and  archangels,  where 
Ahuramazda  or  Ormazd,  as  the  name  is  writ- 
ten in  modern  Persian,  the  all-wise  lord, 
God  in  the  fullest  sense,  presides  over  the 
seven  holy  spirits,  who  are  his  ministers  and 
the  expression  of  his  attributes,  and  over 
thousands  of  wortliy  ones;  and  another 
realm  of  evil  spirits  ruled  over  by  Ahriman, 
the  spiritual  enemy.  It  was  deeply  tainted 
with  dualism,  and  Ahriman  was  probably 
regarded  as  self-existent.  It  taught  the  duty 
of  man  to  eradicate  evil  and  cultivate  good, 
and  to  strive  after  holiness  in  thought,  word, 
and  deed,  which  will  be  rewarded  by  im- 
mortality and  heaven.  It  paid  homage  to 
fire,  air,  earth,  and  water  as  the  creation  of 
Ahuramazda.  See  M.\gi.  Later  Judaism 
shows  traces  of  the  Persian  supremacy. 

What  once  had  been  Persia  passed  first 
to  the  Macedonian  Greeks  and  their  suc- 
cessors of  the  same  race.  Then  it  became 
part  of  the  Parthian  empire.  In  a.  d.  211  or 
212  Ardashir  laid  the  foundations  of  a  new 
Persian  sovereignty,  ruled  by  a  dynasty 
called  after  his  family  Sassanian.  In  224  he 
defeated  and  slew  the  last  Parthian  king. 
The  Sassanian  dynasty  became  powerful, 
met  the  Eoman  armies  on  equal  terms,  and 
set  limits  to  the  extension  of  their  sway  in 
the  east.  In  a.,  v.  636  and  641,  Yazdejard, 
or  Yezdejerd  III.,  the  last  of  the  dynasty, 
was  defeated  by  the  Saracens,  and  Persia 
came  under  Mohammedan  rule,  which  has 
continued  till  now.  Some  of  the  bolder 
spirits  refused  to  submit  to  Mohammedan 
domination,  and  fled  to  the  deserts  and  the 
mountains.  Finally,  a  number  of  Persian 
refugees  landed  in  Guzerat  about  a.  d.  717, 
seeking  and  obtaining  an  asylum  in  India. 
Their  successors  constitute  a  limited  but  im- 
portant section  of  the  Indian  community. 
They  are  called  Parsees.  They  have  become 
prosperous,  and  are  loyal  to  the  English 
throne. 

Per'sis  [Persian]. 

A  Christian  at  Rome  who  labored  dili- 
gently in  the  Lord,  and  to  whom  Paul  sent 
his  salutation  (Rom.  xvi.  12). 

Pe-ru'da  and  Perida  [scattered,  a  kernel]. 

A  subdivision  of  the  children  of  Solomon's 
servants  who  returned  from  captivitj'  (Ezra 
ii.  55 ;  Neh.  vii.  57). 


Pestilence 


569 


Peter 


Pes'ti-lence. 

An  iulVctious  or  foutagious  disease,  a 
plague.  While  the  sending  of  pestilence  is 
frequently  mentioned  as  from  God  (Ex.  ix. 
15;  Lev.  xxvi.  'J5;  Deut.  xxviii.  21),  he 
very  often,  if  not  in  all  cases,  uses  secondary 
causes  for  its  production.  The  v)unishment 
which  is  threatened  is  often  described  as  the 
sword,  the  famine,  and  the  pestilence,  and 
these  words  tend  to  stand  in  this  order  (Ezek. 
vi.  11).  There  is  reason  for  this  <n-der.  War 
breaks  out.  The  people  of  the  invaded 
country  cannot  cultivate  their  fields,  or,  if 
they  do,  they  find  their  crops  reaped  or  de- 
stroyed by  the  enemy.  Besiegers  invest  the 
cities  au(l  intentionally  cut  off  the  supplies 
with  the  object  of  forcing  a  surrender. 
Famine  ensues  in  country  and  town.  The 
starvation,  the  carnage,  and  the  unsanitary 
condition  of  the  cities  crowded  during  the 
siege  bring  a  pestilence. 

Pe'ter. 

The  Greek  form  of  the  Aramaic  surname 
Cephas  (John  i.  42 ;  1  Cor.  i.  12 ;  iii.  22  ;  ix. 
5;  XV.  5;  Gal.  i.  18;  ii.  9,  11,  14),  meaning  a 
rock,  which  Christ  bestowed  upon  Simon  or, 
more  properly,  Symeon  (Acts  xv.  14  ;  2  Pet. 
i.  1,  R.  V.  margin)  on  his  first  appearance  be- 
fore him  (John  i.  42),  and  afterwards  ex- 
plained more  fully  in  its  prophetic  import 
(Mat.  xvi.  18  seq. ;  Mark  iii.  16).  Simon  was 
the  son  of  a  certain  John  (John  i.  42,  E.  V. ; 
xxi.  15,  16,  17,  K.  V.)  or  Jona  (Mat.  xvi.  17, 
probably  a  .syncope  of  John),  who,  with  his 
sons,  Andrew  and  Peter,  prosecuted  the  trade 
of  a  fisherman  on  the  sea  of  Galilee  in  part- 
nership with  Zebedee  and  his  sons  (Mat.  iv. 
18;  Mark  i.  16;  Luke  v.  3  seq.).  He  was  a 
native  of  Bethsaida  (John  i.  44),  and  subse- 
quently dwelt  with  his  family  at  Capernaum 
(Mat.  viii.  14  ;  Luke  iv.  38). 

Peter  was  probably  a  disciple  of  John 
the  Baptist,  and  was  in  the  first  instance 
brought  to  Jesus  by  his  brother  Andrew 
(John  i.  4L  42),  who  was  one  of  the  fa- 
vored two  disciples  of  John  whom  he  pointed 
to  Jesus  immediately  after  his  return  from 
the  temptation  in  the  wilderness  (John  i. 
35  seq.).  With  prophetic  insight  into  his 
character,  Jesus  at  once  conferred  upon 
him  the  surname  of  Cephas,  or  Peter,  that 
is,  "Eock"  (John  i.  42).  In  common  with 
the  earliest  followers  of  Jesus,  Peter  re- 
ceived three  separate  calls  from  his  Master: 
first,  to  become  his  disciple  (John  i.  40  seq. ; 
cp.  ii.  2) ;  secondly,  to  become  his  constant 
companion  (Mat.  iv.  19;  Mark  i.  17;  Luke 
V.  10)  ;  and,  thirdlv,  to  be  his  apostle  (Mat. 
X.  2;  Mark  iii.  14,  16;  Luke  vi.  13,  14). 
Peter's  ardor,  earnestness,  courage,  vigor,  and 
impetuosity  of  disposition  marked  him  from 
the  first  as  the  leader  of  the  disciples  of 
Jesus.  He  is  always  named  first  in  the  lists 
of  the  apostles  (Mat.  x.  2  ;  Mark  iii.  16  ;  Luke 
vi.  14;  Acts  i.  13).  In  the  more  intimate 
circle  of  the  most  favored  three  disciples,  he 


is  likewise  always  named  first  (Mat.  xvii.  1 ; 
Mark  v.  37;  ix.  2;  xiii.  3;  xiv.  33;  Luke 
viii.  51 ;  ix.  28).  He  was  the  natural  spokes- 
man of  the  apostolical  band.  He  was  the 
first  to  confess  Jesus  as  the  Christ  of  God 
(Mat.  xvi.  16  ;  Mark  viii.  29),  but  was  equally 
forward  to  dissuade  him  from  his  cho.scn 
I)ath  of  suflering  (Mat.  xvi.  22;  Mark  viii. 
33),  receiving  from  Christ  the  appropriate 
praise  and  blame. 

Peter's  life  exhibits  three  well-marked 
stages.  First,  there  is  the  period  of  train- 
ing, as  exhibited  in  the  gospel  narrative. 
During  these  years  of  personal  associa- 
tion with  Christ,  he  learned  to  know  both 
Christ  and  himself.  And  though  he  brought 
them  to  an  end  in  a  threefold  denial  of  the 
Master  whom  he  had  boasted  that  he  at  least 
would  never  forsake  (Mat.  xxvi.  69  seq.  ; 
Mark  xiv.  66  seq. ;  Luke  xxii.  54  seq.  ;  John 
xviii.  15  seq.),  Jesus  closed  them  with  a 
loving  probing  of  his  heart  and  restoration 
of  his  peace  and  confidence  (Jolm  xxi.  15 
seq.).  Secondly,  the  period  of  leadership  in 
the  church,  as  exliibited  in  the  earlier  chap- 
ters of  The  Acts.  During  these  years  Peter 
justified  his  surname,  and  fulfilled  the  proph- 
ecy that  on  him  should  the  edifice  of  the 
church  be  raised.  It  was  by  his  bold  and 
strong  hand  that  the  church  was  led  in  every 
step.  It  was  he  who  moved  the  disciples  to 
fill  up  the  broken  ranks  of  the  apostolate 
(Acts  i.  15)  ;  it  was  he  who  proclaimed  to  the 
assembled  multitudes  the  meaning  of  the 
Pentecostal  efiusion  (ii.  14);  he  was  the 
leader  in  the  public  healing  of  the  lame 
man  and  in  the  subsequent  sermon  and  de- 
fense (iii.  4,  12 ;  iv.  8) ;  it  was  by  his  voice 
that  Ananias  and  Sapphira  were  rebuked 
(v.  3,  8).  Above  all,  it  was  by  his  hand  that 
the  door  of  salvation  was  opened  alike  to  the 
Jews  in  the  great  sermon  at  Pentecost  (ii. 
10,  38),  and  to  the  gentiles  in  the  case  of 
Cornelius  (x.).  Thirdly,  the  period  of 
humble  work  in  the  kingdom  of  Christ,  ex- 
hibited in  the  epistles  of  the  N.  T.  When 
the  foundations  of  the  church  had  been  laid, 
Peter  takes  a  subordinate  place,  and  in  hum- 
ble labors  to  spread  the  boundaries  of  the 
kingdom,  disappears  from  the  page  of  history. 
In  the  church  at  Jerusalem  James  takes 
henceforth  the  leading  place  (xii.  17 ; 
XV.  13;  xxi.  18;  Gal.  ii.  9,  12).  The  door 
had  been  opened  to  the  gentiles,  and  Paul 
now  becomes  the  apostle  to  the  gentiles 
(Gal.  ii.  7).  As  the  apostle  to  the  circum- 
cision (8),  Peter  prosecuted  henceforth  his 
less  brilliant  work,  wherever  Jews  could  be 
found,  and  contentedly  left  Jerusalem  to 
James  and  the  civilized  world  to  Paul.  The 
book  of  The  Acts  closes  its  account  of  him 
at  the  meeting  at  Jerusalem  (Acts  xv.),  when 
his  policy  of  breaking  down  the  barriers  for 
the  gentiles  met  with  universal  acceptance. 
We  hear  of  him  afterwards  at  Antioch  (Gal. 
ii.  11),  possibly  at  Corinth  (1  Cor.  i.  12),  cer- 
tainly in  the  far  east  at  Babylon  (1  Pet.  v. 


Peter 


570 


Peter 


13),  and  certainly  as  prosecuting  liis  work 
througli  missionary  journeys,  taking  his  wife 
with  him  (1  Cor.  ix.  5).  Finally,  we  know 
that  he  glorified  God  by  a  martyr's  death 
(John  xxi.  19).  Beyond  this,  Scripture  tells 
us  nothing  of  his  fortunes,  labors,  sufferings, 
or  successes,  except  wliat  can  be  learned  from 
his  two  Epistles.  In  them  he  stands  before 
us  in  a  singularly  beautiful  humility,  not 
pressing  the  recognition  of  personal  claims 
to  leadership  upon  the  Christian  community, 
but  following  up  the  teaching  of  Paul  or  of 
Jude  with  his  own,  and  exhorting  his  readers 
to  hold  fast  to  the  common  faith. 

No  character  in  Scripture  history,  we 
may  even  say  in  all  literature,  is  drawn 
for  us  more  clearly  or  strongly  than  Peter's. 
In  the  gospels,  in  The  Acts,  and  in  the 
epistles  it  is  the  same  man  that  stands 
out  before  us  in  dramatic  distinctness.  Al- 
ways eager,  ardent,  impulsive,  he  is  pre- 
eminently the  man  of  action  in  the  apostolic 
circle,  and  exhibits  the  defects  of  his  quali- 
ties as  well  as  their  excellences  throughout 
life  (Mat.  xvi.  22;  xxvi.  69-75;  Gal.  ii.  11). 
His  virtues  and  faults  had  their  common 
root  in  his  enthusiastic  disposition  ;  it  is  to 
his  praise  that  along  with  the  weed  of  rash 
haste,  there  grew  more  strongly  into  his  life 
the  fair  plant  of  burning  love  and  ready  re- 
ception of  truth.  He  was  treated  with  dis- 
tinguished honor  by  his  Lord  :  he  was  made 
the  recipient  of  no  less  than  three  miracles 
in  those  early  days  of  the  gospels ;  he  was 
granted  a  special  appearance  after  the  resur- 
rection (1  Cor.  XV.  5) ;  Jesus  could  find  time 
in  his  own  passion  and  while  saving  the 
world  to  cast  on  him  a  reminding  glance 
and  to  bind  up  his  broken  heart.  Accordingly 
the  life  of  Peter  is  peculiarily  rich  in  in- 
struction, warning,  and  comfort  for  the 
Christian,  and  his  writings  touch  the  very 
depths  of  Christian  experience  and  soar  to 
the  utmost  heights  of  Christian  hope. 

Authentic  history  adds  but  little  to  our 
knowledge  of  Peter's  life  beyond  what  we 
glean  from  the  N.  T.  Conformably  to  the 
notice  of  his  martyrdom  in  John  xxi.  19,  we 
are  credibly  told  that  he  died  by  crucifixion 
about  the  same  time  with  Paul's  death  by 
the  sword,  that  is  about  a.  d.  68.  The  place 
of  his  death  is  not  incredilily  witnessed  to 
be  Rome.  Legend  was  early  busy  with  his 
life ;  the  Eoman  legend  of  a  twenty-five 
years'  episcoj)ate  in  Rome  has  its  roots  in 
early  apocryphal  stories  originating  among 
the  heretical  Ebioniles,  and  is  discredited  not 
less  by  its  origin  and  manifest  internal  in- 
consistencies than  by  all  authentic  history. 

The  First  Epistle  General  of  Peter.  The 
author  of  this  epistle  announces  himself  as 
the  apostle  Peter  (i.  1) ;  and  the  whole  in- 
ternal character  of  the  letter  as  well  as  ex- 
ceptionally copious  historical  attestation  bears 
out  the  assertion.  It  is  addressed  "to  the 
elect  who  are  sojourners  of  the  Dispersion  in 
Pontus,  Galatia,  Cappadocia,  Asia,  and   Bi- 


thynia  "  (i.  1),  which  is  evidentlj'a  somewhat 
metaphorical  description  of  the  whole  body 
of  Christians  inhabiting  the  region  com- 
prised in  modern  Asia  Minor.  That  the 
readers  in  the  mind  of  the  author  were 
largely  of  gentile  origiu  is  clear  from  such 
pas.sages  as  i.  14;  ii.  9,  10;  iii.  6;  iv.  3. 
These  were  churches  founded  and  nurtured 
in  large  i)art  Vjy  the  apostle  Paul,  and  to 
them  Paul  had  written  his  letters  to  the  Gala- 
tians,  Ephesians,  and  Colossians ;  Peter  writes 
to  them  as  those  w'ho  owed  their  conversion 
to  others  than  himself  (i.  12,  25),  and  in 
order  to  testify  that  the  gospel  they  had  re- 
ceived was  "the  true  grace  of  God"  and  to 
exhort  them  to  "stand  fast  therein"  (v.  12). 
Thus  he  publishes  his  hearty  agreement  with 
the  ajiostle  Paul  and  at  the  same  time  pens 
what  is  preeminently  the  epistle  of  hope. 
The  order  in  which  the  countries  to  which 
it  was  sent  are  enumerated  (i.  1),  names 
them  from  east  to  west,  and  suggests  that 
the  letter  was  written  in  the  east.  This 
is  borne  out  by  the  salutation  sent  from 
the  Babylonian  church  (v.  13).  Its  date  is 
set  by  its  pretty  copious  use  of  the  Epistle  to 
the  Ephesians  on  the  one  side,  and  the  death 
of  Peter  on  the  other,  as  between  a.  d.  63 
and  A.  D.  67 :  it  is  most  probable  that  it  was 
written  about  64  or  65.  The  style  in  which 
the  letter  is  written  is  at  once  simple,  strik- 
ing, and  forcible,  abounding  in  sudden  and 
alirupt  transitions  and  admirably  reflecting 
the  character  of  the  writer.  The  whole 
mode  of  presentation  of  its  matter  is  special 
and  characteristic,  though  the  doctrine  pre- 
sented is  distinctly  the  same  as  that  of  the 
epistles  of  Paul,  set  forth  here  with  prevail- 
ing reference  to  the  grace  of  God  and  the 
future  hope.  The  epistle  is  filled  to  a  re- 
markable degree  with  reminiscences  of  earlier 
Christian  writings,  particularly  of  the  epis- 
tles to  the  Romans  and  Ephesians  and  James: 
thus  revealing  a  characteristic  of  Peter's.  It 
is  remarkable  for  the  combined  depth  and 
beauty  of  its  Christian  teaching.  After  the 
greeting  (i.  1,  2)  there  follows  an  introduc- 
tory section  (i.  3-12)  in  which  God  is  praised 
for  the  blessings  of  salvation.  The  body  of 
the  letter  (i.  13-v.  11)  consists  of  (1)  a  series 
of  exhortations  to  a  diligent  Christian  walk, 
correspondent  to  the  teaching  its  readers  had 
received  (i.  13  ;  ii.  10) ;  (2)  a  number  of  jiar- 
ticular  directions  for  the  special  relationships 
of  life  (ii.  11-iv.  6) ;  and  (3)  some  closing 
instructions  for  the  present  needs  of  the 
readers  (iv.  7-v.  11).  It  ends  with  saluta- 
tions and  announcements  (v.  12-14).  Though, 
after  the  allusion  in  2  Pet.  iii.  1,  it  is  first 
mentioned  explicitly  by  name  by  Irenseus,  in 
the  later  second  century,  this  epistle  has  from 
the  very  beginning  always  held  a  secure  place 
in  the  Christian  Bible  in  every  part  of  the 
Avorld,  and  has  always  been  in  the  fullest  use 
bv  Christians  of  everv  land. 

'The  Second  Epistle' General  of  Peter.  The 
author  of  this  epistle  describes  himself  as 


Pethahiah 


571 


Pharaoh 


"Symeou  Peter,  a  bond  servant  and  apostle 
of  Jesus  Christ  "  (i.  1,  E.  V.  margin),  and  rep- 
resents himself  as  having  been  present  at 
Christ's  transfiguration  (i.  Ifi)  and  as  having 
reeeived  from  him  a  predii-tion  as  to  his 
death  (i.  14;  ep.  Jolm  xxi.  lU),  and  also  as 
standing  on  an  equality  with  the  apostle 
Paul  (iii.  15).  This  distinct  claim  of  the  au- 
thor's to  be  the  ajiostle  Peter  is  borne  out  by 
the  character  of  the  letter  itself,  which  does 
not  lack  traits  characteristic  of  Peter's  man- 
ner or  points  of  likeness  to  his  speeches  re- 
corded iu  The  Acts  and  to  the  first  epistle,  to 
which  it  alludes  (iii.  1).  Traces  of  its  use  iu 
the  very  earliest  days  of  the  church  are  not 
numerous  or  very  clear :  but  Origen  at  the 
opening  of  the  third  century  .speaks  of  it  iu 
a  manner  which  shows  that  it  was  used  in 
the  church  of  his  day  ;  and  although  doubts 
were  cherished  in  some  quarters  concerning 
its  authorship,  these  are  overborne  by  the 
weighty  historical  evidence.  The  form 

of  its  addi-ess  is  quite  general :  "  to  them  that 
have  obtained  a  like  precious  faith  with  us  " 
(i.  1)  ;  but  iii.  1  shows  that  the  same  readers 
are  iu  view  to  whom  1  Peter  had  been  sent. 
The  place  from  which  it  was  written  cannot 
be  confidently  ascertained;  if  the  allusion 
in  i.  14  implies  that  Peter  was  on  the  verge 
of  his  martyrdom,  we  may  think  of  Eome. 
In  that  case  the  letter  should  be  dated  in 
A.  D.  <)S;  and  the  nature  of  the  errors  re- 
buked in  it,  and  its  use  of  the  Epistle  of 
Jude  as  well  as  its  allusion  to  1  Peter  will 
accord  with  this  date.  Its  object  is 

declared  in  iii.  1,  17,  18  to  be  to  stir  up 
the  minds  of  its  readers  to  remember  what 
had  been  taught  them,  to  the  end  that  they 
nught  be  saved  from  the  errors  now  be- 
coming prevalent  and  might  grow  in  grace 
and  the  knowledge  of  the  Lord  and  Saviour 
Jesus  Christ.  It  was  written,  in  other 
words,  to  rebuke  the  nascent  gnosticism 
creeping  into  the  churches,  and  to  build  up 
Christians  in  true  knowledge  and  purity. 
The  contents  of  the  letter  are  in  full  accord 
with  its  object.  After  the  usual  apostolical 
greeting  (i.  1,  2),  it  passes  insensibly  into  an 
earnest  exhortation  to  growth  iu  grace  and 
knowledge  (3-11),  and  thence  into  a  re- 
minder of  the  grounds  on  which  this  knowl- 
edge, itself  the  basis  of  piety,  rests  (12-21), 
and  a  denunciation  of  the  false  teachers  (ii. 
1-22).  The  readers  are  then  reminded  of 
the  nature  and  surety  of  the  teaching  given 
them  as  to  the  second  advent  and  the  end  of 
the  world  (iii.  1-13);  and  the  letter  closes 
with  an  exhortation  to  them  to  make  their 
calling  and  election  sure,  including  a  com- 
mendation of  Paul's  letters,  and  concludes 
with  a  doxology  (14-18).  B.  B.  W. 

Peth-a-hi'ah  [Jehovah  hath  set  free]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Aaron  whose  family 
became  the  nineteenth  course  of  priests  (1 
Chron.  xxiv.  16). 

2.  A  Levite  who  was  induced  by  Ezra  to 


put  away  liis  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  23).  He 
was  jirobably  the  Levite  of  the  name  who 
assisted  Ezra  in  his  religious  work  (Neh. 
ix.  5). 

3.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Zerah,  and 
an  official  of  the  Persian  king  for  all  matters 
concerning  the  people  (Neh.  xi.  24). 

Pe'thor  [cleft,  opening]. 

A  town  near  the  Euphrates  (Num.  xxii.5), 
by  the  mountains  of  Aram  or  Mesopotamia 
(Num.  xxiii.  7;  Deut.  xxiii.  4).  While  the 
Israelites  were  in  Egypt,  the  town  was  cap- 
tured by  the  Hittite.s,  and  they  retained  it 
until  the  ninth  ceutury  b.  c,  when  it  was 
wrested  from  them  by  Shalmaneser  II.,  king 
of  As.syria,  and  converted  into  a  colony  of 
the  conquerors.  It  was  situated  far  north 
of  Palestine,  on  the  western  bank  of  the 
Euphrates,  near  the  river  Sagura,  now  Sajur, 
a  few  miles  south  of  the  Hittite  capital 
Carcbemish. 

Pe-thu'el   [probably,  noblemindeduess  of 
God]. 
Father  of  the  prophet  Joel  (Joel  i.  1). 
Pe'tra.     See  Skla. 

Pe-ul'le-thai,  in  A.  V.  Pe-ul'thai  [perhaps, 
full  of  work,  laborious]. 

A  Levite,  a  doorkeeper,  son  of  Obed-edom 
(1  Chron.  xxvi.  5). 

Pha'lec.     See  Peleg. 

Phal'lu.     See  Pallu. 

Phal'ti.     See  Palti. 

Phal'ti-el.     See  Paltiel. 

Pha-nu'el  [face  or  presence  of  God]. 

An  Asherite,  the  father  of  Anna  (Luke  ii. 
36). 

Pha'raoh  [Egyptian  per-da,  great  house]. 

A  title  used  as  the  general  designation  of 
the  sovereign  of  Egypt,  both  with  and  with- 
out the  personal  name  attached. 

Of  the  Pharaohs  mentioned  in  the  Bible, 
several,  among  whom  are  the  Pharaohs  of 
Abraham  and  Joseph,  cannot  be  identified 
with  any  degree  of  certainty.  Of  those  that 
are  better  known  there  are  : 

1.  The  Phar.\oh  of  the  Oppression.  It 
is  quite  generally,  though  not  universally,  be- 
lieved that  this  was  Ramses  II.,  third  king  of 
the  nineteenth  dynasty  and  son  of  Seti  I.  See 
Egypt  III.  8.  Both  belonged  to  the  New  Em- 
pire. Ramses  while  yet  a  mere  child  was  made 
coregent  by  Seti,  and  reigned  sixty-seven 
years,  from  1348  to  1281  B.  c.  according  to  Dr. 
Mahler's  calculation.  He  was  a  great  war- 
rior and  iK'nctrated  farther  into  Asia  than 
even  Thothmes  III.  had  done,  advancing  as 
far  as  Asia  Minor  and  to  the  vicinity  of  the 
Tigris.  The  Libyans,  the  inhabitants  of 
Asia  Minor,  and  islanders  of,  the  Medi- 
terranean made  war  against  Egypt,  but 
Ramses  defeated  them.  His  great  expedi- 
tions were  directed  against  the  Hittites  and 
their  allies,  and  occupied  many  campaigns. 
His  most  notable  exploit  was  during  an  ex- 


Pharaoh 


572 


Pharaoh 


peditiou  to  Kadesh,  on  the  Orontes,  the 
southern  Hittite  capital,  in  which  he  was 
led  by  treacherous  Bedouin  Arab  guides  into 


Head  of  Ramses  II. 

an  ambuscade,  from  which  he  extricated 
himself  by  great  personal  prowess ;  but  he 
failed  to  take  the  city  or  inflict  on  the  Hit- 
tites  such  a  defeat  as  would  terminate  the 
war.  He  entered  into  a  treaty  of  peace  and 
amity,  sealed  by  his  marrying  the 
daughter  of  the  Hittite  king.  The 
peace  which  ensued  allowed  Ramses 
to  devote  his  attention  to  building 
operations,  to  founding  and  enrich- 
ing libraries,  and  to  establishing 
schools.  Especially  in  the  delta  did 
he  erect  buildings,  among  which 
were  Pa-Ramses  and  in  part  at  least 
Pithom.  His  mummy  is  now  in  the 
museum  at  Bulak. 

2.  The  Pharaoh  of  the  Ex- 
odus. He  is  believed  to  have  been 
Meneptah  II.,  the  thirteenth  son  of 
Ramses  II.  On  his  accession  to  the 
throne  he  maintained  the  treaty  of 
peace  which  his  father  had  entered 
into  with  the  Hittites.  In  the  fifth 
year  of  his  reign  Lower  Egypt  was 
invaded  by  the  Libyans  and  their 
allies.  The  mercenaries  of  the 
Egyptian  king,  rather  than  him-  _h  " 
self,  ultimately  gained  a  complete  ^  .. 
victory  over  their  invaders.  A  t 
hymn  was  composed  to  celebrate 
this  success  and  other  victories. 
The  translation  is  doubtful  in  minor  r. 

l)oints,  but  is  essentially  as  follows  :  = 

The  chiefs  bow  down,  making  their 

salutations  of  peace, 
Not  one  of  the  peoples  of  the  bow  [i.  e. 

hostile    foreigners]    lifts  up   its 

head : 
The  land  of  the  Libyans  is  vanquished. 
The  land  of  the  Hittites  is  tranquilized, 
Kavaged  is  the  place  Pa-Kanana  [in  Southern 

Palestine]  with  all  violence. 


Carried  away  is  the  place  Ashkelon, 

Overpowered  is  the  place  Gezer, 

The  place  Innuam  [near  Tyre]  is  brought  to 
naught. 

The  people  Isiraalu  are  spoiled,  they  have  no 
seed, 

The  place  Khar  [i.  e.  southern  Palestine]  has  be- 
come like  the  widows  of  Egypt. 

All  the  world  is  at  peace. 

Every  one  that  was  rebellious  is  subdued  by  the 
king  Meneptah. 

Isiraalu  is  mentioned  in  close  connection 
with  places  in  Philistia,  Phcenicia,  and  Pales- 
tine. It  cannot  be  rendered  Jezreel,  for  the 
orthography  of  the  word  and  the  use  of  the 
determinative  which  signifies  people  are  both 
against  it.  It  alone  is  without  the  determi- 
native for  land  or  city.  It  accordingly  is  a 
nomadic  tribe  or  else  a  people  dwelling  in  a 
country  not  their  own.  Leaving  no  seed  to 
a  spoiled  and  harried  people  was  a  common 
mode  which  the  Egyptians  had  of  recording 
the  destruction  of  the  crops  or  supply  of 
gi-ain.  The  natural  meaning  of  the  inscrii> 
tion  accordingly  is  that  troops,  who  were  act- 
ing under  Meneptah  and  waging  war  against 
the  peoples  of  Palestine  and  vicinity,  ravaged 
the  Israelites  and  destroyed  their  fields  or 
storehouses  of  grain.  All  available  evidence 
indicates  that  the  Israelites  had  not  con- 
quered Canaan  and  settled  in  Palestine  as 


yet.  The  attempt  to  identify  the  yabiri, 
who  were  warring  in  Palestine  in  the  reign 
of  Amenophis  IV.,  six  or  seven  generations 
before  Meneptah,  with  the  Hebrews  has  not 


Pharaoh 


573 


Pharaoh 


been  successful ;  sec  Egypt  III.  8.  The  bib- 
lical rectird  and  the  inscription  of  Meiieptah 
agree,  if  the  inscription  means,  as  has  been 
inferred  by  Dr.  W.  W.  Moore,  that  within 
two  or  three  years  after  the  exodus  Egyptian 
or  Canaauitish  subjects  of  Meneptah  attacked 
the  Israelites  near  Kadesh-barnea.  The  He- 
brews had  feared  to  advance  from  Kadesh 
and  had  begun  their  dreary  life  of  forty 
years  in  the  wilderness.  Hero  they  pastured 
their  tlocks  and  herds,  and  doubtless,  like 
Isaac  when  in  the  s;ime  quarter  (Geu.  xxvi. 
1'2).  sowed  seed  and  raised  what  crops  a  scan- 
tily watered  soil  permitted.  Their  grain  was 
destroyed  by  the  enemy;  and  the  event  may 
possibly  be  referred  to  in  Num.  xiv.  45 ; 
Deut.  i.  44-46,  for  their  sojourn  at  Kadesh 
had  been  long  enough  to  permit  the  young 
crop  to  be  growing,  but  not  the  grain  to  be 
ripe.  On  this  interpretation  the  Pharaoh  of 
the  exodus  was  not  drowned  in  the  Red  Sea. 
The  biblical  record  does  not  neceasarily  mean 
that  he  was.  It  is  not  neces.sary  to  believe 
that  he  did  in  person  everjthing  which  is 
charged  to  him.  What  is  done  in  Pharaoh's 
name  and  by  Pharaoh's  servants  can  be  de- 
scribed as  done  by  him  ;  and  what  his  emis- 
siiries  sutler  he  can  be  said  to  suffer. 

3.  Shishak.  Called  by  the  monuments 
Sheshenk  and  by  Manetho  Sesonchis,  the 
first  ruler  of  the  twenty-second  dynasty. 
According  to  an  inscription  found  in  Abydos, 
Shishak  was  the  son  of  an  Assyrian  con- 
queror named  Nemret.  The  names  of  his 
successors  are  also  more  Assyrian  than  Egj-p- 
tlan  in  origin.  An  account  of  his  expedition 
into  Palestine  (1  Kin.  xiv.  25,  26;  2  Chron. 
xii.  2-9),  with  the  usual  embellishments  and 
exaggerations,  is  found  on  the  south  wall  of 
the  temple  at  Karnak.  In  the  list  given 
there  of  cities  conquered  in  that  expe- 
dition occurs  the  name  Judha-malek,  which 
may  possibly  mean  royal  city  of  Judah.  He 
was  probably  an  able  statesman,  as  he  was 
able  to  avoid  a  rupture  with  Solomon  while 
keeping  Solomon's  enemy  as  a  guest  (1  Kin. 
xi.  40).  He  shrewdly  took  advantage  of  the 
unsettled  state  of  affairs  in  Palestine  after 
the  division  of  the  kingdom,  to  make  his  in- 
vasion at  that  time  when  resistance  to  an 
enemy  was  necessarily  weakened  by  dissen- 
sions at  home.  He  also  created  a  V)alance  of 
power  for  himself  in  Egyjit  by  reelevating 
to  a  ])osition  of  power  the  priests  of  Apis  at 
Menii)his,  rivals  of  the  priests  of  Thebes. 
Jeroboam  took  refuge  at  his  court  some  time 
after  the  twenty-fifth  year  of  Solomon  (1  Kin. 
vi.  38;  vii.  1 ;  ix.  10,  24  :  xi.  27),  and  the  in- 
vasion of  Judah  took  place  in  the  fifth  year 
of  Rehoboam  ;  accordingly,  the  longest  time 
required  by  the  biblical  data  for  the  reign  of 
Shishak  is  21  years,  though  a  shorter  time 
would  suffice.  This  demand  is  met  by  the 
Egyptian  monuments,  for  they  mention  the 
thirty-ninth  year  of  his  reign. 

4.  Zer.\h  the  Cushite,  who  undertook  an 
expedition  against  Judah  in  the  reign  of  Asa, 


leading  an  army  composed  of  Ethiopians  and 
Lil)yans,  doubtless  in  addition  to  the  Egyj)- 
tian  troops.  His  forces  were  routed  at  Ma- 
reshah  (2  Chron.  xiv.  9-15;  xvi.  8).  The 
monuments  do  not  mention  this  military  ex- 
])edition,  as  it  is  their  custom  to  pass  over  in 
silence  their  own  defeats.  Zerah  is  com- 
monly identified  with  Osorkon  I.  or  II.,  suc- 
cessors of  Shishak  in  the  twenty-second  or 
Bubastite  dynasty.  He  maj'  have  been  called 
Cushite  by  the  biblical  writer  either  because 
he  was  crown  jirince  when  he  led  the  expe- 
dition against  Judah,  in  which  case  he  bore 
the  title  Prince  of  Cush  ;  or  because  he  was 
by  birth  an  Ethio])ian,  Osorkon  II.  being  the 
son-in-law,  not  the  son,  of  the  preceding 
monarch. 

5,  So,  contemporary  of  Hoshea,  king  of 
Israel  (2  Kin.  xvii.  4) ;  see  So. 

6,  TiRHAKAH,  third  and  last  king  of  the 
twenty-fifth  dynasty,  which  is  known  also 
as  the  Ethiopian  dynasty.  Both  he  and  his 
name  are  Ethiopian  (Steindorfl").  When  Sen- 
nacherib, king  of  Assyria,  was  advancing 
through  Philistia  in  the  direction  of  Egypt  in 
701  B,  c,  he  heard  that  Tirhakah.  king  of 
Ethiopia,  was  coming  against  him  (2  Kin. 
xix.  9).  Sennacherib,  in  his  own  account  of 
the  aflair,  without  mentioning  the  personal 
names  of  the  monarchs,  says  that  the  kings 
of  Egypt  and  the  archers,  chariots  and 
horses  of  the  king  of  Ethiopia  met  him  in 
battle  at  Eltekeh  (Cylinder  ii.  73-81).  Ethi- 
opia and  Egypt,  which  were  probably  under 
the  general  sway  of  Shabataka,  or  already 
under  the  rule  of  the  young  and  vigorous 
Tirhakah  as  husband  of  Shabataka's  widow 
and  guardian  of  his  young  son.  were  gov- 
erned by  subordinate  kings.  Esarhaddon 
conducted  several  campaigns  against  Egypt; 
and  in  671  B.C.  penetrated  intothemidst  of  the 
country,  defeated  Tirhakah,  whom  he  calls 
king  of  Ethiopia,  took  Memphis,  made  Tir- 
hakah's  son  a  captive,  and  assumed  the  title 
of  king  of  Egypt,  Pathros,  and  Ethiopia. 
Tirhakah  found  refuge  in  Ethiopia,  and  on 
Esarhaddon's  death,  in  669  or  668  B.  c,  re- 
turned to  Egj-pt.  Ashurbani])al  sent  an 
army  against  him,  styling  him  king  of  Egypt 
and  Ethiopia,  and  defeated  his  troops  at  Kar- 
banit,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Canopic  branch 
of  the  Nile.  Tirhakah  retired  to  Thebes. 
He  still  had  the  support  of  several  minor 
kings  of  Egypt,  among  whom  was  Necho. 
Asburbanipal  afterwards  pursued  him  thither 
and  took  Thebes.  The  Assyrian  king  pres- 
ently records  the  death  of  Tirhakah.  This 
event  occurred  about  664  B.  c.  The  Egyp- 
tian records  attest  the  fact  that  he  reigned 
at  least  26  years,  so  that  his  possession  of  the 
royal  title  can  be  traced  back  as  far  as  690  B. 
c.  at  least. 

7,  Necho,  son  of  Psammetick  I.  He  was 
the  second  ruler  of  the  twenty-sixth  dynasty 
and  reigned  16  years,  from  610  to  594  B.  c. 
He  attempted  to  complete  a  canal  connecting 
the  Red  Sea  with  the  Nile,  and  sent  a  sue- 


Pharathon 


574 


Pharisees 


cessful  expedition  to  circiiiunavigate  Africa 
(Herod,  ii.  158  ;  iv.  4'2).  He  slew  kiug  Josiah 
at  Megiddo  as  the  latter  unwisely  o])posed 
his  march  toward  Assyria.  Herodotus  says 
that  Necho  defeated  the  Syrians  at  Mag- 
dolus  (Megiddo),  and  afterwards  took  Cadj-- 
tus,  one  of  the  large  cities  of  Syria  (ii.  159). 
This  has  been  identified  with  Gaza,  but  bet- 
ter with  Kadesh,  the  Hittite  city  on  the 
Orontes.  On  Josiah's  death,  the  people  set 
up  his  son  Jehoahaz,  but  Pharaoh  dethroned 
and  carried  him  off  to  Egypt,  setting  up  in 
his  stead  his  elder  brother,  Jehoiakim  (2 
Kin.  xxiii.  30-34).  Necho  seems  to  have  left 
his  army  atCarchemish  while  he  returned  to 
Egypt.  In  605  B.  c.  he  returned  to  his  army, 
the  object  being  an  attack  on  the  decaying 
Assyrian  empire.  Unfortunately  he  came 
too  late  and  found  himself  opposed  by  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, the  Babylonian  conqueror  of 
Assyria,  was  utterly  routed  by  him,  and  lost 
all  of  Egypt's  Asiatic  possessions  (2  Kin. 
xxiv.  7). 

8.  Pharaoh-iiophra,  the  Uah-ab-ra  of  the 
Egyptian  monuments,  the  (^uaphris  of  Ma- 
netho,  and  the  Apries  of  Herodotus.  He 
was  the  second  successor  of  Necho,  separated 
from  him  by  the  short  reign  of  Psammetick 
II.  He  reigned  19  years,  from  589  to  570  b. 
c.  He  was  on  the  throne  while  Jeremiah 
and  his  fellow-fugitives  from  Palestine  still 
lived.  The  prophet  intimated  that  Pharaoh- 
hophra  should  be  given  into  the  hands  of  his 
enemies,  as  Zedekiah,  the  last  kiug  of  Ju- 
dah,  had  been  (Jer.'  xliv.  30).  He  was  a 
warrior,  and  appears  to  have  conquered  the 
combined  fleets  of  Cyprus  and  Sidon  in  a  sea 
fight.  He  failed  at  last  in  an  attack  on  the 
Greek  colony  of  Cyrene.  His  army,  in  con- 
sequence, revolted ;  he  was  captured,  confined, 
and  ultimately  put  to  death. 

Phar'a-thon.     See  Pirathon. 

Pha'res  and  Pha'rez.    See  Perez. 

Phar'i-sees  [probably,  separated]. 

One  of  the  three  chief  Jewish  sects,  the 
others  being  the  Sadducecs  and  the  Essenes. 
It  was  the  straitest  sect  (Acts  xxvi.  5).  In 
all  probability  the  Pharisees  originated  in 
the  period  before  the  Maccabjean  war,  in  a 
reaction  against  the  hellenizing  spirit  which 
appeared  among  the  Jews  and  manifested  it- 
self in  the  readiness  of  a  part  of  the  people 
to  adopt  Grecian  customs.  Those  who  re- 
garded these  practices  with  abhorrence  and 
their  spread  with  alarm  were  incited  to  strict 
and  open  conformity  to  the  Mosaic  law.  They 
were  drawn  yet  more  closely  together  as  a 
party  by  the  fierce  persecution  which  Anti- 
ochus  Epiphanes,  175-164  B.  c,  set  on  foot 
against  the  faithful  Israelites  who  would  not 
abandon  Judaism  and  accept  the  Greek  faith, 
when  he  attempted  to  destroy  the  holy 
Scriptures,  and  commanded  that  whosoever 
was  found  with  any  book  of  the  covenant  or 
consented  to  the  law,  should  be  put  to  death 
(1    Mac.   i.   56,   57).     The   Hasidaeans,   who 


were  mighty  men  of  Israel,  even  all  such  as 
were  voluntarily  devoted  unto  the  law  (ii. 
42  ;  cp.  i.  62,  63),  participated  in  the  Mac- 
cabtean  revolt  as  a  distinct  party.  They  were 
probably  the  Phari.sees,  they  certainly  cor- 
responded to  that  sect.  When  the  war  ceased 
to  be  a  struggle  for  religious  liberty,  and  be- 
came a  c(jntest  for  political  supremacy,  they 
ceased  to  take  an  active  interest  in  it.  They 
are  not  mentioned  during  the  time  that  Jon- 
athan and  Simon  were  the  Jewish  leaders, 
160-135  B.  c.  The  Pharisees  appear  under 
their  own  name  in  the  time  of  John  Hyrcanus, 
135-105  B.  c.  He  was  a  disciple  of  theirs, 
but  left  them  and  joined  the  Sadducees  (Au- 
tiq.  xiii.  10,  5  and  6)  ;  and  his  son  and  suc- 
cessor, Alexander  Jannaeus,  endeavored  to 
exterminate  them  by  the  sword.  But  his 
wife,  Alexandra,  who  succeeded  him  in  78 
B.  c,  recognizing  that  physical  force  is  pow- 
erless against  religious  conviction,  favored 
the  Pharisees  (15,  5;  16,  1).  Thenceforth 
their  influence  was  paramount  in  the  reli- 
gious life  of  the  Jewish  people. 

The  Pharisees  held  the  doctrine  of  fore- 
ordination,  and  considered  it  consistent  with 
the  freewill  of  man.  They  believed  in  the  im- 
mortality of  the  soul,  in  the  resurrection  of  the 
body,  and  in  the  existence  of  spirits ;  that  men 
are  rewarded  or  punished  in  the  future  life, 
according  as  they  have  lived  virtuously  or 
viciously  in  this  life  ;  that  the  souls  of  the 
wickeil  shall  be  detained  forever  in  prison 
under  the  earth,  while  those  of  the  virtuous 
rise  and  live  again,  removing  into  other 
bodies  (Acts  xxiii.  8;  Antiq.  xviii.  1,  3; 
War  ii.8,  14).  These  doctrines  distinguished 
them  from  the  Sadducees,  but  did  not  con- 
stitute the  essence  of  Pharisaism.  Pharisaism 
is  the  final  and  necessary  result  of  that 
conception  of  religion  which  makes  religion 
consist  in  conformity  to  the  law,  and  prom- 
ises God's  grace  only  to  the  doers  of  the  law. 
Religion  becomes  external.  The  disposition 
of  the  heart  is  less  vital  than  tlie  outward 
act.  The  interpretation  of  the  law  and  its 
application  to  the  details  of  ordinary  life 
accordingly  became  a  matter  of  grave  con- 
sequence, lawyers  acquired  increased  im- 
portance, and  expositions  of  the  law  by 
recognized  authorities  grew  to  a  body  of 
precepts  of  binding  force.  Josephus,  who 
was  himself  a  Pharisee,  describes  them  as 
not  merely  accepting  the  law  of  Moses,  and 
interpreting  it  more  skillfully  than  others, 
but  adds  that  they  had  delivered  to  the 
people  a  great  many  observances  by  succes- 
sion from  the  fathers  which  are  not  written 
in  the  law  of  Moses  (Antiq.  xiii.  10,  6),  these 
being  the  traditional  interpretations  of  the 
elders,  which  our  Lord  pronounced  to  be  of 
no  binding  authority  (Mat.  xv.  2,  3,  6). 

At  first,  when  one  incurred  great  danger  in 
joining  the  party,  the  Pharisees  were  men 
of  strong  religious  character.  They  were 
the  best  people  in  the  nation.  Subsequently 
Pharisaism  became  an  inherited  belief  and 


Pharosli 


575 


Philemon 


the  profession  of  it  was  poimlar,  aud  men  of 
charaeter  very  inferior  to  tiuit  of  tin-  original 
members  of  the  sect  joineii  its  ranks.  With 
the  hipse  of  lime  also  the  essentially  vieious 
element  in  the  system  developed  and  laid  the 
Pharisees,  as  eomnionly  represented  by  the 
members  of  the  seet,  open  to  seathing  rebuke. 
John  the  Haptist  called  them  and  the  Sad- 
dncees  a  generation  of  vipers  ;  and  it  is  well 
known  how  severelj'  our  Lord  denonueed 
them  for  their  self-rigliteousnc'S^s,  their 
hypocrisy,  their  inattention  to  the  weightier 
matters  of  the  law,  while  being  very  par- 
ticular as  to  minute  points,  with  other  faults 
(Mat.  V.  20;  xvi.  6,  11,  12;  sxiii.  1-39). 
They  became  an  intriguing  body  of  men 
(Antiq.  xvii.  2,  4).  They  t(»ok  a  i)ronunent 
part  in  plotting  the  death  of  Christ  (Mark 
iii.  6 ;  John  xi.  47-57).  Yet  they  always 
numbered  in  their  ranks  men  of  perfect 
sincerity  and  the  highest  character.  Paul 
in  his  early  life  was  a  Pharisee,  aud  was 
accustomed  to  bring  forward  the  fact  when 
he  was  reasoning  with  his  countrymen  (Acts 
xxiii.  6  ;  xxvi.  5-7 ;  Phil.  iii.  5).  His  teacher, 
Gamaliel,  was  of  the  same  sect  (Acts  v.  34). 

Pha'rosh.    See  P.\.eosh. 

Phar'par  [swift]. 

I'rcsumably  the  less  important  of  the  two 
rivers  of  Damascus,  for  Naaman  mentions  it 
only  second  {2  Kin.  v.  12).  According  to  the 
local  tradition,  which  can  be  traced  back  to 
the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  the  Phar- 
par  is  the  Taura,  one  of  seven  canals  which 
are  drawn  off  from  the  Barada  as  it  neare 
Damascus.  It  is  more  common,  however,  out- 
side of  Damascus,  to  identify  the  Pharpar 
with  the  A'wa.j,  the  only  independent  stream 
except  the  Barada  within  the  territory  of 
Damascus,  but  distant  a  ride  of  three  hours 
from  the  city.  It  is  formed  by  the  conflu- 
ence of  several  streams  which  take  their  rise 
in  mount  Hermon.  It  pursues  a  tortuous 
course  through  the  plain  to  the  .south  of  the 
city  and  finally  enters  the  most  southerly 
of  three  inland  lakes.  In  dry  weather  its 
waters  are  sometimes  absorbed  before  they 
even  enter  the  lake. 

Pha-se'ah.    See  Pase.\h. 

Pha-se'lis. 

A  city  fif  Lycia,  on  the  gulf  of  Pamphylia, 
with  three  excellent  hart)ors.  It  enjoj-ed 
considerable  commerce  in  early  times  (Herod, 
ii.  17s).  It  was  independent  (1  Mac.  xv.  23)  un- 
til the  war  of  78-75  B.  c.  when  the  Eomans 
destroyed  it  because  it  had  become  a  center 
of  organized  piracy.  It  was  rebuilt,  but  did 
not  rise  to  importance  again.  Its  ruins  exist 
near  Tekrova. 

Phas'i-ron. 

Probably  a  Bedouin  chief  (1  Mac.  ix.  66). 

Phe'be.     See  Phcebe. 

Phe-ni'ce.     See  Phcenici.\  and  Phcenix. 

Phe-ni'ci-a.    See  Phcexicia. 


Phi'col,  in  A.  V.  PMchol  [possibly,  mouth 
of  all,  i.  e.  commanding  all]. 

The  captain  of  thearmy  of  Abimelech,  king 
of  Gerar;  present  when  treaty  was  made 
between  Abimelech  and  Abraham,  and  be- 
tween Abimelech  or  his  successor  with  like 
title  and  Isaac  (Gen.  xxi.  22;  xxvi.  2(i). 
There  is  no  need  to  assume  that  he  was  older 
than  Is;uic. 

Phil-a-del'pMa  [brotherly  love]. 

1.  A  city  of  Lydia,  in  .\sia  Minor,  about  27 
miles  southeast  of  Sardis,  in  the  plain  of  tiie 
Hermns.  It  was  built  by  Attains  Phila- 
delphus,  on  a  part  of  mount  Tniolus.  In 
A.  D.  17  it  was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake, 
but  was  soon  rebuilt.  It  was  the  seat  of  one 
of  the  seven  churches  of  Asia  addressed  in 


Modern  Philadelphia. 

the  book  of  Kevelation  (i.  11  ;  iii.  7-13). 
Unlike  most  of  the  seven,  it  receives  com- 
mendation and  encouragement,  unmixed 
with  censure.  It  is  now  called  Allah  Shell r, 
and  continues  to  be  inhabited.  The  walls  of 
the  ancient  city,  which  are  still  standing, 
enclose  several  hills,  with  the  remains  of  a 
temple  and  other  buildings. 

2.  A  later  name  of  Kabbah  of  the  Ammon- 
ites.    See  Kabbah. 

Phi-le'mon  [Greek,  loving  or  aflectionate 
(cp.  philema,  a  kiss)]. 

A  convert  of  the  apo.stle  Paul's  (Philem. 
19),  who  resided  in  the  same  citj-  with 
Archippus  and  from  which  Onesimus  had 
come,  viz.  Colossse  (cp.  Philem.  2  with  Col.  iv. 
17;  and  Philem.  10  with  Col.  iv.  9).  There 
was  a  church  in  his  house  (Philem.  2).  Paul 
calls  him  a  fellow-laborer  (1)  and  speaks  of 
his  kindness  to  the  saints  (5-7).  As  Paul 
had  never  been  in  Colossse  (cp.  Col.  ii.  1),  we 
maysuppo.se  that  Philemon  was  converted  in 
Ephesus  during  the  a])ostle's  ministry  there 
(cp.  Acts  xix.  10).  It  is  not  improbable  that 
Archippus  was  Philemon's  son  and  Apphia 
his  wife  (Philem.  2). 


Philetus 


576 


Philip 


The  Epistle  of  Paul  to  Philemon  is  the 
brief  letter  sent  by  Paul,  in  conjunction  with 
Timothy,  to  Philemon.  The  latter's  slave, 
Onesimus,  had  run  away,  perhaps  taking 
with  him  some  of  Philemon's  money  (18, 
19)  ;  and,  having  made  his  way  to  Eome, 
had  there  been  converted  through  the  in- 
strumentality of  the  apostle  (10).  Paul 
would  gladly  have  retained  him  as  a  free 
attendant,  but  did  not  feel  at  liberty  to  do  so 
without  Philemon's  consent  (13,  14).  He 
doubtle-ss  felt  too  that  Onesimus,  as  a  Chris- 
tian, ought  to  seek  the  forgiveness  of  his 
master;  and  he  was  equally  anxious  that 
Philemon  should  both  forgive  and  receive 
the  converted  wrongdoer.  So  he  sent  Onesi- 
mus back  to  Philemon,  urging  the  latter  to 
receive  him  as  a  brother  beloved  (16),  telling 
of  the  love  he  himself  bore  toward  the  con- 
vert (10,  12),  and  otTering  to  repay  Philemon 
for  whatever  loss  Onesimus  had  caused  him 
(18,  19).  The  letter  is  an  exquisite  produc- 
tion. It  reveals  the  delicacy  of  Paul's  feel- 
ing and  the  graciousness  of  his  relations 
with  his  friends.  It  also  illustrates  the 
effect  of  Christianity  on  social  relationships 
generally,  the  spirit  of  love  and  justice 
which  were  destined  to  reorganize  society. 
When  Onesimus  carried  this  letter  to  Phile- 
mon, he  accompanied  Tychicus,  who  also  bore 
the  Epistle  to  the  Colossians  (Col.  iv.  7-9) 
and  that  to  the  Ephesians  (Eph.  vi.  21,  22). 
All  three  epistles  were  written  at  the  same 
time,  probably  A.  D.  61  or  62,  and  from  Rome. 
The  genuineness  of  the  E])istle  to  Philemon, 
though  it  is  so  brief  a  letter,  is  well  attested, 
and  it  thus  strongly  supports  the  genuine- 
ness of  the  other  epistles  with  which  it  is 
associated.  G.  t.  p. 

Phi-le'tus  [worthy  of  love]. 

One  who  joined  with  Hymenfeus  in  propa- 
gating the  error  that  the  resurrection  is 
already  past  (2  Tim.  ii.  17,  18). 

Phirip  [fond  of  horses]. 

1.  Father  of  Alexander  the  Great  (1  Mac. 
i.  1).  He  was  a  son  of  Amyntas  II.  of  Mace- 
don.  He  took  charge  of  the  government 
about  360  b.  c,  as  guardian  of  the  royal  in- 
fant, and  by  skillful  negotiations  and  success- 
ful war  delivered  the  country  from  the  dan- 
ger which  beset  it  by  reason  of  the  hostility 
of  the  Pseonians,  Illyrians,  and  Athenians. 
He  then  ascended  the  throne,  perhaps  by 
usurpation.  He  captured  Amphipolis  and 
annexed  it  to  his  dominions  in  358,  and  cross- 
ing the  river  Strymon,  he  took  possession  of 
Thracian  territory  and  founded  Philippi  in 
356.  These  achievements  marked  only  the 
beginning  of  his  unchecked  career  of  con- 
quest in  Greece,  by  which  he  raised  Mace- 
donia from  an  obscure  state  to  be  the  domi- 
nant power  in  Grecian  affairs.  He  was  as- 
sassinated in  336  B.  c,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Alexander. 

2.  Another  king  of  Macedon,  and  third  of 
the  name.     He  entered  into  an  alliance  with 


Hannil)al  against  the  Romans  in  215  B.  c, 
but  they  held  him  in  check  with  the  cooper- 
ation of  the  iEtolians.  After  seven  years  he 
was  glad  to  make  a  separate  peace.  In  200 
B.  c.  the  Romans  invaded  his  kingdom.  He 
successfully  resisted  them  for  two  years,  but 
in  197  he  was  completely  defeated  (1  Mac. 
viii.  5)  by  the  Roman  general  Flaminius  at 
Cynocephahe  in  Thessaly,  and  forced  to  con- 
clude a  humiliating  peace.  He  died  in  179 
B.  c. 

3.  Foster  brother  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes 
(2  Mac.  ix.  29),  and  one  of  his  i)rivileged 
friends  (1  Mac.  vi.  14).  When  Antiochus 
was  in  Persia,  nigh  unto  death,  he  appointed 
Philip  regent  during  the  minority  of  the 
young  Antiochus  115).  Lysias,  however, 
who  was  in  Syria,  usurped  the  position  (17). 
Philip  returned  in  haste,  and  obtained  tem- 
porary possession  of  Antioch,  the  capital 
(55,  63).  But  Lysias  succeeded  in  capturing 
the  city.  According  to  Josephus,  Philip  was 
executed  (Antiq.  xii.  9,  7),  but  perhaps  he 
escaped  and  fled  to  Egypt  before  the  city  fell 
(2  Mac.  ix.  29). 

It  has  been  conjectured,  on  insufficient 
grounds,  that  he  is  identical  with  Philip,  the 
Phrygian  who  was  made  governor  of  Judaea 
by  Antiochus  (2  Mac.  v.  22),  and  that  he  was 
the  master  of  the  elephants  at  the  battle  of 
Magnesia  (Livy  xxxvii.  41). 

4.  A  son  of  Herod  the  Great,  and  the  first 
husband  of  Herodias  and  brother  or  half- 
brother  of  Herod  Antipas  (Mat.  xiv.  3 ;  Luke 
iii.  19).  He  is  not  called  the  tetrarch,  and 
there  is  reason  to  believe  that  he  was  a  dif- 
ferent person  from  Philip  the  tetrarch,  half- 
brother  of  Herod  Antipas.  In  giving  the 
genealogy  of  a  portion  of  Herod  the  Great's 
family,  Josephus  states  that  Herodias  mar- 
ried Herod,  son  of  Herod  the  Great  by  Mari- 
amne,  daughter  of  the  high  priest  Simon ; 
that  she  left  him  to  live  with  Antipas  his 
half-brother  ;  and  that  her  daughter  Salome 
married  Philip  the  tetrarch,  son  of  Herod 
the  Great  by  Cleo])atra  of  Jerusalem,  and 
after  Philip's  death  took  another  husband 
(Antiq.  xviii.  5,  4).  Thus,  according  to 
Josephus,  the  first  hu.sband  of  Herodias  was 
a  different  person  from  Philip  the  tetrarch. 
The  writers  of  the  N.  T.  agree  with  Josephus 
in  that  they  make  Herodias'  first  husband  a 
brother  of  Herod  Antipas  the  tetrarch,  and 
do  not  identify  him  with  Philip  the  tetrarch, 
whom  they  also  know  (Luke  iii.  1).  They 
differ  as  to  his  name.  It  is  commonly  be- 
lieved that  both  authorities  are  right,  and 
accordingly  the  first  husband  of  Herodias  is 
often  designated  Herod  Philip.  For  among 
the  children  of  Herod  the  Great  two  sons, 
born  of  different  mothers,  were  named  after 
Herod's  father  Antipas  or  Antipater.  Three 
of  his  sons,  born  of  three  different  mothers, 
were  called  Herod  ;  one  of  whom,  however, 
had  a  second  name  Antipas,  and  was  spoken 
of  indiffei'ently  either  as  Herod  or  Antipas 
(Antiq,  xvii.  1,  3;  xviii.  5,  1 ;  6,  2).     One  of 


Philip 


577 


Philippi 


tho  sons  whom  his  wife  Cleopatra  of  Jerusa- 
lem l)ore  was  called  IMiilij) ;  and  it  is  ])rob- 
able  that  Mariamne's  son,  who  is  called 
Herod  by  Josephus,  had  the  name  of  Philip 
also.  Herod  Philij),  after  the  execution  of 
his  half-brothers  Alexander  and  Aristobulus, 
was  next  in  order  of  birth  to  Antijiater, 
Herod  the  Great's  firstborn,  and  for  a  time 
he  was  recojinized  as  next  in  succession  to 
the  throne  (Antiq.  xvii.  3,  2) ;  but  he  was 
passed  over  in  Herod's  later  wills. 

5.  Philip  the  Tetrarch.  One  of  the  two  sons 
of  Herod  the  Great  and  Cleopatra  of  Jerusa- 
lem. He  was  brought  up  at  Home  with  his 
half-brothers  Archelaus  and  Antipas  (Antiq. 
xvii.  1,  .3  ;  War  i.  28,  4).  In  A.  D.  4  he  advo- 
cated the  claims  of  Archelaus  to  succeed 
their  common  father,  and  was  himself  ap- 
pointed by  the  emperor  Augustus  to  be  over 
Batanea,  Trachonitis,  Auranitis,  and  certain 
parts  of  Zeno's  house  about  Jamnia  (War  ii. 
6,  1-3;  cp.  Antiq.  xvii.  11,  4).  He  was  still 
tetrarch  of  the  region  of  Itura^a  and  Tracho- 
nitis in  the  fifteenth  year  of  Tiberius  Caesar 
when  John  the  Baptist  began  his  public  life 
(Luke  iii.  1) .  He  married  Salome,  the  daugh- 
ter of  Herod,  Mariamne's  son,  and  Herodias 
(Antiq.  xviii.  5,  4).  He. enlarged  the  town 
of  Paneas,  at  the  source  of  the  Jordan,  and 
named  it  Caesarea.  It  was  afterwards  often 
spoken  of  as  Caesarea  Philippi  (Mat.  xvi.  13), 
to  distinguish  it  from  Cae-sarea  on  the  sea. 
He  also  raised  the  village  of  Bethsaida  to  the 
dignity  of  a  city  and  called  it  Julias,  and, 
fortifying  Sepphoris,  made  that  town  the 
capital  of  Galilee  (Antiq.  xviii.  2,  1 ;  W'ar  ii. 
9,  1).  He  reigned  thirty-seven  years,  from 
4  E.  c.  to  A.  D.  33,  dying  in  the  twentieth 
year  of  Tiberius  Caesar.  His  character  was 
excellent,  and  his  rule  was  mild  and  just 
(Antiq.  xviii.  4,  6).  His  dominions  were 
annexed  to  the  province  of  Syria,  but  in  a.  t>. 
37  were  assigned  to  Herod  Agrippa  I.  Coins 
of  his  have  been  found  inscribed  with  his 
title,  Tetrarchos. 

6.  Philip  the  Apostle.  One  of  the  twelve 
apostles  (Mat.  x.  3).  He  was  a  native  of 
Bethsaida.  Jesus  met  him,  won  his  faith, 
and  called  him  to  be  a  disciple.  He  found 
Nathanael  and  brought  him  to  Jesus,  in  the 
conviction  that  an  interview  with  the  Master 
would  convince  Nathanael  that  Jesus  was 
the  ISIessiah.  His  confidence  was  justified 
(John  i.  4.3-48).  When  our  Lord  was  about 
to  perform  the  miracle  of  feeding  the  five 
thousand,  he  first  proved  Philip,  and  awoke 
a  conception  of  the  magnitude  of  the  miracle 
by  asking  Philip:  "Whence  are  we  to  buy 
bread,  that  these  may  eat'?"  (John  vi.  5,  6). 
On  the  day  of  the  triumphal  entry  into  Je- 
rusalem, certain  Greeks  desired  to  see  Jesus, 
and  applied  to  Philip,  who  ])ut  them  in  com- 
munication with  Jesus  (xii.  20-23).  In 
making  the  acquaintance  of  Christ,  the  dis- 
ciples had  been  making  acquaintance  with 
the  Father  ;  but  when  Christ  spoke  to  them 
about    their    having   known  and  seen   the 

37 


Father,  Philip  appeared  not  to  understand 
and  said  :  "Show  us  the  Father,  and  it  suf- 
ficetli  us"  (xiv.  8-12).  He  is  named  after 
the  resurrection  as  one  of  the  apostles  who 
met  in  the  upjier  chamber  (Acts  i.  13).  This 
is  the  last  authentic  notice  we  have  of  him, 
ecclesiastical  traditions  regarding  his  future 
life  being  confused  and  contradictory. 

7.  Philip  the  Evangelist.  He  was  one  of  the 
seven  men  of  good  report,  full  of  the  Spirit  and 
of  wisdom,  chosen  to  look  after  the  interests 
of  the  Greek-speaking  widows  and  jirobably 
the  poor  generally  in  the  church  at  Jeru.salem, 
and  is  mentioned  next  in  order  to  the  martyr 
Stephen  (Acts  vi.  5).  If  this  had  been  all, 
he  would  not  have  been  called,  as  he  is  in 
Acts  xxi.  8,  an  evangelist.  Persecution  fol- 
lowed the  death  of  Stephen,  and  the  Christians 
were  scattered  abroad.  Philip  visited  Samaria, 
preached  the  gospel,  wrought  miracles,  and 
made  many  converts.  Among  them  was 
Simon  the  sorcerer,  popularly  known  as 
Simon  Magus  (Acts  viii.  5-2.5).  Afterwards, 
by  direction  of  an  angel,  Philip  went  along 
the  road  from  Jerusalem  to  Gaza,  on  which, 
after  a  time,  he  met,  preached  to,  and  bap- 
tized the  Ethiopian  eunuch  (26-39).  He  after- 
wards visited  Azotus  (Ashdod),  and  then 
went  on  preaching  till  he  reached  Caesarea 
(40).  He  was  still  in  that  city  years  after- 
wards when  Paul  passed  through  it  on  his 
last  journey  to  Jerusalem;  and  the  fact  is 
noted  that  Philip  had  four  virgin  daughters 
who  had  the  gift  of  prophecy  (xxi.  8,  9). 

Phi-lip'pi  [pertaining  to  Philip]. 

A  Macedonian  city,  called  originally 
Krenides  or  place  of  small  fountains.  It 
was  within  the  limits  of  ancient  Thrace,  but 
in  356  B.  c.  Philip  II.  of  Macedon  annexed 
the  country  as  far  as  the  river  Nestus  and 
thus  took  in  the  town,  which  he  enlarged 
and  strengthened  and  called  after  his  own 
name.  In  its  vicinity  were  rich  gold  and 
silver  mines,  the  produce  of  which  greatly 
aided  Philip  in  carrying  out  his  ambitious 
projects.  In  168  b.  c.  the  Eoman  consul 
Paulus  jEmilius  inflicted  a  decisive  and  very 
sanguinary  defeat  on  Perseus,  the  last  of  the 
Macedonian  kings;  and  Philippi,  with  the 
rest  of  the  territory,  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  victors.  In  42  b.  c.  two  decisive 
battles  took  place  in  the  neighborhood  be- 
tween Brutus  and  Cassius,  two  of  Caesar's 
leading  assassins,  and  Octavian  and  Antony, 
his  chief  avengers.  After  Octavian  had  be- 
come Augustus  Caesar  he  took  an  interest  in 
the  jilace  where  he  had  gained  the  victory, 
and  sent  a  Eoman  colony  to  Philippi.  Not 
merely  does  Luke  mention  that  it  was  a 
colony  (Acts  xvi.  12),  but  coins  exi.st  with 
the  inscription,  Colonia  Augusta,  Jxd.  Philip- 
pensis.  It  was  the  first  city  of  the  district; 
not  the  capital,  which  was  Amphipolis,  but 
either  the  place  of  first  importance  or  the 
first  city  reached  by  a  traveler  from  the  sea, 
Neapolis  belonging  to  Thrace  and  not  being 


Fliilippians 


578 


Philistia 


attached  to  the  Roman  province  of  Mace- 
donia until  the  time  of  Vespasian.  Ahout 
A.  D.  52  Paul  visited  the  city,  making  various 
converts,  of  whom  the  chief  were  Lydia  of 
Thyatira,  the  damsel  possessed  witli  the 
spirit  of  divination,  and  the  Philippian  jailer 
(Acts  xvi.  12-40).  Tlie  second  of  these  suc- 
cesses had  brought  on  persecution  and  im- 
prisonment of  the  evangelists  or  they  would 
not  have  had  access  to  the  jailer  to  do  him 
spiritual  good  (1  Thess.  ii.  2).  Paul  had  to 
leave  the  place  abruptly  on  this  occasion, 
but  he  visited  it  again  at  a  future  period, 
sailing  thence  to  Syria  (Acts  xx.  6).  Philippi 
lies  inland  about  12  miles  northwest  of  its 
seaport  Neapolis,  the  two  being  separated  by 
a  mountain  range,  the  pass  over  which  is 
about  1600  feet  above  the  sea  level.  At  first 
Philippi  was  confined  to  a  small  hill  rising 
from  the  midst  of  a  plain  ;  in  the  Roman 
period  it  extended  to  the  plain.  The  river- 
side was  the  bank  of  the  Gangites,  now 
called  Angista,  along  the  shore  of  which  the 
walls  of  the  Roman  city  ran.  The  ruins, 
consisting  of  a  theater,  columns,  etc.,  are  ex- 
tensive, the  most  interesting  being  a  gate- 
way, supposed  to  be  that  by  which  the 
apostle  went  out  to  the  riverside.  No  one 
now  lives  on  the  spot,  but  there  is  a  Turkish 
village,  named  Bereketli,  in  the  immediate 
vicinity. 

Phi-lip'pi-ans. 

The  natives  or  inhabitants  of  Philippi 
(Phil.  iv.  15). 

The  Epistle  of  Panl  to  the  Philippians  is 
the  sixth  of  the  epistles  as  they  are  arranged 
in  our  IST.  T.  It  was  written  by  Paul,  asso- 
ciating also  Timothy  with  him,  to  all  the 
saints  in  Christ  Jesus  which  are  at  Philippi, 
with  the  bishops  and  deacons  (i.  1).  When 
he  wrote  it,  the  apostle  was  a  prisoner  (i.  7, 
13,  14,  16).  He  was  also  apparently  in  the 
custody  of  the  prtetorian  guard  (i.  13,  R.  V.), 
and  he  sends  salutations  from  the  saints  that 
are  of  Csesar's  household  (iv.  22).  These 
references,  as  well  as  the  whole  tone  of  the 
letter,  make  it  clear  that  the  epistle  was 
written  from  Rome  during  the  apostle's  first 
Roman  imprisonment ;  see  Paul.  It  is  also 
most  probably  to  be  dated  toward  the  close 
of  that  period,  in  a.  d.  62  or  63.  This  fol- 
lows from  several  facts.  1.  He  had  been  for 
some  time  in  Rome  (i.  12).  2.  He  was  ex- 
pecting his  release  (i.  25;  ii.  23,  24).  3. 
The  Philippians  had  sent  him  a  gift  (iv. 
10)  by  the  hands  of  Epajihroditus  (ii.  25)  ; 
Epaphroditus,  however,  had  been  taken  sick 
in  Rome,  the  Philippians  had  heard  of  it, 
and  Epaphroditus  had  learned  of  their 
sorrow  over  his  illness  (ii.  26).  A  consider- 
able time,  therefore,  had  elapsed  since  Paul 
had  reached  the  capital.  The  epistle  was 
written  primarily  to  acknowledge  the  gift 
which  they  had  sent.  Contrary  to  his  usual 
custom,  lie  had  on  more  than  one  occasion  re- 
ceived such  gifts  from  them   (iv.  15).     But 


the  apostle  also  seized  the  opportunity  to 
tell  them  about  himself  and  to  warn  them 
against  error.  It  is  the  letter  of  a  pastor  to 
his  flock.  It  was  not  called  forth,  like  many 
of  his  epistles,  by  any  crisis  iu  the  church. 
It  abounds  in  spiritual  advice  for  the  Chris- 
tian life.  At  the  same  time  it  is  valuable 
for  the  light  it  throws  on  Paul's  situation  in 
Rome.  It  was  sent  by  the  hand  of  Epaph- 
roditus (ii.  25,  30)  who,  having  recovered 
from  his  illness,  was  about  to  return  to 
Philippi.  It  may  be  divided  into  the  follow- 
ing sections:  1.  Introduction  (i.  1,  2).  2. 
Gratitude  for  their  fidelity;  expression  of 
his  love  for  them  ;  prayer  for  their  sanc- 
tification  (i.  3-11).  3.  Account  of  how  God 
had  used  him,  though  a  prisoner,  to  extend 
the  gospel ;  of  the  opposition  to  him  on  the 
part  of  some,  but  of  his  own  contentment ; 
of  his  wish  at  times  to  die,  but  of  his  devo- 
tion to  them  and  confidence  that  he  would 
be  spared  to  them  ;  and  of  his  earnest  desire 
that  they  might  stand  firm  (i.  12-30).  4. 
Appeal  to  them  for  sjiiritual  unity,  through 
self-forgetfulness  and  love,  after  the  example 
of  Christ,  that  they  may  perfect  the  work  of 
service  which  he  had  ever  set  before  them 
(  ii.  1-18).  5.  Promise  to  send  to  them  Tim- 
othy and,  if  possible,  to  go  himself  shortly  ; 
meanwhile  he  will  send  Epaphroditus  (ii.  1!>- 
30).  6.  Exhortation  to  joyfully  pursue  the 
Christian  life,  based  on  his  own  joy  in  self- 
surrender  to  Christ  and  iu  the  eager  pursuit 
of  the  reward  which  Christ  offers;  to  which 
he  adds  a  warning  against  those  who  misuse 
the  freedom  of  the  gospel  that  they  may  in- 
dulge their  fleshly  appetites  (iii.).  7.  Con- 
cluding exhortations  to  individuals  and  to 
all,  the  keynotes  of  which  are  joy,  content- 
ment, holiness  (iv.  1-9).  8.  Final  acknowl- 
edgment of  the  gift  they  had  sent  him  and 
of  his  joy  in  their  love,  with  a  few  parting 
salutations  (10-23).  g.  t.  p. 

PM-lis'ti-a  [land  of  foreigners  or  immi- 
grants] . 

A  word  occurring  in  Scripture  in  poetical 
passages  of  the  O.  T.  (Ps.  Ix.  8 ;  Ixxxvii.  4 ; 
and  R.  V.  of  Is.  xiv.  29),  and  meaning  the  land 
of  the  Philistines.  It  was  in  the  southwestern 
portion  of  Canaan,  and  was  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  i)lain  of  Sharon,  on  the  south 
by  the  desert  of  Shur,  on  the  east  by  the 
lowland  of  Judah,  and  on  the  west  by  the 
Mediterranean.  Excluding  narrow  strips  of 
territory  Ix'voiid  its  proper  limits,  its  length 
may  he  estimated  at  50  miles,  and  its  breadth 
at*15.  The  greater  portion  of  it  consists  of  a 
low  plain,  unhealthy  in  autumn,  but  very 
fertile,  bearing  heavy  crops  of  grain,  as  well 
as  oranges,  figs,  olives,  and  other  fruits. 
The  coast  line  has  a  row  of  sand  dunes,  con- 
tinually encroaching  on  the  cultivated  dis- 
tricts. Of  its  five  cities,  all  important  in 
ancient  times,  Gaza  alone  is  still  a  large 
place.  Ekron  and  Ashdod  are  villages; 
Ashkelon  lies  in  ruins  by  the  sea ;  Gath  is  so 


Philistines 


579 


Philosophy 


much    forgotten    that    its   name    has    disap- 
peared, and  its  site  is  not  quite  certain. 

PM-lis'tines. 

A  tribe  or  nation  which  is  first  mentioned 
in  Gen.  x.  14,  and  taiiulatcd  as  descended 
from  Mizraim  ;  in  other  words,  as  htdonging 
to  Egypt.  They  went  forth  from  the  C'ashi- 
him,  and  were  a  remnant  of  the  isle  or  sea- 
coast  of  Caphtor  (Jer.  xlvii.  4  ;  Amos  ix.  7) ; 
see  Caphtor.  The  country  near  Gaza  was 
inhabited  tirst  by  the  Avvini,  but  settlers 
from  Caphtor  destroj-ed  these  aborigines  and 
dwelt  in  their  room  (Deut.  ii.  23).  Philis- 
tines were  in  the  region  about  Gerar  and 
Beer-sheba  as  early  as  the  time  of  Abraham 
(Gen.  XX.  1,2;  xxi.  32,  34  ;  xxvi.  1).  When 
the  Israelites  left  Egyjrt,  their  shortest  way 
to  Canaan  would  have  been  through  the 
Philistine  country,  but  the  emancipated 
slaves  were  not  sufficiently  heroic  to  tight 
their  way  through  the  land  of  so  warlike  a 
tribe,  and  they  were  directed  to  go  by 
another  route  (Ex.  xiii.  17,  18).  No  steps 
were  taken  by  Joshua  to  conquer  the  Philis- 
tines, who  already  w^ere  in  jiossession  of  the 
five  fortified  cities  with  which  their  names 
are  associated,  Gaza,  Ashdod,  Ashkelon,  Gath, 
and  Ekron,  each  under  a  lord  (Josh.  xiii.  2, 
3;  Judg.  iii.  3).  The  judge  Shamgar  slew 
600  of  them  with  an  oxgoad  (31).  Not  long 
after  this  Israel,  on  account  of  its  idolatries, 
was  sold  into  the  hands  of  the  Philistines 
(x.  6,  7).  They  were  delivered  (11),  but  sin- 
ning again,  came  under  the  same  domination 
for  forty  years.  From  this  they  were  deliv- 
ered by  Samson,  but  the  Philistines  ulti- 
mately proved  his  ruin  (xiv.-xvi.).  Early  in 
Samuel's  public  life  they  defeated  the  Israel- 
ites, slaying,  among  others,  Hophui  and 
Phinehas,  Eli's  sons.  Thej^  also  captured 
the  ark  of  God  and  kept  it  seven  months; 
but  as  it  brought  calamities  with  it,  they 
sent  it  back  to  the  Israelite  country  (1  Sam. 
iv.-vi.).  Twenty  years  later  Samuel  defeated 
the  Philistines  in  battle  at  the  same  place, 
which  he  called  Ebenezer,  the  stone  of  help, 
becau.se  Jehovah  had  helped  him  there  (vii. 
3-12).  It  was  an  overwhelming  defeat.  The 
Philistines  were  permanently  humbled,  and 
came  no  more  within  the  border  of  Israel. 
Their  army  often  crossed  that  border,  and 
intrenched  itself  in  strong  positions,  and  a 
Philistine  invasion  was  a  constant  menace. 
But  the  Israelites  had  recovered  their  border 
from  Ekron  to  Gath,  regaining  possession  of 
the  Shephelah  or  lowland,  and  the  Philis- 
tines did  not  again  dis]iossess  them  (vii.  13, 
14).  The  power  of  the  Philistines  was  never 
more  formidable  than  during  the  reign  of 
Saul  (x.  5;  xii.  9).  He  and  his  son  Jonathan 
smote  them  at  Geba,  at  Michmash,  and 
elsewhere  (xiii.  1-23;  xiv.  47,  52;  xxiii.  27, 
28 ;  xxiv.  1).  But  they  soon  appeared  again, 
and  Goliath,  whom  David  slew,  was  a  Philis- 
tine champion  who  stood  out  from  their 
army,  then  in  battle  array  within  the  terri- 


tory of  Judah  (xvii.  1-58;  xviii.  6;  xix.  >'»; 
xxi.  9;  xxii.  10).  Soon  after  this,  David 
more  than  once  encountered  the  Pliilis- 
tines  (xviii.  17-21,25,  27,30;  xix.  8;  xxiii. 
1-5) ;  but,  at  last,  fearful  of  falling  a  victim 
to  Saul's  malice,  he  twice  over  took  refuge  in 
the  Philistine  country  (xxi.  10-15;  xxvii.- 
xxix.  ;  Ps.  Ivi.  title).  On  the  second  occasion 
he  obtained  as  a  feudatory  possession .  the 
town  of  Ziklag,  which  had  hitherto  been 
under  Philistine  authority  (1  Sam.  xxvii.  6). 
A  glance  at  the  map  will  show  that  the  Phi- 
listines had  jienetrated'to  the  very  heart  of 
Canaan  when  they  defeated  the  Israelites, 
slaying  Saul  and  his  sons,  at  the  battle  of 
Gilboa  (xxviii.  4;  xxix.  11;  xxxi.  1-13;  1 
Chron.  x.  1-14).  David  was  more  successful 
than  his  predecessor  in  reiielling  the  inva- 
sions of  the  Philistines,  with  whom  lie  liad 
several  battles  (2  Sam.  iii.  18  ;  v.  17-25;  viii. 
1,  12;  xix.  9;  xxi.  15-22;  xxiii.  9-17;  1 
Chron.  xi.  12-19  ;  xiv.  8-17  ;  xviii.  1,  11 ;  xx. 
4,  5).  After  his  death  the  Philistines  are 
less  frequently  mentioned,  as  if  their  power 
was  waning.  Under  Nadab,  the  son  of  Jero- 
boam I.,  and  some  other  short-lived  kiug.s, 
the  Israelites  besieged  Gibbethon,  a  Philis- 
tine city  (1  Kin.  xv.  27;  xvi.  15).  The 
Philistines  sent  presents  to  Jehoshaphat  (2 
Chron.  xvii.  11)  ;  but  they  invaded  Judah 
in  the  reign  of  his  successor,  Jehorani 
(xxi.  16),  and  also  in  that  of  Ahaz  (xxviii. 
18).  Uzziah  and  Hezekiah  successfully  in- 
vaded Philistia  (2  Kin.  xviii.  8;  2  Chron. 
xxvi.  6,  7).  Judgment  against  them  is  fre- 
quently threatened  by  the  projihets  (Is.  xi. 
14  ;  Jer.  xxv.  20  ;  xlvii.  1-7  ;  Ezek.  xxv.  15- 
17;  Amos  i.  6-8;  Obad.  19;  Zeph.  ii.  4,  5; 
Zech.  ix.  5-7).  Many  Philistines  accompa- 
nied Gorgias,  the  Syrian  general  of  Antiochus 
Epiphanes,  in  his  invasion  of  Judah  (1  Mac. 
iii.  41).  Judas  Maccabseus  afterwards  cap- 
tured Azotus  (Ashdod)  and  other  Philistine 
cities  (v.  68).  Jonathan  Maccabreus  burnt 
Azotus,  with  the  temjile  of  Dagon,  and  the 
city  of  Ashkelon  (x.  83-89).  He  also  burnt 
the  suburbs  of  Gaza,  but  took  no  further 
hostile  measures,  as  the  city  itself  was  sur- 
rendered on  his  demand  (xi.  60,  61).  The 
Philistines  are  not  mentioned  by  name  in 
the  N.  T.,  and  seem  ultimately  to  have 
merged  in  the  Jewish  nation. 

Tlie  Mediterranean  is  once  called  the  .^ea 
of  the  Philistines  (Ex.  xxiii.  31). 

Phi-lol'o-gus  [fond  of  words]. 
A  Christian  at  Rome  to  whom  Paul  sent 
his  salutation  (Rom.  xvi.  15). 

Phi-los'o-phy  [love  of  wisdom]. 

The  spirit  of  pure  iihilosophy,  which  seeks 
to  penetrate  to  the  essence  of  things  in  them- 
selves, is  foreign  to  the  Eastern  mind.  The 
great  distinction  between  Eastern  and  West- 
ern philosophy  has  been  historically  that 
oriental  reasoning  remained  in  the  sphere  of 
religion  and  was  never  divorced  from  reli- 
gious axioms,  while  occidental  investigation 


Philosophy 


580 


Philosophy- 


came  to  1)0  conducted,  even  by  profoundly 
religious  minds,  in  a  far  wider  Hi)here  than 
religion  and  liy  the  reason  unassisted  by  tlie 
postulates  of  religion.  Moral  philosojjhy 
has  characterized  the  East,  metai)hysics  the 
West.  For  the  biblical  student  the  contrast 
between  (ireek  and  Hebrew  thought,  their 
separate  development,  their  eventual  contact, 
and  their  mutual  influence  are  important. 
The  Hebrew  mind  reflected  on  the  view  of 
the  world  which  is  presented  by  revelation. 
It  drew  wisdom  from  the  experience  of 
former  generations,  which  was  handed  down 
by  the  ancients,  from  observation  of  human 
life  and  the  results  of  conduct,  and  from  the 
study  of  the  adaptations  of  nature  to  an  end. 
It  thus  gained  true  ]iriucii)les  for  the  govern- 
ment of  conduct,  it  sought  to  discover  to 
what  extent  religious  truth  was  approved  by 
the  test  of  human  experience,  and  it  wrestled 
with  the  paradoxes  of  the  moral  government 
of  God,  esiiecially  with  the  question  of  the 
sufl^eriugs  of  the  righteous  and  the  pros])erity 
of  the  wicked.  From  these  varied  sources 
and  manifold  investigations  the  Hebrew  wise 
man  was  confirmed  in  the  conviction  that 
the  fear  of  God  is  the  beginning  of  wisdom. 
Hebrew  philosophy,  or  wisdom  as  the  Bible 
calls  it,  received  a  great  im])ulse  through  the 
interest  of  Solomon,  who  both  gathered  the 
maxims  of  other  men,  and  out  of  his  own 
shrewd  observation  and  varied  experience 
gave  utterance  to  new  proverbs.  The  prov- 
erbs of  Solomon  largely  concern  conduct  in 
relation  to  the  individual  and  to  God,  such 
as  chastity,  temperaiu^e  in  meat  and  drink, 
self-control,  honesty,  suretyship,  behavior  in 
the  presence  of  the  mighty.  From  these 
things  Hebrew  thought  proceeded  to  view 
morality  in  hvrger  relations.  F'rom  the  con- 
sideration of  a]>parent  exceptions  to  its  con- 
clu.sions,  it  advanced  to  moral  questions,  and 
looked  upon  events  not  in  their  immediate 
per.sonal  results,  but  in  the  light  of  their  eflTect 
upon  posterity  and  of  divine  retribution  in 
time  to  come.  The  Hebrew  jihilosopher  further 
studied  nature,  and  saw  that  a  divine  pur- 
pose exists  everywhere  (Ps.  civ.  24).  Every- 
where is  the  impress  of  thought.  Intelli- 
gence is  involved  in  the  creation  and  preser- 
vation of  the  universe  (Prov.  iii.  19).  He 
found  wi.sdom  to  be  an  attribute  of  God, 
which  is  everywhere  revealed  in  nature.  It 
existed  before  God  proceeded  to  create.  He 
personified  wisdom  (Prov.  i.  20-33  ;  viii.  12), 
and  represented  it  existing  from  everlasting, 
as  brought  forth  })efore  the  creation  of  the 
world,  present  with  God  when  he  established 
heaven  and  earth,  ordained  to  rule  in  the 
created  univer.sc  (viii.  22-31 ;  Job  xxviii.  12- 
27).  Wisdom  was  not  itself  a  person,  but  it  was 
looked  upon  as  objective  to  (jod,  as  "the  reflec- 
tion of  (Jod's  plan  of  the  world,"  as  the  princi- 
ple which  God  ordained  for  the  world.  By  later 
writers  the  thought  was  developed  and  wis- 
dom was  still  further  distinguished  from  God 
(Wisd.  vii.  22-viii.  5  ;  ix.  4.  9) ;  .see  Wisdom. 


Greek  philosophy  is  usually  said  to  begin 
with  Thales  about  ()40  b.  c.  Three  main 
periods  are  distinguished:  1.  The  i)re-So- 
cratic  schools  which  arose  among  the  Greek 
colonies  of  Asia  Minor.  The  great  subject 
of  inquiry  was  the  constitution  of  the  uni- 
verse. Js  there  one  underlying  element; 
such  as  moisture,  or  the  subtle  and  all-per- 
vading air,  or  one  eternal,  infinite,  immova- 
ble, unchangeable  Being,  or  the  instantaneous 
balance  of  power?  2.  The  Socratic  schools 
rejiresented  by  Socrates,  Plato,  and  Aristotle, 
469-322  B.  c.  Athens  was  the  center  of 
philosophic  thought,  and  inquiry  was  di- 
rected to  ideas,  form  (or  essence)  of  things. 
But  it  was  not  a  barren  metaphysics  that 
was  cultivated ;  a  lofty  morality  was  incul- 
cated. Socrates  used  inductive  reasoning  by 
which  he  sought  to  di.scover  the  i)ermanent 
element  underlying  the  changing  forms  of 
appearances  and  opinions;  and  the  truth 
which  he  thus  discovered  he  attempted  to  fix 
by  a  general  definition  or  statement.  Aristotle 
allowed  absolute  authority  to  the  reason  alone, 
and  accepted  nothing  which  he  could  not 
l)rove  by  logic.  3.  The  post-Socratic  schools. 
Philo.soidiy  had  culminated  in  Aristotle,  and 
discussion  reverted  to  ethics  founded  on  met- 
aphysics. Epicurus,  342-270  B.  o.,  declared 
that  the  character  of  actions  is  detennmed 
by  their  result,  and  that  permanent  pleasure 
is  the  highest  good.  Zeno  the  Stoic,  about 
308  B.  c,  taught  tliat  moral  character  resides 
in  the  act  itself,  independent  of  the  result; 
and  inculcated  the  obligation  of  absolute 
obedience  to  the  commands  of  duty.  The 
Skeptics  taught  that  certainty  is  not  attain- 
able in  human  knowledge  ;  and  early  mem- 
bers of  the  school  held  that  when  we  are 
convinced  that  we  can  know  nothing,  we 
cease  to  care,  and  in  this  way  attain  hai)pi- 
ness. 

Alexander  the  Great  died  in  323  B.  c,  and 
Aristotle  in  322.  Thus  when  Greek  philosophy 
had  reached  its  climax,  Greek  oilture  ))egan 
to  be  introduced  into  Palestine  and  among 
the  Jews  of  the  dispersion.  Epicureanism 
and  Stoicism  were  developed  in  Greece  during 
the  period  of  the  first  close  contact  of  Greek 
and  Hebrew,  but  they  exercised  little  influ- 
ence on  Hebrew  thought  compared  with  the 
power  exerted  by  Plato  and  Aristotle.  The 
influence  of  the  Socratic  schools  was  seen  in 
the  Sadducees  perhaiis.  who  seem  like  Aris- 
totle to  have  rejected  everything  which  un- 
aided reasoji  did  not  teach,  although  they  pro- 
fessed to  be  governed  by  a  different  principle. 
The  influence  of  the  Socratic  schools  was  seen 
in  the  Alexandrian  school  of  Jewish  thinkers, 
whose  prominent  rei)resentative  was  Philo,  a 
contem])orary  of  Christ.  They  held  to  the 
teaching  of  Moses;  liut  at  the  same  time 
they  took  what  they  a]>])roved  of  in  (4reek 
]>hilosophy,  learning  especially  from  divine 
Plato,  and  endeavored  to  show  that  it  was 
already  taught  in  the  O.  T.  They  combined 
the  doctrines  of  the  Greek  sage  and  of  Moses 


Phinelias 


581 


Phoenicia 


into  a  uew  system,  aud  removed  inconsisten- 
cies by  arbitrarily  allej^orizing  Scrii)ture,  even 
down  to  its  geography.  Tlie  influence  of  the 
Greek  i>hilos(ii>hy  was  seen  in  the  improved 
methods  and  enhirged  scoi>e  of  debate.  Paul 
advances  a  formal  iihilosojihic  argunu'nt  in 
his  address  in  the  midst  of  the  Areojiagus  and 
iu  the  beginning  of  his  Epistle  to  the  Konums 
(Acts  xvii.  30;  Rom.  i.  1J»,  20).  The  intlu- 
euce  of  Greek  philo.sophy  was  seen  further 
in  borrowed  ideas,  such  as  the  preexistence 
of  the  soul  (Wisdom  viii.  lil,  20);  in  uew 
words  and  uew  content  of  words,  as  in  the 
use  of  the  word  form  iu  the  Aristotelian 
seuse  of  es.sence  or  sum  total  of  attributes 
(Phil.  ii.  0)  :  and  in  uicc  discrimiuatiou  of 
thought  and  precision  of  definition.  Gnostic 
spcculatiims  later  came  from  the  East ;  aud 
the  attempt  to  combine  Gnosticism  with 
Cliristianity  led  Paul  to  combat  it  by  pre- 
seutiug  the  true  relation  of  Christ  to  God 
aud  the  world  iu  the  Epistle  to  the  Colossiaus. 

Phin'e-has,  iu  A.  V.  of  1  Mac.  Phinees 
[perhaps  Egyptian,  j>«-//f/(s/,  the  negro 
(Petrie)].  A  Hebrew  etymology  is  not  ap- 
pareut. 

1.  Son  of  Eleazar,  and  graudson  of  Aaron 
(Ex.  vi.  25).  He  ran  a  spear  through  an 
Israelite  aud  a  Midianite  woman  who  had 
come  into  the  camp  at  Shittim  together,  this 
summary  punishment  terminatiug  a  plague 
which  was  then  raging  as  a  judgment  against 
the  idolatries  and  impurities  into  which  the 
Midianitish  women  were  leading  the  He- 
brews. An  everlasting  priesthood  was  there- 
fore promised  to  him  and  his  descendants 
(Num.  XXV.  1  18;  Ps.  cvi.  30;  1  Mac.  ii.  54). 
With  a  short  interra])tion  when  the  house  of 
Eli,  of  the  lineage  of  Ithamar,  officiated  as 
high  priests,  Phinelias  and  his  sons  held  the 
office  until  sacrifice  ceased  with  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem  and  the  temple  by  the  Ro- 
mans iu  A.  T>.  70.  Phinelias  was  sent  with  ten 
princes  to  remonstrate  with  the  two  and  a 
half  tribes  east  of  the  Jordan  on  their  erection 
of  an  altar,  erroneously  supposed  to  be  for 
schismatic  worshiji  (Josh.  xxii.  13).  He  re- 
ceived as  his  share  of  the  jiromised  land  a 
hill  iu  mount  Ephraim  (xxiv.  33).  Through 
him  the  Israelites  inquired  of  the  Lord 
Avhether  they  should  attack  the  Benjamites 
for  condoning  the  sin  of  the  inhabitants  of 
Gibeah  (Judg.  xx.  28). 

2.  The  younger  of  Eli's  two  degenerate 
sons.  He  was  killed  iu  the  battle  with  the 
Philistiues  in  which  the  ark  of  God  was 
taken  ;  aud  when  the  news  of  the  catas- 
trophe arrived,  they  so  affected  the  feelings 
of  his  wife  that  the  i)ains  of  ]iremature 
childbirth  came  upon  her,  and  she  died  (1 
Sam.  i.  3;  ii.  34;  iv.  11,  19-22). 

3.  Father  of  a  certain  Eleazar  (Ezra  viii. 
33),  evidently  a  priest. 

Phle'gon  [burning,  scorching]. 
A   Christian   at  Rome  to  whom  Paul  sent 
his  salutation  (Rom.  xvi.  14). 


Phoe'be,  in  A.  V.  Phebe  [pure,  bright, 
radiant]. 

A  woman  who  had  been  a  servant  or  dea- 
coness of  the  church  at  Ceuchrea*,  the  east- 
ern i)ort  of  Corinth,  but  who  removed  tem- 
jiorarily  or  iiermauently  to  Rome.  I'aul 
warmly  commended  her  to  the  care  and  at- 
tention of  the  Christians  there  (Rom.  xvi.  1, 
2).    See  Deaconess. 

Phoe-ni'ci-a,  in  A.  V.  once  Phenicia  (Acts 
xxi.  2),  and  twice  Phenice  (xi.  l!i;  xv.  3) 
[Greek,  land  of  the  date  ]ialm,  or  of  jiurple 
dyeing,  or  of  dark  skinned  ])eoi)le]. 

A  narrow  strip  of  territory  between  the 
Mediterranean  Sea  on  the  west  and  on  the 
east  the  crest  of  the  Lebanon  range  and  the 
detached  hills  running  south  from  it.  The 
northern  limit  may  be  regarded  as  Arvad. 
Southward,  after  the  settlement  of  the  He- 
brew's on  the  coast,  Phoenicia  pra<tically 
terminated  at  the  Ladder  of  Tyre,  about  14 
miles  south  of  Tyre,  although  Ph(enicians 
still  dwelt  in  Achzib  and  Accho  (Judg.  i.  31). 
In  the  time  of  Christ  Phoenicia  extended 
southward  as  far  as  Dor,  about  Ifi  miles  south 
of  Carmel.  The  di.stance  from  Arvad  to  the 
Ladder  of  Tyre  is  about  125  miles.  The 
chief  cities  were  Tyre  and  Sidon,  of  which 
Sidon  was  the  first  to  rise  to  celebrity.  Plice- 
nicia  was  called  Canaan  by  the  ancient  He- 
brews (Is.  xxiii.  11),  and  its  inhabitants  were 
reckoned  as  Canaanites  and  classed  with  the 
Hamitic  peoples  (Gen.  x.  15).  This  classifi- 
cation makes  probable,  but  does  not  neces- 
sarily imply,  that  they  were  of  Hamitic 
blood.  According  to  their  own  tradition, 
they  had  migrated  from  the  Erythra'an  Sea, 
by  way  of  Syria,  to  the  coast  of  Canaan 
(Herod,  i.  1  ;  vii.  89).  According  to  Arabian 
authors,  the  migration  was  across  the  north- 
ern Arabian  desert.  The  Phoenicians  thus 
traced  their  origin  to  the  neighborhood  of 
the  Persian  Gulf,  an  early  abode  of  the  Ham- 
itic race.  In  course  of  time  they  adopted 
the  Semitic  language.  The  territory  which 
the  Phoenicians  inhabited  had  good  natural 
harbors;  mount  Lebanon  afforded  them  an 
almost  inexhaustible  supply  of  timber,  with 
which  ships  were  constructed,  and  they  be- 
came the  most  skillful  navigators  known  to 
antiquity.  They  not  merely  traded  with  dis- 
tant countries  accessible  by  Mediterranean 
routes,  but  they  colonized  spots  favorable  for 
commerce,  some  of  which  afterwards  rose 
into  importance.  Their  most  celebrated 
colony  was  Carthage,  on  the  African  coast, 
uear  modern  Tunis,  which  was  long  a  rival 
of  Rome,  by  which  it  was  at  last  destroyed. 
Of  the  Carthaginian  leaders  who  figured  in 
the  Punic  wars,  some,  if  not  all,  had  names 
purely  Phoenician,  aud  almost  Hebrew. 
Thus.  Hannibal  means  the  grace  of  Baal, 
and  Hasdrubal,  a  help  is  Haal.  When  our 
Lord  visited  the  coasts  of  Tyre  and  Sidon.  he 
was  within  the  Phoenician  territory  (Mat. 
XV.  21 ;  Mark  vii.  24,  31).    Various  Christians 


Phoenix 


582 


Pi-hahiroth 


Avlio  were  scattered  abroad,  owing  to  the  per- 
secution which  followed  the  martyrdom  of 
Stei>hen,  found  their  way  to  Phoenicia  (Acts 
xi.  19).  Paul  and  Barnabas  went  through  it 
on  their  way  from  Antioch  to  Jerusalem  (xv. 
3).  Paul,  on  his  last  voyage  to  Jerusalem, 
sailed  in  a  Phoenician  vessel,  which  brought 
him  to  Tyre  (xxi.  2,  3).  See  Tyke,  Baal, 
Jezebel,  and  Hiram. 

Phoe'nix,  in  A.  Y.  Phe-ni'ce  [date  palm]. 

A  haven  in  Crete  (Acts  xxvii.  12).  It  is 
now  called  Lutro,  and  is  the  only  harbor  on 
the  south  of  Crete  which  is  safe  at  every 
season  of  the  year. 

Phryg'i-a. 

A  large  and  important  province  of  Asia 
Minor,  which,  after  its  original  boundaries 
were  curtailed  by  the  disseverance  from  it 
of  Galatia,  was  bounded  ou  the  north  by 
Bithynia ;  on  the  south  by  Lycia,  Pisidia, 
and  Isauria ;  on  the  east  by  Lycaonia  and 
Galatia ;  and  on  the  west  by  Caria,  Lydia, 
and  Mysia.  The  region  is  a  high  table-land  be- 
tween the  chain  of  Taurus  on  the  south,  Olym- 
jius  on  the  north,  and  Temnus  ou  the  west.  Of 
its  towns,  four  are  mentioned  in  the  N.  T., 
Laodicea,  Colosste,  Hierajiolis,  and  Antioch  of 
Pisidia,  which  is  reckoned  by  Strabo  to 
Phrygia.  At  this  period  Phrygia  had  ceased 
to  be  a  province  and  was  merely  a  local 
name.  Antiochus  the  Great  settled  2000 
Jewish  families  from  Babylonia  and  Meso- 
potamia in  Lydia  and  Phrygia  (Antiq.  xii.  3, 
4),  and  Jews  from  Phrygia  were  present  at 
Jerusalem  on  that  day  of  Pentecost  signal- 
ized by  the  descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit  (Acts 
ii.  10).  Phrygia  was  traversed  by  Paul  on 
his  second  and  third  missionary  journeys 
(Acts  xvi.  6 ;  xviii.  23). 

Phu'rah.    See  Purah. 

Phut.     See  Put. 

Phu'vah.    See  Puvah. 

Phyg'e-lus,  in  A.  V.  Phy-gel'lus. 

A  C'hristian  in  the  province  of  Asia  who, 
with  others,  deserted  the  apostle  Paul  in  the 
latter  part  of  his  life  (2  Tim.  i.  15). 

Phy-lac'tery  [an  amulet]. 

A  writing  consisting  of  short  extracts  from 
the  law  of  Moses,  and  worn  on  the  forehead 
or  on  the  arm  (Mat.  xxiii.  5).  The  phylac- 
tery eventually  assumed  the  form  of  a  small 
case,  made  of  jiarchment  or  black  sealskin, 
and  containing  four  compartments  in  which 
were  placed  strips  of  i)archment  inscribed 
with  the  passages  of  Scripture.  It  was  fas- 
tened with  straps  on  the  forehead  just  above 
and  between  the  eyes,  or  cm  the  left  arm. 
When  bound  on  the  forehead,  it  is  a  frontlet; 
see  Frontlet.  The  passages  used  for  the 
l»urpose  were  four:  Ex.  xiii.  2-10,  11-17  ; 
Dent.  vi.  4-9, 13-22.  The  first  three  of  these 
were  interpreted  as  enjoining  the  custom. 
Phj'lacterics  are  worn  by  every  Jew  on  week- 
day mornings  during  the  time  of  prayer. 

Phy-si'dian.     See  Medicine. 


Pi-be'seth  [Egyptian,  Pa-basi,  abode  of  the 
goddess  Bast]. 

An  Egyptian  city  (Ezek.  xxx.  17),  in  Greek 
form  written  Bubastos  or  BuJjastis  (Herod, 
ii.  59,  137).  It  is  now  called  Tell  Basta,  and 
is  on  the  delta  near  Zagazig,  on  the  western 
side  of  the  Pelusiac  branch  of  the  Nile.  It 
is  about  45  miles  northeast  by  north  of  mod- 
ern Cairo,  and  30  southwest  by  south  of  an- 
cient Zoan.  Among  the  ruins  are  the  re- 
mains of  a  once  splendid  temjde  of  red  gran- 
ite, dedicated  to  the  goddess  of  the  place. 

Piece. 

In  O.  T.,  when  piece  refers  to  money  and 
is  not  italicized,  it  denotes  a  certain  amount 
of  precious  metal,  whether  coined  or  un- 
coined (Gen.  xxxiii.  19;  1  Sam.  ii.  36)  The 
word  piece  was  chosen  by  the  translators  be- 
cause it  is  vague,  and  they  did  not  know  the 
value  of  the  money  indicated  by  the  several 
Hebrew  words.  Piece  is  also  employed  by  the 
translators,  where  the  unit  of  weight  or  the 
coin  is  not  expressly  mentioned  by  the  He- 
brew writer,  but  where  he  ordinarily  means 
a  shekel  (Judg.  xvii.2  ;  2  Sam.  xviii  11,  in 
A.  V.  shekel  ;  c]).  Deut.  xxii.  19;  1  Kin.  x. 
29,  where  both  versions  have  .shekel).  In  N. 
T.  also  a  piece  of  silver  commonly  denotes 
the  shekel  or  its  equivalent  (Mat.  xxvi.  15 
with  xxvii.  9  and  Zech.  xi.  12) ;  but  in  Luke 
XV.  8  it  is  a  drachma,  worth  about  16  cents. 

Pi'e-ty. 

Filial  pietv,  dutifulness  in  the  family  (1 
Tim.  V.  4). 

Pi'geon.    See  Dove. 

Pi-lia-hi'roth  [probably,  house  or  place  of 
sedge]. 

The  last  station  of  the  Israelites  on  leav- 
ing Egypt,  near  Baal-zephon  and  Migdol,  and 
on  the  sea  (Ex.  xiv.  2,  9  ;  Num.  xxxiii.  7,  8). 
The  site  is  disputed.  Brugsch  regards  the 
name  as  Hebrew,  which  then  might  mean 
mouth  of  the  caverns;  and  he  identifies  it 
with  the  Serbonian  bog,  which  the  Greeks 
called  Barathra,  and  at  the  bottom  of  which 
they  represented  the  monster  Typhon  as 
lying.  But  the  name  is  doubtless  Egyp- 
tian. Keil  asserts  that  it  has  incontest- 
ably  been  preserved  in  'Ajrud,  on  the 
Pilgrim  road,  about  16  miles  northwest  of 
Suez.  But  the  two  names  have  only  one 
letter  in  common.  Naville  identifies  it  with 
Pikerehet,  or  Pikeheret,  near  Pithom  (q.  v.). 
Not  merely  is  there  a  similarity  of  .sound, 
but  Pharaoh  had  a  farm  there ;  and  the  Sep- 
tuagint,  instead  of  "  before  Pi-hahiroth,"  in- 
serts "before  the  farm."  The  city  was  an 
important  one,  which  disputed  with  Pithom 
the  honor  of  liemg  the  capital  of  the  eighth 
Home,  or  district,  of  Lower  Egypt.  Its  .spe- 
cial deity  was  Osiris.  Naville  believes  that 
itwasthesamei)laceas  Serapiu,  or  Serapeum, 
the  only  known  sanctuary  of  Osiris  in  that 
region.  Two  roads  ran  from  it :  the  one 
to  Clusma.  9  miles  ofl'.  the  other  to  Pelusium. 


Pilate 


583 


Pilate 


Pi'late  [armed  with  a  javelin,  or  wearing 
tlie  j/iliis  or  felt  caj)  which  was  worn  by  a 
manumitted  slave  as  the  emblem  of  liberty]. 

Pontius  I'ilate,  fifth  Koman  i)rocurator  in 
Judsea  after  the  disposition  of  Archelaus  in 
A.  D.  6.  See  PRoef  KATOK.  Through  the  in- 
fluence of  Sejanus  he  was  a]ipointed  by  the 
emperor  Tiberius  jirocurator  of  Judtea  about 
A.  D.  26,  in  succession  to  Valerius  Gratus. 
He  arrived  in  juda-a  the  same  year.  He  was 
accomjianied  by  his  wife  (Mat.  xxvii.  19). 
For  a  Idiig  time  it  was  illegal  for  a  Koniau 
governor  who  was  ajiiKiinted  to  a  dangerous 
province  to  take  his  wife  with  him,  but  since 
the  time  of  Augustus  it  was  permitted  (Taci- 
tus, Ann.  iii.  33). 

Pilate  sent  a  detachment  of  troops  into 
Jerusalejn  by  night,  carrying  with  them 
their  ensigns,  which  had  hitherto  always  been 
left  outside  the  city.  On  these  ensigns  were 
silver  eagles  and  small  images  of  the  em- 
jieror,  and  they  gave  great  offense  to  the 
Jews.  De])utatious  went  to  Csesarea,  the 
official  residence  of  the  procurators,  to  urge 
the  removal  of  the  ensigns,  and  Pilate,  after 
in  vain  attempting  to  intimidate  the  peti- 
tioners, was  obliged  at  last  to  comply  with 
their  request  (Antiq.  xviii.  3,  1  ;  War  ii.  9, 
2  and  3).  Some  time  afterwards,  taking 
the  sacred  money  called  Corban,  he  be- 
gan to  expend  it  in  making  an  aqueduct 
to  bring  water  into  Jerusalem  from  the  up- 
lands south  of  the  capital.  The  Jews  con- 
sidered that  this  was  applying  to  secular  uses 
money  which  had  heen  dedicated  to  God  ; 
and  on  Pilate's  visiting  Jerusalem  they  beset 
his  tribunal  with  much  clamor  and  tumult. 
Having  been  told  beforehand  that  such  an 
occurrence  was  likely  to  happen,  he  had 
taken  the  precaution  of  mingling  his  soldiers 
in  disguise  among  the  multitude,  armed  with 
sticks,  if  not  with  concealed  daggers.  When 
the  tumult  was  at  its  height  he  gave  them  a 
signal  to  attack  the  rioters  with  the  sticks, 
Avhich  they  did  so  vigorously  that  some  were 
killed,  and  the  rest,  fleeing  in  panic,  tram- 
pled many  of  their  number  to  death.  The 
riot  seems  not  to  have  been  renewed,  and 
the  aqueduct  was  made ;  but  the  affair  in- 
creased the  disfavor  with  which  the  people 
regarded  Pilate  (Antiq.  xviii.  3,  2 ;  War  ii.  9, 
4).  Pilate  attempted  to  dedicate  some  gilt 
shields  in  honor  of  the  emperor  Tiberius  and 
place  them  within  Herod's  ]Kilace  at  Jerusa- 
lem. They  Avere  inscribed  with  the  imperial 
name,  but  were  without  the  imperial  portrait. 
Still  they  gave  offense.  The  people  apjiealed 
to  him  in  vain  to  forbear.  Then  the  influ- 
ential men  of  the  city  forwarded  a  petition 
to  the  emperor,  who  ordered  Pilate  to  take 
the  shields  hack  again  to  C'a>sarea  (Philo, 
Legat.  ad  t'aium  xxxviii.).  In  narrating  this 
event,  Philo,  or  rather  Agrippa  I.,  in  a  letter 
which  Philo  cites,  describes  Pilate  as  a  man 
of  inflexible  dispo.sition,  and  merciless,  as 
well  as  obstinate.  He  also  says  that  he  feared 
they  might  complain  to  the  emperor  about 


Pilate  in  respect  to  his  corruption  and  his 
acts  of  violence,  and  his  habit  of  insulting 
peoi)le,  and  his  cruelty,  and  liis  continual 
execution  of  people  untried  and  uncou- 
deinned,  his  never-ending  and  gratuitous 
and  most  grievous  inhumanity.  Pilate  was 
in  othce  when  John  the  Pajjtist  and  our 
Lord  began  their  respective  ministries  (Luke 
iii.  1).  It  was  the  custom  of  the  procurators 
to  go  up  to  Jerusalem  when  the  immen.se 
gatherings  took  ])lace  at  the  leading  Jewish 
festivals.  On  these  occasions  they  took  up 
their  residence  in  the  i>alace  of  Herod.  It 
was  probably  at  one  of  these  that  Pilate  fell 
upon  the  Galilaeans,  and  mingled  their  blood 
with  their  sacrifices  (Luke  xiii.  1,  2).  The 
Galilaeans  were  a  turbulent  class  of  men, 
prone  to  misbehave  when  they  came  uji  to  the 
festivals  (Antiq.  xvii.  10,  2  and  9).  There  is 
no  reason  to  believe  that  Pilate  would  have 
treated  them  as  he  did  unless  they  had  first 
broken  out  into  riot.  It  is  probable  that 
Herod  Antipas  took  offense  at  the  summary 
way  in  which  his  subjects  were  slain  by 
Pilate  on  this  occasion  ;  but  whatever  may 
have  been  the  origin  of  the  variance  between 
the  two,  Herod's  ill-will  was  ap])eased  by 
Pilate's  acknowledgment  of  the  tetrarch's 
jui-isdiction  in  Galilsean  affairs  (Luke  xxiii. 
6-12)  on  the  day  when  our  Lord  was  put  to 
death. 

The  character  of  Pilate,  which  these 
various  incidents  of  his  official  career  reveal, 
is  seen  in  his  treatment  of  Jesus  also.  Pilate 
was  a  worldling  willing  en()Ugli  to  act  justly 
if  this  could  be  done  consistently  with  his 
interests,  and  to  avoid  criminal  acts  provided 
that  this  could  be  done  at  small  cost ;  but  if 
heavy  payment  were  needed,  Pilate  was  not 
the  man  to  give  it.  His  secret  question  to 
himself  was  not,  What  is  my  duty?  but, 
What  is  my  interest  ?  He  acquitted  our  Lord 
of  evil,  was  desirous  of  releasing  him,  and 
was  aware  that  justice  required  that  this 
should  be  done ;  but  he  knew  also  that  it 
would  further  increase  his  unpopularity  ;  so 
to  please  the  Jewish  people,  he  gave  orders  to 
scourge  him  in  whom  he  had  just  before  de- 
clared that  he  had  found  no  crime.  He 
allowed  the  Roman  soldiers,  whom  a  single 
word  from  him  would  have  restrained,  to 
inflict  new  tortures  on  the  already  lacerated 
body  of  Jesus,  and  after  many  more  insults 
and  injuries  to  the  uncomplaining  sufferer, 
finally  answered  the  Jewish  clamors  for  the 
crucifixion  of  the  Son  of  God  by  giving  sen- 
tence that  it  should  be  as  they  required 
(Mat.  xxvii.  ;  Luke  xxiii.).  Pilate's  govern- 
ment came  to  an  abrupt  end.  A  certain 
Samaritan  persuaded  his  countrymen  that 
if  they  would  go  with  him  up  mount  Gerizim 
he  would  show  them  where  certain  vessels 
of  the  tabernacle  had  been  hidden  by  Moses. 
It  was  a  mere  ]>retext.  the  ])lotter  doubtless 
knowing  that  Moses  never  was  at  mount 
Gerizim.  But  multitudes  were  willing  to 
accompany  the  demagogue  up  the  mountain. 


Fildasli 


584 


Pipe 


As  they  carried  arms,  Pilate  seized  all  the 
ways  to  Gerizim  with  horse  and  foot  soldiers, 
aud  attacking  the  mass  of  the  professed 
treasure  seekers  at  a  village  at  the  foot  of 
the  mountain,  slew  a  great  many,  securing 
others  and  sending  them  to  be  executed. 
The  Samaritans  forwarded  a  complaint 
against  Pilate  to  his  immediate  superior, 
Vitellius,  president  of  Syria.  Vitellius  ap- 
pointed a  new  procurator,  aud  ordered  Pilate 
to  proceed  to  Rome  to  answer  to  the  emperor 
for  his  conduct.  Before  Pilate  arrived  Ti- 
berius had  died,  March  16th,  A.  D.  37  (Autiq. 
xviii.  4,  1  and  2).  It  is  reported  that  Pilate 
was  banished  to  Vienna,  on  the  Rhone,  in 
the  south  of  France,  and  ultimately  com- 
mitted suicide. 

Various  Acta  Pilati,  Acts  of  Pilate,  are 
extant,  but  no  two  of  them  agree,  and  all 
are  considered  to  be  spurious. 

Pil'dash. 

A  sou  of  Nahor  and  Milcah  (Gen.  xxii.  22). 

Pil'tia,  in  A.  V.  Pil'e-ha  [a  slice,   plow- 

One  of  those  who  with  Nehemiah  sealed 
the  covenant  (Neh.  x.  24). 

Pill. 

To  take  the  skin  or  rind  off,  to  peel  (Gen. 
xxx.  38,  R.  V.  peel). 

Pil'lar. 

1.  A  stone  erected  as  a  sign  of  the  holiness 
of  a  place  (Gen.  xxviji.  18),  as  a  memorial 
of  some  person  or  event  (xxxi.  45  ;  Josh, 
iv.  5-9;  1  Sam.  vii.  12;  2  Sam.  xviii.  18; 
and  see  Garrison),  or  as  a  representa- 
tive of  parties  present  (Ex.  xxiv.  4).  Isaiah 
prophesied  that  the  time  is  coming  when 
the  converts  to  the  true  faith  in  Egj'jjt 
shall  erect  an  altar  and  a  pillar  to  the  Lord 
(Is.  xix.  19),  as  Abraham  and  Jacob  did  of 
old  in  Canaan.  The  pillar  was  used  by  the 
heathen.  The  Canaanites  erected  pillars  in 
connection  with  the  worship  of  Baal.  The 
Israelites  were  strictly  enjoined,  in  the  oldest 
legislation,  to  break  them  and  overthrow  the 
altars  (Ex.  xxiii.  24,  R.  V.),  and  they  were  for- 
bidden to  erect  similar  ])illars  beside  the  altar 
of  the  Lord  (Deut.  xvi.  22).  Pillars,  how- 
ever, found  favor  among  the  degenerate  Is- 
raelites of  the  northern  kingdom  (Hos.  iii.  4  ; 
X.  1,2),  and  even  in  Judah  (Mic.  v.  13,  R.  V.). 

2.  A  support,  much  used  in  ancient  archi- 
tecture for  upholding  roofs  and  curtains  (Ex. 
xxvi.  32  ;  Judg.  xvi.  26).  The  earth  and  the 
heavens  were  often  spoken  of  poetically  as 
supported  by  pillars  (1  Sam.  ii.  8;  Job.  ix. 
6;  xxvi.  11).  Strong  men  and  fundamental 
principles  are  figuratively  called  pillars  (Gal. 
ii.  9;  1  Tim.  iii.  15). 

Pil'low.     See  Bolster. 

Pil'tai  [characterized  by  deliverance]. 

A  priest,  head  of  the  father's  house  of 
Moadiah  in  the  days  of  the  high  priest  Joia- 
kim  (Neh.  xii.  17). 


Pine  and  Pine  Tree. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Ti(lhai\ 
the  name  of  a  tree  in  Lebanon  (Is.  xli.  19 ; 
Ix.  13;  R.  V.  margin,  plane).  It  has  not 
been  properly  identified. 

2.  The  rendering  of  'Es  shemen,  oil  tree 
(Neh.  viii.  15,  in  R.  V.  wild  olive).  See  Oil* 
Tree. 

Pin'na-cle. 

A  part  of  the  temple,  the  edge  of  which 
was  at  a  great  height  above  the  ground  (Mat. 
iv.  5).  Exact  identification  is  impossible. 
The  Greek  word  pterugion,  like  pinnacle 
which  is  used  to  translate  it,  literally  means 
a  little  wing  ;  and  it  denotes  the  fin  of  a  fish, 
the  border  of  a  garment,  or  the  end  of  the 
breastplate  (Lev.  xi.  9;  Num.  xv.  38;  Ex. 
xxviii.  26,  in  Septuagint).  It  may  be  simply 
the  edge  of  the  roof  or  court.  Lightfoot,  in- 
fluenced by  the  meaning  of  the  Greek  word, 
suggested  the  porch  which  projected  on  each 
side  of  the  temple  like  wings  (War  v.  5,  4). 
Others  have  thought  of  the  royal  jiorch 
which  adjoined  the  temple  and  towered  400 
cubits  above  the  valley  of  the  Kidrou  (Antiq. 
XV.  11,  5 ;  XX.  9,  7).  The  golden  spikes 
which  were  erected  on  the  roof  of  the  temple 
to  prevent  birds  from  alighting,  have  been 
thought  of  also  as  most  nearly  resem])ling 
slender  towers  or  pinnacles  in  the  modern 
sense ;  but  they  were  many,  and  the  evangel- 
ists speak  of  the  pinnacle  as  though  there 
were  but  one  (R.  V.). 

Pi'non. 

A  chieftain  of  Edom  (Gen.  xxxvi.  41 ;  1 
Chron.  i.  52),  probably  catalogued  by  the 
name    of   his  town   (Gen.   xxxvi.   40) ;    see 

PUNON. 

Pipe. 

1.  A  wind  instrument,  called  in  Hebrew 
halil,  pierced  instrument,  and  in  Greek 
aulos.  It  existed  in  a  variety  of  forms. 
The  single  pipe  or  reed  was  held  vertically 
and  blown  by  a  mouthpiece  at  the  end.  A 
difiereut  kind  was  held  and  blown  like  a 
flute.  The  double  pipe  consisted  of  right 
and  left  tubes,  which  were  blown  at  the 
same  time,  and  played  each  with  the  corre- 
sponding hand.  The  holes  of  a  pipe  num- 
bered two,  three,  or  four.  It  was  used  in 
orchestra  or  was  played  alone  (1  Sam.  x.  5; 
1  Kin.  i.  40),  and  it  accompanied  merry  song, 
religious  praise,  aud  the  funeral  dirge  (Is.  v. 
12;  XXX.  29;  Mat.  ix.  23;  xi.  17).  See 
Music. 

2.  A  wind  instrument  of  ancient  origin, 
called  'ugah  (Gen.  iv.  21),  which  was  used 
in  merrymaking  (Job  xxi.  12;  xxx.  31),  and 
was  deemed  worthy  of  employment  in  the 
praise  of  God  (Ps.  cl.  4).  According  to  the 
Targums  it  was  a  pipe.  The  Vulgate  and  in 
Ps.  cl.  the  Septuagint  explain  it  as  a  wind 
instrument,  the  organon.  The  A.  V.  always 
ti-anslates  it  organ,  doubtless  in  the  sense  of 
mouth  organ  or  set  of  pipes.  The  R.  V.  uni- 
formly renders  it  pipe. 


Piram 


585 


Pithom 


It  is  uncertain  whether  nekeb  (Ezek.  xxviii. 
13)  denotes  a  piereed  instrument  (E.  V.  pipe) 
or  a  perforated  gem. 

Pi'ram  [like  a  wild  ass,  swift]. 
A  Caiiaanite  king  of  Jarniuth,  one  of  those 
defeated  by  Joshua  before  Gibeou  (Josh.  x.  3). 

Pir'a-thon,  in  E.  V.  of  1  Mac.  ix.oOPhara- 
thon  [nakedness,  prominence].  In  A.  V.  of 
1  Mac.  the  adjective  I'harathoni  is  used. 

A  town  in  the  mount  of  the  Anialekites, 
in  the  Ephraimite  territory.  Abdon,  the 
judge,  and  Beuaiah,  the  military  official, 
were  Pirathonites  (Judg.  xii.  13-15 ;  2  Sam. 
xxiii.  30;  1  Chron.  xxvii.  14).  It  was  forti- 
fied by  Bacchides  (1  Mac.  ix.  50;  cp.  Antiq. 
xiii.  1,  3).  Robinson  identified  it  plausibly 
with  Fer'ata,  on  a  hill  about  6  miles  west  by 
south  of  Shechem.  Conder  suggests  Fer'on, 
14  miles  west  by  north  of  Shechem  ;  see 
Ophrah. 

Pis'gah  [a  part,  piece,  division]. 

That  part  of  the  Abarim  range  of  moun- 
tains near  the  northeastern  end  of  the  Dead 
Sea  (Deut.  xxxiv.  1  with  iii.  27  and  xxxii. 
49).  The  Dead  Sea  was  under  its  slojtes 
(Deut.  iii.  17).  Its  top  looked  down  upon  the 
desert  (Num.  xxi.  20).  The  field  of  Zophim  on 
its  top  was  visited  by  Balaam  and  Balak  (xxiii. 
14).  From  its  summit,  called  Nebo,  a  large 
part  of  Canaan  west  of  the  Jordan  was  visi- 
ble, and  from  it  Moses  viewed  the  promised 
laud  (Deut.  iii.  27;  xxxiv.  1-4)  ;  see  Nebo. 
It  was  on  the  southern  border  of  the 
realm  of  Sihon,  king  of  the  Amorites 
(Josh.  xii.  2,  3).  As  late  as  the  time  of  Euse- 
bius,  the  mountainous  country  adjacent  to 
mount  Peor  was  called  Phasgo.  But  the 
name  is  no  longer  attached  to  the  eastern 
mountains,  but  seems  to  linger  in  the  rocky 
headland,  Eas  el-Feshkah,  on  the  opposite 
:ide  of  the  sea. 

Pi'shon.     See  Eden. 

Pi-sid'i-a. 

A  district  of  Asia  Minor,  bounded  on  the 
north  by  Phrygia ;  on  the  south  by  Lycia 
and  Paraphylia ;  on  the  east  by  Lycaonia ; 
and  on  the  west  by  Caria.  It  formed  a  part 
of  the  Eoman  province  of  Galatia.  The 
mountain  chain  of  Taurus  runs  through  it, 
and  its  turbulent  inhabitants  were  so  brave 
that  they  were  never  entirely  subdued  either 
by  the  Persians  or  by  the  Romans.  Its  chief 
town  was  Antioch,  visited  by  Paul  (Acts  xiii. 
14). 

Pi'son.    See  Eden. 

Pis'pah. 

An  Asherite,  sou  of  Jether  (1  Chron.  vii. 
38). 

Pit. 

A  large  deep  hole  in  the  ground.  It  may 
be  either  natural  or  artificial  (Gen.  xiv.  10; 
xxxvii.  20,  24). 

Figuratively  it  is  used  for  the  grave  or 
death  (Job  xxxiii.  18,  24),  and  it  is  employed 


thrice  to  render  sh"ol  (Num.  xvi.  30,  33  ;  Job 
xvii.  16) ;  see  Sheol. 
Pitch. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Kopher, 
covering.  The  ark  of  Noah  was  daubed 
over  with  it,  to  render  the  junction  of 
wooden  ])lanks  iini)ervious  to  water  ((Jen.  vi. 
14).  It  was  probably  asjihalt  from  Hit,  in 
Babylonia.     See  Bitumen. 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Zepheth, 
liquid.  The  ark  of  Moses  was  covered  over 
with  it  (Exod.  ii.  3).  The  streams  in  the 
land  of  Edom  were  to  become  pitch  of  this 
character  (Is.  xxxiv.  9).  The  last  passage 
suggests  that  it  also  was  asi)halt  from  some 
locality.    See  Bitumen. 

Pitch'er. 

A  water  jar  of  earthenware  (cp.  Judg.  vii. 
19),  in  the  East  generally  having  one  or  two 
handles.  It  is  used  for  drawing  water  at  the 
well  and  carrying  it  home.  Ordinarily 
women  go  for  water,  carrying  the  pitcher  on 
the  head  or  shoulder  (Gen.  xxiv.  15,  1(5),  but 
men  sometimes  do  this  work  (Mark  xiv.  13). 
The  Hebrew  word  is  rendered  barrel  in  1 
Kin.  xvii.  12,  where  the  vessel  was  used  for 
holding  meal.  See  illustrations,  Jacob  and 
Fountain  of  the  Virgin,  article  Jerusalem. 

Pi'thom  [Egyptian  pa-tum,  abode  of  Turn 
{Turn  being  the  setting  sun,  worshiped  by 
the  Egyptians  as  a  god)]. 

One  of  the  two  store  cities  which  the 
Israelites  when  in  bondage  in  Egypt  built 
for  Pharaoh  (Exod.  i.  11).  Excavations, 
made  under  the  auspices  of  the  Egyptian 
Exploration  Fund,  by  Edouard  Naville  at 
Tell  el-Maskhuta,  showed  this  to  be  the 
ancient  Pithom.  It  is  on  the  south  side  of 
the  sweet-water  canal  which  runs  from  Cairo 
to  Suez  through  the  wady  Tumilat.  There 
seems  to  have  been  at  the  spot  an  ancient 
shrine  dedicated  to  Tum  ;  but  inscriptions 
dug  up  indicate  that  the  city  and  fortifica- 
tions did  not  come  into  existence  till  the 
time  of  Eamses  II.,  the  Pharaoh,  it  is  be- 
lieved, of  the  oppression.  No  more  ancient 
monuments  than  his  have  been  found  in  the 
place.  To  the  northeast  of  the  temple  of 
Tum  are  extensive  subterranean  buildings. 
The  walls  are  9  feet  thick,  built  of  crude 
bricks  joined  by  thin  layers  of  mortar.  A 
most  interesting  observation  was  made  that 
some  bricks  had  been  manufactured  with 
and  some  without  straw  (cp.  Exod.  v.  10-12). 
The  walls  inclosed  a  number  of  rectangular 
chambers  not  communicating  with  each 
other,  the  only  access  to  them  being  from 
above.  Naville  believes  that  they  were 
storehouses  or  granaries,  into  which  the 
Pharaohs  gathered  the  provisions  necessary 
for  armies  or  even  for  caravans  about  to  cross 
the  desert  into  Syria.  At  the  time  of  the 
Greek  dynasty  Pithom  received  the  new 
name  of  Heroopolis,  city  of  heroes,  which 
the  Romans  abridged  into  Ero.  as  is  proved  by 
Latin  inscriptions  from  the  locality.     Sayce 


Pithon 


586 


Plane 


compares  Ero  with  Egyptian  ara,  a  storehouse. 
It  was  in  the  land  of  Goshen  :  for  the  Sep- 
tuagint  substitutes  Heroopolis  for  Goshen  in 
Gen.  xlvi.  28,  and  the  Coptic  version,  trans- 
lated from  the  Septuagint,  reads  near  Pithom, 
in  the  land  of  Eamses.  All  around  the  sacred 
buildings  of  Pithom  was  the  civil  city  of 
Thuku,  believed  to  be  the  Succoth  of  Exod. 
xii.  37. 

Pi'thon. 

A  descendant  of  Jonathan  (1  Chron.  viii. 
35;  ix.  41). 

Plague. 

An  infliction  sent  by  God  as  a  punishment 
for  sin.  In  most  of  the  cases  mentioned  in 
the  Bible  the  infliction  is  an  epidemic  or 
other  disease,  but  it  may  be  also  a  judgment 
of  a  difl'erent  character.  A  disease  to  be  a 
plague  need  not  be  miraculous.  The  particu- 
lar disease  which  God  has  attached  as  a  pen- 
alty for  the  violation  of  this  or  that  physical 
or  mental  law  may  be  properly  called  a 
plague,  if  the  act  has  moral  quality.  And 
even  a  disease  which  arises  from  ignorance 
of  sanitary  laws  and  from  a  violation  of 
nature  in  no  wise  criminal,  and  which  in 
itself  is  without  moral  significance,  may  be- 
come in  God's  hands  an  instrument  for  the 
punishment  of  evil  doers,  God  predetermin- 
ing and  arranging  for  the  time  and  place  of 
its  outbreak  with  this  end  in  view.  What  is 
called  in  EnglLsh  by  way  of  emphasis  the 
plague  is  a  highly  malignant  form  of  typhus 
fever,  due  to  neglect  of  sanitary  precautions, 
which  has  frequently  originated  at  Cairo,  in 
Egypt,  and  spread  to  Syria,  Asia  Minor,  and 
the  adjacent  regions.  It  is  probable  that  it 
has  been  used  in  times  past  as  a  chastening 
rod. 

The  first  plague  mentioned  in  Scripture 
was  that  sent  on  Pharaoh,  Abraham's  con- 
temporary, for  the  protection  of  Sarah,  the 
patriarch's  wife  (Gen.  xii.  17).  The  next 
plagues  in  point  of  time  were  the  ten  in- 
flicted on  Egypt.  They  were  not  phenomena 
■with  which  the  Egyptians  were  previously 
unacquainted ;  but  in  most  cases,  if  not  in 
all,  they  were  distresses  common  to  the 
country.  Yet  they  were  not  mere  natural 
phenomena  in  aggravated  form  ;  they  ex- 
hibited unmistakably  miraculous  features; 
see  Egypt  III.  6.  The  first  consisted  in  the 
change  of  the  river  water  into  blood  or  .some- 
thing like  it  (Ex.  vii.  14-25)  ;  the  second,  in 
the  vast  multiplication  of  frogs  (viii.  1-15) ; 
the  third,  in  lice,  sand  flies,  or  fleas,  produced 
from  the  dust  (16-19) ;  the  fourth,  in  swarms 
of  flies  (20-32) ;  the  fifth,  in  murrain  on  the 
cattle  (ix.  1-7)  ;  the  sixth,  in  boils  and  blains 
on  man  and  beast  (8-12)  ;  the  seventh,  in  a  de- 
structive hailstorm  (13-35) ;  the  eighth,  in 
locusts  brought  by  the  east  wind  (x.  1-20) ; 
the  ninth,  in  dense  darkness  (21-29)  ;  and 
the  tenth,  in  the  death  of  all  the  firstborn 
(xi.  1-xii.  30).  A  plague  was  sent  upon  the 
Israelites  for    making  and   worshiping   the 


golden  calf  (Ex.  xxxii.  35) ;  and  another  for 
murmuring  against  the  sustenance  provided 
for  them  by  God  (Num.  xi.  33,  34)  ;  another 
slew  the  spies  who  had  brouglit  uj)  an  evil 
report  of  the  land  (xiv.  37)  ;  another  raged 
among  the  people  for  murmuring  at  the 
righteous  punishment  of  the  rebels  Korah, 
Dathan,  and  Abiram.  In  this  visitation  14,700 
perished  (xvi.  46-50).  In  another  plague 
sent  upon  the  people  on  account  of  the  idola- 
tries and  impurities  at  Baal-peor  24,000  died 
(XXV.  9 ;  Jo.sh.  xxii.  17  ;  Ps.  cvi.  29,  30).  The 
infliction  of  the  emerods,  or  piles,  upon  the 
Philistines  is  called  a  plague  (1  Sam.  vi.  4). 
A  plague  or  pestilence,  in  which  70,000  per- 
ished, followed  on  David's  numbering  the 
people  (2  Sam.  xxiv.  13-25;  1  Chron.  xxi. 
12-30)  A  plague  was  threatened  against 
Jehoram,  king  of  Judah,  and  his  people 
(2  Chron.  xxi.  14,  15). 

Sometimes  the  word  plague  is  used  of  dis- 
eases which  are  not  epidemic :  it  is  applied, 
for  instance,  to  an  issue  of  blood  (Mark  v. 
29,  34),  to  leprosy  in  individuals  (Lev.  xiii. 
3,  5,  6),  and  even  to  the  spreading  of  some 
inferior  forms  of  vegetation  on  the  walls  of 
presumably  damp  houses  (xiv.  35). 

Plain. 

In  the  A.  V.  seven  different  words  are  ren- 
dered plain.  Three  of  these  deserve  special 
notice,  sh'phelah,  kikkar,  and  '"rabah.  The 
term  sh'phelah,  or  lowland,  as  E.  V.  renders 
it,  was  the  technical  designation  for  the  dis- 
tricts of  southern  and  in  part  of  central  Pal- 
estine, between  the  higher  hills  on  the  east 
and  the  low-lying  plain  along  the  Mediter- 
ranean on  the  west.  In  Josh.  xv.  33-47 
forty-two  towns  of  Judah,  with  their  vil- 
lages, are  enumerated  as  being  within  its 
bounds.  Some  of  these  were,  however,  gen- 
erally in  Philistine  hands,  and  hence  Obad. 
19  mentions  the  lowland  of  the  Philistines. 
See  Lowland. 

Kikkar,  which  means  circle,  circuit,  was 
applied  especially  to  the  plain  of  the  Jordan 
from  at  least  Succoth  on  the  north  to  Sodom 
and  Gomorrah  on  the  south  (Gen.  xiii.  10, 11, 
12  ;  xix.  17,  28 ;  Deut.  xxxiv.  3  ;  2  Sam.  xviii. 
23;  2  Chron.  iv.  17).  The  valley  as  far 
north  as  the  sea  of  Galilee  was  probably  in- 
cluded in  the  designation  (War  iv.  8,  2). 

The  word  '"rabah,  which  is  rendered  plain 
in  A.  V.  of  Deut.  ii.  8;  iii.  17,  etc.,  is  gen- 
erally left  untranslated  in  E.  Y.  See  Arabah. 

Plane. 

Tlie  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  'Armon, 
naked  one  (Gen.  xxx.  37;  Ezek.  xxxi.  8). 
So  E.  Y.  and  the  ancient  versions,  except 
that  the  Septuagint  renders  it  pine  in 
Ezekiel.  The  A.  V.,  following  the  rabbini- 
cal interpretation,  calls  it  chestnut.  The 
oriental  plane  tree  (Platanus  orientali/t)  grows 
from  70  to  90  feet  high.  It  has  palmately 
lobed  leaves,  resembling  those  of  tlie  sycamore 
maple,  which  is  the  reason  why  the  latter  tree 
is  sometimes  called  a  plane,  and  has  the  .specific 


■ 


Plaster 


68/ 


Poetry 


name  pseudo-platanus.  Tlie  oriental  plane  is 
indigenous  iu  southern  Europe  and  western 
Asia.  In  Palestine  it  is  wild  by  the  side  of 
mountiiin  streams,  besides  being  cultivated 
in  nuuiy  places. 

Plas'ter.    See  Mortar  I. 

Pledge.    See  Loan. 

Ple'ia-des  [daughters  of  sailing,  stars 
which  indicate  by  their  rising  the  time  of 
safe  navigation ;  or  perhaps,  the  full  or  com- 
pact group]. 

The  Hebrew  word  Kimah  is  the  name  of  a 
brilliant  star  or  constellation  (Job  ix.  9 ; 
xxxviii.  31  ;  and  Amos  v.  8,  in  A.  V.  the 
seven  stars),  and  in  tlie  opinion  of  the 
majority  of  ancient  writers  it  denotes  the 
Pleiades.  An  Arabic  designation  for  the 
Pleiades  is  Thuriyya\  which  likewise  signi- 
fies a  compact  group. 

The  Pleiades  arc  a  cluster  of  stars  in  the 
constellation  Taurus  (the  Bull),  in  the  shoul- 
der of  the  animal.  For  some  unknown 
reason  they  were  anciently  said  to  be  seven  ; 
and  since  only  six  were  usually  seen,  the 
notion  arose  of  a  lost  Pleiad.  Six  stars  are 
visible  to  the  naked  eye  on  ordinary  nights, 
but  more  may  be  seen  by  persons  of  very 
good  sight.  With  the  aid  of  a  telescope  a 
hundred  stars  may  be  counted.  Josephus 
uses  the  setting  of  the  Pleiades  as  a  note  of 
time  (Antiq.  xiii.  8,  2). 

Plow. 

In  Palestine  the  plow  is  of  primitive 
character.  It  consists  of  a  pole  or  the 
branch  of  a  tree,  to  one  end  of  which  the 


ably  twelve  plows,  each  with  its  pair  of 
bullocks  and  its  man,  Elisha  being  the  last 
of  the  twelve  (1  Kin.  xix.  19,  20). 


Plow,  Plowshares,  and  Yokes, 

as  still  used  in  Asia  Minor. 

Poch'e-reth-haz-ze-ba'im  [perlmps,  cap- 
turing gazelles]. 

Founder  of  a  family,  members  of  whii-h 
returned  from  the  Babjlonian  captivity 
(Ezra  ii.  57;  Neh.  vii.  59).  The  A.  V. 
divides  the  name,  makes  the  latter  i)art  a 
place,  and  calls  the  man  Pochereth  of  Ze- 
baim. 

Po'et-ry. 

Poetry  is  one  of  the  earliest  forms  in  which 
the  literary  taste  of  a  people  begins  to  ex- 
press itself.  It  is  rhythmical  and  regular  in 
•form,  like  the  motions  of  the  dancer  which 
it    so    frequently    accompanied    in    ancient 


Plowing  and  Sowing  in  Ancient  Egj'pt. 


yoke  is  attacTied,  while  from  the  other  end 
a  small  branch  projects  or  else  through  the 
end  a  beam  is  thrust  which  is  sheathed  in  a 
thin  plate  of  iron  and  forms  the  share  (Is.  ii. 
4j.  It  was  dragged  by  oxen  or  cows,  and 
was  guided  by  the  hand  (Judg.  xiv.  18;  Job 
i.  14  ;  Ecclus.  xxxviii.  25,  2H ;  Luke  ix.  62). 
Such  an  implement  can  do  little  more  than 
scratch  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Hence 
the  same  land  has  to  be  plowed  over  and 
over  again.  When  Elisha  was  plowing 
with  twelve  yoke  of  oxen  there  were  prob- 


times  (Ex.  xv.  20,  21).  It  is  naturally  born 
of  the  emotions,  and  is  called  forth  by  indi- 
vidual or  national  joy  or  sorrow  or  deep 
concern.  The  imagination  also  and  the 
habit  of  expressing  thought  in  vivid  lan- 
guage borrowed  from  nature,  which  are  vital 
elements  in  ])oetry,  come  to  manifestation 
during  the  childhood  of  a  people.  The  He- 
brews formed  no  exception  to  tlie  rule.  The 
words  of  Sarah  at  the  birth  of  her  son  have 
the  poetic  ring  (Gen.  xxi.  (i,  7).  The  blessing 
which  Jacob  bestowed  on  his  sons  as  the  time 


Poetry 


588 


Poetry 


of  his  death  approached  was  couched  in  the 
sententious  and  picturesque  form  of  Semitic 
poetry  (xlix.).  The  song  which  sprang  spon- 
taneously from  Moses'  lips,  when  he  beheld 
the  overthrow  of  Pharaoh's  host  in  the  sea 
and  discerned  at  once  the  moral  effect  which 
it  would  have  on  the  nations  of  Canaan, 
was  also  an  utterance  born  of  strong  feel- 
ing and  cast  into  the  simple  form  of  He- 
brew poetry. 

Ancient  Semitic  poetry  does  not  rhyme. 
Poems  have  been  discovered  which  show  a 
certain  csesural  arrangement,  but  this  feature 
is  not  essential.  Assonance,  alliteration,  and 
rhyme,  so  common  in  occidental  poetry,  oc- 
casionally occur  in  Hebrew  poetry,  but  they 
also  are  not  essential  and  they  are  extremely 
rare.  Nor  is  there  a  regular  recurrence  of 
long  and  short  syllables  or  feet ;  but  the 
rhythmical  tendency  was  strongly  felt  and 
unconsciously  led  to  producing  lines  of  nearly 
the  same  number  of  syllables. 

The  essential  formal  characteristic  of  He- 
brew poetry  is  parallelism.  By  this  is  meant 
that  the  sentiment  of  one  line  is  echoed  in  the 
next.    This  parallelism  is  of  various  kinds  : 

1.  Synonymous,  when  the  thought  of  the 
first  line  is  repeated  in  other  words  in  the 
second  line,  as  in  Gen.  iv.  23  : 

Adah  and  Zillah,  hear  my  voice; 
Ye   wives   of   Lamech,    hearken    unto   my 
speech. 

The  couplet : 

For  I  have  slain  a  rnan  to  my  wounding  [or, 

for  wounding  me], 
And  a  young  man  to  my  hurt  [or,  for  bruising 

me], 

likewise  exhibits  synonymous  parallelism ; 
and  at  the  same  time  it  shows  the  exegetical 
importance  of  an  acquaintance  with  this 
principle,  for  Lamech  must  not  be  under- 
stood to  speak  of  two  murders.  He  men- 
tions killing  but  one  man.  This  principle 
also  enables  the  expositor  of  Scripture  to 
interpret  ambiguous  words  ;  for  example,  in 
Ps.  xxii.  20: 

Deliver  my  soul  from  the  sword  ; 

My  darling  from  the  power  of  the  dog, 

the  parallelism  determines  that  the  darling 
referred  to  is  not  a  dear  friend,  but  means 
the  psalmist's  soul  or  his  life. 

2.  Progressive,  in  which  the  second  line 
expresses  a  new  idea  more  or  less  closely  re- 
lated to  the  first ;  as  in  Job  iii.  17 : 

There  the  wicked  cease  from  troubling ; 
And  there  the  weary  be  at  rest. 

3.  Synthetic  or  constructive,  in  which  there 
is  parallelism  of  structure  only,  while  the 
thought  of  one  line  serves  as  the  foundation 
upon  which  to  build  a  new  thought ;  as  Ps. 
XXV.  12  : 

What  man  is  he  that  feareth  the  Lord? 
Him  shall  he  instruct  in  the  way  that  he 
shall  choose  ; 


or  Prov.  XX vi.  4  : 

Answer  not  a  fool  according  to  his  folly, 
Lest  thon  also  be  like  unto  him  ; 

or  Ps.  xxiv.  9 : 

Lift  up  your  heads,  O  ye  gates  ; 

Yea,  lift  them  up,  ye  everlasting  doors  : 

And  the  King  of  glory  shall  come  in. 

4.  Climactic,  in  which  the  characteristic 
words  are  repeated  and  form  the  ladder  on 
which  the  thought  climbs  to  completion  or 
to  emphatic  reiteration  ;  as  in  Ps.  xxix.  5  : 

The  voice  of  the  Lord  breaketh  the  cedars  ; 
Yea,  the  Lord  breaketh  in  pieces  the  cedars 
of  Lebanon ; 

and  in  Ps.  cxxi.  3,  4 : 

He  will  not  suffer  thy  foot  to  be  moved  : 
He  that  keepeth  thee  will  not  slumber ; 
Behold,  he  that   keepeth   Israel 
Shall  neither  slumber  nor  sleep. 

5.  Antithetic,  in  which  the  thought  is  made 
more  clear  by  contrast ;  as  in  Mat.  viii.  20 : 

The  foxes  have  holes, 
And  the  birds  of  the  air  have  nests ; 
But  the  Son  of  man  hath  not  where  to  lay 
his  head. 

6.  Comparative,  in  which  the  thought  is 
explained  by  comparison  with  something  else 
that  is  familiar ;  as  in  Ps.  xlii.  1 : 

As  the  hart  panteth  after  the  water  brooks, 
So  panteth  my  soul  after  thee,  O  God. 

The  verses  are  usually  distichs,  but  tristichs 
are  common,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  exam- 
ples already  cited.  Tetrastichs  and  peuta- 
stichs  also  occur  (Ps.  xxv.  7;  xxvii.  3,  4,  9 ; 
xxxvii.  7, 14,  20, 25,  28,  34,  40).  The  stanza  is 
not  essential  to  poetry,  and  it  is  rare  in  He- 
brew poetry.  It  is  used  in  Ps.  xlii.  and  xliii., 
which  form  one  poem,  divided  into  three 
equal  parts  by  a  recurring  verse.  Ps.  xlvi. 
consists  of  three  groups  of  three  verses  each, 
the  conclusion  of  each  group  being  marked 
by  Selah,  and  the  last  two  groups  closing 
with  a  refrain.  There  are  also  alphabetical 
psalms,  in  which  the  principle  is  more  or 
less  fully  observed  of  beginning  the  suc- 
cessive verses  with  the  letters  of  the  alphabet 
in  consecutive  order  (Ps.  xxv.  ;  xxxiv.  ; 
xxxvii.).  Ps.  cxix.  consists  of  twenty-two 
groups  of  eight  verses  each.  The  number 
of  groups  equals  the  number  of  letters  in  the 
Hebrew  alphabet,  and  the  initial  letter  of 
each  verse  in  a  group  is  in  the  original  that 
letter  of  the  alphabet  which  numerically 
corresponds  to  the  group.  The  book  of 
Lamentations  is  constructed  on  a  similar 
alphabetical  plan  ;  see  Lamentations. 

Poetry  is  usually  classified  as  epic,  dra- 
matic, lyric,  and  didactic.  Neither  the  epic 
nor  the  drama  is  found  in  the  Bible  ;  but  the 
Book  of  Job  has  a  .semi-dramatic  form,  for 
there  is  action,  which  forms  the  basis  of 
drama,  in  the  prologue  and  epilogue,  and 
there  is  a  regular  alternation  of  speakers 
throughout.    See  also  Song  of  Songs.    The 


Poison 


589 


Pontus 


lyrics  are  the  most  numerous  poems.  No 
period  of  Israelitish  history  after  the  exodus 
is  without  them.  They  consist  of  triumphal 
odes  which  celehrate  the  deliverance  wrought 
by  Jehovah,  like  the  song  of  Moses  at  the 
Red  Sea,  and  the  song  of  Deborah  ;  psalms 
of  the  penitent  suing  for  mercy  or  expressing 
the  joy  of  forgiveness  (Ps.  xxxii.  ;  li.),  and 
of  the  poor  and  needy  crying  out  in  distress, 
calm  in  faith,  or  praising  God  for  succor 
(xxxviii.  ;  and  iii. ;  xxiii.  ;  Hab.  iii. ;  and  1 
Sam.  ii.  1-10 ;  Is.  xxxviii.  10-20 ;  Luke  1. 
46-55) ;  psalms  of  the  coming  Redeemer  and 
his  kingdom  (Ps.  ii. ;  xlv. ;  Ixxii.)  :  and 
plaintive  elegies,  as  the  lament  of  David 
over  Saul  and  Jonathan,  the  songs  of  mourn- 
ing for  Judah,  and  the  Lamentations  (2  Sam. 
i.  17-27;  Ps.  xliv. ;  Ix.;  Ixxiv.). 

Poi'son. 

Any  substance,  vegetable,  animal,  or  miner- 
al, which  produces  a  morbid  or  deadly  eftect 
when  introduced  into  the  animal  organism  (2 
Kin.  iv.  39,  40 ;  Rom.  iii.  1.3).  The  venom  of  ser- 
pents is  denoted  in  Hebrew  either  by  hemah, 
heat  (Deut.  xxxii.  24,  33;  Ps.  Iviii.  4),  a  gen- 
eral word  which  is  also  used  for  hot  passion 
and  the  heat  produced  by  wine,  or  by  ro'sh 
(Deut.  xxxii.  33  ;  Job  xx.  16),  which  also  sig- 
nifies a  bitter  herb ;  see  G.\i,l.  The  custom 
of  anointing  arrows  with  the  poison  of 
snakes  is  probably  alluded  to  in  Job  vi.  4.  It 
was  a  practice  of  great  antiquity  and  consid- 
erable extent  (Homer,  Odyssey  i.  261,  262 ; 
Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  xi.  115  ;  xviii.  1).  Vegetable 
poison  was  also  employed  for  this  purpose,  as 
thatobtained  from  the  yew  tree  (Hist.  Nat.  xvi. 
20).  The  Gauls  used  a  poisonous  herb  called 
limeum.  perhaps  leopard's  bane  (xxvii.  76). 

The  suicide  of  Ptolemy  JIacron  by  poison, 
the  alleged  murder  of  Pheroras  by  poisoned 
food,  and  the  fame  of  Arabian  women  for 
skill  in  preparing  poisonous  potions  (2  Mac. 
X.  13;  Antiq.  xvii.  4,  1),  serve  to  show  that 
the  crimes  prevalent  at  that  time  in  Rome 
were  not  left  uncommitted  in  Judah  and  the 
East  (cp.  Mark  xvi.  18)  ;  but  the  absence  of 
direct  mention  of  them  in  the  Bible  indicates 
that  they  were  not  common  among  the  Jews. 

Pol'lux.     See  Castor  and  Pollux. 

Pome'gran-ate  [apple,  having  many  grains 
or  seeds]. 

The  pomegranate  {Punica  granntum),  in 
Hebrew  called  rimmon,  in  Arabic  riimmdn,  is 
a  tree  from  12  to  15  feet  high,  having  oblong- 
oblanceolate  entire  leaves,  without  dots. 
Here  and  there  on  the  branches  occasional 
thorns  are  found.  The  flowers  have  gen- 
erally scarlet  petals  proceeding  from  a  large 
leathery  calyx.  The  fruit  is  about  the  size 
of  an  orange,  and  has  a  hard,  red  rind, 
filled  with  numerous  .seeds  enveloped  in 
bright  red  pulp ;  hence  the  English  name, 
which  means  an  apple  with  many  seeds. 
The  pulp  is  most  refreshing  to  the  ta.ste. 
The  pomegranate  is  wild  in  northern  Africa 
and  western  Asia,  and  possibly  so  in  Gilead. 


It  was  largely  cultivated  in  Palestine  in 
Scripture  times  (Num.  xiii.  23;  xx.  5;  Deut. 
viii.  8;  1  Sam.  xiv.  2;  Song  iv.  3,  13;  vi.  7, 
11;  viii.  2;  Joel  i.  12;  Hag.  ii.  19).  The 
expressed  juice  of  the  fruit  made  a  pleasant 
drink    (Song  viii.  2,  E.  V.).     Pomegranates 


Pomegranate. 

of  blue,  purple,  and  scarlet  stufl"  alternating 
with  bells  made  of  gold  were  put  along 
the  skirts  of  the  robe  connected  with  the 
high  priest's  ephod  (Exod.  xxviii.  33,  34; 
xxxix.  26).  The  chapiters  of  the  two  pillars 
at  the  porch  of  Solomon's  temple  had  each 
around  them  a  double  row  with  a  hundred 
pomegranates  each  (1  Kin.  vii.  20 ;  2  Kin. 
XXV.  17 ;  2  Chron.  iii.  16).  The  fruit  is  still 
much  cultivated  in  Palestine. 

Pom'mel. 

Rounded  portion  or  bowl  of  a  chapiter 
(2  Chron.  iv.  12,  13 ;  in  E.  V.  and  in  1  Kin. 
vii.  41,  42,  bowl). 

Pon'ti-us.    See  Pilate. 

Pon'tus  [the  sea]. 

The  eastern  half  of  the  coast  of  Asia 
Minor  on  the  Pontus  Euxinus,  or  Black  Sea, 
from  the  first  word  of  which  the  name  of 
the  province  was  derived.  It  may  be  de- 
scribed as  reaching  from  the  valley  of  the 
Phasis  in  Colchis  to  the  river  Halys,  and  ex- 
tending inland  southward  across  the  moun- 
tains to  Cappadocia.  About  400  B.  c.  an  in- 
dependent kingdom  of  this  name  was  estab- 
lished. Six  of  its  successive  kings  were 
called  Mithridates.  Tlie  last  of  them  main- 
tained, till  his  death  in  63  b.  c,  a  fierce  struggle 
with  the  Romans,  who  reduced  the  kingdom 
to  the  position  of  a  protected  state,  united  it 
with  Bithynia,  and  formed  the  province  of 
Bithvnia  and  Pontus.  Jews  resided  in  Pontus 


Pool 


590 


Poratha 


(1  Pet.  i.  1).  Jews  from  Pontus  were  at  Jeru- 
salem during  the  pentecostal  effusion  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  (Acts  ii.  9).  Aquila  the  Jew  was 
born  in  the  province  (xviii.  2). 

Pool. 

A  reservoir  for  water,  supplied  by  rain  or 
else  by  springs,  like  the  pool  of  Siloam. 
From  the  pool  the  water  was  sometimes  con- 
ducted iu  channels  to  town  and  garden 
{2  Kin.  XX.  20  ;  Ecc.  ii.  6  ;  Ecclus.  xxiv.  30). 
The  pools  of  Bethesda,  Siloam,  and  Gihon 
were  at  Jerusalem,  and  water  was  also  con- 
ducted to  the  city  from  the  reservoirs  at 
Etam  ;  and  there  were  pools  at  Hebron, 
Gibeon,  Samaria,  and  Heshbon  (2  Sam.  ii  13  ; 
iv.  12  ;  1  Kin.  xxii.  38  ;  Song  vii.  4). 

Poor. 

The  unequal  distribution  of  the  blessings 
of  life  is  not  ideal  iu  the  sight  of  God.  Now 
God  gave  Canaan  to  his  peojile  (Ex.  vi.  4,  8). 
Accordingly  the  Mosaic  law  provided  for  a 
general  participation  of  the  people  in  the 
ownership  of  the  land  ;  and  while  it  per- 
mitted freedom  of  sale,  it  secured  a  readjust- 
ment of  property  and  a  return  to  each  family 
of  its  inheritance  in  Canaan  every  fifty  years 
(Lev.  XXV.  13,  23).  But  notwithstanding  all 
that  law  and  instruction  can  do,  the  poor  are 
always  present,  sometimes  through  sins  of 
their  own  or  their  ancestors,  sometimes 
through  the  inscrutable  but  wise  providence 
of  God.  The  poverty  which  springs  from 
indolence  or  personal  crime  was  theoretically 
excluded  from  Israel,  the  kingdom  of  God  ; 
and  its  poor  were  regarded  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  theocracy  as  the  unfortunate 
and  chastened  but  beloved  children  of  God. 
All  the  poor,  especially  widows,  orphans, 
and  strangers,  enjoyed  the  care  of  God  and 
the  godly,  and  all  were  specially  favored  by 
the  law.  Every  hungry  person  had  the  right 
to  pluck  and  eat  for  present  need  in  the  vine- 
yard or  grainfield  of  another  (Deut.  xxiii. 
24,  25).  Every  poor  person  was  authorized 
at  harvest  to  glean  after  the  reapers,  to  cut 
the  grain  that  was  left  standing  at  the  edge 
of  the  field,  and  to  take  any  forgotten  sheaf 
which  remained  in  the  field  when  the  harvest 
was  over.  At  the  vintage  and  in  fruit-pick- 
ing time  what  was  left  hanging  on  the 
branches  belonged  to  the  poor  (Lev.  xix.  9, 
10;  xxiii.  22;  Deut.  xxiv.  19-21).  In  the 
seventh  year  and  fiftieth  year  the  land  was 
not  tilled,  and  what  grew  of  itself  was  not 
harvested,  but  was  free  to  all  to  eat  (Lev. 
xxv.  4-7,  11,  12).  The  poor  man  in  his  ex- 
tremity might  sell  his  services  to  a  master 
for  a  term  of  years,  but  regained  his  freedom 
in  the  year  of  release  (38-42).  If  a  loan 
were  required  by  a  poor  man,  it  was  to  be 
bestowed,  even  though  the  near  approach  of 
the  release  of  the  seventh  year  would  soon 
give  him  the  legal  right  of  not  repaying  the 
debt(Deut.  xv.7-10).  The  poll  tax,  which  each 
man  had  to  pay  for  the  ransom  of  his  soul  or 
life  on  the  taking  of  a  census,  was  the  same 


in  amount  for  both  rich  and  poor,  being  half 
a  shekel ;  but  in  offerings  presented  at  the 
tal)ernacle  or  temple,  a  cheaper  form  of  gift 
was  sometimes  prescribed  for  the  poorer  wor- 
shiper (Lev.  xii.  8 ;  xiv.  21  ;  xxvii.  8).  The 
pro.sperous  were  encouraged  to  invite  the 
poor  to  the  sacrificial  feasts  and  to  remember 
them  on  other  joyous  occasions  (Deut.  xvi. 
11,  14).  There  are  many  beautiful  examples 
of  kindness  shown  to  the  needy  (Job  xxxi. 
16-22).  There  were  also  warnings  in  the  law 
against  the  oppression  of  the  poor  (Ex.  xxii. 
21-27).  At  the  same  time,  justice  must  not 
be  violated.  A  judge  must  not  give  a  verdict 
in  favor  of  a  man  because  he  was  poor ;  the 
claims  of  justice  were  to  be  paramount  over 
every  other  consideration  (Ex.  xxiii.  3  ;  Lev. 
xix.  15).  The  kindly  provisions  of  the  law, 
however,  were  frequently  ignored  in  times 
of  religious  declension,  and  the  prophets  have 
occasion  to  rebuke  hard-heartedness  and  in- 
justice toward  the  poor  (Is.  i.  23  ;  x.  2  ; 
Ezek.  xxii.  7,  29  ;  Mai.  iii.  5).  There  were 
also  abuses  of  the  good  law  itself.  There 
were  those  who  obeyed  the  letter,  but  not 
4:he  spirit,  who  bestowed  alms  to  be  seen  of 
men  (Mat.  vi.  1).  Many  gracious  promises 
are  made  to  the  pious  poor,  and  the  divine 
procedure  to  them  is  shown  to  be  that  of 
loving  care  (1  Sam.  ii.  6;  Job  v.  15;  xxxiv. 
28  ;  xxxvi.  15  ;  Ps.  ix.  18  ;  x.  14 ;  xii.  5  ; 
xxxiv.  6 ;  XXXV.  10).  Blessings  are  also 
promised  to  the  man  who  pities  the  poor 
(Ps.  xii.  1 ;  Prov.  xiv.  21, 31 ;  xxix.  7,  etc.).  Our 
Lord  in  the  course  of  his  ministry  showed 
his  great  love  for  the  poor  (Mat.  xix.  21  ; 
Luke  xviii.  22;  John  xiii.  29,  etc.),  and  it 
was  a  special  characteristic  of  his  ministry 
that  to  the  poor  the  gospel  was  preached 
(Mat.  xi.  5;  Luke  xiv.  21-23).  The  eariy 
church  considered  it  one  of  its  most  sacred 
duties  to  look  after  its  poor,  and  as  far  as  its 
limited  resources  would  allow,  the  poor  also 
outside  its  communion  (Acts  ii.  45  ;  iv.  32 ; 
vi.  1-6;  xi.  27-30;  xxiv.  17;  1  Cor.  xvi.  1-3; 
Gal.  ii.  10 ;  1  Thes.  iii.  6). 

The  poor  in  spirit  are  the  humble,  whether 
rich  or  poor  in  this  world's  goods  (Mat.  v.  3). 

Poplar. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  IJbneh, 
white,  applied  to  a  tree  (Gen.  xxx.  37).  It 
ranked  with  trees  of  which  the  shadow  is 
good  (Hos.  iv.  13).  If  it  is  the  poplar,  the 
species  is  ropulns  alba,  a  tall  tree  with  white 
wood,  and  the  leaves  white  and  cottony  on 
the  lower  side.  In  the  first  pasf^age  the  R.  V., 
following  the  Septuagint,  has  storax  on  the 
margin,  referring  to  Sfprax  officinale,  some- 
times called  libnah  in  Arabic,  a  resinous 
shrub  from  10  to  20  feet  high,  a  native  of 
the  Levant ;  see  Stacte.  The  Septuagint 
understands  the  white  poplar  to  be  meant  iu 
Hos.  iv.  13. 

Por'a-tha  [probably,  having  manv  chari- 
ots]. 

One  of  Haman's  sons  (Esth.  ix.  8). 


Porch 


591 


Potter 


Porch. 

A  %v;ilk  i)rotet'ted  by  a  roof  supiiortod  by- 
pillars  ;  a  colonnade  ;  a  portico.  There  were 
often  porches  of  this  character  in  royal  or 
other  mansions  (1  Kin.  vii.  ti,  7).  and  there 
was  a  notable  one  on  the  eastern  front  of 
Solomon's  temple  (vi.  3;  Ezek.  viii.  IG  ;  Joel 
ii.  17).  Sometimes  there  was  a  colonnade  on 
an  upper  floor  (Judg.  iii.  23).  The  porches 
of  the  pool  of  Bethesda,  and  Solomon's  porch 
connected  with  the  second  temple,  were  also 
colonnades  (John  v.  2  ;  x.  23),  called  in  Greek 
sfoa.  The  porch  where  Peter's  second  denial 
took  place  was  doubtless  the  passage  from  the 
street  to  the  court  of  the  house;  and  in  tlie 
parallel  ])assage  it  is  styled  the  fore-court 
(Mat.  xxvi.  71  ;  Mark  xiv.  68,  E.  V.  margin). 

Por'ci-us.     See  Festus. 

Por'cu-pine  [a  spinous  pig]. 

The  rendering  of  the  R.  V.  in  Is.  xiv.  23; 
xxxiv.  11  ;  Zeph.  ii.  14  of  the  Hebrew  Kip- 
pod,  the  one  rolling  itself  together.  The 
corresponding  word  in  other  Semitic  dialects 
denotes  both  the  hedgehog  and  the  porcu- 
pine. The  European  porcupine  (Hystrix  cris- 
tai(t)  is  common  in  Palestine,  especially  in 
the  gorges  leading  down  to  the  valley  of  the 
Jordan.  A  brush-tailed  porcupine  (Afhcnira 
hirsutirostris)  has  also  been  found  in  Judsea. 
The  A.  V.  translates  kippod  by  bittern. 

Por'poise. 

The  rendering  of  Tnhash  in  the  E.  V.  on 
the  margin  of  Ex.  xxv.  5  and  elsewhere 
where  the  text  has  .seal  and  A.  V.  has  badger. 
This  marginal  rendering  follows  Niebuhr's 
remark  that  the  name  tuhas  is  given  to  a 
.species  of  porpoise  by  the  Arabs  near  cape 
Musseudum. 

Pos'ses-sion.     See  Demoxi.\c. 

Por'ter. 

A  gate  keeper  (1  Chron.  ix.  22,  23  ;  and  xvi. 
38,  in  E.  V.  doorkeeper).  Keepers  were  sta- 
tioned at  the  city  gate  (2  Sam.  xviii.  26  ;  2 
Kin.  vii.  10),  at  the  doors  of  the  temple  (1 
Chron.  ix.  22),  at  the  entrance  of  private 
houses  (Mark  xiii.  34).  When  David  organ- 
ized the  Levites  for  the  service  of  the  taber- 
nacle, he  assigned  the  duty  of  acting  as  door- 
keepers to  a  large  section  of  them,  4000  in 
number.  They  were  not  all  needed  at  once, 
so  he  distributed  them  into  courses,  officiat- 
ing in  succession  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  5  ;  xxvi. 
1-19). 

Post. 

1.  The  upright  timber  at  the  side  of  a  door 
(1  Kin.  vi.  33).  A  stone  pillar  sometimes 
took  the  place  of  wood.  A  Hebrew  slave 
who  did  not  desire  to  embrace  the  oppor- 
tunity of  freedom  afforded  by  the  arrival  of 
the  seventh  year,  but  preferred  to  remain 
permanently  in  the  master's  house,  allowed 
an  awl  to  be  thrust  through  his  ear  into  the 
door  or  doorpost  (Ex.  xxi.  6;  Deut.  xv.  17) 
as  a  sign  of  attachment  to  the  house. 

2.  A  courier  (Esth.  iii.  13  ;  Job  ix.  25). 


Pot. 

The  most  frequent  word  is  the  Hebrew 
sit;  a  vessel  made  in  various  sizes,  large  and 
.small  (2  Kin.  iv.  38),  and  of  different  ma- 
terials, earthenware  and  metal  (Ex.  xxxviii. 
3),  and  used  for  manifold  purposes,  such  as 
for  boiling  flesh  (xvi.  3  ;  2  Chron.  xxxv.  13  ; 
Job  xli.  31;  and  Ezek.  xxiv.  3-5,  in  E.  V. 
caldron),  for  washing  (Ps.  Ix.  8),  for  refining 
metals  (Prov.  xxvii.  21).  The  term  dud 
mightalsodesignateasimilar  pot  ( Job  xli.  20  ; 
in  1  Sam.  ii.  14  rendered  kettle ;  in  2  Chron. 
xxxv.  13  rendered  caldron)  ;  so  also  might 
kallahath,  which  is  rendered  caldron  1 1  Sam. 
ii.  14  ;  Mic.  iii.  3).  In  Job  xli.  20  the  word 
translated  caldron  in  A.  V.  should  be  rushes. 
Water  for  domestic  purposes  was  kept  in 
earthen  pots  (John.  ii.  6) ;  see  W.\terpot. 

Pot'i-phar  [who  is  of  the  sun]. 

The  captain  of  Pharaoh's  guard  and  owner 
of  Joseph.  His  wife  attemjited  to  seduce  the 
young  slave  from  the  path  of  virtue,  and 
when  she  failed,  she  induced  Potiphar  to  im- 
prison him  on  a  charge  which  she  knew  to  be 
false  (Gen.  xxxix.  1-20). 

Pot-i-phe'ra,  in  A.  V.  Poti-pherali  [Egyp- 
tian Pet-p-ia,  who  is  of  the  sun,  belonging  to 
the  sun]. 

A  priest  of  On,  or  Heliopolis,  the  city  of 
the  sun.  He  was  the  father  of  Asenath,  who 
was  given  in  marriage  to  Joseph  (Gen.  xli.  45- 
50;  xlvi.  20). 

Pot'ter. 

One  who  makes  earthenware  pots  and  sim- 
ilar vessels.  The  clay  was  trodden  by  foot 
of  man  to  reduce  it  to  a  paste  (Is.  xli.  25: 
Wisd.  XV.  7).  It  was  then  placed  on  a  hori- 
zontal wheel,  before  which  the  potter  sat, 
turning  the  wheel  with  his  hand  as  he 
shaped    the  vessel,    or    keeping    the  wheel 


Eastern  Potter. 

in  motion  with  his  foot,  while  he  fash- 
ioned the  revolving  clay  with  his  hand 
and  arm.  The  finished  work  was  glazed  and 
baked  in  a  furnace  (.Ter.  xviii.  .3,  4  ;  Ecclu.s. 
xxxviii.  29,  30).    The  ability  of  the  potter  to 


Potter's  Field 


592 


Prayer 


mold  the  clay  into  any  shape  he  desired  is 
used  in  Is.  xlv.  9 ;  Jer.  xviii.  5-12  ;  Eom.  ix. 
20-25  to  illustrate    God's   sovereignty  over 


Potters  at  the  Kiln  in  Ancient  Egypt. 

man.  God,  of  course,  in  the  exercise  of  sov- 
ereignty acts  only  in  accordance  with  his  in- 
finite perfections  of  wisdom,  justice,  good- 
ness, and  truth. 

Pot'ter's  Field.     See  Aceldama. 

Pound.     See  Money  and  Weights. 

Pow'der. 

The  fine  particles  into  which  any  substance 
is  crushed  or  ground  (Ex.  xxxii.  20).  Pul- 
verized spice  of  any  kind,  intended  to  be 
Isurnt  as  incense  (Song  iii.  6). 

Prse-to'ri-um    [belonging    to  a    prtetor]. 

The  tent  of  a  general ;  the  official  residence 


of  a  provincial  governor ;  a  palace.     In  the 
N.  T.  it  denotes: 

1.  The  palace  occupied  by  Pontius  Pilate 
at  Jerusalem  and  where  his  judgment  seat 
was  erected  (Mark  xv.  16 ;  and  margin  of 
R.  V.  of  Mat.  xxvii.  27 ;  John  xviii.  28,  33 ; 
xix.  9,  cp.  13).  Some  have  understood  the 
castle  of  Antonia  ;  but  Herod's  palace  was 
the  building  occupied  by  the  procurators. 
See  Herod,  Palace  of. 

2.  Herod's  palace  at  Csesarea,  in  which 
Paul  was  confined  (Acts  xxiii.  35,  R.  V. 
margin  ;  in  text,  palace  ;  in  A.  V.,  judgment 
hall). 

3.  The  praetorian  guard  at  Rome,  the  duty 
of  which  was  to  guard  the  imperial  palace 
and  its  occupant,  the  emperor  (Phil.  i.  13 ; 
in  A.  v.,  palace;  on  the  margin,  Caesar's 
court). 

Prayer. 

Prayer  is  communion  with  God.  It  im- 
plies that  God  is  a  person,  able  and  willing 
to  hear  us,  who  has  created  the  universe  and 
still  preserves  and  governs  all  his  creatures 
and  all  their  actions.  He  is  not  the  slave  of 
his  own  laws.  He  can  produce  results  by 
controlling  the  laws  of  nature  or  cooperating 
with  them  as  readily  as  a  man  can;  nay 
more  readily,  for  he  is  God.  He  can  influ- 
ence the  hearts  and  minds  of  men  more 
readily  than  even  a  man  can  induce  his  fel- 
low-men to  action.  God  has  foreordained 
both  the  prayer  and  its  answer.  He  has  had 
a  plan  from  the  beginning;  and  he  accom- 
plishes this  plan  both  by  the  manner  in 
which  he  established  the  universe  and  the 
laws  which  he  set  in  operation,  and  also  by  his 
constant  presence  in  the  universe,  upholding 
it  and  controlling  it. 

Prayer  is  instinctive  with  man.  In  his 
extremity  of  need  he  cries  out  to  God.  And 
God  requires  prayer  of  all  men  ;  but  to  pray 
to  God  implies  a  right  relation  to  him.  Ac- 
ceptable prayer  can  be  offered  unto  God  by 
the  righteous  only.  The  prayer  of  the 
wicked  is  abomination  unto  him  (Prov.  xv. 
29;  xxviii.  9).  Only  those  who  have  for- 
saken sin  are  authorized  to  draw  nigh  unto 
God  in  prayer.  There  is  no  propriety  in 
rebels  against  the  authority  of  God  approach- 
ing him,  except  with  renunciation  of  their 
rebellion  and  a  petition  for  pardon.  Prayer 
is  the  communion  of  the  child  of  God  with 
his  Father  in  heaven.  It  consists  of  adora- 
tion, thanksgiving,  confession,  and  petition 
(Neb.  i.  4-11;  Dan.  ix.  3-19;  Phil.  iv.  6). 
It  has  been  engaged  in  by  God's  people  from 
the  beginning. 

Prayer  is  thus  the  natural  expression  of 
the  religious  feelings,  and  further  God's 
blessings  are  given  in  answer  to  prayer  (1 
Kin.  ix.  3;  Ezek.  xxxvi.  37;  Mat.  vii.  7). 
God  is  attentive  to  every  prayer  that  is 
rightly  offered  to  him.  He  heareth  the  young 
ravens  when  they  cry  ;  and  God's  people  have 
the  promise  that  he  will  answer  their  prayers 


Presents 


593 


Priest 


(Ps.  Ixv.  2).  James,  citing  history,  sjiys  tlmt 
the  supplication  of  a  righteous  man  availeth 
iiuich  in  its  working  (Jas.  v.  KJ.  R.  V.)-  Christ 
speaking  to  his  disciples  said  :  "  Whatsoever  ye 
shall  ask  in  my  name,  that  will  I  do"  (Jolin 
xiv.  13).  God's  people  present  their  petitions 
to  God  and  leave  to  him  to  decide  whether  it 
is  wise  to  grant  the  request  or  not.  They  know 
that  God  alone  can  tell  whether  the  granting 
of  the  prayer  would  be  for  their  own  good  or 
for  the  welfare  of  the  kingdom  of  God  or  for 
God's  glory.  The  apostle  John,  writing  to 
believers,  states  the  doctrine  of  prayer  with 
its  necessary  condition  when  he  says:  "This 
is  the  boldness  which  we  have  toward  him, 
that,  if  we  ask  anything  according  to  his  will, 
he  heareth  us"  (l  John  v.  14.  R.  V.).  "The 
answer  will  be  such  as  we,  if  duly  enlight- 
ened, would  ourselves  desire."  God  often 
blesses  his  children  best  when  he  denies 
their  requests.  And  when  they  pray  they 
desire  him  to  deny  their  requests  if  in  his 
sight  it  is  best  to  do  so. 

We  must  pray  in  the  name  of  Christ,  be- 
cause sinful  man  cannot  approach  God.  We 
must  draw  near,  not  claiming  any  inherent 
right  of  our  own  to  come,  but  in  the  name 
of  him  who  hath  washed  us  from  our  sins  in 
his  blood  and  made  us  to  be  priests  unto 
God. 

Prayer  is  addressed  to  God  in  his  fullness, 
as  the  triune  God.  Prayer  to  each  of  the 
three  persons  in  the  Godhead.  Father,  Son, 
and  Holy  Ghost,  is  involved  in  the  apostolic 
benediction  :  "  The  grace  of  the  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  and  the  love  of  God,  and  the  com- 
munion of  the  Holy  Ghost,  be  with  you  all  " 
(2  Cor.  xiii.  14).  Many  prayers  were  ad- 
■dres,sed  to  the  risen  Christ.  Stephen  peti- 
tioned him,  Paul  rendered  thanks  to  him, 
the  redeemed  ascribe  glory  and  dominion  to 
him  (Acts  vii.  59,  60 ;  1  Tim.  i.  12 ;  Rev.  i. 
5,6). 

Pres'ents.    See  Gifts. 

Priest  [contracted  from  Latin  presbyter, 
■Greeyi  preshntcros,  elderly,  an  elder]. 

An  authorized  minister  of  a  deity  who,  on 
behalf  of  a  community,  officiates  at  the  altar 
and  in  other  rites.  The  essential  idea  of  a 
priest  is  that  of  a  mediator  between  man  and 
God.  The  priests  formed  a  distinct  class  in 
the  nations  of  antiquity  generally ;  as  in 
Egypt,  Jlidian,  Philistia,  Greece,  Rome  (Gen. 
xlvii.  22;  Ex.  ii.  16;  1  Sam.  vi.  2;  Acts 
xiv.  13). 

In  the  absence  of  a  regularly  organized 
priesthood,  priestly  functions  were  exercised 
from  time  immemorial  by  private  individ- 
iials,  as  Cain,  Abel ;  and  by  patriarchs  in  be- 
half of  a  family  or  tribe,  as  Noah,  Abraham, 
Isaac,  Jacob,  Job.  The  natural  head  of  a  body 
of  people  acted  as  priest.  There  were  those 
among  the  Israelites  at  the  time  of  the  exodus 
who  possessed  this  prerogative  by  natural 
right,  and  who  had  been  influenced  by  the 
pressure  of  increasing  priestly  duties,  arising 
38 


from  the  growth  of  the  Hebrew  population, 
and  by  the  spectacle  of  the  Egyptian  jiriest- 
hood,  to  devote  themselves  professionally  to 
priestly  functions  (Ex.  xix.  22).  Even,  after 
the  organization  of  the  Levitical  priesthood 
priestly  prerogatives  existed  outside  of  that 
order.  When  God  himself  dispensed  with 
the  mediation  of  the  ordained  priests  and 
manifested  himself  immediately  to  a  man, 
that  man  recognized  his  right  to  offer  .sacri- 
fice at  once  without  the  intervention  of  the 
regularly  constituted  mediators  (Judg.  vi.  18, 
24,  26 ;  xiii.  16) ;  and  when  for  political 
reasons  it  became  impossible  for  these  who 
feared  God  in  the  northern  kingdom  to  avail 
themselves  of  the  offices  of  the  Levitical 
priests,  the  primitive  law  was  recalled  and 
the  father  of  the  family  or  other  person  in- 
dicated by  ancient  custom  erected  the  altar 
and  offered  sacrifices  to  Jehovah  (1  Kin. 
xviii.  30). 

When  the  Hebrew  nation  was  organized  at 
Sinai  a  national  sanctuary  and  service  were 
projected  on  a  noble  scale,  such  as  became  the 
essential  dignity  of  Jehovah,  and  appeared  to 
no  disadvantage  when  brought  into  com- 
parison with  the  purest  worship  of  the  most 
cultured  nations  of  that  age.  Priests  were 
needed  for  its  altar.  Aaron  and  his  sons 
were  appointed  to  that  office,  and  the  priest- 
hood was  made  hereditary  in  the  family  and 
restricted  to  it  (Ex.  xxviii.  1 ;  xl.  12-15  ; 
Num.  xvi.  40  ;  xvii. ;  xviii.  1-8  ;  and  cp. 
Dent.  X.  6;  1  Kin.  viii.  4;  Ezra  ii.  36  seq.). 
All  the  sons  of  Aaron  were  priests  unless  de- 
barred by  legal  disabilities  (Lev.  xxi.  16  seq.). 
Accordingly  when  they  are  referred  to  as  a 
class,  they  are  mentioned  either  simply  as  the 
priests  or  as  the  priests  the  sons  of  Aaron,  in 
allusion  to  their  descent  as  a  family  (i.  5  ;  2 
Chron.  xxvi.  18;  xxix.  21;  xxxv.  14;  cp. 
Num.  iii.  3  ;  x.  8;  Josh.  xxi.  19  ;  Neh.  x.  38), 
or  as  the  priests  the  Levites,  in  allusion  to 
the  tribe  to  which  they  belonged  (Dent.  xvii. 
9,  18;  xviii.  1 ;  Josh.  iii.  3  ;  viii.  33  ;  2  Chron. 
xxiii.  18;  xxx.  27;  Jer.  xxxiii.  18,  21;  cp. 
Ex.  xxxviii.  21),  or  later  as  the  priests  the 
Levites  the  sons  of  Zadok,  as  designation  of 
a  branch  of  the  family  (Ezek.  xliv.  15  ;  cp. 
xliii.  19).  This  method  of  designating  the 
priests,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  passages 
cited,  was  in  vogue  at  a  time  when  beyond 
all  question  the  distinction  between  priest 
and  Levite  was  firmly  established.  The  dis- 
tinction is  recognized  In  the  history :  the 
ministers  at  the  allar  of  the  tabernacle  and 
temple  and  the  users  of  LTrim  and  Thummim 
always  belong  to  the  family  of  Aaron. 

The  duties  of  the  priests  were  mainly  three  : 
to  minister  at  the  sanctuary  before  the  Lord, 
to  teach  the  people  the  law  of  God,  and  to 
inquire  for  them  the  divine  will  by  Urim  and 
Thummim  (Ex.  xxviii.  30  and  Ezra  ii.  63  ; 
Num.  xvi.  40  ;  xviii.  5  ;  2  Chron.  xv.  3  ;  Jer. 
xviii.  18;  Ezek.  vii.  26;  Mic.  iii.  11).  The 
priest  was  subject  to  .special  laws  (Lev.  x.  8 
seq.) ;  and  in  respect  to  marriage,  he  could 


Prince 


594 


Proconsul 


only  take  to  wife  one  of  his  own  nation,  a 
virgin  or  a  widow  who  had  not  been  divorced, 
and  her  geneah)gy  in  the  ancient  records 
must  be  as  reguhir  as  that  of  the  ])riest  liini- 
self  (xxi.  7  ;  Ezra  x.  18,  19  ;  con.  Apion.  i.  7). 
His  dress  when  on  duty  consisted  of  1.  Short 
breeches,  reaching  from  the  hips  to  the 
thighs.  2.  A  coat  fitting  close  to  the  body, 
woven  in  one  piece  without  seam,  at  least  in 
later  times  extending  to  the  ankles,  and 
which  was  gathered  about  the  loins  with 
a  symbolically  ornamented  girdle.  3.  A  cap 
shaped  like  a  cup.  These  several  articles 
were  made  of  white  linen  (Ex.  xxviii.  40-42; 
Autiq.  iii.  7,  1-3).  Priests  and  others  officially 
connected  with  the  solemn  service  often 
wore  a  linen  ephod ;  but  it  was  not  pre- 
scribed and  it  was  not  made  of  varied  and 
costly  materials  like  the  one  worn  by  the  high 
priest  (1  Sam.  ii.  18  ;  xxii.  18  ;  2  Sam.  vi.  14). 
On  the  conquest  of  Canaan,  in  view  of  the 
present  needs  of  the  descendants  of  Aaron, 
who  were  then  doubtless  in  the  third  genera- 
tion, but  more  especially  with  a  view  to  fu- 
ture demands,  thirteen  towns  were  designated 
where  residence  and  lands  for  i)asturing  cat- 
tle were  legally  theirs  (Josh.  xxi.  10-19).  In 
the  course  of  centuries  they  increased  to  a 
•numerous  body.  Accordingly  David  divided 
them  into  twenty-four  courses.  Except  dur- 
ing the  great  festivals,  when  all  the  courses 
were  employed,  each  course  officiated  for  a 
week  at  a  time,  the  change  being  made  on 
the  Sabbath  before  evening  sacrifice  (1  Chron. 
xxiv.  1-19;  2  Kin.  xi.  5,  9;  Antiq.  vii.  14,  7). 
Four  only  of  these  courses  appear  to  have  re- 
turned from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezraii. 
36-38)  ;  but  the  old  number  was  eventually 
reconstructed  (cp.  Luke  i.  5,  9).  There  were 
distinctions  in  rank  among  the  priests.  The 
supreme  pontifi"  was  the  high  priest  (q.  v.). 
Next  to  him  stood  the  second  priest  (2  Kin. 
XXV.  18),  who  was  probalily  the  same  as  the 
ruler  of  the  house  of  God  (2  Cliron.  xxxi. 
13  ;  Neb.  xi.  11)  and  the  captain  of  the  tem- 
ple (Acts  iv.  1 ;  V.  24).  The  chief  priests  who 
are  mentioned  in  the  N.  T.  were  the  offi- 
ciating high  priest,  former  high  priests  still 
alive,  and  members  of  their  families. 
They  were  an  anomaly  of  the  times.  The 
law  which  regulated  the  succession  to  the 
high-priesthood  had  come  into  abeyance 
through  political  confusion  and  foreign 
domination.  High  priests  were  made  and 
unmade  at  the  will  of  the  rulers. 

Prince. 

A  person  of  chief  rank  or  authority  in  any 
official  relation;  as  the  king  of  a  nation  (1 
Kin.  xiv.  7),  satrap  over  a  iirovince  (Dan.  iii. 
2,  A.  v.),  head  of  a  tribe  (Num.  i.  16)  or  of  a 
tribal  family  (xxv.  14),  a  sheik  (Gen.  xxiii. 
(>),  a  chief  officer  over  the  servants  of  a  king 
(Dan.  i.  7).  Prince  is  the  rendering  of  various 
Hebrew  and  Greek  words. 

Pris'ca  and  Pris-cil'la  [old  woman  and 
little  old  woman]. 


The  wife  of  Aquila,  who  went  with  him  in 
his  wanderings,  and  showed  at  least  equal 
zeal  with  her  husband  in  advancing  the 
Christian  cause.  Paul's  estimate  of  her  was 
high  (Acts  xviii.  1-3,  18,  26;  Kom.  xvi.  3;  2 
Tim.  iv.  19),  and  in  three  out  of  five  verses 
she  is  named  before  her  husband.  See 
Aquila. 

Pris'on. 

A  special  place  was  set  apart  in  Egypt  for 
the  confinement  of  criminals.  It  was  under 
the  charge,  and  in  the  house,  of  a  military 
officer,  and  the  prisoners  were  often  bound 
as  well  as  kept  in  ward  (Gen.  xl.  3,  4 ;  xlii. 
16,  17).  The  prison  was  an  institution  among 
the  Philistines  also;  Samson  was  imprisoned, 
blinded,  bound  with  fetters,  and  compelled 
to  labor  (Judg.  xvi.  21). 

Among  the  Hebrews  there  was  a  prison  in 
Samaria  in  the  reign  of  Ahab,  which  was 
under  the  charge  of  the  governor  of  the  city 
(1  Kin.  xxii.  27).  Later  there  is  notice  of 
the  detention  of  prisoners  at  Jerusalem  in 
the  court  of  the  guard  (Jer.  xxxvii.  21),  and 
in  the  dry  cistern  that  was  in  the  court 
(xxxviii.  6) ;  but  private  houses  were  also 
used  for  the  purpose  (xxxvii.  15).  The 
prison  fare  was  bread  and  water  (1  Kin.  xxii. 
27).  In  the  Eoman  period  the  ])rocurator's 
palace  at  Csesarea  on  the  sea,  the  castle  of 
Antonia,  and  doubtless  the  palace  of  Herod 
at  Jerusalem,  had  rooms  where  accused  per- 
sons were  confined  (Acts  xxiii.  10,  35).  The 
prison  at  Jerusalem  into  which  Herod 
Agrippa  I.  cast  Peter  was  protected  by  iron 
gates,  and  important  prisoners  were  bound 
with  chains  and  guarded  by  soldiers  in  the 
cell,  while  other  soldiers  kept  watch  before 
the  door  (xii.  6,  10). 

The  Mamertine  prison  at  Rome,  where 
Jugertha  was  left  to  starve  to  death,  and 
where  according  to  tradition  Peter  was  con- 
fined, is  on  the  slope  of  the  Capitoline  hill 
toward  the  forum.  It  dates  from  the  earliest 
ages  of  the  city.  It  consists  of  two  cells, 
one  over  the  other.  The  lower  one  is  19  feet 
long,  10  wide,  and  6^  high.  It  is  entirely 
underground.  It  is  vaulted,  the  walls 
gradually  contracting.  To  judge  by  the 
slope  of  the  v;alls,  the  chamber  was  originally 
about  10  feet  in  height,  and  was  closed  by  a 
conical  vault,  arched  in  sliape,  but  not  con- 
structionally  an  arch.  Entrance  to  it  was 
originally  obtained  only  through  a  hole  in 
the  ceiling,  through  which  criminals  were 
let  down.  The  floor  is  the  native  rock,  from 
which  a  spring  bursts,  said  in  the  legend 
to  have  been  miraculously  caused  to  flow  by 
Peter  in  order  to  baptize  his  jailers. 

Proch'o-rus  [probably,  leading  in  a  choric 
dance]. 

One  of  the  seven  men  elected  to  look  after 
the  Greek-speaking  widows  and  probably 
the  Christian  poor  at  Jerusalem  (Acts  vi.  5). 

Pro-con'sul  [one  acting  for  a  consul]. 
The  governor  of  a  Roman  province  which 


Procurator 


595 


Prophet 


was  administered  by  tlic  senate  (Acts  xiii.  7; 
xviii.  12;  xix.UH,  K.  V.).  He  was  appointed 
for  one  year,  exercised  in  this  province  all 
the  powers  of  a  consul,  and  '■vas  attended  by 
quiestors,  who  collected  the  revenues  and 
paid  them  into  the  treasury  managed  by  the 
senate. 

Proc'u-ra-tor  [steward,  administrator]. 

The  agent  of  the  Eomau  emperor,  who  re- 
sided iu  imperial  (as  distinct  from  senatorial) 
provinces,  received  the  revenues  and  paid 
them  into  the  emperor's  i)rivate  exchequer. 
The  military  governor  and  chief  magistrate 
was  called  propraetor  or  legate ;  but  in  the 
smaller  imperial  provinces  and  sometimes 
iu  parts  of  larger  ones  the  otlice  of  legate 
was  dispensed  with,  and  the  entire  govern- 
ment civil  and  military  was  intrusted  to  a 
procurator.  Such  was  the  case  in  Judaea. 
When  Archelaus  was  deposed  by  the  em- 
peror Augustus  in  a.  d.  6,  Judaea,  Samaria, 
and  Iduma?a  were  erected  into  a  division  of 
the  prefecture  of  Syria,  called  the  province 
of  Judaea,  and  placed  under  procurators 
(Antiq.  xvii.  11,  4;  13,  5;  Tacitus,  Aunal. 
xii.  23;  Hist.  v.  9).  They  were  successively 
Coponius  (Antiq.  xviii.  1,  1 ;  2,  2  ;  War  ii.  8, 
1) ;  Marcus  Ambivius ;  Annius  Rufus,  iu 
whose  time  the  emperor  Augustus  died ; 
Valerius  Gratus,  who  held  oiEce  eleven  years 
(Antiq.  xviii.  2,  2) ;  Pontius  Pilate,  who  was 
appointed  by  the  emperor  Tiberius,  deposed 
after  ten  years,  and  arrived  at  Eome  just 
after  the  death  of  Tiberius,  which  occurred 
iu  March  37  (Antiq.  xviii.  2,  2;  4,  2;  6,  5; 
War  ii.  9,  2 ;  Tacitus,  Annal.  xv.  44 ;  Luke 
iii.  1) ;  Marullus,  appointed  by  the  emperor 
Caius  (Antiq.  xviii.  6,  11),  and  after  au  in- 
terval which  concluded  with  the  three-year 
reign  of  Herod  Agrippa  over  Judaea  (Acts 
xii.  1-23) ;  Cuspius  Fadus,  who  was  ap- 
pointed by  the  emperor  Claudiu.s ;  Tiberius 
Alexander  (Antiq.  xix.  9,  2;  xx.  1,  2;  5,  2  ; 
War  ii.  11,  (i)  ;  C'umanus,  api)ointed  after  the 
death  of  Herod,  king  of  Chalcis  and  later 
recalled  by  the  emperor  Claudius  (Antiq.  xx. 
5,  2;  6,  2  and  3  ;  War  ii.  12,  1  and  G)  ;  Felix, 
appointed  bv  Claudius  (Antiq.  xx.  7,  1 ;  War 
ii.  12,  8;  Tacitus,  Hist.  v.  9;  Annal.  xii.); 
Porcius  Festus,  sent  out  by  Nero  (Antiq.  xx. 
8,  9;  War  ii.  14,  1;  Acts  xxiv.  27)  ;  and  on 
the  death  of  Festus,  Albinus  (Antiq.  xx.  9, 
1 ;  War  ii.  14,  1)  ;  and  finally  tJessius  Florus, 
ai)pointed  by  Nero  shortly  before  the  twelfth 
year  of  his  reign  (Antiq.  xx.  11,  1 ;  War  ii. 
14,  2  .seq. ;  Tacitus,  Hist.  v.  10). 

As  appears  from  the  cited  passages  and 
their  context,  these  i)rocurators  were  subject 
to  the  governor  of  Syria ;  but  in  Judaea 
itself  their  authority  was  supreme.  The 
Roman  garrison  stationed  iu  the  ])rovince 
stood  at  their  command  ;  all  imi)ortant  mat- 
ters came  before  their  judgment  seat ;  they 
had  the  power  of  life  and  death  (War  ii.  8, 
1) ;  and  their  sentence  was  executed  by  the 
soldiers.    They  commonly  resided  at  Caesarea 


by  the  sea ;  but  they  were  wont  to  go  uji  to 
Jeru.salcm  at  the  fea.sts  and  sometimes  to 
winter  there  (Antiq.  xviii.  3,  1),  and  they 
visited  various  cities  of  their  dominion  as 
occasion  required.  When  iu  Jerusalem,  they 
were  accustomed  to  occupy  the  ]ialace  of 
Herod.     See  Hkrod,  Palack  of. 

Proph'et. 

An  authoritative  and  infallible  teacher  of 
God's  will.  Sjieaking  of  the  order  of  iirojjh- 
ets  couceived  of  as  a  unity,  God  promised  to 
raise  them  up  from  among  the  chosen  jicople, 
qualify  them  by  putting  his  words  into  their 
mouth,  enable  them  to  speak  all  that  bo 
commanded  them,  and  maintain  the  authority 
of  his  word  which  they  should  sjteak  (l)eut. 
xviii.  18,  19).  Every  ijrojihet  of  God,  and 
preeminently  Christ,  was  like  unto  Moses 
(18;  Acts  iii.  22,  23),  in  similarity  of  endue- 
ment,  of  doctrine,  of  attitude;  toward  the 
law,  of  didactic  work.  The  same  authorita- 
tive and  re])reseutative  character  of  the 
prophet  is  referred  to  by  Zechariah.  Words 
are  given  to  the  projjhet  by  God  ;  the  words 
are  sent  by  his  Spirit  to  the  prophets,  are 
given  to  be  taught  to  the  people,  and  have 
been  accredited  in  the  past  by  their  fulfill- 
ment (Zech.  i.  G;  vii.  12).  The  same  facts 
regarding  the  prophet  are  abundantly  illus- 
trated in  individual  instances.  The  call  of 
the  prophet  came  from  God  and  was  often 
soul-scarcbing  (Ex.  iii.  1-iv.  17 ;  1  Sam.  iii.  1- 
20;  Jer.  i.  4-10;  Ezek.  i.  1-iii.  15).  The 
word  of  the  Lord  came  to  them  in  various 
ways.  They  are  strenuou.sly  commanded  to 
speak  and  not  keep  silence.  They  were 
accredited  by  signs,  by  the  fulfillment  of 
their  predictions,  and  by  their  doctrine  itself. 
Their  authority  was  repeatedly  upheld  by 
divine  judgment  visited  on  the  disobedient. 

Prophecy  included  the  prediction  of  future 
events  (Is.  v.  11-13;  xxxviii.  5,  6;  xxxix. 
6,  7;  Jer.  xx.  G;  xxv.  11  ;  xxviii.  IG;  Amos 
i.  5;  vii.  9,  17;  Mic.  iv.  10).  Prediction  was 
an  important  part  of  the  jirophet's  work,  and 
it  furnished  his  credentials  in  jiart.  But  more 
important  still,  the  prophet  had  to  deal  with 
the  present  and  the  past,  and  to  instruct  men 
in  God's  ways  (Is.  xii.  2G;  xlii.9;  xlvi.9).  The 
u.se  of  the  English  word  prophet  must  not  be 
permitted  to  unduly  emphasize  the  predict- 
ive side  of  prophecy.  The  English  word 
is  derived  from  the  Greek  prophctrs,  which 
means  one  who  speaks  for  another,  an  inter- 
I)reter  or  proclaimer,  and  one  who  .speaks 
beforehand,  a  predictor.  This  twofold  mean- 
ing is  due  to  the  two  .senses  of  the  preposi- 
tion pro,  for  and  before. 

The  Hebrew  word  iiahV,  which  is  trans- 
lated prophet,  means  one  who  announces.  It 
seems  to  have  been  a  comprehensive  general 
term  at  first.  The  active  participle  is  used 
in  another  Semitic  language,  the  Assyrian, 
for  an  announcer.  In  the  Hebrew  Scrip- 
tures Abraham  is  called  a  ]iroi)het  ((tcu.  xx. 
7).     Between  him  aud  God  there  was  direct 


Prophet 


596 


Prophet 


personal  intercourse,  with  him  was  the  secret 
of  the  Lord,  to  him  God  revealed  himself 
and  his  purposes  (Gen.  xv.  1-18;  xviii.  17), 
he  was  able  to  teach  his  descendants  the  true 
knowledge  of  God  (xviii.  19),  and  he  had 
power  of  intercession  with  God  (23-32). 
Miriam,  who  expressly  claims  that  the  Lord 
had  spoken  by  her,  was  a  prophet  (Ex.  xv. 
20 ;  Num.  xii.  2,  fi).  Aaron  as  the  spokesman 
of  Moses  is  called  his  prophet  (Ex.  vii.  1 ;  cp. 
iv.  Ki).  The  nabi\  or  prophet,  was  a  person 
qualified  by  God  to  be  his  spokesman  to  men. 
And  this  is  the  fundamental  idea  which 
underlies  the  term  as  used  in  Deut.  xviii.  18. 
One  of  the  qualifications  was  prophetic  vision 
(1  Sam.  iii.  1).  Looked  at  in  this  aspect,  the 
prophet  was  sometimes  called  a  seer  (1  Sam. 
ix.  9,  in  Hebrew  ro'eh ;  Is.  xxx.  10,  in  He- 
brew hozeh).  And  when  this  was  the  main 
a.spect  in  which  he  was  regarded  by  the 
people,  and  this  qualification  was  the  one  of 
highest  value  in  popular  estimation,  seer  was 
the  designation  in  vogue  among  the  people. 
This  was  the  case  for  a  considerable  period 
in  the  early  history  of  Israel.  Samuel  and 
Gad  and  Iddo  were  known  by  this  title.  But 
Samuel  ceased  to  be  merely  a  seer  to  whom 
the  people  resorted  when  they  w^ould  inquire 
of  the  Lord,  desiring  to  know  God's  will  as 
to  duty,  or  seeking  direction  in  national 
affairs,  or  craving  light  upon  private  matters. 
Samuel  went  out  among  men  as  an  authori- 
tative teacher  of  the  nation  sent  by  God, 
and  this  public  proclamation  was  the  distinc- 
tive idea  in  prophecy  (1  Sam.  x.  10-13 ;  xix. 
20).  The  teaching  function,  as  seen  in  Moses, 
became  prominent  again  ;  and  beginning  with 
Samuel  and  his  followers,  and  with  renewed 
force  several  centuries  later,  the  prophet 
became  a  constant  presence  in  the  national 
life,  an  ambassador  of  heaven  to  the  kingdom 
of  Israel,  an  authoritative  preacher  of  right- 
eousness, an  interpreter  of  past  and  present 
history  on  its  moral  side,  an  admouisher  of 
the  consequences  which  God  the  judge  has 
a.nnexed  to  conduct,  a  forewarner  of  the  cer- 
tainty of  the  divine  judgment  on  sin,  and  a 
fosterer  of  fidelity  toward  Jehovah.  To 
foretell  the  future  or  make  known  the  secret 
counsel  of  God,  as  did  Nathan  when  he  for- 
bade David  to  build  the  temple  and  an- 
nounced God's  purpo.se  to  establish  David's 
throne,  forever  remained  functions  of  the 
prophet;  but  they  became  a  comparatively 
small  part  of  his  work.  Other  features  were 
more  constantly  in  evidence,  and  as  a  result 
the  restricted  name  of  seer  gave  place  again 
to  the  broader  designation  of  prophet  (1  Sam. 
ix.  9).  Samuel  was  called  a  seer  by  his  con- 
temporaries, but  his  great  successors,  whom 
God  raised  up  and  inspired  to  teach  the  na- 
tion, were  commonly  designated  prophets  by 
the  men  of  their  generation.  Seer  was  not 
banished  from  use,  but  the  title  of  prophet, 
which  had  never  been  entirelv  disused 
{Judg.  iv.  4;  1  Sam.  x.  10-13;"^  xix.  20), 
was  raised   again  to  its  former  prominence 


(iii.  20).  Amos  had  prophetic  vision  (Amos  i. 
1 ;  viii.  1 ;  ix.  1)  and  was  called  a  seer  by 
the  priest  of  Bethel  (vii.  12)  ;  but  he  was 
also  called  to  prophesy  on  the  basis  of  this 
prophetic  sight,  and  he  did  so  (vii.  15). 

Kefeiring  to  tiie  prophet's  special  endue- 
ment  from  on  high,  he  was  called  a  man  of 
the  Spirit  (Hos.  ix.  7).  In  common  with 
other  ministers  of  God,  official  or  private,  he 
is  a  man  of  ({od,  a  servant  of  God,  a  messen- 
ger of  the  Lord,  a  shepherd  of  God's  people, 
a  watchman,  an  interpreter. 

That  the  prophet  was  to  be  raised  up  from 
the  i)eople  of  Israel  alone  did  not  prevent 
God,  who  worketh  when  and  where  he  will, 
in  caring  for  his  kingdom  to  send  a  dream  to 
a  Philistine,  an  Egyptian,  a  Midianite,  a 
Babylonian,  a  Roman  (Gen.  xx.  6 ;  xli.  1 ; 
Judg.  vii.  13 ;  Dan.  ii.  1 ;  Mat.  xxvii.  19). 
Even  Balaam,  who  was  a  soothsayer,  and  as 
such  was  invited  by  the  king  of  Moab  to 
curse  Israel,  was  temporarily  used  by  God. 
These  foreigners  were  in  momentary  contact 
with  the  kingdom  of  God.  For  its  protec- 
tion and  advantage  a  glimpse  of  the  future 
was  given  to  them.  They  did  not  thereby 
become  prophets,  any  more  than  did  Hagar 
or  Manoali  and  his  wife,  to  whom  the  angel 
of  the  Lord  appeared  and  afforded  a  glimpse 
of  the  future.  They  were  not  men  of  the 
Spirit,  the  intimates  of  God. 

The  prophets  were  taught  of  the  Spirit  of 
God.  In  this  God  worked  in  accordance 
with  the  psychological  nature  of  man.  An 
audible  voice  or  an  angelic  messenger  occa- 
sionally came  (Num.  vii.  89 ;  1  Sam.  iii.  4 ; 
Dan.  ix.  21) ;  but  the  instruction  was  ordi- 
narily imparted  by  dreams,  visions,  and  in- 
ward suggestions  recognized  by  the  prophets 
as  not  of  themselves.  They  were  not  under 
the  permanent  influence  of  the  Spirit.  The 
word  of  the  Lord  came  unto  them.  They 
waited  for  revelation  (Lev.  xxiv.  12).  And 
their  natural  mental  discernment  is  distin- 
guished from  the  divine  word  which  came  to 
them.  Samuel's  private  thought  is  distin- 
guished from  God's  (1  Sam.  xvi.  6,  7).  Nathan 
at  first  approved  of  David's  purpose  to  build  a 
temple  for  the  Lord,  but  afterwards  told  the 
king  that  God  had  forbidden  its  construction 
(2  Sam.  vii.  3).  The  prophets  did  not  exer- 
cise the  prophetic  power  at  all  times,  but 
when  God  told  them  to  speak. 

From  the  time  of  Samuel  the  office  was 
regularly  transmitted.  Though  the  prophets 
who  are  mentioned  by  name  are  few,  there 
were  many  anonymous  ones  (1  Kin.  xviii.  4; 
2  Kin.  ii.  7-16).  The  office  seems  not  to  have 
ceased  until  the  death  of  Malachi.  At  the 
approach  and  advent  of  Christ  the  tongue  of 
prophecy  was  again  loosed  (Luke  i.  67 ;  ii. 
26-38).  In  the  church  of  the  N.  T.  also  there 
were  prophets  (1  Cor.  xii.  28).  They  were 
not  an  t)rder,  like  apostles  and  elders.  They 
were  men  and  women  (Acts  xxi.  9),  and  they 
were  specially  illumined  expounders  of  God's 
revelation.     They  spake  by  the  Spirit,  occa- 


Prophetess 


597 


Proverbs,  The 


sionally  foretold  the  future  (xi.  27,  28;  xxi. 
10,  11),  and  taujjht  and  oxliortod  to  great 
edification  (1  Cor.  xiv.  ;5,  4,  21).  Paul  ironi- 
cally gives  the  title  to  a  heathen  writer,  who 
so  correctly  described  the  immoral  character 
of  the  Cretans  that  he  had  proven  himself 
to  that  extent  a  mouthpiece  of  the  truth 
(Tit.  i.  12). 

There  were  men  who  possessed  and  exer- 
cised the  prophetic  gift,  who  wvtq  not  offi- 
cially i)rophets.  David  was  a  prophet;  he 
wrote  of  Clirist;  but  lie  was  not  a  prophet 
officially.  He  was  king,  and  his  writings 
were  not  assigned  a  place  among  the  pro- 
phetic Scriptures.  Daniel  had  the  gift  of 
prophecy  in  an  eminent  degree ;  but  he  did 
not  devote  his  life  to  teaching  the  people;  he 
was  officially  a  statesman  and  governor  under 
Babylonian  and  Persian  kings.  His  writings, 
like  those  of  David,  were  placed  among  the 
Hagiographa  or  sacred  writings,  and  not  with 
the  works  of  official  prophets.  See  Canon. 
The  F'ormer  Pi'ophets  and  the  Latter  Proph- 
ets are  designations  in  the  Hebrew  canon  for 
the  authors  respectively  of  the  historical 
books  of  Joshua,  Judges,  1  and  2  Samuel.  1 
and  2  Kings,  and  of  the  strictly  prophetical 
books  beginning  with  Isaiah.  The  authors 
■were  prophets;  anonymous  in  the  case  of  the 
Former  Prophets,  but  named  in  the  case  of 
the  strictly  prophetical  books.  The  reason 
was  that  i>i"opbecy,  not  history,  required  au- 
thentication. The  designation  does  not  refer 
to  the  time  when  the  books  were  composed, 
but  to  the  respective  places  of  these  two 
groups  of  books;  Kings,  for  example,  being 
written  after  Isaiah,  but  holding  a  place 
among  the  Former  Prophets.  There  were 
great  prophets,  like  Elijah  and  Elisha,  who  did 
not  commit  their  discourses  to  WTiting.  They 
are  termed  oral  prophets  by  modern  scholars. 
The  literary  productions  of  other  prophets 
who  recorded  their  prophecies  are  cited,  ex- 
cerpted from,  and  incor]iorated  in  the  books 
of  the  Former  Prophets  and  other  Scripture. 
See  Book. 

Of  the  Latter  Prophets  Hosea,  Amos,  and 
Jonah  labored  in  the  northern  kingdom ;  the 
rest  exercised  their  office  among  the  people 
of  Judah  and  Benjamin,  either  in  Palestine 
or  in  the  land  of  exile.  Classed  chronologi- 
cally, they  are :  1.  In  the  Assyrian  period, 
from  shortly  before  the  accession  of  Tiglath- 
pileser,  745  b.  c,  to  the  decay  of  the  Assyrian 
power,  about  625  b.  c,  Hosea,  Amos,  and 
Jonah  in  the  north,  and  Joel,  Obadiah,  Isaiah, 
Micah,  and  Nahum  in  Judah.  2.  During  the 
Babylonian  period  in  Judah,  from  625  B.  c.  to 
the  fall  of  Jerusalem,  in  587  B.  c,  Jeremiah, 
Habakkuk  and  Zephaniah.  3.  During  the 
exile  in  Babylonia,  Ezekiel  and  Daniel.  4. 
During  the  period  of  the  restoration,  Haggai, 
Zechariah,  and  Malachi.  See  Music,  Naioth, 
School. 

Proph'et-ess. 

1.  A  woman  called  of  God  to  the  prophetic 


office.  Deborah  was  a  i)roj)lictess  (Judg.  iv. 
4).  The  Israelites  resorted  to  lier  for  judg- 
ment, and  the  Lord  revealed  his  will  through 
her  to  the  nation  (5,  6, 14).  Huldah  also  was 
a  jirophetess.  She  was  consulted  l)y  the  higli 
priest  at  the  command  of  the  king  in  regard 
to  the  teaching  of  Deuteronomy,  a)id  she 
declared  the  counsel  of  the  Lord  (2  Kin. 
xxii.  12-20).  Four  virgin  daughters  of 
Philip  the  evangelist  prophesied  (Acts  xxi.  9|. 
2.  A  prophet's  wife,  as  is  probably  meant 
in  Is.  viii.  3. 

Pros'e-lyte. 

In  the  X.  T.,  a  convert  to  Judaism.  The 
Pharisees  compassed  sea  and  land  to  make 
one  proselyte  (Mat.  xxiii.  15).  The  Roman 
poet  Horace  mentions  the  trait  as  character- 
istic of  the  Jews  (Sat.  i.  4. 142  and  143).  Pros- 
elytes were  present  when  the  jientccostal 
eflusiou  took  place  (Acts  ii.  10).  One  of  the 
men  chosen  to  look  after  the  poor  in  the 
early  Christian  church  was  Nicolas,  a  pros- 
elyte of  Autioch  (vi.  5).  They  were  quite 
numerous  in  Antioch  (War  vii.  3,  3).  At 
Damascus  great  numbers  of  women  were 
converts  to  Judaism  (ii.  20,  2).  The  cham- 
berlain of  queen  Candace  was  evidently  a 
convert  (Acts  viii.  27),  and  the  royal  family 
of  Adiabene,  east  of  the  Eui>hrates,  adopted 
the  Jew's  religion  (Antiq.  xx.  2-4).  At 
Antioch,  in  Pisidia,  many  proselytes  followed 
Paul  and  Barnabas  (Acts  xiii.  43).  The  rab- 
bins recognized  two  orders  of  proselytes.  One 
were  jiroselytes  of  righteousness.  They  con- 
sented to  be  circumcised  and  baptized,  and 
to  offer  sacrifice.  They  adopted  Judaism  in 
its  entirety.  The  proselytes  of  the  gate  or 
of  sojourning  were  much  less  advanced. 
They  agreed  to  observe  what  were  called  the 
seven  precepts  of  Noah  (see  Noah),  but  de- 
clined to  be  circumcised  or  to  embrace 
Judaism. 

Prov'erbs,  The. 

A  poetical  book  on  practical  piety.  It  follows 
the  Book  of  Psalms  in  the  Hebrew  collection 
and  also  in  the  Greek,  Latin,  and  English 
versions.  The  Hebrew  word  which  has  been 
rendered  proverb  embraces  more  than  a  max- 
im. It  includes  also  the  fable,  the  riddle, 
the  satire,  the  parable  (Num.  xxiii.  7;  Is. 
xiv.  4  ;  Ezek.  xvii.  2).  The  several  parts  of 
the  book  of  Proverbs  are  :  1.  Title,  i.  1-6,  de- 
scriptive of  the  entire  book  ;  declaring  the 
purpose  of  the  collection  to  be  "to  know 
wisdom  and  instruction;  .  .  .  the  words  of  the 
wise  and  their  dark  sayings,"  and  designat- 
ing it  the  proverbs  of  Solomon,  son  of  David, 
king  of  Israel.  This  title,  however,  docs  not 
affirm  that  the  book  in  all  its  parts  is  froui 
Solomon  (cp.  Ps.  Ixxii.  20,  although  each  psalm 
in  the  book  is  not  thereby  ascribed  to  David  ; 
see  titles  of  Ps.xlii.-l.).  2.  Main  contents.  I. 
Praise  of  wisdom,  i.  7-ix.  18;  a  didactic, 
poem  in  the  form  of  addresses  by  a  father  to 
his  .son.  and  specially  designed  for  young 
men.    II.  The  proverbs  of  Solomon,  x.-xxii. 


Proverbs,  The 


598 


Psalms,  Book  of 


16 ;  maxima  arranged  in  no  precise  order 
and  consisting  in  each  case  mostly  of  two 
contrasted  sentences.  III.  Without  formal 
superscription,  but  which  maybe  called  from 
the  opening  verse,  compared  with  xxiv.  23, 
the  word.s  of  wise  men,  xxii.  17-xxiv.  22, 
descriptive  of  the  evil  effects  of  wine  and 
drunkenness;  and  supplemented  by  the  say- 
ings of  the  wise,  xxiv.  2:}-.34,  in  regard  to 
the  sluggard.  IV.  Proverbs  of  Solomon 
copied  out  by  the  men  of  Hezekiah,  xxv.- 
xxix. ;  having  all  the  characteristics  of  the 
popular  proverb,  and  consisting  of  pithy 
sentences  not  only  of  two,  but  also  of  three, 
four,  or  five  parallel  clauses  each.  Three 
appendices:  (1)  The  words  of  Agur,  xxx. ; 
enigmatical  sayings  in  which  numbers  play 
a  significant  part.  (2)  The  words  of  king 
Lemuel,  xxxi.  1-9;  maxims  on  practical  life 
addressed  to  him  by  his  mother.  (3)  Praise  of 
the  virtuous  woman,  xxxi.  10-31;  a  poem  in 
which  each  of  the  twenty -two  verses  begins 
with  a  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet  in 
regular  order. 

The  particular  ascription  of  certain  sec- 
tions of  the  book  to  Solomon,  and  of  other 
sections  apparently  to  other  aiithorsliip,  in- 
dicates that  Solomon  was  not  the  author  of 
the  entire  work  ;  and  the  title  of  the  fourth 
section,  "These  also  are  proverbs  of  Solomon, 
which  the  men  of  Hezekiah  king  of  Judah 
copied  out,"  is  valid  evidence  that  the  book 
of  Proverbs  did  not  receive  its  present  shape 
before  the  reign  of  Hezekiah.  The  brief  in- 
troduction (i.  1-6)  fittingly  describes  the  en- 
tire book,  and  the  poem  in  praise  of  wisdom 
(7-ix.  18)  is  not  ascribed  to  Solomon,  and 
forms  the  preface  to  the  proverbs  of  Solomon, 
which  immediately  follow,  or  more  probably 
to  all  the  maxims  of  wisdom  which  consti- 
tute the  remainder  of  the  book.  The  intro- 
duction and  poem  may,  therefore,  be  safely 
attributed  to  the  hand  and  brain  of  another 
literary  man  than  Solomon,  and  dated  not 
earlier  than  the  reign  of  Hezekiah.  The 
second  and  fourth  sections,  chap,  x.-xxii.  16 
and  xxv.-xxix.,  or  nearly  two-thirds  of  the 
book,  are  ascribed  to  Solomon.  The  absence 
of  a  polemic  against  idolatry  has  been  urged 
as  evidence  that  the  proverbs  in  these  sec- 
tions originated  or  were  collected  after  the 
cessation  of  the  great  struggle  which  the 
pt-ophets  carried  on  with  encroaching  heathen- 
ism. It  may  with  equal  justice  be  advanced 
as  proof  that  these  sections  antedate  that 
.struggle.  If  the  absence  of  polemic  proves 
anything,  it  affords  evidence  that  these  pro- 
verbs were  collected  either  before  the  division 
of  the  kingdom  and  the  encroachments  of 
idolatry,  or  after  the  exile,  when  idolatry  had 
lost  its  attractiveness.  The  language  of  these 
sections  favors,  though  it  does  not  establish, 
the  ascription  to  Solomon,  for  it  is  i)ure  He- 
brew. It  is  free  from  foreign  orthography 
and  forms,  such  as  are  found  in  some  books 
which  were  written  immediately  before  the 
exile   or   subsequently  to   it.      Furthermore 


proverbial  literature  is  very  ancient.  It 
ai)])eared  early  among  the  Hebrews  also  (1 
Sam.  xxiv.  13;  2  Sam.  xii.  1;  Judg.  ix.  7). 
Tliat  Solomon  composed  and  collected  prov- 
erbs has  early  attestation  (Prov.  xxv.  1  ;  1 
Kin.  iv.  .32  ;  x.  1  seq.  ;  Ecclus.  xlvii.  13-17). 
The  titles,  therefore,  which  attribute  the 
maxims  in  these  two  sections  of  the  book  of 
Proverbs,  may  safely  be  regarded  as  authentic. 

Prov'ince. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  and  Aramaic 
M'dinnh,  jurisdiction,  and  the  Greek  Epnr- 
chia,  government. 

The  young  men  or  .servants  of  the  princes 
of  the  provinces,  who  fought  under  Ahab 
against  Benhadad  (1  Kin.  xx.  14),  were  not 
Israelites  (15).  They  probably  served  the 
chieftains  who  ruled  various  districts  in 
Gilead  and  the  Hauran,  and  made  common 
cause  with  Israel  in  resisting  the  encroach- 
ment of  the  Syrians  upon  the  country  south 
of  Damascus. 

The  provinces  of  the  Babylonian  and  Per- 
sian empires  were  divisions  of  the  realm  for 
administrative  purposes  (Dan.  ii.  49;  iii.  3). 
In  the  Persian  empire  the  province  was  a 
division  of  a  satrapy  :  for  under  Darius  Hys- 
taspis  the  empire  was  divided  into  twenty 
.satrapies;  but  under  Xerxes  the  provinces, 
from  India  to  Ethiopia,  were  one  hundred 
and  twenty-seven  (Esth.  i.  1 ;  Herod,  iii.  89) ; 
see  Satrap.  After  the  exile  Judah  was  at 
first  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  governor 
beyond  the  river  (Ezra  v.  3,  6),  but  by  royal 
decree  it  was  made  a  separate  province  and 
granted  a  governor  of  its  own  (ii.  63;  v.  8). 

The  provinces  of  the  Roman  empire  were 
of  two  classes,  imperial  and  senatorial.  The 
imperial  provinces  were  under  the  direct  and 
sole  control  of  the  emperor;  they  compre- 
hended all  the  frontier  provinces  which  were 
supposed  to  need  the  presence  of  an  army  of 
occupation  to  hold  them  in  subjection  ;  they 
were  governed  by  a  military  ollicer  called  a 
legate,  who  was  appointed  by  the  emperor  ; 
their  revenues  were  received  by  imperial 
agents  termed  procurators,  and  were  ]iaid 
into  the  private  exchequer  of  the  emperor. 
The  smaller  imperial  provinces,  and  parts 
of  larger  ones  like  the  suhprovinfe  of  Judasa, 
were  ruled  by  a  procurator  only,  the  presence 
of  a  legate  not  being  deemed  necessary. 
Cilicia  (Acts  xxiii.  34),  Galatia,  and  Syria, 
of  which  Judjea  was  a  part,  were  imperial 
provinces.  The  senatorial  provinces  were 
administered  by  the  senate ;  they  did  not 
require  to  be  kept  under  control  by  military 
force  ;  their  governor  was  styled  a  proconsu]. 
He  was  attended  by  quaestors,  who  received 
the  revenues  and  paid  them  into  the  public 
trea.sury,  which  was  managed  by  the  senate. 
Cyprus  (Acts  xiii.  4,  7),  Macedonia  (xvi.  12), 
Achaia  (xviii.  12),  and  Asia  (xix.  10)  were 
senatorial   provinces. 

Psalms,  Book  of. 

A  collection  of  religious  poems  which  were 


Psalms,  Book  of 


599 


Psaltery 


specially  employed  in  the  public  worship  of 
the  (iod  ol'  Israel.  In  llctirew  it  is  called 
Book  of  Praises.  The  title  in  tlie  English 
version  is  borrowed  from  the  Greek  transla- 
tion (cp.  Luke  x.x.  42).  The  general  designa- 
tion Psalms  of  David  is  derived  from  the  num- 
lier  of  p.salms,  seventy-three  in  all,  expressly 
ascribed  to  David  in  the  Hebrew  titles  (cp. 
lleb.  iv.  7). 

The  psalms  number  150.  They  are  divided 
into  five  books;  in  imitation,  it  is  thought, 
of  the  fivefold  division  of  the  Pentateuch  ; 
see  footnote,  Pent.\teuch.  This  division  is 
ancient.  It  is  indicated  in  the  Septuagint, 
and  is  marked  by  headings  in  the  Hebrew 
text.  Its  existence  in  the  chronicler's  day  is, 
however,  scarcely  evidenced  by  1  Chron.  xvi. 
35,  36,  compared  with  Ps.  cvi.  47,  48,  as  De- 
litzsch  believes,  for  the  passage  in  the  psalm  is 
as  probably  derived  from  the  words  in  Chron- 
icles as  vice  versa.  These  books  begin  respect- 
ively with  Ps.  i.,  xlii.,  Ixxiii.,  xc,  and  cvii. 
Each  book  is  arranged  to  close  with  a  doxology. 
In  the  first  book  all  the  psalms  are  attributed 
to  David  except  four  (i.,  ii.,  x.,  sxxiii.).  These 
are  so-called  orphan  psalms ;  that  is,  they  are 
anonymous.  In  the  Septuagint  all  except  i., 
which  is  introductory,  and  ii.  are  ascribed  to 
David ;  x.  being  united  to  ix.  and  xxxiii. 
bearing  the  title  "To  David."  The  divine 
name  Jehovah  is  generally  employed  in  the 
psalms  of  this  book.  In  the  second  book,  of 
the  thirty-one  psalms  the  first  eight  are  a 
collection  of  songs  of  the  sons  of  Korah. 
Seven  are  expressly  ascribed  to  them ;  and 
xliii.,  whether  written  by  them  or  not,  was 
composed  as  the  conclusion  of  xlii.  This 
group  is  followed  by  a  psalm  of  Asaph. 
Then  conies  a  group  of  twenty  psalms  at- 
tributed to  David  with  the  exception  of  two 
(Ixvi.,  Ixvii.).  Of  the  two  exceptions,  how- 
ever, Ixvii.  is  ascribed  to  David  in  the 
Septuagint.  The  book  closes  with  an  anony- 
mous and  a  Solomonic  psalm  (Ixxi.,  Ixxii.). 
In  this  book  the  divine  name  is  prevailingly 
Elohim,  God  ;  and  two  psalms  duplicate  two 
of  the  first  book,  substituting  the  word  God 
for  Jehovah  (liii.  and  Ixx. ;  cp.  xiv.  and  xl. 
13-17).  The  third  book  contains  seventeen 
psalms.  The  first  eleven  are  attributed  to 
Asaph,  four  to  the  sons  of  Korah,  and  one 
each  to  David  and  Ethan.  This  collection 
of  psalms  was  gathered  after  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem  and  burning  of  the  temple 
(Ixxiv.  8,  7,  8;  Ixxix.  1).  The  fourth  book 
likewise  contains  seventeen  psalms.  The 
first  is  ascribed  to  Moses,  two  to  David  ;  and 
the  remaining  fourteen  are  anonymous.  The 
Septuagint  gives  eleven  to  David,  leaving 
only  five  anonymous  (xcii.,  c,  cii.,  cv.,  cvii.). 
The  fifth  book  has  twenty-eight  anonymous 
psalms,  while  fifteen  are  assigned  to  David 
and  one  to  Solomon.  The  ascriptions  difler 
considerably  in  the  Septuagint.  This  col- 
lection was  made  late,  for  it  includes 
psalms  which  refer  to  the  exile  (cxxvi., 
cxxxvii.).     It  will  be  seen  that  the  composi- 


tion of  the  psalms  ranges  over  a  long  period 
of  time.  That  David  was  the  author  of 
l)salms  is  su])porte(l  by  abundant  early  testi- 
mony, direct  and  indirect.     See  David. 

The  titles  of  the  psalms  are  ancient.  They 
were  not  only  in  their  place  when  the  Greek 
version  was  made,  but  they  were  old  at  that 
time ;  for  musical  and  other  terms  which 
occur  were  not  understood  by  the  trans- 
lators. As  they  stand,  they  are  not  infallible  ; 
Ixxxviii.,  for  example,  luiving  two  titles. 

Technical  termsused  are  Neginah, a  stringed 
instrument,  and  its  plural  Negiuoth ;  and 
Nehiloth,  wind  instruments  (iv.,  v.,  Ixi.). 
Terms  probably  musical :  Alamoth,  maidens, 
perhaps  maiden  or  treble  voices  (xlvi.  ;  1 
Chron.  xv.  20);  Gittith,  a  cither  of  Gath, 
perhaps,  or  a  march  of  the  Gittite  guard 
(viii.,  Ixxxi.,  Ixxxiv.)  ;  Selah,  an  orchestral 
interlude  or  a  (diange  from  piano  to  forte 
(iii.  2) ;  Sheminith,  the  eighth  (vi. ;  xii.  ;  1 
Chron.  xv.  21).  Terms  indicative  of  the 
character  of  the  psalm  :  Maschil,  a  didactic  or 
reflective  poem  (xxxii.,  and  twelve  others) ; 
Michtam,  perhaps  epigrammatic  (xvi.,  Ivi.- 
Ix.)  ;  Mizmor,  a  lyric  poem,  regularly  trans- 
lated psalm  (iii.,  et  passim)  ;  Shiggaion, 
probably  a  wild  dithyrambic  (vii.  ;  Hab.  iii. 
1).  Other  terms  are  undeistood  to  indicate 
familiar  melodies  :  Aijeleth  hash-Shahar,  hind 
of  the  dawn  (xxii.)  ;  Jonath  elem  rehokim, 
the  silent  dove  of  them  that  are  afar  otf, 
or,  changing  the  pronunciation  of  the  second 
word,  the  dove  of  the  distant  terebinths 
(Ivi. );  Mahalath,  heaviness  (liii.,  Ixxxviii.); 
Muth-labben  (ix.) ;  Shoshannim  and  Shoshan- 
nim  Eduth  and  Shushan  Eduth,  lilies  the 
testimony  (xlv.,  Ix.,  Ixxx.).  The  songs  of 
ascents  or  degrees  were  probably  designed 
for  pilgrims  going  up  to  Jerusalem. 

Psal'ter-y. 

The  usual  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Nehel, 
when  a  musical  instrument  is  intended.  In 
four  passages  it  is  translated  viol  (Is.  v.  12, 
in  K.  V.  lute;  xiv.  11;  Amos  v.  23;  vi.  5). 
Nebel  is  doubtless  the  Greek  vabla,  which 
was  reputed  to  be  of  Sidonian  origin;  and  it 
is  usually  translated  by  this  Greek  M'ord  in 
the  Septuagint  (1  Sam.  x.  5  ;  2  Sam.  vi.  5  ;  1 
Chron.  xiii.  8;  xv.  16,  20).  The  body  of  the 
in.strument  was  made  of  wood  (2  Sam.  vi.  5; 
2  Chron.  ix.  11),  or,  later,  of  metal  (Antiq. 
viii.  3,  8).  The  strings  were  of  gut  (minnim), 
and  their  number  in  the  common  instru- 
ment is  unknowTi,  but  in  a  special  variety 
they  were  ten  (Ps.  xxxiii.  2 ;  xcii.  3).  It 
was  tuned  to  the  soprano  register  (1  Cliron. 
XV.  20).  It  could  be  carried  about  while  it 
was  played  (1  Sam.  x.  5  ;  2  Sam.  vi.  5).  The 
name  psaltery,  which  is  occasionally  given 
to  this  instrument  in  the  Septuagint  (Ps. 
xxxiii.  2;  Ivii.  8),  has  been  tliouglit  to  iden- 
tify it  with  the  mntir  of  the  Arabs;  but  the 
history  of  the  santir  and  its  name  seems 
to  be  as  follows:  The  Assyrians  used  a 
musical    instrument   consisting    of   a  long, 


Ptolemais 


600 


Ptolemy 


^ 


low,  horizontal  body  over  which  strings 
were  strung.  It  was  played  with  a  plectrum. 
See  illustration  under  Music.  The  Greeks 
adopted  it  as  the  twenty-stringed  magadis 
and  the  forty-stringed  epigoneiou.  Later  the 
magadis  received  the  name  psalterion,  and 
was  apparently  borrowed  with  its  new  name 
from  the  Greeks  by  the  Aramaeans  (Dan.  iii. 
5,  if  p'sant'rin  does  not  represent  a  different 
instrument  here)  and  by  the  Arabs.  By  the 
latter  it  was  called  santir.  In  the  light  of 
this  probable  history  of  the  santir,  the  iden- 
tity of  its  name  with  psaltery  is  seen  not  to 
identify  it  with  the  Hebrew  nebel.  The 
tradition  regarding  the  nebel  indicates  that 
it  was  a  kind  of  harp.  Josephus  saj's  that 
the  difference  between  the  kinura  [Hebrew 
Jcinnor,  harp]  and  the  7iabla  was  that  the 
former  had  ten  strings  and  was  played  with 
the  plectrum,  while  the  latter  had  twelve 
notes  and  was  played  with  the  baud  (Antiq. 
vii.  12,  3).  According  to  Eusebius,  the  psal- 
terion was  called  nabla  by  the  Hebrews  and 
had  the  metallic  sounding-board  above  ;  and 
Augustine  on  Ps.  xlii.  describes  it  as  having 
the  sounding-board  above  the  strings,  and 
not  below  as  in  the  cither,  the  strings  of  the 
psalterj'  being  stretched  between  a  curved 
arm  and  the  drum  or  resonance  box  in  which 
it  terminates  above.  Isidorus  and  Cassiodorus 
describe  the  psaltery  as  triangular  in  shape, 
like  the  Greek  letter  delta.  If  they  do  not 
confound  it  with  the  trigonon,  which  had  a 
triangular  frame,  and, if  they  correctly  give 
the  shape  of  the  psaltery,  it  appears  to  have 
resembled  the  upright  harp  which  Assyrian 
musicians  carried  while  they  played  it.  See 
illustration  under  Music.  The  original  form 
of  the  sounding-board  and  the  arm  probalily 
bore  resemblance  to  a  skin  bottle  and  its 
neck,  and  obtained  for  the  musical  instru- 
ment its  name  of  nebel,  bottle.  It  was  one 
of  the  instruments  which  the  company  of 
prophets  whom  Saul  met  were  playing  when 
he  came  in  their  way  (1  Sam.  x.  .5),  and  one 
of  those  used  at  David's  removal  of  the  ark 
to  Jerusalem  (2  Sam.  vi.  5).  When  he  per- 
manently organized  the  instrumentalists  into 
an  orchestra  for  the  sanctuary,  some  were 
appointed  toperform  on  the  psaltery  (1  Chron. 
XV.  16,  20,  28;  xvi.  5;  xxv.  1,  6)  ;  audit  was 
subsequently  in  continual  use  for  divine  wor- 
ship (2  Chron.  v.  12).  It  was  played  also  at 
festive  gatherings  (Is.  v.  12  ;  Amos  vi.  5).  It 
was  often  combined  with  the  harp  (1  Sam.  x.  5 ; 
2  Sam.  vi.  5  ;  2  Chron.  ix.  11 ;  Ps.  Ixxxi.  2  ; 
cviii.  2).  For  its  use  in  the  sanctuary,  see 
Music. 

Ptol-e-ma'is.     See  Accho. 

Ptol'e-my. 

The  name  borne  by  all  the  male  rulers  of 
Egypt  of  the  house  of  Lagus,  which  began 
with  Ptolemy  Soter,  one  of  the  generals  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  and  lasted  until  the 
Roman  conquest  of  Egypt  and  the  death  of 
Cleopatra.     The  early  Ptolemies,  especially 


the  first  three,  were  wise  and  efficient  rulers 
and  raised  Egypt  to  a  high  position  of  power 
and  influence.  They  held  many  foreign  pos- 
sessions, among  which  were  Phcenicia,  Ccele- 
syria,  Cyprus,  and  Cyrenaica,  and  for  a  while 
Palestine.  They  patronized  art,  letters,  and 
science,  and  raised  Alexandria,  their  cajjital, 
to  be  the  leading  university  center  of  Grecian 
culture.  They  were  friendly  to  the  Jews, 
encouraging  them  to  settle  in  Alexandria, 
granting  them  special  privileges  and  giving 
to  many  of  them  high  civil  and  military 
positions. 

The  later  rulers  of  this  house  were,  how- 
ever, weak  and  wicked.  Wars  with  their 
neighbors  were  frequent,  revolts  on  the  part 
of  their  people  at  home  became  common, 
incest  and  the  murder  of  relatives  were  well 
known  in  the  palace,  and  the  loss  of  all  the 
foreign  possessions  heralded  the  loss  of  the 
throne  itself 

Three  of  the  rulers  of  this  line  and  sev- 
eral men  of  humbler  rank  are  mentioned  in 
the  Books  of  the  Maccabees  : 

1.  Ptolemy  IV.,  called  Philopator.  He  was 
suspected  of  causing  the  death  of  his  father, 
and  his  first  act  on  coming  to  the  throne  was 
the  murder  of  his  mother  and  younger 
brother.  His  whole  reign  was  a  series  of 
debaucheries  and  crimes.  Encouraged  by 
the  weakness  and  profligacy  of  Ptolemy, 
Antiochus  III.,  king  of  Syria,  made  war  on 


Ptolemy  Philopator. 

him  with  a  view  to  wresting  Phcenicia  from 
Egypt,  but  was  utterly  defeated  by  the 
Egyptian  army  at  the  battle  of  Eaphia,  217 
B.  c.  (3  Mac.  1.  1-5).  After  this  battle,  Ptol- 
emy sacrificed  in  Jerusalem,  but  being  pre- 
vented from  entering  the  holy  of  holies,  at- 
tempted to  assassinate  all  the  Jews  in  Alex- 
andria in  revenge.  A  somewhat  fanciful  ac- 
count of  this  is  found  in  the  Third  Book  of 
Maccabees.     He  died  in  205  b.  c. 

2.  Ptolemj-  VI.,  called  Philometor,  began  to 
reign  in  181  b.  c.  ,  at  the  age  ofseven,  under  the 
regency  of  his  mother,  Cleopatra.  He  reigned 
for  some  years  alone  and  for  some  years 
conjointly  with  his  brother,  Physcon,  called 
Ptolemy  VII.  Later,  the  kingdom  was  di- 
vided between  them,  Physcon  ruling  over 
Cyrene  and  Libya,  and  Philometor  over 
Egypt  and  Cyprus.  His  generals  invaded 
Syria  and  so  came  into  contact  with  Antiochus 
Epiphanes,  by  whom  they  were  completely 


Pua 


601 


Publican 


defeated  at  Pelusium  171  b.  c.  Cyprus  also 
was  taken  by  Antiochus,  and  Alexandria 
would  doubtless  have  fallen  but  for  the  in- 
terference of  the  Romans,  who  began  at  that 


Ptolemy  Philometor. 

time  to  exercise  a  quasi  protectorate  over 
Egypt.  Philometor  interfered  frequently  in 
the  atlairs  of  Syria,  siding  one  time  with  the 
pretender  Alexander  Balas  (1  Mac.  x.  51-57) 
and  afterwards  with  Alexander's  rival,  De- 
metrius Nicator  (xi.  1-18).  While  engaged 
in  battle  in  Syria,  he  fell  from  his  horse,  and 
died  shortly  afterwards  from  the  efi'ects  of 
the  injury,  145  B.  c.  Ptolemy  showed  sjjecial 
favor  to  the  Jews.  It  was  by  his  permission 
that  Onias  built  a  Jewish  temple  at  Leon- 
topolis  copied  after  the  temple  at  Jerusalem. 

3.  Ptolemy  VII.,  Physcon,  also  called 
Energetes,  was  first  co-regent  with  his 
brother  Philometor,  170-164  B.  c,  but  after 
the  death  of  the  latter  reigned  alone,  145- 
117  B.  c.  He  is  sometimes  reckoned  as 
Ptolemy  VIII.,  his  nephew  Eupator,  son 
of  Philometor,  reigning  for  a  few  days  after 
his  father's  death.  The  early  part  of  his 
reign  was  a  series  of  crimes  against  his  own 
family  and  such  debauchery  as  alienated 
and  disgusted  his  subjects,  who  revolted  sev- 
eral times.  Like  his  predecessors,  he  inter- 
fered in  the  atfairs  of  Syria,  lending  aid 
first  to  Zabinas,  and  then  against  him.  He 
is  mentioned  (1  Mac.  xv.  16)  as  in  corre- 
spondence with  Eome,  and  it  is  probably  he 
who  is  meant  in  1  Mac.  i.  18. 

4.  Ptolemy,  a  general  of  Antiochus  Epiph- 
anes  (2  Mac.  iv.  45;  vi.  8;  viii.  8).  He  took 
part  in  the  expedition  which  Lysias  organized 
against  Judas  Maccabfeus  (1  Mac.  iii.  38).  It 
is  possible  that  he  is  identical  with  Ptolemy 
Makron  (2  Mac.  x.  12),  who,  first  served 
Ptolemy  Philometor  in  Cyprus,  then  passed 
into  the  service  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  and 
later  into  that  of  Antiochus  Eupator.  Fall- 
ing into  disfavor  with  the  latter,  he  ended 
his  life  by  taking  poison.  164  B.  c. 

5.  Ptolemy,  son-in-law  of  the  high  priest 
Simon.  He  murdered  his  father-in-law  and 
two  of  his  brothers-in-law  in  the  stronghold 
of  Dok,  near  Jericho  (1  Mac.  xvi.  11  seq.). 

Pu'a.     See  Puvah. 

Pu'ah. 

One  of  the  Hebrew  midwives  who  dis- 
obeyed the  command  of  the  Egyptian  king 
to  kill  the  male  children  at  their  birth  (Ex. 
i.  15). 


For  others  called  Puah  in  the  English  ver- 
sions, but  which  is  a  difl'erent  word  in  He- 
brew, see  PuvAU. 

Pub'li-can. 

A  farmer  of  the  Roman  taxes  and  customs. 
In  place  of  appointing  revenue  officers  to 
raise  fixed  taxes  from  the  community,  the 
Romans  and  their  deputy  princes  like  the 
Herods  were  accustomed  to  put  up  to  auction 
the  privilege  of  farming  the  public  revenues, 
or  some  specified  i)art  of  them,  in  the  several 
provinces,  cities,  towns,  and  districts.  Those 
who  bid  at  the  auction  were  necessarily 
wealthy  men  or  representatives  of  wealthy 
companies ;  for  they  undertook  to  pay  a 
given  sum  into  the  treasury  (in  publiaim), 
and  they  were  obliged  to  give  security  to  the 
government  for  the  sums  they  i)roniised  to 
pay.  In  some  cases  they  in  turn  sold  the 
right  of  farming  portions  of  the  revenue  to 
subcontractors,  in  others  they  engaged  a 
number  of  subordinate  agents  to  do  the 
actual  work  of  collecting  the  taxes.  They 
themselves  were  generally  Romans  of  eques- 
trian rank,  while  their  subordinates,  of 
course,  were  of  inferior  dignity.  The  sub- 
ordinates or  actual  collectors  of  the  taxes 
and  customs  are  called  publicans  in  the 
English  version  of  the  N.  T.  It  was  under- 
stood that  the  farmers  were  to  repay  them- 
selves for  their  labor  and  the  risk  they  had 
undertaken  by  taking  from  the  taxpayers  a 
fraction  more  than  they  paid  over  to  the 
government.  No  proper  means  were  adopted 
to  prevent  that  fraction  from  assuming  great 
proportions.  With  a  few  honorable  excep- 
tions, the  publicans,  great  and  small,  were 
extortioners  (cp.  Luke  iii.  12,  13 ;  xix.  8). 
They  were  unpopular  among  all  classes  in 
the  provinces,  except,  perhaps,  with  the 
Roman  governors,  who  often  received  part 
of  the  plunder  for  conniving  at  the  oppres- 
sions practiced.  Sometimes  the  subcontrac- 
tors, and  in  most  cases  the  subordinate  tax- 
gatherer,  in  the  conquered  countries  be- 
longed to  the  native  population.  Thus 
Zacchseus,  a  Jew,  seems  to  have  been  sub- 
contractor for  the  revenues  of  Jericho  (Luke 
xix.  1,  2),  and  Matthew,  or  Levi  (also  a  Jew), 
apparently  a  tax  collector  paid  by  the  farmer 
for  the  revenues  of  Capernaum  (Mat.  ix.  9) ; 
Mark  it.  14  ;  Luke  v.  27).  It  added  to  the 
unpopularity  of  the  Jews  who  accepted  office 
as  the  agents  of  the  Roman  publicans,  or 
themselves  became  farmers  of  the  revenue 
from  particular  towns,  that  they  raised  taxes 
for  a  foreign  and  heathen  government.  They 
were  not  admitted  into  society  ;  nay,  it  was 
considered  disreputable  for  anyone  to  be 
their  friend  and  associate.  It  was  one  of 
the  charges  brought  against  our  Lord  that 
he  ate  with  publicans  and  sinners  (Mat.  ix. 
10-13)  and  that  he  was  their  friend  (xi. 
19).  He  honored  them  by  choosing  one  of 
their  number  as  an  apostle  (ix.  9 ;  x.  3). 
Quite  agreeing  with  popular  opinion  as  to 


Publius 


602 


Punishment 


the  low  moral  state  of  the  average  publican 
(v.  46,  47  ;  xviii.  17),  he  still  invited  them  as 
freely  as  others  into  the  Christian  fold.  His 
kindness  touched  their  hearts,  and  not  a 
few  of  them  were  baptized  (xxi.  31,  32; 
Luke  iii.  12;  vii.  29;  xv.  1;  xviii.  13,  14). 
He  introduced  a  penitent  publican  into  his 
parable  of  the  Pharisee  and  the  publican 
(9-14). 

There  is  no  passage  in  the  N.  T.  in  which 
publican  signifies  the  keeper  of  a  public 
house. 

Pub'li-us. 

The  chief  man  in  the  island  of  Melita 
(Malta)  while  Paul  was  there.  His  name 
suggests  that  he  was  a  Eoman.  He  gave  the 
apostle  and  his  associates  hospitality  for  three 
days,  and  was  rewarded  by  having  his  father 
miraculously  cured  of  fever  and  dysentery 
(Acts  xxviii.  8). 

Pu'dens  [bashful,  modest]. 

A  Christian  at  Eome  who  joined  Paul  in 
sending  salutations  to  Timothy  (2  Tim.  iv. 
21).  In  an  inscription  found  in  that  capital, 
a  man  of  the  same  name  and  perhaps  the 
same  as  he  is  stated  to  have  been  a  servant 
of  Tiberius,  or  Claudius.  The  facts  that  in 
the  letter  to  Timothy  Pudens,  Linus,  and 
Claudia  go  together,  and  the  poet  Martial, 
who  went  to  Rome  about  A.  d.  66  and  abode 
there  many  years,  mentions  three  persons 
bearing  the  same  names,  have  suggested  that 
the  poet  may  have  referred  to  Paul's  three 
friends.  If  so,  Pudens  was  an  Umbrian,  who 
became  a  centurion  and  was  sent  on  military 
duty  to  the  remote  north  ;  and  Claudia  was 
the  wife  of  Pudens  and  apparently  of  Brit- 
ish origin,  being  probably  the  daughter  of 
king  Tiberius  Claudius  Cogidubnus,  men- 
tioned in  a  Latin  inscription  found  at  Chi- 
chester in  A.  D  1723.  With  the  sanction  of 
king  Tiberius  Oaudius  Cogidubnus,  a  man 
named  Pudens  gave  the  site  at  Chichester  for 
the  erection  of  a  temple  by  a  guild  of  car- 
penters. 

Pu'hites.     See  Puthites. 

Pul. 

1.  An  African  country  and  people.  The 
latter  are  coupled  with  Tarshish  and  Lud, 
apparently  all  three  being  skillful  in  archery 
(Is.  Ixvi.  19).  One  opinion  is  that  Pul  is  the 
island  of  Philae  on  the  Nile  in  Upper  Egypt 
on  the  confines  of  Ethiopia.  It  is,  however, 
more  probably  a  copyist's  error  for  Put  (q.  v.). 

2.  A    king    of    Assyria ;     see     Tiglath- 

PILESEK. 

Pulse. 

Leguminous  plants  or  their  seeds,  specially 
peas  and  beans,  which  are  eminently  nour- 
ishing. On  these  Daniel  and  his  companions 
desired  to  be  fed  (Dan.  i.  12, 16,  R.  V.  margin, 
herbs).  Parched  pulse  is  mentioned  in  2 
Sam.  xvii.  28,  but  the  M'ord  pulse  is  plausibly 
supplied  by  the  translators ;  it  is  not  in  the 
original. 


Pun'ish-ment. 

The  penalty  due  for  sin  inflicted  for  the 
satisfaction  of  justice.  So  Adam,  Eve,  and 
Cain  were  punished  by  God.  Punishment  is 
not  inflicted  for  the  good  of  the  offender. 
The  destruction  of  the  men  of  Sodom  for 
their  wickedness  was  not  intended  to  benefit 
them.  The  execution  of  the  murderer  does 
not  aim  at  his  reformation.  Chastisement, 
not  punishment,  is  intended  to  reform  the  of- 
fender. Nor  is  punishment  primarily  inflicted 
with  a  view  to  the  prevention  of  crime,  al- 
though thisisa  great  end.  The  civil  authority 
enforces  law  bj^  penalty  for  the  protection  of 
the  state,  since  purely  moral  considerations, 
such  as  the  inherent  righteousness  of  an  act 
or  the  sense  of  justice,  fail  to  prevent  men 
from  violating  the  rights  of  others.  Deter- 
ring the  evil-disposed  was  an  object  in  the 
infliction  of  punishment  which  the  Mosaic 
law  had  in  view,  but  it  was  not  the  principle 
on  which  the  law  was  based  (Deut.  xiii.  11 ; 
xvii.  13;  xix.  20;  xxi.  21).  If  the  preven- 
tion of  sin  were  the  main  end,  justice  would 
be  merged  into  benevolence  toward  the  citi- 
zens of  the  state.  Yet  the  chief  end  of  pun- 
ishment is  not  to  restrain  the  criminal  from 
further  crime  nor  to  deter  others  from  doing 
similar  acts  of  violence.  Sin  ought  to  be 
punished  irrespective  of  the  efiTect  which  the 
punishment  may  have  in  preventing  others. 
The  indignation  which  men  feel  toM'ard  the 
offender  himself,  when  they  witness  a  flagrant 
act  of  wrongdoing,  such  as  murder,  oppres- 
sion, or  cruelty,  and  the  demand  which  they 
instinctively  make  for  his  punishment  show 
that  they  discern  guilt  in  the  sinner,  and 
that  they  do  not  think  in  the  first  instance 
of  the  need  of  deterring  others  from  the 
commission  of  like  crimes.  The  wrongdoer 
is  punished  because  he  deserves  to  be.  So, 
under  the  Mosaic  law,  the  state  must  execute 
justice  and  punish  the  offender,  or  be  held 
guilty  of  participating  in  and  condoning  the 
crime  (Lev.  xx.  4,  5;  Num.  xxv.  4, 11  ;  Deut. 
xxi.  8;  Josh.  vii.  11-15).  The  people  must 
cleanse  Jehovah's  land  from  the  blood  of 
murder.  The  execution  of  the  murderer 
was  an  expiation  of  the  land  (Num.  xxxv. 
33,  34  ;  Deut.  xxi.  8). 

The  majesty  of  the  law  is  maintained  only 
when  the  punishment  bears  an  adequate  pro- 
portion to  the  crime  committed,  neither  too 
little  nor  too  much.  The  penalty  need  not 
be,  and  seldom  is,  an  exact  equivalent.  The 
penalty  for  theft  is  not  the  restitution  of  the 
stolen  property  nor  its  exact  value  in  money. 
Enforced  restitution  does  not  clear  the  thief. 
Law  has  been  violated,  guilt  incurred,  and 
punishment  is  demanded. 

The  laws  of  the  Hebrews  were  stern,  but 
the  punishments  were  not  cruel.  In  rare  cases 
the  family  of  the  criminal  was  extirpated  by 
the  immediate  act  of  God  or  by  his  express 
command  (Num.  xvi.  32,  33;  Josh.  vii.  24, 
25 ;  2  Kin.  ix.  25,  26)  ;  but  this  extent  of 
punishment  was  recognized  as  extraordinary ; 


Punishment 


603 


Punishment 


it  was  not  appointed  by  the  law  as  the  pre- 
scribed penalty  for  any  crime,  and  the  law 
expressly  forbade  that  fathers  should  be 
punished  for  the  children  (Deut.  xxiv.  16). 
For  a  special  case  of  impurity,  the  heinous- 
ness  of  which  was  aggravated  by  the  relation 
of  the  party  concerned  to  the  sanctuary  of 
God,  and  for  incestuousness  of  peculiar  ab- 
horrence, the  penalty  was  burning  with  fire 
(Lev.  XX.  14 ;  xxi.  9 ;  cp.  Gen.  xxxviii.  24). 
But  there  was  no  cruelty  involved.  The 
guilty  ones  were  not  burnt  alive  ;  they  were 
first  stoned  to  death,  and  then  their  bodies 
were  consumed  bj'  fire  (cp.  Josh.  vii.  15,  25  ; 
see  also  Deut.  xxi.  22,  23).  The  hand  of  a 
woman  who  had  used  it  in  a  .shameless  act 
to  assist  her  husband  in  his  struggle  with  an 
adversary  was  cut  off  (Deut.  xxv.  11,  12). 
Was  this  undue  severity?  Retaliation  for 
bodily  injury,  when  inflicted  willfully  and 
not  in  a  quarrel,  eye  for  eye,  tooth  for  tooth, 
was  legalized.  So  it  was  by  ancient  Greek 
law  and  by  the  Roman  laws  of  the  twelve 
tables.  In  the  later  Jewish  law  (Antiq.  iv. 
8,  35),  and  perhaps  in  the  earlier  law  as  well, 
a  ransom  in  lieu  of  the  maiming  might  be 
accepted  by  the  injured  person.  This  ex- 
emption was  based  on  Ex.  xxi.  29,  30  on  the 
principle  that,  since  in  so  great  a  matter  as 
the  infliction  of  death  by  one's  ox,  a  fine 
might  take  the  place  of  the  surrender  of  the 
owner's  life,  in  all  lesser  cases  of  injury  a 
fine  might  also  be  accepted.  In  its  humanity 
the  Hebrew  administration  of  justice  com- 
pares favorably  with  Roman  methods.  Un- 
like Roman  law.  the  Hebrew  penal  code 
did  not  authorize  the  punishment  of  the 
parricide  by  scourging  him  to  the  efi'usion 
of  blood  and  then  sewing  him  up  in  a  sack 
and  drowning  him;  nor  did  it  sanction  the 
torture  of  witnesses,  who  were  slaves,  and 
of  accused  persons  to  extract  testimony  (Acts 
xxii.  24;  see  Deaconess),  the  punishment 
of  the  condemned  by  stocks  and  cruel  scourg- 
ing (Mat.  xxvii.  26;  Acts  xvi.  24;  War  ii. 
14,  9),  the  mockery  of  those  about  to  be  exe- 
cuted (Mat.  xxvii.  27-31),  crucifixion  (26,  32, 
44;  Antiq.  xvii:  10,  10),  condemnation  of 
criminals  to  fight  with  each  other  as  gladia- 
tors or  with  wild  beasts  (1  Cor.  xv.  32  ;  War 
vi.  9,  2;  vii.  2,  1),  scourging  to  death,  starv- 
ing to  death  (see  Prison),  and  burning  to 
death,  not  infrequently  by  clothing  the  vic- 
tim in  a  shirt  steeped  in  pitch  and  setting  it 
on  fire. 

The  Hebrew  law  did  not  rudely  abolish 
established  usage,  even  when  custom  fell 
short  of  the  standard  erected  by  God  (see 
Slave,  Concubine.  Divorce)  ;  it  recognized 
the  people's  hardness  of  heart  (Mark  x.  5)  ; 
but  it  brought  custom  under  law.  checked 
excesses,  reformed  abuses;  it  took  .solemn 
account  of  man's  conception  of  right  and 
justice  as  prevalent  in  that  age,  guarded 
against  vengeance  and  vindictiveness.  satis- 
fied the  sense  of  justice,  and  thus  maintained 
the  august  majesty  of  law ;  and  it  set  higher 


standards  before  man  and  was  a  distinct  ad- 
vance toward  perfection.  The  form  of  puni- 
tive justice  was  further  determined  by  the 
essential  idea  of  the  theocracy,  which  re- 
quired that  not  only  crimes  against  the  state 
and  society,  but  also  violations  of  religious 
ordinances  should  be  punished.  The  relation 
of  the  Israelites  to  their  divine  King  re- 
sulted in  God's  punishing  sin  when  man 
failed  to  do  so,  and  in  God's  reserving  to  him- 
self the  right  to  punish  certain  specified  sins, 
e.  g.,  to  inflict  childlessness  (Lev.  xx.  4-6,20, 
21).  Furthermore,  the  administration  of 
justice  was  a  matter  in  which  the  entire 
community  was  concerned,  and  consequently 
the  people  participated  in  its  execution. 
The  people  stoned  the  criminal  condemned 
to  death. 

The  offenses  mentioned  in  the  penal  law 
were : 

1.  Violation  of  the  religious  duties  of 
the  covenant.  There  were  (1)  capital  offen- 
ses, which  the  human  tribunal  punished  with 
death.  They  were  five  :  sacrifice  to  idols 
Ex.  xxii.  20;  Lev.  xx.  2;  Deut.  xiii.  6-17  ; 
xvii.  2-7),  sorcery,  professed  intercourse  with 
a  familiar  spirit,  soothsaying  (Ex.  xxii.  18  ; 
Lev.  XX.  27),  profanation  of  the  Sabbath 
(Ex.  xxxi.  14,  15;  xxxv.  2),  blasphemy  (Lev. 
xxiv.  10-16),  and  false  prophecy,  whether 
uttered  in  behalf  of  heathen  deities  or  in 
the  name  of  Jehovah  (Deut.  xiii.  1-5;  xviii. 
20).  The  penalty  was  death  by  stoning.  In- 
stances of  the  infliction  of  the  death  penalty 
on  persons  charged  with  these  offenses  are 
recorded  in  the  history  ;  for  sacrificing  to 
idols  (2  Kin.  x.  18-25 ;  xi.  18 ;  xxiii.  5,  20), 
for  exorcising  the  dead  (1  Sam.  xxviii.  3,  9), 
for  profaning  the  Sabbath  (Num.  xv.  32-36), 
for  blasphemy  (1  Kin.  xxi.  13),  for  uttering 
false  prophecy  (xviii.  40 ;  xx.  27,  28).  (2) 
Offenses  punishable  by  cutting  off  the  offen- 
der from  his  people.  They  endangered  cov- 
enant institutions  and  the  fundamental  ordi- 
nances of  worship.  They  were  refusal  to 
receive  circumci.sion,  the  sign  of  the  cove- 
nant (Gen.  xvii.  14),  neglect  of  the  passover, 
the  covenant  sacrifice,  and  consumption  of 
leavened  bread  during  the  feast  of  unleav- 
ened bread  (Ex.  xii.  15  ;  Num.  ix.  13),  per- 
formance of  work  and  refusal  to  fast  on  the 
day  of  atonement  (Lev.  xxiii.  29,  30),  use  of 
blood  or  fat  for  food,  since  they  belonged  to 
sacrifice  and  atonement  (vii.  25-27 ;  xvii.  14), 
offering  elsewhere  than  at  the  sanctuary 
(xvii.  4),  slaughtering  .sacrificial  animals  with- 
out making  a  peace  offering,  and  eating  the 
peace  offering  after  the  prescribed  limit  (vii. 
18;  xvii.  9  ;  xix.  8),  use  of  the  holy  anoint- 
ing oil  and  the  incense  for  common  purposes 
(Ex.  XXX.  33,  38),  neglect  to  purify  one's  .self 
from  defilement,  and  eatingsacrifice  in  an  un- 
clean condition  (Lev.  xxii.  3;  Num.  xix.  20). 
The  punishment  of  cutting  off"  is  in  some 
instances  accompanied  by  the  death  penalty 
or  by  threat  of  divine  judgment.  When  ac- 
companied by  the  death  penaltj^  the  execu- 


Punishment 


604 


Purification 


tion  of  the  ofl'euder  was  committed  to  man. 
The  threat  of  diviue  judgment  reserved  the 
infliction  to  God  himself.  The  question 
whether  the  punishment  of  cutting  off  in  all 
cases  implied  death,  even  when  the  death 
penalty  was  not  expressly  annexed,  has  given 
rise  to  much  debate.  The  phrase  has  been 
interpreted  to  mean  excommunication,  as 
rabbinical  writers  understand  ;  or  loss  of  the 
rights  belonging  to  the  covenant;  or  death, 
which  in  breaches  of  the  ritual  was  intended 
to  be  commuted  to  banishment  or  deprivation 
of  civil  rights ,  or  death  in  all  cases,  either 
invariable  and  without  remission,  or  else 
voidable  by  repentance  and  use  of  the  means 
of  propitiation  for  ceremonial  defilement.  It 
probably  means  expulsion  from  the  fellow- 
ship of  Israel  or,  as  is  otherwise  stated,  the 
congregation  of  Israel  (Ex.  xii.  15,  19 ;  Num. 
xvi.  9;  xix.  13),  and,  whether  specifically 
stated  or  not,  includes  divine  intervention 
for  the  extermination  of  the  evil-doer  (Gen. 
xvii.  14  with  Ex.  iv.  24 ;  Lev.  xvii.  10 ;  xx. 
3,  5,  6 ;  xxiii.  30).  Accidental  breach  or 
mere  neglect  did  not  involve  this  dire  pun- 
ishment. Only  when  a  person  otfended  with 
high  hand  and  showed  bold  contempt  for  the 
law  was  he  cut  off  from  his  people  (Num.  xv. 
30,  31). 

2.  Unchastity.  (1)  Abominations  that  de- 
file the  people  and  the  land.  The  penalty 
was  death.  They  were  adultery  and  the  se- 
duction of  a  betrothed  virgin,  not  a  slave 
girl  (Lev.  xx.  10  ;  Deut.  xxii.  21-27),  unnat- 
ural lust,  both  beastiality  and  sodomy  (Ex. 
xxii.  19 ;  Lev.  xx.  13,  15,  16),  incestuous  re- 
lations with  mother-in-law  or  daughter-in- 
law  (11,  12,  14).  Unchastity  on  the  part  of 
a  priest's  daughter,  since  it  defiles  at  the  same 
time  the  father  who  was  set  apart  to  holy 
service,  was  punished  not  only  by  death,  but 
also  by  burning  the  body  (xxi.  9).  (2)  Un- 
clean, but  less  repugnant,  conjugal  relations 
were  punished  by  cutting  the  offenders  off 
from  their  people  or  by  childlessness  (Lev. 
XX.  17-21).  (3)  The  hand  of  a  woman, 
which  was  used  in  a  shameless  and  unchaste 
act  to  distress  the  adversary  of  her  husband, 
was  to  be  cut  off  (Deut.  xxv.  11,  12).  (4)  Un- 
chastity which  is  neither  adulterous,  un- 
natural, nor  incestuous.  The  seduction  of  a 
virgin  entailed  marriage,  the  payment  of  the 
usual  price  for  a  wife,  and  in  certain  cases  a 
fine  (Ex.  xxii.  16,  17)  ;  and  the  ravisher  was 
obliged  to  marry  the  maid  and  pay  her  father 
fifty  shekels,  and  forfeited  the  right  of  di- 
vorce (Deut.  xxii.  28,  29). 

3.  Insubordination  to  the  constituted  au- 
thorities. The  penalty  was  death.  (1)  Im- 
piety toward  parents :  striking  or  cursing 
father  or  mother  (Ex.  xxi.  15,  17;  Lev.  xx. 
9),  incorrigibility  coupled  with  habitual 
drunkenness  (De'ut.  xxi.  18-21).  (2)  Re- 
fusal to  submit  to  the  decree  of  the  priest  or 
judge  (xvii.  12).  (3)  Treason,  which  is  not 
treated  in  the  law.  but,  according  to  the  his- 
tory, was  punished  by  death  and  confiscation 


of  property  (1  Sam.  xx.  31  ;  xxii.  16  ;  2  Sam. 
xvi.  4  ;  xix.  29  ;  1  Kin.  ii.  8,  9  ;  xxi.  13,  15). 

4.  Crimes  against  the  person,  life,  charac- 
ter, and  property  of  another.  (1)  Willful  mur- 
der and  man-stealing  were  punished  by  death 
(Ex.  xxi.  12, 16 ;  Deut.  xxiv.  7) ;  see  Murder. 
(2)  Bodily  injuiy,  inflicted  intentionally 
or  through  carelessness,  was  punished  accord- 
ing to  circumstances  by  compensation  or  re- 
taliation, an  eye  for  an  eye,  a  tooth  for  a 
tooth  (Ex.  xxi.  18-36).  (3)  A  false  witness 
incurred  the  penalty  of  the  crime  for  which 
the  accused  was  on  trial  (Deut.  xix.  16,  19), 
and  a  false  accusation  against  a  young  wife's 
honor  was  punished  by  chastisement,  a  fine 
of  100  shekels,  and  forfeiture  of  the  right  of 
divorce  (xxii.  13-19).  (4)  For  injury  to  prop- 
erty the  law  required,  according  to  circum- 
stances, either  simple  compensation  or  a  fine 
paid  to  the  owner  and  amounting  to  several 
times  the  value  of  the  stolen  goods  (Ex. 
xxii.  1-15). 

The  punishments  recognized  by  the  Mosaic 
law  were  death,  chiefly  by  stoning,  and  in 
extreme  cases  the  burning  or  hanging  of  the 
body ;  chastisement,  the  stripes  not  to  exceed 
forty  (Deut.  xxv.  3) ;  retaliation,  compensa- 
tion, which  is  scarcely  a  punishment,  and 
fine ;  forfeiture  of  rights ;  and  in  a  special 
case  the  loss  of  a  hand.  Deatlr  was  some- 
times inflicted  by  the  sword,  spear,  or  arrow, 
but  without  the  forms  of  Hebrew  law  and  in 
extraordinary  cases  (Ex.  xix.  13  ;  xxxii.  27; 
Num.  xxv.  7;  1  Kin.  ii.  25).  The  sword  of 
the  magistrate  did  not  symbolize  Hebrew 
judicial  authority.  Imprisonment,  chains, 
and  stocks  were  used  by  the  authority  of 
priests  and  kings,  but  they  were  not  an  in- 
stitution of  the  early  days  of  the  Hebrew 
nation  (Ezra  vii.  26;  Jer.  xx.  2;  Acts  v.  40). 

Pu'non  [perhaps,  darkness  or  fog]. 

A  station  of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilder- 
ness not  long  before  their  arrival  in  Moab 
(Num.  xxxiii.  42,  43).  Probably  the  small 
town  called  Phainon  by  Eusebius,  in  the 
desert  east  of  mount  Seir,  between  Petra  and 
Zoar ;  cp.  Pinon. 

Pu'rah,  in  A.  V.  Phurah  [bough]. 

The  servant,  doubtless  armor-bearer,  of 
Gideon  (Judg.  vii.  10,  11). 

Pu-ri-fi-ca'tion. 

Under  the  Mosaic  law  these  were  of  four 
kinds  :  1.  Purification  from  uncleanness  con- 
tracted by  contact  with  a  corpse  (Num.  xix.  ; 
cp.  V.  2,  3),  not  a  carcase  (Lev.  v.  2).  For 
this  purpose  the  ashes  of  a  heifer  were  re- 
quired, a  female  animal  as  in  the  case  of  the 
sin  offering  for  the  common  people.  It  was 
necessary  for  the  heifer  to  be  red,  the  color 
of  blood  in  which  the  life  resides ;  to  be 
without  blemish,  and  never  to  have  been 
used  in  the  service  of  man.  It  was  slain 
without  the  camp,  its  blood  was  sprinkled 
toward  the  sanctuary,  and  the  carcase  was 
burned  together  with  cedar,  hysso]),  and 
scarlet.     The  ashes  were  gathered  and  pre- 


Purification 


605 


Purple 


served  without  the  camp.  When  needed, 
they  were  mingled  with  living  water;  and  a 
clean  pei-son,  with  a  bunch  of  hyssop, 
sprinkled  them  upon  the  unclean  on  the 
third  and  seventh  day.  It  only  remained 
for  the  defiled  to  wash  his  clothes  and  bathe, 
in  order  to  be  ceremonially  clean.  The  de- 
filement of  a  Nazirite,  whose  consecration 
had  been  interrupted  by  contact  with  a 
corpse,  was  of  greater  moment,  for  he  was 
specially  dedicatetl  to  ceremonial  purity. 
After  a  week's  separation,  on  the  seventh 
day  he  shaved  oil'  his  hair,  the  sign  of  his 
vow.  On  the  eighth  day  he  brought  the 
same  oflerings  as  a  man  who  had  been  defiled 
by  an  Lssue  or  as  a  mother  might  after  child- 
birth (Num.  vi.  9-12).  A  guilt  ofTeriug  fol- 
lowed (ver.  12),  preparatory  to  his  reinstate- 
ment as  a  Nazirite  ;  cp.  the  guilt  otrering  of 
the  leper. 

2.  Purification  from  uncleanuess  due  to  an 
issue  (Lev.  xv. ;  cp.  Num.  v.  2,  3).  On  the 
seventh  day  after  recoverj-,  the  unclean  per- 
son after  bathing  in  living  water  and  wash- 
ing the  raiment  was  clean  ;  and  on  the  eighth 
day  he  repaired  to  the  sanctuary  and  oflered 
two  doves  or  young  pigeons,  one  for  a  sin 
oflTering,  the  other  for  a  burnt  offering.  Un- 
cleanuess due  to  contact  with  a  jierson  having 
an  issue,  or  with  anything  rendered  unclean 
by  such  a  person,  was  in  ordinary  cases 
cleansed  by  a  bath,  the  uncleanness  remain- 
ing until  evening  (Lev.  xv.  5-11). 

3.  Purification  of  a  mother  after  childbirth. 
After  the  days  of  uncleanness,  which  were 
seven  for  a  man  child  and  fourteen  for  a  fe- 
male child,  were  over,  those  of  purification 
followed,  during  which  she  touched  no  hal- 
lowed thing,  lest  she  defile  it,  and  for  the 
same  reason  was  forbidden  access  to  the 
sanctuary.  For  a  son  these  were  to  continue 
thirty-three,  and  for  a  daughter  sixty-six 
days,  after  which  she  brought  a  lamb  of  the 
first  year  or,  in  case  of  poverty,  two  pigeons 
or  two  doves  for  a  burnt  ofiering  and  a  young 
])igeon  or  dove  for  a  sin  oflfering  (Lev.  xii.  8  ; 
Luke  ii.  21-24). 

4.  Purification  of  the  leper  (Lev.  xiv.). 
The  candidate  for  purification  i)resented  him- 
self on  the  appointed  day  at  the  gate  of  the 
camp,  later  at  that  of  the  city.  The  priest 
killed  a  clean  bird,  holding  it  so  that  the  blood 
flowed  into  an  earthen  vessel  of  living  water. 
He  made  a  sprinkler  by  binding  a  bunch  of 
hyssop  with  a  scarlet  cord  on  a  cedar  handle, 
and  dipped  the  sprinkler  and  a  living  bird 
into  the  bloody  water,  sprinkled  the  person 
undergoing  purification,  and  released  the 
bird  ;  see  Azazel.  This  much  of  the  ritual 
was  also  performed  in  purifying  a  house  of 
leprosy.  The  candidate  was  then  pronounced 
clean  ;  and  having  washed  his  clothes,  shaved 
off  all  his  hair,  and  bathed,  he  might  enter 
camp  or  city,  but  must  remain  outside  of  his 
habitation  seven  days.  On  the  seventh  day 
he  again  washed  his  raiment,  shaved  and 
bathed,  and  was  i  lean.     On  the  eighth  day 


he  appeared  at  the  sanctuary  with  two  male 
lambs  and  a  ewe  lamb  of  the  first  year  or,  if 
his  means  were  limited,  with  one  lamb  and 
two  doves  or  pigeons,  togther  with  a  meal 
offering  and  a  measure  of  oil.  One  he  lamb 
was  taken  for  a  guilt  ofiering.  The  priest 
put  some  of  its  blood  on  the  candidate's  right 
ear,  right  thumb,  and  right  great  too.  He  did 
likewise  with  some  of  the  oil,  after  sprink- 
ling a  little  of  it  before  the  Lord,  and  poured 
the  rest  on  the  candidate's  head.  The  cere- 
mony was  completed  by  offering  the  remain- 
ing lambs  or  pigeous  for  a  sin  ofl'ering  and  a 
burnt  offering. 

Pu'rim  [from  Persian  pur,  a  lot  (Esth. 
ix.  26)]. 

A  Jewish  festival,  instituted  to  celebrate 
the  deliverance  of  the  exiles  in  Per.sia  from 
the  wholesale  mas.sacre  of  their  race  planned 
by  Haman.  He  had  cast  pur,  or  a  lot,  to  as- 
certain a  favorable  day  for  carrying  out  his 
scheme.  The  festival  was  kept  on  the  four- 
teenth and  fifteenth  days  of  the  month  Adar, 
approximately  Februarj-  (Esth.  ix.  24-28). 
In  2  Mac.  xv.  36  it  is  called  the  day  of  Morde- 
cai.  Josephus  mentions  that  in  his  time  all  the 
Jews  in  the  inhabited  world  kept  the  festival 
(Antiq.  xi.  6,  13).  Some  have  thought  that 
the  feast  of  the  Jews  mentioned  in  John  v.  1 
was  that  of  Purim ;  but  the  statement  that 
Jesus  went  up  to  Jerusalem  is  opposed  to  this 
view,  for  Purim  was  celebrated  throughout 
the  land,  and  only  at  three  great  feasts  was  a 
visit  to  Jerusalem  compulsory.  Purim  was 
not  one  of  the  three.  From  the  time  of  its 
institution  it  has  enjoyed  great  popularity 
among  the  Jews.  On  the  evening  of  the  13th 
of  Adar,  which  they  keep  as  a  fast  day,  they 
assemble  in  their  synagogues.  After  the  even- 
ing service  the  Book  of  Esther  is  read.  When 
the  name  of  Haman  is  reached,  the  congrega- 
tion cry  out,  ■'  Let  liis  name  be  blotted  out," 
or  '"The  name  of  the  wicked  shall  rot," 
while  the  youthful  worshipers  spring  rattles. 
The  names  of  Haman's  sons  are  read  all  in  a 
breath,  to  indicate  that  they  were  hanged 
simultaneously.  Next  morning  the  people 
repair  again  to  the  synagogue,  and  finish  the 
day  in  mirth  and  rejoicing,  the  wealthy  giv- 
ing gifts  to  the  poor.  The  keeping  of  the 
Purim  festival  on  the  13th  of  Adar  from  age 
to  age  is  a  strong  argument  for  the  historic 
character  of  the  startling  incidents  recorded 
in  the  Book  of  Esther. 

Purple. 

A  color  which  in  ancient  and  modern  usage 
comprehends  violet  and  all  the  hues  inter- 
mediate between  violet  and  crimson.  In  an- 
cient times  it  included  crimson  and  other 
reds  (Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  ix.  61,  62;  Mark  xv. 
17  with  Mat.  xxvii.  28).  Purple  raiment  was 
costly,  and  consequently  its  use  was  the  priv- 
ilege of  the  rich  exclusively.  It  w^as  worn 
by  persons  of  wealth  and  high  official  posi- 
tion (Esth.  viii.  15;  cp.  Mordecai's  elevation 
to  office,  2 ;    Prov.  xxxi.  22 ;    Dan.   v.  7 ;    1 


Purse 


606 


Pygarg 


Mac.  X.  20,  62,  64 ;  2  Mac.  iv.  38  ;  cp.  31  ; 
Luke  xvi.  19 ;  Rev.  xvii.  4),  and  especially 
by  kings,  as  by  the  kinglets  of  Midian  (Judg. 
viii.  26).  Indeed,  it  was  a  sign  of  royalty 
(1  Mac.  viii.  14  ;  Homer,  Iliad  iv.  144),  and 
was  put  on  Jesus  in  mockery  of  his  claims. 
Rich  cloths  of  purple  were  used  as  coverings 
for  the  seats  of  princely  palanquins  (Song 
iii.  10),  awnings  for  the  decks  of  luxurious 
ships  (Ezek.  xxvii.  7),  and  drapery  for  idols 
( Jer.  X.  9).  It  was  largely  employed  in  the 
hangings  of  the  tabernacle  (Ex.  xxv.  4 ; 
xxvi.  1,  31,  36),  and  in  the  garments  of  the 
high  priest  (xxviii.  5,  6,  15,  33;  xxxix.  29). 
The  Jews  interpreted  the  color  symbolically 
(War  V.  5,  4). 

Purple  dye  was  obtained  from  various  kinds 
of  shell  fish  (1  Mac.  iv.  23 ;  War  v.  5,  4),  and 
was  yielded  by  a  thin  liquor,  called  the 
flower,  secreted  by  a  gland  in  the  neck.  The 
amount  yielded  by  each  fish  was  very  small, 
much  labor  was  required  to  collect  it  in 
quantity,  and  the  price  was  correspoudiugly 
great.  The  larger  purples  were  broken  at 
the  top  to  get  at  the  gland  without  injuring 
it,  but  the  smaller  ones  were  pressed  in  mills 
(Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  ix.  60).  Two  species  of 
Murex  were   used  by  the  ancient  Tyrians, 


Murex  Irunculus. 

Murex  trunculus  and  Murex  brandaris,  and 
yielded  crimson.  The  Murex  is  common 
throughout  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  but  the 
shade  of  color  varies  with  the  coast. 

Purse. 

A  bag  for  carrying  money  (Luke  x.  4  ;  xii. 
33  ;  xxii.  35),  which,  however,  was  not  a 
necessity,  as  money  was  often  carried  in  the 
girdle  (Mat.  x.  9,  R.  V.  margin).  The  purse 
or  common  treasury  of  the  disciples  was  in 
charge  of  Judas  (John  xii.  6;  xiii.  29,  R.  V. 
margin,  box)  ;  the  same  word  was  used  to 
describe    it   as   that    which    designated  the 


chests  for  ofi'erings  at  the  temple.  Before 
coins  came  into  use,  pieces  of  silver  and  gold 
of  various  sizes  and  shapes  were  tied  in  a 
bag  or  in  the  girdle,  or  rings  of  the  precious 
metal  were  strung  on  a  cord  (Gen.  xlii.  35 ; 
Prov.  vii.  20),  and  weights  and  scales  were 
carried  for  weighing  out  the  desired  quantity 
(Deut.  xxv.  13;  Mic.  vi.  11). 

Put,  in  A.  V.  Phut  in  Gen.  x.  6 ;  Ezek. 
xxvii.  10;  xxxviii.  5,  margin. 

A  people  related  to  the  Egyptians  (Gen.  x. 
6),  and  the  country  inhabited  by  them.  The 
prevalent  opinion  is  that  the  name  denotes 
Libya  in  whole  or  in  part.  It  is  mentioned 
in  association  with  Egypt  and  other  African 
countries,  especially  with  Lubim  (Nah.  iii. 
9)  and  Lud  (Ezek.  xxvii.  10;  and  Is.  Ixvi.  19 
in  Septuagint;  between  Cush  and  Lud,  Jer. 
xlvi.  9;  Ezek.  xxx.  5);  it  is  rendered  Lib- 
yans by  the  Septuagint  in  Jeremiah  and  Ezek- 
iel ;  it  is  also  identified  with  Libya  by  Jo- 
sephus  ( Antiq.  i.  6, 2)  ;  and  the  western  part 
of  Lower  Egypt  is  called  in  Coptic  Phaiat. 
Another  view  is  strenuously  defended  by 
Ebers  and  Brugsch,  which  connects  Put  with 
Punt.  Punt  lay  south  or  southeast  of  Cush, 
and  is  commonly  identified  with  the  Somali 
country  in  Africa,  east  of  the  straits  of  Bab 
el-Mandeb,  and  on  the  adjacent  coasts  of  Asia, 
near  Aden,  in  Arabia. 

Pu-te'o-li  [little  wells]. 

A  seaport  in  Italy  which  Paul's  vessel 
reached  the  day  after  it  had  been  at  Rhegium. 
The  apostle  found  Christians  there,  and  en- 
joyed their  hospitality  (Acts  xxviii.  13). 
Founded  in  the  sixth  century  B.  c,  it  was 
originally  called  Diciearchia,  and  was  the 
ordinary  landing  place  of  travelers  to  Italy 
from  Egypt  and  the  East  (Antiq.  xvii.  12,  1 ; 
xviii.  7,  2  ;  Life  3).  It  was  on  the  southern 
shore  of  the  bay  of  Naples,  near  the  site 
where  the  modern  city  of  that  name  now 
stands.  Its  old  name  of  Puteoli  still  exists, 
little  changed,  as  Pozzuoli.  The  whole 
region  round  is  volcanic,  and  the  crater  of 
the  Solfatara  rises  behind  the  town. 

Puth'ites,  in  A.  V.  Puhites. 

A  family  in  Kirjath-jearim  (1  Chron. 
ii.  53). 

Pu'ti-el  [probably,  afllicted  by  God]. 

Father-iu-law  of  Eleazar,  Aaron's  son  (Ex. 
vi.  25). 

Pu'vah  and  Puah ;  instead  of  first  form 
A.  V.  has  Phuvah  (Gen.  xlvi.  13),  Pua  (Num. 
xxvi.  23). 

1.  A  son  of  Issachar  and  founder  of  a 
tribal  family  (Gen.  xlvi.  13;  Num.  xxvi.  23; 
1  Chron.  vii.  1). 

2.  A  man  of  Issachar  and  father  of  the 
judge  Tola  (Judg.  x.  1). 

Py'garg. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Dishon, 
treader  or  leaper,  the  name  of  a-clean  animal 
(Deut.  xiv.  5).  The  pygarg  of  the  ancients 
was  a  white  rumped  antelope.     It  seems  to 


Quail 


607 


Qmcksand 


have  been  the  addax  (Antilope  addax,  or 
Addax  nuwinucidaius).  The  horns,  which  ex- 
ist in  both  sexes,  are  twisted  and  ringed.  It 
has  a  white  patcli  on  the  forehead,  and  the 
hinder  parts  are  grayish-white.  It  is  about  the 
size  of  a  large  ass.  It  is  a  native  of  north- 
eastern Africa  (cp.  Herod,  iv.  lH'i),  but  its 
range  extends  to  the  southeastern  frontier  of 
Palestine. 


Q. 


Quail. 

A  bird  which  the  children  of  Israel  twice 
during  their  journeying  near  Sinai  provi- 
dentially had  for  food  in  great  abundance. 
In  tlie  wilderness  of  Sin  the  birds  covered 
the  camp  on  one  evening  (Ex.  xvi.  12,  IS)  ; 
at  the  graves  of  lust  they  were  driven  by 
the  southeast  wind  from  the  sea,  and  fell  in 
vast  (juantities  in  and  around  the  camp, 
lying  in  places  three  feet  deep  (Num.  si.  31- 
34;  Ps.  Ixxviii.  26-31).  Each  time  it  was 
the  spring  of  the  year.  The  bird  was  called  in 
Hebrew  s'lar,  and  the  similarity  between  the 
Hebrew  word  and  the  Arabic  Sidtcd,  a  quail, 
proves  that  to  be  the  bird  intended.     It  is 


Quail  {ColurnLc  daclylisonang). 

the  quail  of  Europe,  not  of  America,  is 
called  Cotnrnix  dactylisonans,  or  communis, 
and  is  placed  in  the  Tetraonidx  or  grouse 
family,  and  the  Perdk-iuDe,  or  partridge  sub- 
family. It  is  the  smallest  species  of  the 
partridge  type,  being  only  about  7|  inches 
long.  Its  general  color  is  brown,  with  buify 
streaks  above  and  buff  below.  It  is  migra- 
tory, arriving  in  Palestine  from  the  south  in 
immense  numbers  in  March,  and  going  south- 
ward again  at  the  approach  of  winter.  Quails 
fly  rapidly  and  well,  and  take  advantage  of 
the  wind  ;  but  if  the  wind  changes  its  course, 
or  the  birds  become  exhausted  from  long 
flight  the  whole  immense  flock  is  apt  to  fall 
to  the  ground,  where  they  lie  stunned  (cp. 
Antiq.  iii.  1,  5).  In  this  condition  they  are 
captured  in  great  quantities  on  the  coasts 
and  islands  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea.     The 


Israelites  spread  the  quails,  which  they  could 
not  eat  at  once,  round  about  the  camp  (Num. 
xi.  32)  in  order  to  dry  them  in  the  sun  and 
air,  as  the  Egyptians  did  with  fish  (Herod, 
ii.  77). 

Quar'tus  [fourth]. 

A  Corinthian  t'hristian  who  joined  with 
Paul  in  sending  a  salutation  to  the  church  of 
Eome  (Kom.  xvi.  23). 

Qua-ter'ni-on. 

Four  united  persons  or  things;  a  guard  of 
four  soldiers  (Acts  xii.  4).  Four  quaternions, 
i.  e.,  four  companies,  each  of  four  soldiers, 
sixteen  in  all,  were  set  to  look  after  Peter 
when  he  was  in  prison  at  Jerusalem,  each 
quaternion  discharging  the  duty  for  one 
watch  of  three  hours.  During  the  night 
watches,  two  soldiers  slept  with  the  apostle 
in  his  cell,  while  the  other  two  mounted 
guard  before  the  door. 

Queen. 

The  consort  of  a  king,  or  a  woman  who 
reigns  bj'  her  own  right.  Vashti  and  Esther 
were  queen  consorts  (Esth.  i.  9  ;  ii.  22).  Even 
after  the  death  of  the  king  her  husband,  the 
queen,  especially  if  mother  of  the  new  mon- 
arch, retained  respect  and  influence  (2  Kin. 
X.  13) ;  for  the  practice  of  polygamy  made 
the  position  of  even  the  chief  wife  pre- 
carious, and  at  any  time  the  king  might  capri- 
ciously promote  over  her  head  some  one  of 
her  rivals;  but  the  queen  mother,  i.  e.,  the 
mother  of  the  king,  had  an  unalterable  rela- 
tion to  the  monarch,  and  was  often  the  most 
potent  female  jiersonage.  Three  queens  reg- 
nant or  women  who  occupied  the  throne  are 
mentioned  in  Scripture:  Athaliah,  who,  after 
perpetrating  a  massacre  of  the  seed  royal, 
usurped  the  throne  of  Judah  ;  the  queen  of 
Sheba  (1  Kin.  x.  1-13  ;  2  Chron.  ix.  1-12)  ; 
and  Candace,  queen  of  the  Ethiopians  (Acts 
viii.  27).  The  last  two,  it  is  believed,  came 
to  their  high  dignity  in  a  perfectly  legitimate 
way. 

The  queen  of  heaven  was  a  false  divinity, 
in  honor  of  whom  the  Jews  in  Jeremiah's 
time  made  cakes,  burnt  incense,  and  poured 
out  drink  offerings  (Jer.  vii.  18;  xliv.  15-30). 
She  was  probably  the  Phoenician  goddess 
Ashtoreth  (q.  v.),  partly  the  moon  and  partly 
the  planet  Venus  personified. 

Quick'sand. 

A  sandbank  which  moves,  quick  being  used 
in  the  nearly  obsolete  sense  of  living.  The 
quicksands  of  which  the  sailors  on  board 
Paul's  ships  were  afraid  (Acts  xxvii.  17), 
and  which  were  the  terror  of  ancient  mari- 
ners, were  two  in  number,  the  Greater 
and  the  Lesser  Syrtis,  the  ffirmer  consti- 
tuting the  southeastern,  and  the  latter  the 
southwestern  part  of  that  great  indenta- 
tion in  the  north  African  coast  south  of 
Sicily.  The  Greater  Syrtis,  now  called  the 
gulf  of  Sidra,  curves  inward  on  the  African 
coast  for  about  126  miles,  and  measures 
264   miles   between    the    two    promontories 


Quirinius 


608 


Babbah 


at  its  mouth.  It  is  shallow,  and  full  of 
quicksands.  The  Lesser  Syrtis  does  not  run 
so  far  inland.  At  its  mouth  it  measures 
about  69  miles  from  the  island  of  Kerkenna 
on  the  north  to  that  of  Jerba  on  the  south. 
It  is  dangerous  to  navigate,  owing  to  its 
winds  and  tides.  It  is  now  called  the  gulf 
of  Cabes. 

Qui-ri'ni-us,  in  A.  V.  Cyrenius  ;  the  former 
being  the  original  Latin  name,  the  latter  the 
modification  it  underwent  among  the  Greeks. 

A  Roman  who  became  governor  of  Syria 
(Antiq.  xviii.  1,  1).  Under  him  an  enroll- 
ment was  made  which  led  Joseph  to  go  with 
Mary  his  espoused  wife  to  Bethlehem.  This 
visit  to  Bethlehem  took  place  in  the  reign  of 
Herod  the  Great,  at  the  close  of  the  year  5  or 
beginning  of  4  B.  c.  The  enrollment  was  not  a 
local  atl'air,  but  was  made  in  pursuance  of  a  de- 
cree of  the  Roman  emperor  Augustus  that  all 
the  world  should  be  taxed.  This  was  the  first 
enrollment  made  when  Quirinius  was  gov- 
ernor of  Syria  (Luke  ii.  1-5,  E.  V.).  Quiri- 
nius was  made  governor  of  Syria  about  the 
time  of  the  deposition  of  Archelaus  from 
office  in  Judjea,  A.  t>.  6  (Antiq.  xvii.  13,  5)  ; 
but  it  is  probable,  as  Zumpt  has  shown,  that 
lie  was  twice  governor,  succeeding  Quintilius 
Varus  who  held  office  from  6  b.  c.  until  after 
the  death  of  Herod  the  Great  in  4  b.  c.  ;  and 
that  the  enrollment  was  merely  complelied  in 
the  time  of  his  first  governorship,  having 
been  begun  by  Sentius  Saturninus,  governor 
from  8  to  6  B.  c.  Satui-niuus  was  succeeded 
by  Varus.  The  first  enrollment  was  probably 
a  census  proper,  undertaken  to  ascertain  the 
population.  The  other  enrollment  during  the 
governorship  of  Quirinius  was  au  appraise- 
ment of  property,  was  made  in  a.  d.  6-7, 
and  was  the  occasion  of  disturbances  in 
Judiea,  stirred  up  by  Judas,  a  Galiltean  (Acts 
V.37;  Antiq.  xvii.  13,  5;  War  ii.  8,  1).  Luke 
connects  the  first  enrollment  with  Quirinius, 
without  mentioning  Saturninus  and  Varus, 
because  it  was  commonly  spoken  of  as  the 
firstenrollmentunder  Quirinius  in  distinction 
from  the  notable  enrollment  under  him  which 
gave  rise  to  the  tumults. 

A  brief  biography  of  Quirinius  is  furnished 
by  Tacitus  (Annal.iii.  48).  He  says:  "About 
this  time  he  [the  emperor  Tiberius]  asked 
the  senate  that  the  death  of  Sulpicius  Qui- 
rinius [which  occurred  in  A.  D.  21]  might  be 
celebrated  by  public  obsequies.  Quirinius 
was  in  no  way  related  to  the  old  and  patri- 
cian family  of  the  Sulpicii.  but  was  born  at 
Lanuvium,  a  municipal  town.  As  a  reward 
for  his  military  and  administrative  services, 
he  obtained  the  office  of  consul  under  Augus- 
tus [in  12  B.  c],  and  soon  afterwards  the 
honor  of  a  triumph  for  having  taken  the 
strongholds  of  the  Homonaden.ses  in  Cilicia. 
While  attending  Caius  Ctesar  as  rector,  when 
the  former  was  canipaiguing  in  Armenia,  he 
secretly  paid  court  to  Tiberius,  who  was  then 
at  Rhodes.     Tiberius  mentioned  the  fact  in 


this  letter,  praised  him  for  his  good  offices, 
and  found  fault  with  Marcus  LoUinus  for 
sowing  dissensions  between  himself  and  Caius 
Caesar.  But  to  other  people  the  memory  of 
Quirinius  was  by  no  means  dear,  because  of 
his  persistence  in  the  trial  of  Lepida  [his 
wife,  whom  he  had  convicted  of  adulteries, 
poisonings,  and  treasonable  dealings,  but  who 
yet  succeeded  in  gaining  the  compassion  of 
the  people],  and  also  of  his  sordid  avarice  in 
his  old  age,  although  very  powerful." 

Quiv'er. 

A  case  for  containing  arrows  (Is.  xlix.  2 ; 
Lam.  iii.  13).  The  Assyrian  archers  on  foot 
carried  the  quiver  on  the  back,  with  the 
opening  usually  at  the  right  shoulder,  but 
archers  who  fought  from  chariots  hung  the 
quiver  at  the  side  of  the  vehicle ;  see  illus- 
tration under  Bow  and  Ram.  The  Egyp- 
tians also  slung  the  quiver  across  the  back, 
but  they  seem  to  have  allowed  it  to  hang 
horizontally  and  to  have  drawn  out  the 
arrows  from  beneath  the  left  arm. 


K 


Ra'a-mah,  in  R.  V.  once  Raama  (1  Chron. 
i.  9),  the  Hebrew  spelling  in  this  instance 
[shaking,  quivering,  trembling]. 

Collective  name  for  a  Cushite  people,  asso- 
ciated with  Sheba  (Gen.  x.  7;  1  Chron.  i. 
9).  Men  of  the  two  tribes  brought  precious 
stones  and  gold  to  the  markets  of  Tyre 
(Ezek.  xxvii.  22).  Raamah  is  mentioned  in 
inscriptions  of  Sheba  as  a  place  near  Ma'in, 
in  southwestern  Arabia. 

Ra-a-mi'ali  [trembling  caused  by  Jeho- 
vah].    See  Reelaiah. 

Ra-am'ses.     See  Rameses. 

Rab'bah,  in  A.  V.  twice  Rabbath  (Deut. 
iii.  11  ;  Ezek.  xxi.  20),  the  Hebrew  form  when 
joined  with  a  following  word  [great,  i.  e.,  the 
capital]. 

1.  A  city  on  the  southern  tributary  of  the 
Jabbok,  23  miles  east  of  the  nearest  point 
on  the  Jordan.  It  was  the  chief  city  of 
the  Ammonites.  In  the  war  which  was 
waged  against  the  children  of  Amnion  to 
avetige  the  disgrace  put  upon  the  ambassa- 
dors of  David,  Abishai  drove  the  Ammonites 
into  their  city.  In  the  following  year  Joab 
besieged  them.  During  a  sally  from  the 
gate,  Uriah  the  Hittite  was  killed.  That 
part  of  the  city  lying  between  the  citadel 
and  the  river,  and  called  the  city  of  waters, 
fell  into  the  hands  of  Joab,  but  the  citadel 
held  out.  David  was  then  sent  for  to  com- 
plete the  conquest  and  associate  it  with  his 
name.  He  did  so,  treating  the  vanquished 
inhabitants  with  cruel  severity  (2  Sam.  xi.  1 ; 
xii.  26-31 ;  1  Chron.  xx.  1-3).  In  time  the 
Ammonites  recovered  the  city.  Judgments 
M'ere  denounced  against  it  by  Jeremiah 
(xlix.    2-6)  and   Ezekiel  (xxi.   20).     It  was 


Babbath 


609 


Rachel 


embellished  by  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  (285- 
247  B.  c),  and  in  his  honor  uametl  Pliiladel- 
l>hia,  thoii<rh  the  old  name  never  ceased  to 
be  used  by  the  natives.  Philadelphia  was 
the  eastern  limit  of  Pera-a  (War.  ill.  3,  3) ; 
and  it  was  the  southernmost  of  the  ten  cities 
of  the  Decajiolis.  The  commercial  highway 
between  Damascus  and  Arabia  which  skirted 
the  desert  passed  through  the  city,  and  there 
was  also  a  trade  road  from  Philadelphia  by 
way  of  Gerasa  and  Pella  to  Scythopolis.  The 
city  was  once  the  seat  of  a  bishopric,  and 
;imong  the  chief  ruins  are  those  of  a  churcli. 
As  in  various  other  cases,  the  more  modern 
name  has  lapsed,  and  'Amman,  a  curtailment 
of  Kabbath  Ammon,  has  taken  its  place. 

2.  A  city,  with  dependent  villages,  in  the 
hill  country  of  Judah  (.losh.  xv.  60).  Per- 
haps its  site  is  the  ruin  Kubba,  about  14 
miles  west  by  south  of  Bethlehem. 

Rab'bath.     See  P.\p.kah. 

Rab'bi,  and  Rabboni. 

A  doctor,  teacher,  or  master ;  a  respectful 
term  applied  by  the  .Tews  to  their  spiritual 
instructors  (^lat.  xxiii.  7;  .John  i.  38).  The 
later  Jewish  schools  are  s;iid  to  have  had 
three  grades  of  honor:  ran  (master),  the 
lowest;  rabbi  (my  master),  the  second;  and 
rabboni  (my  lord,  my  master),  the  highest 
of  all.  When  John  wrote,  the  termination 
which  denotes  my  had  lost  its  especial  sig- 
nificance as  a  possessive  pronoun,  for  John 
explains  rabbi  and  rabboni  as  meaning 
simjily  master  (John  i.  38;  xx.   16). 

Rab'bith  [multitude]. 

A  frontier  village  of  Issachar  (.Tosh.  xix. 
20).  Conder  doubtfully  identities  it  with  the 
present  village  of  Raba,  among  hills  8  miles 
south  of  mount  Gilboa,  and  7  southeast  of 
Jen in. 

Rab-bo'ni.     See  Eabbi. 

Rab'-mag. 

A  title  of  high  office,  borne  by  Nergal- 
sharezer,  a  chief  officer  in  Nebuchadnezzar's 
army  (Jer.  xxxix.  3).  Four  explanations 
have  been  offered,  none  of  which  rests  on  a 
sure  foundation.  1.  It  denotes  the  chief  of 
the  Magi.  According  to  this  view,  the 
Median  and  Persian  religious  caste  was  in- 
fluential in  Babylonia  in  the  reign  of  Neb- 
uchadnezzar, who  had  a  Median  princess  for 
his  wife,  and  its  head  man  accompanied  the 
array.  The  Magi  are,  however,  called  in 
Greek  3fiifioi,  singular  Mngoi.  which  appears 
in  Semitic  as  Mn(jiishn,  not  as  vmfi.  2.  It  is 
the  Hebrew  modification  of  rubii  imga,  ex- 
alted prince,  a  title  which  Nabuna'id  ascribes 
to  his  father  and  which  Nebuchadnezzar 
assumes.  The  word  imf/a  is  not  well  under- 
stoo<l.  and  its  long  initial  vowel  is  a  strong 
argument  against  its  identity  with  nxifi.  3. 
It  represents  rub  niahhu,  chief  prophet  or 
soothsayer,  who  appears  from  this  passage  in 
Jeremiah  to  have  accompanied  the  army,  as 
did  the  augurs  of  Rome.  4.  Since  wnh  denotes 
a  prince,  as  does  rab,  the  combination  priuce- 
39 


jirince  is  the  title  for  a  high  militar.v  official. 
IJut  such  a  title  seems  scarcely  distinctive. 

Rab'-sa-ris  [mh  sha  rcshu,  chief  who  is 
head,  the  latter  part  being  modified  to  suit 
the  Hebrew  ear  into  saris,  eunuch]. 

An  olKcial  title.  A  rab-.saris  accompanied 
the  armies  of  Sennacherib  and  Nebuchad- 
nezzar (2  Kin.  xviii.  17  ;  Jer.  xxxix.  3).  The 
officer  at  Nebuchadnezzar's  court,  who  is 
called  master  of  the  eunuchs  in  the  English 
version  and  whose  title  is  given  in  Hebrew 
as  rab  sarisiin,  perhaps,  held  the  same  office 
(Dan.  i.  3). 

Rab'sha-keh  [Assyrian  rab  shak,  head 
officer,  general]. 

Title  of  a  military  official,  associated  with 
the  tartan  and  the  rab-saris  of  Sennacherib  in 
command  of  an  expedition  against  Jerusalem 
(2  Kin.  xviii.  17).  On  this  occasion  he  con- 
ducted the  parley  with  the  officials  of  Heze- 
kiah  (19,  26,  27,  37i,  and  was  perhaps  head 
of  the  expedition  (xix.  8). 

Ra'ca. 

An  Aramaic  term  rela',  worthless:  an  ex- 
pression of  contempt  (Mat.  v.  22). 

Ra'cal,  in  A.  Y.  Rachal  [trade,  commerce]. 

A  place  in  Judah  to  which  David  sent  some 
of  the  recovered  spoil  of  Ziklag  (1  Sam.  xxx. 
29).     Site  unknown. 

Race.    See  Games. 

Ra'chab.     See  Rahab. 

Ra'chal.     See  Racal. 

Ra'chel,  in  A.  V.  once  Rahel  (Jer.  xxxi. 
15)  [ewe]. 

The  younger  daughter  of  Lahan.  She  was 
possessed  of  much  jiersonal  beauty,  and  .Tacob 
fell  in  love  with  her  at  first  sight,  when  he 
met  her  at  the  well  near  Harau,  in  Meso- 
potamia, where  she  was  watering  her  tiock. 
As  he  possessed  no  jiroperty  and  it  was  cus- 
tomary to  pay  the  parents  a  ]n'ice  for  the 
bride,  he  served  her  father  seven  years  for 
her,  and  then,  being  cheated  by  the  substi- 
tution of  the  elder  sister,  Leah,  who  was 
much  less  highly  favored,  served  another 
seven  for  the  younger  maiden,  the  only  one 
who  had  gained  his  afl'ections.  He  married 
her  also  (Gen.  xxix.  1-30).  and  she  became 
the  mother  of  Joseph  (xxx.  22-25)  and  Ben- 
jamin, dying  when  the  latter  was  born 
(xxxv.  16-18).  She  was  buried  a  little  to 
the  north  of  Ephrath,  better  known  as  Beth- 
lehem. The  grave  was  situated  at  a  place 
which  a  traveler  from  Bethel  would  reach 
before  he  came  to  Bethlehem.  Jacob  erected 
a  pillar  to  mark  the  spot.  This  jiillar  long 
remained  (19,  20).  It  was  near  Zelzah  (1 
Sam.  X.  2).  The  reputed  site  was  alluded 
to  l)y  Jerome  and  the  Bordeaux  ))ilgrim  in 
the  fourth  century,  and  is  accepted  as  cor- 
rect by  Jews,  Christians,  and  Mohammedans. 
The  erection  called  Kubbet  Rahil,  tomb  of 
Rachel,  is  a  small  building  like  a  mosque, 
with  a  dome.     It  has  an  open  apartment  to- 


Rachel 


610 


Rainbow 


ward  the  east  aud  a  small  enclosure  toward 
the  west.  The  preseut  structure  is  of  no 
great  antiquity. 


Tumi)  of  Rachel. 

The  prophet  Jeremiah  represents  Eachel 
as  weeping  for  her  children,  the  descendants 
of  her  son  Josejjh,  the  people  of  Ephraim 
and  Manasseh  who  were  in  captivity  (Jer. 
xxxi.  15 :  cp.  9,  IHK  At  Eamah  was  her 
voice  heard  :  not  because  the  prophet  foresaw 
that  the  captives  of  Judah  aud  Benjamin 
would  be  l)rought  to  Ramah  after  the  fall  of 
Jerusalem  before  being  led  into  exile  (xl.  1), 
for  Rachel  is  not  weeping  over  the  Jews ;  but 
either  because  a  town  called  Ramah  was 
perhaps  near  Rachel's  grave  (cp.  1  Sam.  x.  2  ; 
and  Ramah  2),  or  more  probably  because 
Ramah  was  a  height  in  the  territory  of 
Rachel's  remaining  children,  the  descendants 
of  Benjamin,  and  near  the  border  of  de- 
populated Ephraim.  whence  the  desolation 
of  the  land  was  visible.  This  picture  which 
the  projjhet  drew  of  weeping  Rachel  found 
fulfillment  in  the  slaughter  of  the  innocents 
at  Bethlehem  in  the  laiul  of  Judah  (Mat.  ii. 
18),  although  the  descendants  of  Leah,  not 
Rachel,  wept.  Rachel  looking  on  the  wasted 
land  of  Ephraim,  and  bewailing  her  slain  aud 
exiled  children,  was  witness  that  the  process 
had  liegun  which  terminated  in  the  posses- 
sion of  the  promised  land  by  foreigners,  the 
occupation  of  the  throne  by  an  Edomite, 
and  the  slaughter  of  Leah's  children  in  the 
endeavor  to  slay  the  legitimate  king  and 
destined  saviour  of  all  Israel,  Ephraim,  Ben- 
jamin, and  Judah  alike.  The  picture  of 
Rachel  found  more  than  a  counterpart  in 
the  sorrow  of  the  women  of  Bethlehem.  It 
found  completion,  and  it  found  renewed 
realization.  Rachel  wept  again,  this  time 
with  Leah.  Rachel's  hope  for  the  return  of 
her  children  to  the  Lord  their  God  and  David 


their  king  (Jer.  xxx.  9)  was  bound  up  in 
Leah's  yearning  for  that  son  of  David  m 
whose  days  Judah  should  be  saved  and  Israel 
dwell  in  safety  (xxiii.  fi).  Rjichel's  cry  was 
the  first  wail  of  that  lamentation  which  con- 
tinued through  the  centuries  and  was  heard 
at  Bethlehem  when  a  foreign  king,  in  hos- 
tility to  the  son  of  David,  legitimate  king 
of  the  Jews,  was  able  to  send  armed  men  to 
the  city  of  David  and  slay  the  children. 
The  process  begun  when  Rachel  first  wejjt 
was  being  completed.  The  jjrophetic  j)ic- 
ture  was  finding  final  fulfillment. 

Rad'dai  [cutting  under,  subjugating]. 
A  sou   of  Jesse,  and  brother  of  David  (1 
Chron.  ii.  14). 

Ra'gau.    See  Eeu. 
Ra-gu'el.     See  Reuel. 

Ra'hab  I.  [ferocitj%  insolence, violence]. 

A  poetical  name  for  Egypt  (Ps.  Ixxxvii.  4  ; 
Ixxxix.  10;  Is.  xxx.  7,  R.  V.;  Ii.  9).  In  Is. 
Ii.  9  it  is  parallel  with  dragon  ;  see  Dragon. 
In  Job.  ix.  V3  ;  xxvi.  12,  R.  V.,  especially, 
some  interpreters  understand  a  sea  monster, 
and  some  even  discern  an  allusion  to  the 
Semitic  myth  of  the  sea  monster  Tiamat 
who  attempted  to  reduce  the  ordered  uni- 
verse to  chaos,  but  was  subdued  by  the 
sun-god  Marduk.  This  interpretation  is  not 
necessary,  but  it  is  possible.  The  inspired 
poets  and  prophets  might,  of  course,  borrow 
the  creations  of  fancy  to  illustrate  truth  ;  cp. 
Leviathan. 

Ra'hab  II.,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  once  Rachab 
(Mat.  i.  .'))  [broad]. 

A  harlot  whose  house  was  on  the  wall  of 
Jericho.  She  harbored  the  spies  sent  by 
Joshua  to  explore  the  city,  hid  them  when 
they  were  searched  for,  and,  finally,  let  them 
down  by  a  cord  on  the  outer  side  of  the  wall, 
so  that  they  escaped  to  the  Israelite  camp 
(Josh.  ii.  1-24).  When  Jericho  was  taken, 
Rahab  and  her  family  were  spared,  and  in- 
corporated with  the  chosen  people  (vi.  22-25  ; 
Heb.  xi.  31  ;  James  ii.  25).  It  was  probably 
she  who  became  the  wife  of  Salmon  and 
the  mother  of  Boaz.  and  a  link  in  the  chain 
of  ancestrv  both  of  king  David  aud  of  our 
Lord  (Mat.  i.  5). 

Ra'ham  [affection,  tenderness]. 

A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Hezron,  house 
of  Caleb  (1  Chron.  ii.  44). 

Ra'hel.     See  Rachel. 

Rain.     See  Year. 

Rain'bow. 

A  bow  appearing  in  the  part  of  the  heavens 
opposite  to  the  sun,  con.sisting  of  the  ])ris- 
matic  colors,  and  formed  by  the  refraction 
and  reflection  of  the  sun's  rays  from  drojis 
of  rain  or  vapor.  It  is  exceeding  beautil'ul 
(Ecclus.  xliii.  11,  12).  After  the  flood  (iod 
selected  the  rainbow,  which  had  often  l)efore 
been  seen  in  the  sky,  and  apj)ointed  or  conse- 
crated it  as  the  token  of  the  promise  that  he 


Raisin 


611 


Eamah 


would  nut  again  destroy  the  eartli  by  a  flood 
(Gen.  ix.  12-17).  It  Itecanio  the  symbol  of 
God's  laithfulness  and  of  his  beneficence 
toward  man  (Eev.  iv.  '.i). 

Rai'sin.    See  Vine. 

Ea'kem  [variegated].  The  Hebrew  word 
is  elsewhere  rendered  Kekem. 

A  .Mauassito  (1  Chrou.  vii.  It)). 

Rak'kath  [a  shore]. 

A  fenced  city  of  Xaphtali,  and,  from  its 
etymology,  presumably  on  the  sliore  of  the 
sea  of  Galilee  (Josh.  xix.  3.5).  The  rabbins 
place  it  where  Tiberias  now  stands. 

Rak'kon  [thinness,  or  perhaps  a  shore]. 

A  village  of  Dan  (Josh.  xix.  4(5).  Conder 
suggests  as  its  site  Tell  er-Rekkeit,  2i  miles 
north  of  the  mouth  of  the  'Aujah,  and  6 
north  of  Jojipa. 

Ram,  I. 

1.  The  male  of  the  sheep  (Ezek.  xxxiv.  17) ; 
see  illustration  under  Sheep.  It  was  used 
as  food  (Gen.  xxxi.  38),  might  be  brought  as 
a  burnt  otlering  or  a  peace  offering  (xxii.  13; 
Lev.  i.  10;  viii.  IH;  and  iii.  fJ ;  ix.  4),  and 
was  appointed  for  a  guilt  or  tresjjass  ofl'ering 
(v.  1.5;  vi.  (j).  Earns'  skins  dyed  red  were 
used,  with  other  appliances,  as  coverings  of 
the  tabernacle  (Ex.  xxvi.  14),  and  rams' 
horns  as  war  and  api)arently  jubilee  trumpets 
in  the  time  of  Joshua  (Josh.  vi.  4-6,  8,  13). 
The  two-horned  ram  seen  by  Daniel  in  pro- 
phetic vision  was  the  Medo-Persian  power, 
the  first  or  smaller  horn  that  came  up  being 
the  emjiire  of  the  Medes,  the  second  or 
greater  horn  which  ro.se  at  a  later  period 
that  of  the  Persians  (Dan.  viii.  3-7.  20). 


Attack  on  a  ("ity  by  means  of  Battering-ram  and  Archers 


2.  The  battering-ram  was  an  instrument  of 
war,  used  to  beat  down  the  gates  and  walls 
of  a  besieged  city  (Ezek.  iv.  2  ;  xxi.  22  ;  War 
T.  R.  4).  It  consisted  of  a  log  of  wood  iron- 
pointed,  swung  by  ropes  from  a  support 
above  and  generally  within  a  tower  (War  v. 
11.  .5).  In  attacking  a  fort  or  city,  it  was 
often  necessary  to  throw  up  a  mound  of  earth 
to  serve  as  an  inclined  plane  and  enable  the 


besiegers  to  bring  the  battering-ram  and  other 
military  engines  again.st  the  walls  (Ezek.  iv. 
2) ,  see  also  illustration  under  Lachish. 

Ram,  II.,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Aram,  in  imi- 
tation of  the  Greek  form  [high] 

1.  A  man  of  Judah,  a  son  of  Ilezron,  and 
brother  of  Jerahmeel  (Ruth  iv.  I'J  ;  1  Chron. 
ii.  9;  Mat.  i.  3). 

2.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Hezron, 
house  of  Jeralimeel  (1  Chron.  ii.  25,  27). 

3.  A  descendant  of  Buz,  founder  of  a  fam- 
ily of  the  Buzites,  and  an  ancestor  of  Elihu 
(Job  xxxii.  2).  He  has  sometimes  been  iden- 
tified with  Aram  of  Gen.  xxii.  21  ;  but  Aram 
was  not  descended  from  Buz  (nor  rice  versa), 
and  Aram  and  Ram  are  different  names  in 
Hebrew. 

Ra'mah,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Rama,  in  imi- 
tation of  the  Greek  [a  height]. 

1.  A  town  in  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii  2.5), 
not  far  from  Gibeah,  Geba,  and  Bethel  (Judg. 
iv.  .5  ;  xix.  13,  14  ;  Is.  x.  29).  It  was  fortified 
by  Baasha,  king  of  Israel,  to  keep  the  jieople 
of  Judah  from  making  military  excursions 
northward  (1  Kin.  xv.  17,  21,  22;  2  Chron. 
xvi.  1-6) ;  hence  ajjjiarently  .south  of  Bethel. 
It  seems  to  have  been  the  place  where  the 
captives  of  Judah  were  massed  together  bc- 
foie  their  deportation  to  Babylon  (Jer.  xl  1). 
The  town  was  reoccupied  after  the  captivity 
(Ezra  ii.  26 ;  Neh.  xi.  33).  Accordnig  to  Jose- 
phus,  Ramah  was  distant  40  stades  from  Jeru- 
salem (Antiq.  viii.  12,  3).  Robinson  located  it 
at  er-Ram,  on  a  height  .5  miles  north  of  Jeru- 
salem. His  views  have  been  generally  ac- 
cepted. It  isnowasmall  Arab  village,  having, 
however,  hewn  stones  and  fragments  of  pil- 
lars, the  remains  of  antiquity. 

2.  A  town  where  the  parents  of 
Samuel  lived  (1  Sam.  i.  19;  ii.  11  ; 
cp.  with  i.  1),  where  he  himself  was 
born  and  had  his  residence  (vii. 
17;  viii.  4;  xv.  34;  xvi.  13;  xix. 
18,  19,  22,  23;  xx.  1),  and  where 
he  was  buried  (xxv.  1  ;  xxviii.  3). 
For  the  sake  of  distinction  from 
other  towns  of  similar  name  it  was 
called  Ramathaim-zophim  (cp.  i  1 
with  19,  etc.).  The  town  cannot 
be  located  with  certainty.  1.  It  has 
been  identified  with  Ramah  of  I^en- 
jamin.  On  this  theory  the  place 
is  rightly  described,  so  it  is  con- 
tended, as  situated  in  tlie  lull 
country  of  Ejdiraim  (1  Sam.  i.  1), 
and  it  is  different  from  the  un- 
named town  in  the  land  of  Zuph 
where  Saul  first  met  Samuel  (ix.  .5  seq  ). 
Robinson  called  this  identification  in  (lues- 
tion,  and  probably  justly,  although  his 
opinion  has  not  been  followed  by  all  authori- 
ties. 2.  It  lay  south  of  Benjamin,  for  (a)  The 
passage  1  Sam.  i.  1  does  not  clearly  locate 
Ramathaim  in  the  hill  country  of  Ephraim, 
but  rather  states  that  a  certain  man  of  the 
family  of  Zuph  dwelt  in  Ramathaim.  a  city 


Bamath 


612 


Raven 


of  the  Zophites,  who  were  a  branch  of  the 
Kohathite  Levites,  and  were  called  Ephraim- 
ites  because  their  assigned  liome  was  in  the 
hill  country  of  Ephraim,  whence  they  had 
migrated  (cp.  Josh  xxi.  5  ;  1  Chron.  vi.  22-26, 
35,  an  seq.).  (b)  If  this  be  the  true  interpre- 
tation, then  the  unnamed  city  where  Saul 
met  Samuel  is  doubtless  Raniathaim-zophim, 
for  it  is  in  the  land  of  Zuph.  This  district 
lay  outside  the  borders  of  Benjamin  (1  Sam. 
i.K  4-6),  and  south  of  Benjamin,  i.  e.,  in  such 
a  situation  that  a  person  going  from  a  city  in 
or  quite  near  it  to  Gibeah  of  Benjamin  came 
to  liiichel's  sepulcher  on  the  borders  of  Ben- 
jamin (x.2),  between  Bethel  and  Bethlehem 
(Gen.  XX.XV.  16,  19).  (c)  It  is  now  plain  why 
Saul  did  not  know  the  prophet  Samuel  by 
sight,  which  could  scarcely  have  been  the 
case  had  the  prophet  resided  at  Ratnah  of 
Benjamin,  only  2|  miles  from  Saul's  home 
(cj).  also  1  Sam.  viii.  1,  2).  3.  Another  loca- 
tion for  Ramathaim  may  be  sought  in  the 
territory  of  Ephraim  (Antiq.  v.  10,  2)  where 
the  Zophites  dwelt;  but  not  in  Benjamin 
and  not  the  nameless  town  of  1  Sam.  ix.  .5. 
Beit  Rima,  13  miles  northeast  of  Lydda, 
has  lieen  suggested.  Compare  with  caution 
Ramathaim. 

3.  A  town  on  the  boundary  line  of  Asher 
(Josh.  xix.  29).  Robinson's  location  of  it 
at  Rameh,  about  13  miles  S.  W.  by  S.  of  Tyre, 
has  met  with  favor. 

4  A  fenced  city  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  xix. 
36).  It  is  believed  to  have  lieen  situated  at 
er-Rameh,  about  5  miles  southwest  of  Safed 
and  17  east  of  Acre. 

5.  Ramoth-gilead  (cp.  2  Kin.  viii.  28  with 
29,  and  2  Chron.  xxii.  .5  with  6). 

6.  A  village  in  Simeon  (Josh.  xix.  8 ;  in 
A,  V.  Ramath).  It  is  doubtless  the  same  as 
Eamoth  of  the  South  (1  Sam.  xxx.  27)  ;  and 
was  also  known  as  Baalath-beer  (q.  v.). 

Ra'math  [height],  the  Hebrew  form  of 
Ramah  when  joined  to  a  following  word. 

A  village  of  Simeon  (Josh.  xix.  8,  in  R.  V. 
Ramah),  known  also  as  Ramoth  of  the  South 
(I  Sam.  xxx.  27).     See  Ramah  6. 

Ra-math-a'im,  in  A.  V.  Ram'a-tliem  [twin 
heights]. 

A  town  which  gave  name  to  one  of  three 
governmental  districts  which  were  detached 
from  Samaria  and  added  to  Judaea  (1  Mac. 
xi.  34;  cp.  X.  .30,  38).  Its  location  must  be 
sought  near  the  southern  border  of  Ephraim. 

Ra-math-a-im-zo'phlm  [the  twin  heights 
(of  the)  Zophites]. 

The  residence  of  Samuel's  father  (1  Sam. 
i    1)  ;  .see  Ramah  2. 

Ra'math- ite. 

A  native  or  inhabitant  of  any  town  called 
Ramah  (I  Chnm.  xxvii.  27).  Which  of  them 
is  referred  to  in  the  passage  is  not  known. 

Ra-math-le'hi.     See  Lehi. 

Ra-math-miz'peh.     See  Mizpah  2. 


Ram'e-ses  [Egyptian,  Ra-mesu,  son  of  the 
sun]. 

A  town  of  Egypt  in  the  most  fertile  dis- 
trict in  the  land  (Gen.  xlvii.  11).  It  was  in 
the  land  of  Goshen  (6).  By  Pharaoh's  orders, 
Joseph  located  his  father  and  brothers  there. 
The  store  city  Raamses  or  Ramses,  which  the 
Israelites  afterwards  built  for  Pharaoh  (prob- 
ably Ramses  II  ),  is  probably  meant  (Exod.  i. 
11)  ;  see  Egypt  III.  8.  When  the  exodus 
took  place  the  Israelites  marched  from 
Eameses  to  Succoth  (Exod.  xii.  37;  Num. 
xxxiii.  3). 

Ra-mi'ah  [exalted  is  Jehovah]. 

A  son  of  Parosh,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  25). 

Ra'moth  [high  places,  height]. 

1.  A  son  of  Bani,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  29).  "The 
R.  V.  reads  Jeremoth  in  the  text,  and  rele- 
gates Ramoth  to  tlie  margin. 

2.  A  town  of  Lssachar,  assigned  for  resi- 
dence to  the  Gershonite  Levites  (1  Chron.  vi. 
73) ;  see  Jarmuth. 

3.  A  town  in  Gilead  ;  see  Ramoth-gilead. 

4.  A  town  of  the  south  (1  Sam.  xxx.  27) ; 
see  R.^mah  6. 

Ra-moth-gU'e-ad  [heights  of  Gilead].  See 
Mizpah  2. 

Ram'ses. 

A  method  of  anglicizing  the  Egyptian  Ra- 
mean.     See  Phar.\.oh  and  R.a.meses. 

Ra'phah  and  Rapha  [he  has  healed]. 

1.  A  son  of  Benjamin  (1  Chron.  viii.  2) ; 
but  he  is  not  enumerated  with  those  who 
accompanied  Jacob  into  Egypt  (Gen.  xlvi. 
21),  and  was  probably  born  after  the  descent 
into  Egypt.  He  did  not  found  a  tribal  fam- 
ily ;  his  descendants,  if  there  were  any, 
were  included  in  other  families  of  the  Ben- 
jamites.     Compare  remarks  under  Nobah. 

2.  A  descendant  of  Jonathan  (1  Chron. 
viii.  37).  Called  in  ix.  43  Rephaiah,  a  syn- 
onymous name. 

Ra'phon. 

A  town  of  Gilead,  besieged  by  the  Ammon- 
ites, but  relieved  by  Judas  Maccabfeus  (1  Mac. 
V.  37).  It  was  apjiarently  not  far  from  Car- 
naim  (43).  It  maybe  identical  with  Raphana, 
which  was  one  of  the  original  cities  constitu- 
ting the  Decapolis,  and  was  situated  south  of 
the  sea  of  Galilee  and  east  of  the  Jordan. 

Ra'phu  [healed,  cured]. 

A  Benjamite,  father  of  Palti  (Num.  xiii.  9). 

Ra'ven. 

A  bird,  black  in  color  (Song  v.  11),  om- 
nivorous, feeding  even  on  carrion  (Prov.  xxx. 
17),  and  hence  ceremonially  unclean  (Lev. 
xi.  15).  Noah  .sent  one  forth  from  the  ark. 
It  did  not  return  to  him,  finding,  doubtles.s, 
floating  carcases  on  which  it  was  able  to  feed 
(Gen.  viii.  7).  It  frequents  valleys  (Prov. 
xxx.  17),  and  makes  its  nest  in  solitary 
places  (Is.  xxxiv.  11).     By  divine  providence 


r 


Razor 


613 


Rechah 


raveus  fed  Elijah  with  bread  and  flesh  morn- 
ing and  evening  at  tlie  l)rook  Cherith  during 
the  drought  and  famine  (1  Km.  xvii.  2-7). 
Tlie  consonants  of  the  words  for  ravens  and 
Arabians  are  the  siime  in  Helirew  ;  and  when 
the  text  is  written  witliout  vowels,  as  origin- 
ally, it  is  impossible  to  determine,  if  the 
context  does  not  decide,  whether  Arabs  or 


Ka\cu. 

ravens  are  meant.  It  is  generally  admitted 
now  that  the  Septuagint  and  Vulgate  are 
right,  and  that  the  Hebrew  writer  intends  to 
state  that  Elijah  was  fed  by  ravens.  The  bird 
referred  to  in  Scripture  is  undoubtedly  the 
common  raven  (Corrtis  corax],  which  is  found 
in  every  part  of  Palestine.  It  is  black, 
with  steel-i)lue  and  ])urple  iridescence,  and  is 
about  2f)  inches  long.  The  name  is  broad 
enough,  however,  to  include  other  Corridx. 
Another  species  (Cornifs  umhiitiitx)  occurs  in 
southern  Palestine  and  in  the  valley  of  the 
Jordan. 

Ra'zor. 

A  sharp  instrument  for  removing  the  beard 
or  hair  (Is.  vii.  20;  Ezek.  v.  1).  See  Knife, 
Beard,  H.\ir. 

Re-a'iali,  in  A.  V.  once  Reaia  (1  Chron. 
V.  5)  [Jehovah  has  seen,  or  provided  for]. 

1.  A  son  of  Shobal,  and  descended  from 
Judah  through  Hezron  (1  Chron.  iv.  2), 
called  in  ii.  52  Haroeh.  i.  e..  the  seeing  One. 

2.  A  Reubenite  (1  Chron.  v.  5). 

3.  Founder  of  a  family  of  Nethinim,  mem- 
bers of  which  returned  from  captivity  (Ezra 
ii.  47  ;  Xeli.  vii.  50). 

Re'ba  [perhaps,  a  fourth  part  or  quarter]. 

One  of  the  five  !Midianite  kings,  allies  or 
vassals  of  Sihon,  slain  by  the  Israelites  in 
the  war  waged  by  Moses  against  Midian, 
because  they  seduced  Israel  to  licentious 
idolatry  (Xum.  xxxi.  8;  Josh.  xiii.  21). 

Re-bek'ah,  iu  X.  T.  Rebecca  (Rom.  ix.  10) 
[a  rope  with  a  noose,  ;'.  e..  a  young  woman 
whose  beauty  ensnares  menl. 

A  daughter  of  Bethuel.  When  she  came 
with  her  pitcher  to  a  well  near  the  city  of 


Xahor,  in  Mesopotamia,  the  .servant  of  Abra- 
ham, who  had  been  sent  to  obtain  a  wife  for 
Isaac,  presented  himself  and  asked  permis- 
sion to  drink  from  her  i>itcher.  She  not  only 
granted  his  request,  but  volunteered  to  draw 
water  for  his  camels.  He  had  asked  (lod  for 
this  very  sign  ;  her  conduct  showed  that  she 
was  of  a  generous  disposition,  lie  sjiw  that 
she  was  beautiful ;  and  he  at  once  gave  her 
expensive  presents,  as  for  a  future  bride.  He 
did  not  at  the  time  know  her  name,  but 
asked  what  it  was,  and  then  added  the  in- 
quiry whether  he  might  lodge  at  her  father's 
house.  She  was  w'illing ,  and  when  her 
brother  Laban's  consent  had  been  obtained, 
the  delegate  took  up  his  temporary  residence 
in  their  dwelling,  and  explained  the  object 
of  his  journey  to  Mesopotamia.  He  ended 
by  petitioning  that  Rebekah  should  accom- 
pany him  to  Canaan  and  become  the  wife  of 
Isaac.  Laban  gave  his  consent,  and  the 
maiden,  adding  hers,  went  with  the  servant, 
married  Isaac,  and  became  the  mother  of 
Esau  and  Jacob  ((ien.  xxiv.  l-fi").  She  pre- 
ferred Jacob  to  Esau  ;  and  although  she  had 
the  jirophecy  that  Jacob  should  have  the  pre- 
eminence, she  did  not  leave  the  matter  in 
God's  hands,  but  suggested  a  deceit  by  which 
the  younger  obtained  the  bles.sing  belonging 
by  birth  to  the  elder  (xxv.  28 ,  xxvii.  1- 
xxviii.  5).  She  died  apparently  while  Jacob 
was  in  Mesopotamia,  and  was  buried  in  the 
cave  of  Machpelah  (xlix.  31).  • 

Re'cah,  in  A.  V.  Recbah. 
An  unknown  place  in  the  tribe  of  Judah 
(1  Chron.  iv.  12). 

Re'cbab  [a  horseman]. 

1.  A  son  of  Rimmon.  a  Beerothite.  He 
was  a  captain  of  a  band  under  Ish-bosbeth 
and  one  of  Ish-bosheth's  murderers  (2  Sam. 
iv.  2,  6). 

2.  A  Kenite  (1  Chron.  ii.  .55),  ftither  of  that 
Jehonadab  who  was  invited  by  Jehu  to  mount 
his  chariot  and  see  his  zeal  for  the  Lord 
(2  Kin.  X.  15.  23i,  and  who  placed  his  tribe 
under  a  rule  of  life.     See  Rechakitep. 

3.  Father  of  Malehijah,  the  ruler  of  Beth- 
haccherem  (Xeh  iii.  14). 

Re'ehab-ites. 

A  Kenite  tribe,  which  dwelt  among  the 
Israelites.  Their  chief  Jonadab.  son  of 
Eechab,  commanded  them  to  abstain  from 
wine  and  all  intoxicating  li<|Uor,  not  to  live 
in  houses,  or  plant  or  j>ossess  vineyards,  but 
to  dwell  in  tents.  The  object  of  these  regu- 
lations was  the  preservation  of  primitive 
simplicity  of  manners.  When  Jeremiah 
tested  their  obedience  years  later  he  found 
them  faithful.  A  promise  was  therefore  given 
them  that  they  sliould  never  want  a  man  to 
represent  them  in  all  succeeding  time  (.Ter. 
XXXV.  1-19).  Professed  descendants  of  the 
sect  still  exist  in  Mesopotamia  and  Yemen. 

Re'cbah.    See  Eecah. 


Red  Sea 


614 


Eeed 


I 


Red  Sea. 

The  name,  borrowed  from  the  Septuagint, 
for  the  sea  called  by  the  Hebrews  Yam  su2)h, 
or  sea  of  sedge.  The  Greek  term,  of  which 
Eed  Sea  is  the  literal  translation,  is  Eruthra 
Thalassa,  often  rendered  Erythraiau  Sea. 
The  name  probably  denotes  .sea  of  king 
Erythras,  a  fabulous  hero,  representative  of 
the  red-skinned  peojde,  including  Edomites, 
Himyarites, and  original  Phoenicians;  or  else 
sea  of  the  red  land,  contrasted  with  the  l)lack 
spil  of  Egypt  (Ebers).  Speaking  of  the  Eed 
Sea  of  modern  geography,  Dawson  says : 
"  The  Eocene  and  Cretaceous  limestones  as- 
sume by  weathering  a  rich  reddish-brown 
hue,  and  under  the  evening  sun  the  eastern 
range  glows  with  a  ruddy  radiance,  which  in 
the  morning  is  equally  seen  on  the  western 
cliffs,  while  these  colors  contrast  with  the 
clear  greenish-blue  of  the  sea  itself.  Such 
an  appearance  would  naturally  suggest  to 
early  voyagers  the  name  Red  Sea  "  {E(jypt  and 
Syria,  59).  By  the  designation  Erythrsean 
Sea,  the  ancients  undenstood  not  merely 
the  Eed  Sea  as  limited  by  modern  geogra- 
phers, but  also  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  ulti- 
mately the  Persian  Gulf.  The  Hebrew  term 
Yam  siiph  denotes  the  Red  Sea  of  modern 
geography,  or  at  least  so  much  of  it  as  em- 
braces the  peninsula  of  Sinai ;  for  it  lay  to 
the  east  of  Egy])t  (Ex.  x.  19),  on  it  was  an 
encampment  of  the  Israelites  not  far  from 
Sinai  (Num.  xxxiii.  10,  11),  by  taking  the 
way  of  the  Ynm  suph  the  Israelites  com- 
passed the  land  of  Edom  (xxi.  4),  and  Ezion- 
geber  in  the  land  of  Edom  was  on  this  sea 
(1  Kin.  ix.  26).  The  Yam  suph  was  crossed 
by  the  Israelites,  and  the  pursuing  Egyptian 
hosts  sank  into  its  depths  (Ex.  xv.  4,  22). 
Brugsch  advocated  the  view  that  the  sea 
crossed  was  not  the  Eed  Sea,  but  the  weedy 
Serbonian  bog,  which  is  separated  from  the 
Mediterranean  by  a  narrow  isthmus.  The  gen- 
eral opinion,  however,  based  on  constant  Scrip- 
ture representation,  is  that  the  sea  crossed 
by  the  Israelites  was  the  gulf  of  Suez,  the 
most  northwesterly  prolongation  of  the  Red 
Sea.  The  Eed  .Sea  is  about  1490  miles  long, 
with  an  average  breadth  of  about  150  miles. 
At  its  northern  part  it  terminates  in  two 
gulfs,  Suez  and  Akaba,  which  enclose  be- 
tween them  the  Sinaitic  Peninsula.  The  gulf 
of  Suez  is  about  180  miles  long  by  20  broad  ; 
but  it  formerly  extended  fiirther  north- 
ward, and  included,  in  prehistoric  times  at 
least,  the  Bitter  Lakes.  The  gulf  of  Akaba 
is  about  100  miles  long  by  15  in  breadth. 
The  navigation  of  the  sea  is  at  all  times 
somewhat  perilous,  from  the  sudden  changes 
of  the  wind  and  the  strength  with  which  it 
often  blows.  The  voyage  from  end  to  end 
was  rendered  slow  liy  the  prevalent  wind  in 
the  northern  part  of  the  sea  blowing  toward 
the  south  during  nine  months  of  the  year, 
and  in  the  southern  part  blowing  northward 
during  the  .same  period.  Besides  this,  the 
mariner  has  to  be  on  his  guard  against  coral 


reefs  and  small  islands,  which  in  many- 
places  rise  above  the  surface  of  the  sea. 

Re-cord'er. 

An  otticial  of  high  rank  in  the  Hebrew 
government  from  the  time  of  David  on- 
ward. He  was  called  maskir,  one  who  brings 
to  mind,  and  probably  dei'ived  his  title  from 
his  official  duty  of  recording  imi)ortant 
events  and  advising  the  king  respet-ting 
them.  At  any  rate  he  held  one  of  the 
highest  offices  of  state.  He  was  numbered 
among  the  chief  officials  of  David  and  Solo- 
mon (2  Sam.  viii.  16;  1  Kin.  iv.  3).  The 
prefect  of  the  jjalace,  the  scribe,  and  the 
recorder  represented  Hezekiah  in  ])ublic 
business  (2  Kin.  xviii.  18,  37)  ;  and  in  the 
reign  of  Josiah  the  scribe,  the  governor  of 
the  city,  and  the  recorder  were  placed  in 
charge  of  the  repairs  of  the  temple  (2  Chron. 
xxxiv.  8). 

Reed. 

1.  Any  tall,  broad-leaved  grass  growing  in 
a  wet  place.  It  is  called  kaneh  in  Hebrew, 
kalamos  in  Greek  (Is.  xlii.  3  with  Mat.  xii.  20). 
When  an  odorous  variety  is  intended,  it  is 
translated  calamus  or  cane.  It  grows  or 
grew  in  the  Nile  and  elsewhere  in  the  water 
(1  Kin.  xiv.  15;  Is.  xix.  6;  xxxv.  7),  and  is 
so  tall  and  in  such  abundance  that  it  helps 
to  furnish  shelter  and  concealment  even  for 
the  bulky  hippopotamus  (Job  xl.  21).  It  is 
easily  shaken  by  the  wind  (1  Kin.  xiv.  15), 
and  so  fragile  that  if  one  lean  upon  it,  it  will 
break  with  a  ragged  fracture,  the  projecting 
points  entering  and  piercing  the  hand  (2 
Kin.  xviii.  21 ;  Is.  xxxvi.  6 ;  Ezek.  xxix.  6, 


Kued  (Ariindo  donax). 

7).  In  this  last  respect,  it  affords  a  lively 
])icture  of  the  treatment  Egypt  had  given  to 
the  Israelites  when  they  leaned  upon  that 
power  in  seasons  of  emergency.  It  was  a 
reed  which  the  persecutors  of  our  Lord 
thrust  into  his  hand  for  a  scepter,  and  with 
which    they  afterwards   struck   him  on   the 


Reelaiah 


015 


Rehoboam 


hejul ;  and  it  was  to  this  or  another  stem  of 
the  same  i>lant  that  the  sponge  was  atlised 
which  thev  dipped  in  vinegar  and  put  to  liis 
lips  (Mat.'xxvii.  29,  30,  48).  The  plant  re- 
ferred to  is  prol)ably  Arundo  donax,  which 
^rows  in  the  Nile  and  is  common  throughout 
Palestine,  is  at  least  10  I'eet  high,  and  has 
lea%'es  as  long  and  as  broad  as  those  of  a 
sword.  It  is  cultivated  in  France,  where  its 
long,  straight,  and  light  stems  are  made  into 
fishing  rods,  arrows,  fences,  poles  for  vines. 

A  reed  stalk  was  used  as  a  measuring  rod, 
and  came  to  denote  a  fixed  length  of  six 
long  cubits  (Ezek.  xl.  h\  xli.  p^i.  Likewise 
in  Babylonia  six  cubits  made  a  reed  or  kanii. 

2.  The  rendering  in  Jer.  li.  32  of  the  He- 
brew '"ttdm,  a  marsh.  It  does  not  seem  to 
be  a  i>lant.  and  is  translated  marsh  on  the 
margin  of  the  E.  V. 

Re-el-a'iali  [tremblingcaused  by  Jehovah]. 

One  of  the  leading  men  who  accompanied 
Zerubbabel  and  Jeshua  from  Babylon  (Ezra 
ii.  2).  Called  in  Neh.  vii.  7  by  the  synony- 
mous name  of  Eaamiah. 

Re-fin'er. 

One  who  refines  the  precious  metals,  as 
silver  or  gold,  by  causing  them  to  pass  re- 
peatedly through  the  furnace  till  their  dross 
is  taken  away  (Zech.  xiii.  9;  cp.  Ps.  xii.  6). 
It  is  said  that  the  refiner  knows  when  the 
process  is  complete  by  seeing  his  image  re- 
flected in  the  ])recious  metal  purified.  God 
is  compared  to  a  refiner  of  .silver,  by  which 
is  meant  that  he  ca.sts  his  people  into  the 
furnace  of  affliction,  till  they  are  refined 
and  jiurified  (Mai.  iii.  2,  3).  Then  they 
clearly  reflect  his  image  in  their  souls. 

Refuge.    See  City  of  Refuge. 

Re'gem  [friend]. 

A  man  of  Judah,  a  son  of  Jahdai  (1  Chron. 
ii.  47). 

Re-gem-me'lech  [friend  of  the  king]. 

A  man  .sent  from  Bethel  with  companions 
to  put  a  question  to  the  priests  regarding 
fasting  (Zech.   vii.  2). 

Re-ha-bi'ah  [Jehovah  is  comprehensive]. 

Son  of  Eliezer,  and  grandson  of  Moses  (1 
Chron.  xxiii.  17;  xxiv.  21;  xxvi.  25). 

Re'hob  [an  open  space,  a  broad  street]. 

1.  A  place  situated  toward  Hamath ;  see 
Beth-kehob. 

2.  A  town  on  the  boundary  line  of  the  ter- 
ritory of  Asher  (Josh.  xix.  28),  perhaps  the 
same  as  Rehob,  which  belonged  to  Asher  (30). 
From  Rehob  the  Canaanites  were  not  ex- 
pelled (Judg.  i.  31).  Rehob  was  assigned  to 
the  Levites  (Josh.  xxi.  31 ;  1  Chnm.  vi.  75). 
The  site  is  unknown. 

3.  Father  of  Hadadezer,  king  of  Zobah  (2 
Sam.  viii.  3,  12). 

4.  A  Levite  who  sealed  the  covenant  (Neh. 

X.  111. 

Re-ho-bo'am,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Roboam 
[the  people  is  enlarged]. 
Son  of  king  Solomon  by  Naamah,  an  Am- 


monitess,  one  of  his  wives  (1  Kin.  xiv.  31). 
Altliough  son  of  a  wise  father,  he  was  him- 
-self  a  man  of  small  mind.  On  the  death  of 
I  Solomon  about  931  B.  c,  representatives  of 
all  the  twelve  tribes  promptly  assembled  at 
the  central  city  of  Shechem  to  make  Re- 
hoboam,  who  was  his  lawful  successor,  king. 
Various  causes  more  or  less  remote  had  led 
to  jealousy  and  a  growing  coldness  between 
Judah  and  the  tribes  to  the  north  and  east ; 
see  History.  Recently  the  peo])le  had  suf- 
fered under  grievous  taxation  levied  to  sup- 
port Solomon's  splendor,  and  opportunity 
was  taken  to  lay  the  grievances  of  the  people 
I  before  the  future  ruler.  The  spokesman  was 
I  .Teroboam,  an  able  man  who  had  been  told 
by  the  prophet  Ahijah  that  he  should  become 
king  of  ten  tribes,  and  on  account  of  this 
destiny  or  of  some  premature  attempt  on  his 
part  to  bring  about  the  fulfillment  of  the 
prophecy,  had  been  compelled  to  flee  to 
Egypt  from  Solomon,  but  had  been  recalled 
by  the  people  when  Solomon  died.  The 
popular  demand  was  that  taxation  might 
now  he  somewhat  lightened.  Rehoboam 
asked  three  days  for  deliberation.  He  con- 
sulted the  old  men  who  had  till  lately  been 
counselors  of  his  father,  who  advised  liim  to 
i  accede  to  the  request  and  speak  good  words 
[  to  the  petitioners,  and  assured  him  that  the 
people  would  then  be  his  servants  forever. 
!  He  next  consulted  the  young  men  who  had 
grown  up  with  him,  and  they  urged  him  to 
!  say  to  the  people:  "My  little  finger  is 
i  thicker  than  my  father's  kiins.  And  now 
whereas  my  father  did  lade  you  with  a 
:  heavy  yoke,  I  will  add  to  your  yoke :  my 
father  chastised  you  with  whips,  but  I  will 
chastise  you  with  scorpions."  It  indicated 
the  mental  caliber  of  Rehoboam  that  he 
rejected  the  counsel  of  the  sages,  and 
when  the  people  reassembled,  uttered  the 
words  of  transcendent  folly  which  his  young 
com])anions  had  put  into  his  mouth.  The 
efl'ect  was  instantaneous.  Ten  out  of  the 
twelve  tribes  renounced  their  allegiance  to 
Rehoboam,  depai-ted  to  their  tents,  and  were 
forever  lost  to  the  house  of  David.  The 
king  sent  after  them  Adoram,  who  was  over 
the  tribute,  apparently  with  a  more  concili- 
atory message ;  but  it  was  too  late.  The 
unhappy  ambassador  was  stoned  to  death, 
on  which  his  master,  fearing  that  the  next 
missiles  would  be  directed  against  himself, 
hastily  mounted  his  chariot,  and  drove  to 
Jerusalem  (1  Kin.  xii.  1-20;  2  Chron.  x. 
1-19).  Judah  and  a  large  part  of  Benjamin, 
together  with  the  Simeonites,  were  left  him. 
He  brought  together  a  great  army  to  attempt 
the  subjugation  of  the  revolted  tribes,  but 
the  prophet  Shemaiah  forbade  the  enterprise 
(1  Kin.  xii.  21-24;  2  Chron.  xi.  1-4).  He 
therefore  contented  himself  with  fortifying 
a  number  of  cities  in  Judah  and  Benjamin 
(5-12).  The  erection  of  the  golden  calves  by 
his  rival  at  Bethel  and  Dan  drove  south- 
ward almost  the  whole  body  of  the  priests 


Rehoboth 


616 


Rephaim 


and  Levites,  which  greatly  increased  the 
strength  of  the  kingdom  of  Eehoboani ;  but 
after  three  years  he  himself  lapsed  into  idol- 
atry (1  Kin.  xiv.  21-24  ;  2  Chrou.  xi.  13-17; 
xii.  1).  In  the  fifth  year  of  his  reign,  Shishak, 
king  of  Egypt,  invaded  his  kingdom,  captur- 
ing some  of  the  fenced  cities,  ultimately  tak- 
ing Jerusalem  itself,  and  plundering  the  tem- 
ple and  the  i)alace  (1  Kin.  xiv.  25-28;  2 
Chron.  xii.  2-12) ;  see  Pharaoh.  Rehoboam 
had  eighteen  wives  and  sixty  concubines, 
twenty-eight  sons  and  sixty  daughters  (21). 
Abijah  his  son  claimed  that  at  the  time  of 
his  great  mistake  he  was  young  and  tender- 
hearted ;  in  reality,  he  was  at  that  time  forty- 
one  years  old.  He  reigned  seventeen  years, 
and  died  about  915  b.  c  ,  leaving  his  son, 
Abijah,  to  ascend  the  throne  (1  Kin.  xiv.  21, 
31  ;  2  Chron.  xii.  1,3,  16). 

Re-ho'both  [broad  places,  streets ;  figura- 
tively roominess,  freedom]. 

1.  A  well  dug  by  Isaac  in  the  valley  of 
Gerar.  Since  the  Philistine  herdsmen  did 
not  claim  it,  as  they  had  its  two  predecessors, 
he  named  it  Rehoboth,  meaning  room  (Gen. 
xxvi.  22).  Robinson  identified  the  valley  as 
the  wady  Ruheibeh,  a  day's  journey  south 
of  Beer-sheba;  but  he  could  find  no  wells. 
Stewart  met  with  one,  which  was  subse- 
quently seen  also  by  Rowlands.  Palmer  and 
Drake  fell  in  with  a  second  one,  which  had 
previously  escaped  notice  from  having  been 
covered  by  fallen  masonry. 

2.  A  suburb  of  Nineveh  (Gen.  x.  11)  ;  see 
Rehoboth-ir. 

3.  A  town  "by  the  river"  (Gen.  xxxvi. 
37;  1  Chron.  i.  48).  "The  river"  commonly 
denotes  the  Euphrates.  Chesney  suggested 
as  its  site  Rahabeh,  3  miles  from  the  right 
(the  west)  bank  of  the  river,  8  miles  below 
the  mouth  of  the  Khabour.  There  is  a  castle 
at  the  spot,  with  extensive  ruins  around. 
Four  or  five  miles  lower  down,  and  on  the  east- 
ern bank,  is  a  second  Rahabeh,  called  Raha- 
beh Malik  (Royal  Rahabeh).  One  or  other 
is  probably  the  proper  site,  but  it  is  not  pos- 
sible to  decide  on  their  relative  claims.  Jew- 
ish tradition  is  in  favor  of  the  second. 

Re-ho'both-ir  [open  spaces  or  markets  of 
the  city] . 

A  city  which  formed  part  of  the  great  city 
Nineveh  or,  as  we  would  say.  Greater  Nine- 
veh (Gen.  X.  11  ;  in  A.  V.  the  city  Rehoboth). 

Re'hum  [beloved]. 

1.  A  chancellor  of  Persia  in  the  country 
beyond  the  river,  who  in  the  time  of  Ar- 
taxerxes  complained  against  the  Jews  for  re- 
building the  temple  (Ezra  iv.  8,  9). 

2.  One  of  the  principal  men  who  returned 
with  Zerubbabel  from  Babylon  (Ezra  ii.  2). 
Called  in  Neh.  vii.  7,  probably  by  a  copyist's 
error,  Nehum. 

3.  A  chief  of  the  priests,  who  returned 
with  Zerubbabel  from  Babylon  (Neh.  xii.  3, 
7).  In  the  next  generation  a  father's  house, 
occupying  the  corresponding  position  in  the 


enumeration,  bears  the  name  Harim  (ver.  15). 
One  of  these  names  has  probably  been  mis- 
written  by  transposing  the  Hebrew  letters. 

4.  One  of  those  who  with  Nehemiah  sealed 
the  covenant  (Neh.  x.  25). 

5.  A  Levite,  son  of  Bani.  He  repaired 
part  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  17). 

Re'i  [friendly,  sociable]. 
One  who  did  not  join  in  Adonijah's  attempt 
to  usurj)  the  throne  (1  Kin.  i.  8). 

Reins. 

The  kidneys.  They  were  supposed  by  the 
ancient  Hebrews  and  others  to  be  the  seat  of 
longing  and  desire  (Ps.  vii.  9;  xvi.  7;  xxvi. 
2  ;  Ixxiii.  21 ;  Prov.  xxiii.  16 ;  Jer.  xii.  2). 

Re'kem  [variegation]. 

1.  One  of  the  five  kings  of  Midian,  allies  or 
vassals  of  Sihon,  slain  in  the  war  waged  by 
Moses  against  the  Midianites  because  they 
had  seduced  Israelites  to  licentious  idolatry 
(Num.  xxxi.  8  ;  Josh.  xiii.  21). 

2.  A  son  of  Hebron,  a  descendant  of  Caleb 
(1  Chron.  ii.  43). 

3.  A  city  of  the  Benjamites  (Josh,  xviii. 
27).     Site  unknown. 

Rem-a-li'ah  [Jehovah  hath  adorned]. 
Father  of  king  Pekah  (2  Kin.  xv.  25). 
Re'meth  [probably,  a  high  place]. 
A  frontier  town  of  Issachar  (Josh.  xix.  21). 
See  Jarmuth. 

Rem'mon  and  Rem-mon-meth'o-ar.  See 
RiMMON  1  and  2. 

Rem'phan.     See  Rephan. 

Re'pha-el  [God  hath  healed]. 

A  Levite,  son  of  Shemaiah,  of  the  family 
of  Obed-edom,  and  a  doorkeeper  of  the  sanc- 
tuary (1  Chron.  xxvi.  7). 

Re'phah  [riches]. 

An  ancestor  of  Joshua  and  probably  son 
of  Beriah  (1  Chron.  vii.  25). 

Re-pha'iah  [Jehovah  hath  healed]. 

1.  A  man  of  Issachar,  family  of  Tola  (1 
Chron.  vii.  2). 

2.  A  descendant  of  Jonathan  (1  Chron.  ix. 
43).  Called  in  viii.  37  Rapha,  a  synonymous 
name,  he  hath  healed. 

3.  A  cai)tain  of  the  Simeonites.  who  made 
a  successful  expedition  against  the  Amalek- 
ites  (1  Chron.  iv.  42,  43). 

4.  A  son  of  Hur  and  ruler  of  half  the  dis- 
trict about  Jerusalem,  who  aided  in  repair- 
ing the  wall  (Neh.  iii.  9). 

5.  The  founder  of  a  family  which  is  loosely 
registered  with  the  royal  descendants  of 
David,  and  is  presumably  a  collateral  line 
sprung  from  David  (1  Chron.  iii.  21). 

Reph'a-im,  in  A.  V.  twice  Rephaims  (Gen. 
xiv.  5  ;  XV.  20)  [probably,  giants]. 

1.  A  people  of  large  stiiture  who  in  ancient 
times,  even  before  the  arrival  of  Abraham, 
dwelt  in  Palestine,  east  and  west  of  the  Jor- 
dan (Gen.  xiv.  5;  Deut.  ii.  11,  20;  and  Gen. 
XV.  20;  Josh.  xvii.  15;  2  Sam.  xxi.  16). 


Rephan 


617 


Reuben 


2.  A  valley  near  Jerusalem  and  Bethlehem 
(Anticj.  vii.  4,  1  ;  2  Sam.  xsiii.  i;{,  1-1),  pre- 
sumably onee  inhabited  by  the  Kephaiui.  It 
was  situated  south  of  the  valley  of  Hiunom 
(Josh.  XV.  !S ;  xviii.  l(j).  TJie  Philistines 
twice  assembled  there,  and  both  times  were 
defeated  by  David  (2  Sam.  v.  18-22;  xxiii. 
13  ;  1  C'hron.  xi.  15  ;  xiv.  9).  It  was  very 
fertile  (Is.  xvii.  5).  It  is  considered  to  be  the 
valley  which,  commencing  at  the  southern 
extremity  of  that  of  Hiunom,  runs  south- 
southwest  for  about  3  miles,  or  half  way 
to  Bethlehem.  Thomson  mentions  that  it  is 
stony  and  uneven,  and  declines  rajudly  to- 
ward the  west.     Its  fertility  still  continues. 

Re'pban,  in  A.  V.  Remphan. 

A  god  who  has  a  star  associated  with  him, 
and  who  was  worshiped  by  the  Israelites  in 
the  wilderness  (Acts  vii.  43).  The  passage  is 
quoted  from  the  O.  T.  The  name  represents 
Kniphan,  a  corrupt  transliteration  in  the  Sep- 
tuagint  of  Kaivan,  which  was  a  name  of 
Saturn  among  the  Syrians,  and  was  under- 
stood to  be  the  god  Chiun  (Amos  v.  26).  In 
view  of  this  extremely  probable  origin  of  the 
name  Rephan,  the  proposed  identification  of 
it  with  au  Egyptian  god  Renpu  falls  to  the 
ground. 

Reph'i-dim  [expanses,  stretches]. 

A  camping  ground  of  the  Israelites  in  the 
wilderness  between  the  wilderness  of  Sin  and 
Sinai  (Ex.  xvii.  1;  xix.  2;  Num.  xxxiii.  12, 
lo).  There  was  no  water  obtainable,  and  the 
people  murmured  till  Moses,  accompanied  by 
elders,  went  forward  to  Horeb  by  divine 
command  and  smote  a  rock,  from  which 
water  at  once  issued  (Ex.  xvii.  5,  6).  The 
water  flowed  down  the  wady  to  the  camp  of 
the  Israelites  and  supplied  them  during  their 
sojourn  at  mount  Sinai  also.  Rephidim  was 
the  scene  of  the  battle  with  Amalek,  when 
Moses  with  u])lifted  hand  pointed  to  Jehovah 
as  the  ensign  under  which  Israel  fought  (Ex. 
xvii.  8-16).  The  situation  is  not  i)roperly 
determined.  Robinson,  and  after  him,  but 
independently,  Wilson,  lixed  it  at  the  spot 
where  a  wall  of  rocks  called  Wateiyah,  run- 
ning northeast  and  southwest,  ap])roachesthe 
wady  esh-Sheikh  ;  while  Burckhardt,  Stanley 
and  others  locate  it  in  the  beautiful  and  com- 
paratively well-watered  M'ady  Feiran.  See 
Mkkibau. 

Re'sen. 

A  city  of  Assyria,  a  suburb  of  Nineveh, 
and  part  of  the  complex  of  towns  known  as 
the  great  city.  It  was  situated  between 
Nineveh  and  Calah  (Gen.  x.  11,  12),  and, 
therefore,  it  is  not  the  town  Resh-eni,  north 
of  Dur-sharrukin.  Its  exact  situation  is  un- 
certain. 

Resh. 

The  twentieth  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alpha- 
bet. English  R  comes  from  the  same  source, 
and  represents  it  in  anglicized  Hebrew 
names.     It  heads  the   twentieth  section  of 


Ps.  cxix.,  in  which  section  each  verse  of  the 
original  begins  with  this  letter. 

('()I)yists  exi)erienced  some  difficulty  in  dis- 
tinguishing resh  from  daleth  (q.  v.). 

Re'sheph  [a  flame]. 

A  descendant  of  Ephraim  and  probably 
son  of  Beriah  (1  C'hron.  vii.  25). 

Re'u,  in  A.  V.  once  Ragau  (Luke  iii.  35) 
[friend]. 

A  descendant  of  Ebcr  and  an  ancestor  of 
Abraham  (Gen.  xi.  18-26). 

Reu'ben  [behold  a  son]. 

1.  Jacob's  eldest  son,  the  first  by  his 
wife  Leah  (Gen.  xxix.  31,  32  ;  xxxv.  23 ; 
xlvi.8;  IChron.ii.  1;  v.  1).  Reuben  wasguilty 
of  gross  misconduct  (Gen.  xxxv.  22)  ;  but 
when  his  brothers  plotted  to  kill  Joseph, 
Reuben  came  forward  with  the  pnjjiosal  to 
cast  him  into  a  pit,  designing  to  restore  him 
eventually  to  his  father.  He  was  not  with 
them  when  Joseph  was  sold  to  the  Midianite 
Lshmaelites,  and  was  greatly  moved  when, 
visiting  the  ])it,  he  found  it  empty  (xxxvii. 
21-29).  When  the  brothers  found  themselves 
in  trouble  in  Egypt  twenty  years  later, 
Reuben  was  quick  to  remind  his  brothers  that 
he  had  not  concurred  in  their  plot  to  take 
Joseph's  life  (xlii.  22-24).  When  Jacob  was 
reluctant  to  send  Benjamin  to  Egypt,  Reuben 
ofl'ered  two  of  his  sons  as  pledge  that  he 
would  bring  Benjamin  home  again  in  safety 
(37).  Reuben  had  four  sons  in  all:  Hanoch, 
Phallu,  Hezron,  and  Carmi  (Gen.  xlvi.  8,  9; 
Ex.  vi.  14;  1  C'hron.  v.  3).  Jacob,  when 
about  to  die,  pronounced  Reuben  to  be  un- 
stable as  water  and  declared  that  he  should 
not  have  excellence.  By  his  heinous  deed 
he  had  forfeited  the  birthright  (Cien.  xlix. 
3,4). 

2.  The  tribe  formed  by  descendants  of 
Reuben,  and  the  territory  in  which  they 
dwelt.  The  tribe  was  divided  into  four  great 
tribal  families,  the  posterity  of  Reuben's  four 
sons  (Num.  xxvi.  5-11).  Its  prince  at  the 
beginning  of  the  sojourn  in  the  wilderness 
was  Elizur  (Num.  i.  5;  ii.  10;  vii.  30-35;  x. 
18).  At  that  time  the  tribe  numbered  46,500 
fighting  men  (i.  20,  21) ;  at  the  second  census 
thirty-eight  years  later,  they  had  decreased 
to  43,730  (xxvi.  7).  The  Reubenite  chief 
was  head  of  the  camp  made  up  of  the  three 
tribes,  Reuben,  Simeon,  and  Gad,  the  aggre- 
gate military  strength  of  which  was  151,450 
(Num.  ii.  10,  16).  The  .spy  from  the  tribe 
wasShammua,s()n  of  Zaccur  (xiii.  4).  Dathan, 
Abiram,  and  On,  who  joined  the  Levite 
Korahin  revolt  against  Moses  and  Aaron,  were 
Reubenites  (xvi.  1-50  ;  xxvi.  9  ;  Deut.  xi.  6)  - 
.see  KoRAH  4.  After  the  battles  with  Sihon 
and  Og,  the  Ciadites  and  Reubenites,  with 
whom  half  the  tribe  of  Manesseh  joined, 
being  rich  in  cattle,  petitioned  Moses  to  be 
allowed  to  settle  east  of  the  Jordan,  that 
region  being  well  adapted  for  flocks  and 
herds.  Their  reipiest  was  granted  on  condi- 
tion that  they  would  send  the  greater  num- 


Reuel 


618 


Revelation 


ber  of  their  warriors  across  the  Jordan  to 
help  their  brethren  in  the  war  with  the 
Canaanites  (Num.  xxxii.  1-42;  Josh,  xviii.  7). 
They  did  so,  and  took  part  in  all  of  Joshua's 
wars  in  Canaan  (Josh.  iv.  12).  Afterwards 
they  returned  with  honor  to  their  own  ter- 
ritory ;  but  the  erection  of  a  memorial  altar 
by  them  and  their  Israelite  brethren  east  of 
Jordan  led  to  a  temporary  misunderstand- 
ing which  nearly  involved  them  in  civil  war 
(xxii.  1-34).  The  Reubenites  took  no  part  in 
the  contest  with  Sisera,  and  were  referred  to 
reproachfully  in  Deborah's  song  (Judg.  v.  15, 
Iti).  They  joined  in  war  with  the  Hagar- 
ites,  in  which  they  prevailed,  the  victors 
making  a  great  slaughter  of  the  enemy, 
and  living  in  their  territory  to  the  time  of 
the  captivity  (1  Chron.  v.  18-22).  Ezekiel 
allotted  them  a  place  in  the  reoccupied 
Canaan  (Ezek.  xlviii.  6,  7),  and  named  a 
gate  after  them  in  the  restored  Jerusalem 
(31).  When  the  book  of  Revelation  records 
the  sealing  of  the  144,000,  it  assigns  Reuben 
a  quota  of  12,000  (Rev.  vii.  5).  The  boundary 
of  the  territory  of  Reuben  was  on  the  east 
the  country  of  the  Ammonites,  on  the  south 
the  river  Arnon  (Num.  xxi.  24),  on  the  west 
the  Dead  Sea  and  the  river  Jordan  (Josh. 
xiii.  23),  while  on  the  north  the  boundary 
line  ran  from  the  Jordan  south  of  Beth- 
nimrah  to  Heshbon  (Josh.  xiii.  17,  26 ;  xxi. 
37;  and  Num.  x.x'xii.  36;  Josh.  xiii.  27). 
Included  in  these  limits  were  Aroer,  on  the 
edge  of  the  valley  of  Arnon,  and  the  city 
in  the  middle  of  the  valley,  all  the  plain 
by  Medeba,  Heshbon  and  its  subordinate 
towns,  Dibon,  Bamoth-baal,  Beth-baal-meon, 
Jahaz,  Kedemoth,  Mephaath,  Kiriathaim, 
Sibmah,  Zereth-shahar,  Beth-peor,  the  slopes 
of  Pisgah,  Beth-jeshimoth  ;  in  short,  the 
southern  part  of  the  Ammonite  kingdom 
which  had  been  ruled  over  by  Sihon  (Josh, 
xiii.  15-23).  The  four  cities  of  Bezer, 
Jahaz,  Kedemoth,  and  Mephaath,  with 
their  suburbs,  were  assigned  to  the  Mera- 
rite  Levites  (Josh.  xxi.  7,  36,  37 ;  1  Chron. 
vi.  63,  78,  79) ;  the  first  of  these,  Bezer,  was 
a  city  of  refuge  (Josh.  xx.  8;  1  Chron.  vi. 
78).  The  Reubenites  had  an  exposed  posi- 
tion, the  Moabites  being  in  their  immediate 
vicinity,  while  desert  marauders  could  in- 
vade their  territory  both  from  the  east  and 
the  south.  If  the  list  of  Reubenite  cities 
given  in  this  section  be  compared  with  those 
in  Moabite  possession  incidentally  mentioned 
in  Is.  XV.,  xvi.,  Jer.  xlviii.,  and  on  the 
Moabite  stone,  it  will  be  seen  that  in  the 
times  of  Mesha  and  these  prophets  Reuben 
had  its  limits  greatly  curtailed  by  Moabite 
conquest.  The  whole  territory,  which  is  a 
table-land  quite  capable  of  cultivation,  is  now 
deserted  by  its  settled  inhabitants,  and  is 
given  up  to  the  nomad  and  plundering  tribes 
of  the  desert. 

Reu'el,  in  A.  V.  once  Raguel  (Num.  x.  29)  in 
imitation  of  the  Greek  form  [friend  of  God]. 


1.  A  descendant  of  Esau  and  also  of  Ish- 
mael  (Gen.  xxxvi.  2-4). 

2.  Moses'  father-in-law  (Ex.  11.  18).  See 
Jethro. 

3.  A  Benjamite,  a  son  of  Ibnijah  (1  Chron. 
ix.  8). 

4.  A  Gadite,  father  of  Ellasaph  (Num.  11. 
14) ;  see  Deuel. 

Reu'mah  [exalted]. 

A  concubine  of  Nahor,  Abraham's  brother 
(Gen.  xxii.  24). 

Rev-e-la'tion  [an  unveiling].  It  is  derived 
from  the  Latin  revelatio,  unveiling;  hence 
to  reveal,  to  expose  to  sight,  and,  meta- 
phorically, to  disclose  to  the  mind  truth 
otherwise  unknown.  Greek  Ajtokahipsis  ; 
whence  English  Apocalypse. 

In  the  O.  T.  the  noun  revelation  does  not 
occur ;  but  the  verb  reveal  is  used  in  the 
sense  of  making  known  secrets  (e.  g.  Prov. 
xi.  13)  and  then  of  God's  disclosure  of  his 
will  to  man  {e.  g.  Deut.  xxix.  29;  Is.  xxii. 
14;  Dan.  ii.  19,  22,  28;  Amos  iii.  7).  In 
the  N.  T.  revelation  is  used  for  the  disclosure 
by  God  or  Christ  or  the  Spirit  of  truth  con- 
cerning divine  things  previously  unknown 
(e.  g.  Rom.  xvi.  25;  1  Cor.  xiv.  6,  26;  2  Cor. 
xii.  1 ;  Gal.  i.  12;  Rev.  i.  1)  or  of  duty  spe- 
cially required  (Gal.  ii.  2),  and  then  for  the 
manifestation  or  appearance  of  persons  or 
events  previpusly  concealed  from  sight  (e.  g. 
Rom.  ii.  5 ;  1  Pet.  1.  13).  In  theology  reve- 
lation means  the  communication  of  truth  by 
God  to  man,  and  is  usually  applied  to 
such  communications  as  have  been  conveyed 
through  supernatural  agencies. 

The  Revelation  of  St.  John  the  Divine  is 
the  last  book  of  the  N.  T.,  also  called,  from 
the  Greek,  the  Apocalypse.  The  name  is 
given  to  it  because,  as  its  opening  words 
state,  it  Is  a  disclosure  of  the  future,  and, 
therefore,  preeminently  a  revelation.  Its 
author  describes  it  as  a  communication  con- 
cerning "  things  which  must  shortly  come  to 
pass,"  which  God  gave  to  Jesus  Christ,  and 
which  Christ  gave  by  his  angel  to  his  ser- 
vant John,  to  be  In  turn  communicated  to 
the  church  (Rev.  1.  1-3).  The  work  is  ad- 
dressed to  seven  churches  of  the  Roman 
province  of  Asia:  Ephesiis,  Smyrna,  Perga- 
mum,  Thyatira,  Sardis,  Philadelphia,  and 
Laodicea  (4,  11),  the  number  seven  being  se- 
lected probably  because,  as  the  sacred  num- 
ber, it  signified  completeness,  and  thus  indi- 
cated that  the  book  was  really  addressed  to 
the  whole  church.  The  author  calls  himself, 
after  the  manner  of  the  Hebrew  prophets 
(cp.  Is.  i.  1 ;  Joel  i.  1  ;  Amos  1.  1,  etc.),  simply 
John  (Rev.  1.  1,  4,  9;  xxii.  8),  and  relates 
that  the  visions  of  the  book  were  seen  by 
him  when  confined  in  the  island  of  Patmos 
"for  the  word  of  (iod  and  the  testimony  of 
Jesus"  (i.  9).  Patmos  lies  off  the  south- 
western coast  of  Asia  Minor,  and  John  had 
been  banished  to  It  because  he  was  a  Chris- 
tian.    This  points  to  a  period  of  persecution 


Revelation 


619 


Revelation 


by  the  Roman  government.  The  opening 
vision  was  of  the  exalted  Christ,  who  is  rep- 
resented in  a  sj'inbolic  portraiture  as  stand- 
ing in  the  midst  of  seven  goUlen  candlesticks 
which  represent  the  seven  churches  (10-20). 
Christ  gives  to  the  seer  messages  to  the  seven 
churches,  and  after  tluit  follows  a  succession 
of  other  visions.  The  revelation  is  said  to 
have  been  given  on  the  Lord's  day  (10),  by 
which  we  are  doubtless  to  understand  the 
first  day  of  the  week.  The  visions  described 
are  of  a  highly  symbolical  character.  Many 
of  the  figures  and  much  of  the  language  are 
taken  from  the  O.  T.  prophets,  especially 
from  Daniel  and  Ezekiel,  and  the  meaning 
cannot  be  understood  without  constant  refer- 
ence to  them. 

Examining  the  book  more  closely,  we  find 
that  after  the  introduction  (i.  1-3)  and  saluta- 
tion (4-8),  it  consists  of  seven  chief  divisions, 
extending  to  sxii.  7,  after  which  the  book 
closes  with  an  epilogue  (8-21).  These  divi- 
sions constitute  in  fact  seven  visions,  or  series 
of  visions,  and  are  themselves  subdivided 
usually  into  seven  parts.  Each  series  opens 
with  a  vision,  which  presents  as  a  whole  the 
idea  of  the  series,  and  which  is  then  followed 
in  most  instances  by  a  sevenfold  representa- 
tion of  its  elements.  These  visions  are  prob- 
ably not  to  be  understood  as  representing 
events  which  were  to  follow  one  another  in 
history  in  the  order  of  time,  but  as  symboli- 
cal portraitures  of  certain  religious  truths  or 
principles  which  were  to  be  realized  in  the 
experience  of  the  church.  The  whole  is  in- 
tended for  the  church's  comfort  and  warning 
amid  the  conflicts  of  time  and  in  preparation 
for  the  second  coming  of  her  Lord  (i.  7,  8; 
xxii.  7,  10,  17,  20).  The  seven  series  of 
vi.sions,  which  show  the  analysis  of  the  book, 
are  the  following : 

1.  The  vision  of  the  glorified  Christ  amid 
his  church,  followed  by  seven  messages  to 
the  seven  churches  of  Asia  (i.  9-iii.  22). 
Here  the  main  thought  is  of  instruction, 
warning,  and  encouragement  for  the  church 
in  her  present  condition. 

2.  The  v'ision  of  God,  presiding  over  the 
destinies  of  the  universe  and  adored  by  all 
creation,  and  of  the  exalted,  but  redeeming, 
Lamb  of  God,  who  holds  in  his  hand  the 
sealed  book  of  the  divine  decrees  (iv.,  v.),  fol- 
lowed by  the  breaking  of  the  seals  in  seven 
visions,  whereby  is  portrayed  the  sevenfold 
purpose  of  God  from  the  going  forth  of 
Christ  to  conquer  unto  the  last  judgment 
(vi.  1-viii.  1).  Between  the  sixth  and  seventh 
seals  an  episode  is  introduced,  which  shows 
the  safety  of  the  people  of  God  amid  the 
judgment  which  befalls  the  world  (vii.). 

.3.  The  vision  of  the  trumpets  (viii.  2-xi. 
19).  It  opens  with  the  vision  of  an  angel 
offering  the  prayers  of  the  saints  to  God 
(viii.  2-6).  Then  each  trumpet  is  followed 
by  a  vision  of  destruction  upon  the  sinful 
world,  ending  again  with  the  last  judgment. 
Between  the  sixth  and  seventh  trumpets  an 


episode  again  is  introduced,  descriptive  of 
the  preservation  of  the  witnessing  church 
(x.  1-xi.  14).  The  main  thought  here  appears 
to  be  that  in  rejdy  to  the  prayers  of  the 
saints  for  God  to  vindicate  his  truth,  they 
are  shown  the  desolations  which  befall  the 
sinful  world  amid  which  they  are  to  bear 
their  testimony. 

4.  The  vision  of  the  church,  under  the 
figure  of  a  woman,  bringing  forth  the  Christ, 
against  whom  the  dragon,  or  Satan,  wages 
war  (xii.).  followed  by  visions  of  the  beasts, 
which  Satan  will  use  as  his  agents  (xiii.),  of 
the  militant  church  (xiv.  1-5),  and  of  the 
advancing  stages  of  Christ's  conquest  (6-20). 
This  may  be  called  the  vision  of  conflict. 

5.  The  vision  of  the  vials,  or  bowls, 
containing  the  la.st  plagues,  or  judgments 
of  God  (xv.,  xvi.).  The  opening  vision  (xv.) 
depicts  the  triumph  of  the  saints,  while  the 
seven  bowls  represent  the  sevenfold  judg- 
ment of  God  on  a  wicked  world  (xvi.). 

6.  The  vision  of  the  harlot  city,  Babylon 
(xvii.),  followed  by  the  victory  of  Christ 
over  her,  and  over  his  enemies  in  league 
with  her,  ending  again  in  the  last  judgment 

I    (xviii.  1-xx.  15).    Between  the  sixth  and  sev- 
enth scenes  of  this  triumph  an  episode  is  in- 
troduced (xx.  1-10),  which  isprobaV)ly  descrip- 
tive of  the  complete  safety  and  spiritual  de- 
liverance of  Christ's  people  throughout  the 
j    whole  period  of  the  age-long  battle.     Some 
I    scholars,  however,  place  the  division  between 
j    the  sixth  and  seventh  series  of   visions  at 
j    xix.  11. 

I  7.  The  vision  of  the  ideal  church,  the 
bride  of  Christ,  or  new  Jerusalem  (xxi.  1-8), 
followed  by  a  description  of  her  glory  (9- 
xxii.  7). 

That  the  author  of  the  book  of  the 
Eevelation  was  John  the  apostle  has  been 
the  constant  tradition  of  the  church  from 
the  earliest  time.  It  is  specifically  so  stated 
by  Justin  ilartyr  in  the  middle  of  the 
second  century.  It  is  confirmed  also  by  a 
comparison  of  the  book  with  the  Gospel  and 
First  Epistle  of  John,  for  all  three  books 
have  in  common  many  doctrinal  ideas  and 
many  more  peculiarities  of  language.  The 
Eevelation,  indeed,  is  less  smoothly  written 
than  the  Gospel  or  Epistle ;  but  that  is  partly 
because  of  its  subject,  which  led  the  author 
to  employ  unusual  expressions  in  his  de- 
scriptions, and  partly  because  he  was  bent  on 
repeating  and  combining  the  language  of  the 
older  ])rophets.  Some  scholars,  indeed,  lioth 
in  ancient  and  modern  times,  have  contended 
that  the  Eevelation  and  the  Gospel  could  not 
have  been  written  by  the  same  person.  But 
further  examination,  as  well  as  the  steadfast 
tradition  of  the  church,  makes  the  division 
of  authorship  both  improbable  and  unneces- 
sary. As  to  the  date  of  Eevelation,  two 
principal  opinions  have  been  held.  One  as- 
signs it  to  the  year  or  two  immediately  pre- 
ceding the  fall  of  Jerusalem  in  a.  d.  70. 
This  was  after  the  persecution  of  the  Chris- 


Revenger 


620 


Rhodes 


tians  by  Nero  had  broken  out,  and  it  is  suj)- 
posed  that  the  terrors  of  the  fall  of  Jerusa- 
lem, combined  with  those  of  the  Neroniau 
persecution,  provide  many  of  the  lurid 
figures  used  by  the  seer.  Most  rationalistic 
critics  also  accept  approximately  this  date, 
and  see  in  Eevelatitm  no  insiiired  prophecy 
at  all,  but  only  a  human  vaticination  sug- 
gested by  the  calamities  of  the  age.  But  the 
traditional  opinion  has  ever  assigned  Revela- 
tion to  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Domitian, 
A.  I).  96.  The  testimony  is  strong  that  John 
was  imprisoned  in  Patmos  by  Domitian,  and 
returned  to  Ephesus  after  that  tyrant's  death. 
It  is  unlikely  that  so  specific  and  unanimous 
a  tradition  should  be  mistaken.  The  condi- 
tion of  the  seven  churches  likewise  suits  the 
later  date  better  than  the  earlier ;  the  style 
does  not  require  the  Revelation  to  precede 
the  Gospel,  nor  are  most  of  the  reasons  ad- 
vanced for  the  earlier  date  satisfactory  to 
those  who  believe  in  the  inspiration  of  the 
book. 

The  interpretations  of  Revelation  have 
been  innumerable.  Four  general  classes  of 
interpretation  may,  however,  be  distin- 
guished. (1)  The  praiterist  interpretation, 
which  regards  the  work  as  a  description  of 
what  was  taking  place  when  the  book  was 
written.  This  view  destroys  its  prophetic  char- 
acter, and  is  certainly  to  be  rejected.  (2)  The 
futurist  interpretation,  which  sees  in  the 
book  predictions  of  events  yet  to  be  fulfilled. 
This  view  is  met  by  the  difficulty  that  all 
prophecy,  and  this  one  in  particular,  closely 
connects  itself  with  the  situation  of  the 
church  and  prophet,  to  whom  it  was  given. 
(3)  The  historico-prophetical  interpretation, 
which  sees  in  the  visions  a  successive  por- 
trayal of  the  events  of  Christian  history. 
The  difficulty  with  this  view  is  that  few  ex- 
positors can  agree  on  the  details  of  the  ful- 
fillment, and  that  it  disregards  the  contem- 
])orane()us  character  of  the  seven  series  of 
visions.  (4)  The  spiritual,  symbolic  inter- 
pretation, which  regards  the  visions  as  figu- 
rative portraitures  of  certain  truths  or  prin- 
ciples, destined  to  find  their  place  in  the 
history  of  the  church,  and  the  contemplation 
of  which  in  pictorial  re])resentation  is  in- 
tended to  encourage  and  comfort  Christ's 
people  until  he  comes  again  in  glory  and  to 
judgment.  While  no  expositor  can  feel  sure 
that  he  has  understood  the  meaning  of  all 
the  contents  of  the  Revelation,  the  last 
method  of  interpretation  has  the  advantage 
of  directing  the  attention  of  readers  to  cer- 
tain large  and  important  truths,  under  the 
form  of  pictures,  thus  making  this  most 
mysterious  book  of  Scripture  practically 
helpful.  G.  T.  p. 

Re-ven'ger.     See  Avknger  op  Blood. 

Re'zeph  [a  hearthstone  for  cooking  upon, 
a  pavement]. 

A  place  which  the  rabshakeh  boasted  that 
the  Assyrians  had  destroyed  (2  Kin.  xix.  12; 


Is.  xxxvii.  12).  It  is  doubtless  the  town 
Rasappa,  long  residence  of  an  Assyrian  gov- 
ernor, the  modern  Rusafa,  some  miles  west 
of  the  Euphrates  on  the  route  to  Palmyra. 

Re-zi'a.     See  Rizia. 

Re'zin. 

1.  A  king  of  Damascus.  About  7.38  b.  c. 
he  paid  tribute  to  Tiglath-pileser,  king  of 
Assyria.  Four  years  later,  in  the  time  of 
Ahaz,  he  joined  with  Pekah,  king  of  Israel, 
in  an  effort  to  capture  Jerusalem  and  place  a. 
creature  of  their  own  upon  the  throne  of 
David.  They  failed,  after  eliciting  from 
Isaiah  a  celebrated  prophecy  (Is.  vii.  1-ix. 
12).  On  this  campaign,  before  attempting  to 
unite  his  troops  with  those  of  Pekah,  Rezin 
marched  to  Elath  on  the  gulf  of  Akaba  and 
took  the  town  from  Judah  (2  Kin.  xvi.  G). 
The  aid  of  Tiglath-pileser  had  been  pur- 
chased by  Ahaz ;  and  the  Assyrian  king, 
after  chastising  the  Philistines  for  their  par- 
ticipation in  the  hostilities  against  Judah, 
marched  against  Damascus,  besieged  it  dur- 
ing the  years  733  and  732  b.  c,  ravaged  the 
surrounding  district,  finally  captured  the 
city,  and  slew  Rezin  (7-9,  and  Assyrian  in- 
scriptions). 

2.  Founder  of  a  family  of  Netbinim,  mem- 
bers of  which  returned  from  the  captivity 
(Ezra  ii.  48 ;  Neh.  vii.  50). 

Re'zon  [importance,  princeliness]. 

A  son  of  Eliada,  and  a  subject  of  Hadad- 
ezer,  king  of  Zobah.  When  David  cap- 
tured Zobah,  Rezon  gathered  a  band  of  men, 
seized  Damascus,  and  founded  the  Syrian 
kingdom,  with  which,  while  it  lasted,  the 
Israelites  had  continual  relations,  hostile  or 
friendly  (1  Kin.  xi.  23-25). 

Rhe'gi-um. 

A  city  of  Greek  origin  on  the  coast  of 
Italy,  opposite  to  Messina  in  Sicily.  Paul's 
vessel  touched  at  Rhegium  after  having 
made  a  circuit  from  Syracuse  (Acts  xxviii. 
13).  Rhegium  is  now  called  Reggio,  and  is 
the  capital  of  C'alabria.  It  is  a  town  of  con- 
siderable size,  and  exports  oranges,  lemons, 
wine,  oil,   etc. 

Rhe'sa. 

A  descendant  of  Zerubbabel,  and  an  an- 
cestor of  Christ  (Luke  iii.  27). 

Rho'da  [a  rose  bushl. 

A  servant  girl  of  Mary,  the  motlior  of 
Mark.  When  Peter,  after  having  been 
miraculously  released  from  prison,  knocked 
at  the  door  of  the  gate  of  Mary's  house, 
Rhoda  was  sent  to  see  who  was  there.  On 
hearing  Peter's  voice,  she  was  elated  with 
joy,  and,  forgetting  in  her  excitement  to  let 
him  in,  ran  back  to  tell  that  it  was  Peter. 
The  apostle  had  for  some  time  to  continue 
the  knocking  before  he  could  gain  admit- 
tance (Acts  xii.  1.3-16). 

Rhodes,  in  A.  V.  of  1  Mac.  xv.  23  Rhodus 
[a  rose  bush]. 

An  island  off  the  coast  of  Caria,  in  the 


Eibai 


621 


Rimmon 


southwest  of  Asia  Minor.  It  is  about  45 
miles  long  by  8  broad,  and  is  remarkable  for 
its  orange  and  citron  groves.  The  island  was 
at  the  junction  of  great  commercial  routes  for 
coasting  vessels,  and  became  a  conmiercial 
center  which  ranked  with  Alexandria  and 
<'arthage.  Its  capital,  also  called  Rhodes, 
was  famed  for  its  Colossus,  a  great  lighthouse, 
said  to  have  been  70  cubits,  or  about  105 
feet,  high.  It  was  erected  between  300  and 
288  B.  V.  The  Rhodians  were  semi-inde- 
pendent under  the  Romans  (1  Mac.  xv.  23), 
except  during  nine  years  in  the  reign  of 
Claudius,  beginning  A.  D.  44,  and  again 
in  the  time  of  Vespasian.  The  vessel  in 
which  Paul  sailed  to  Palestine  from  Assos 
touched  at  Rhodes  (Acts  xxi.  1)  which  was 
then  a  splendid  city.  As  the  Rhodians 
long  remained  unsubdued  by  the  Romans, 
so,  led  by  the  knights  of  St.  John,  who  in 
A.  D.  1310  had  possessed  themselves  of  the 
island,  they  defied  the  power  of  the  Turks 
till  1522,  when  they  had  to  surrender  on 
terms,  the  knights  being  allowed  to  transfer 
themselves  to  the  isle  of  Malta.  Since  that 
time  Rhodes  has  remained  subject  to  the 
Turks. 

Ri'bai  [contentious]. 

A  Benjamitc  of  Gibeali,  and  the. father  of 
Ittai,  one  of  David's  mighty  men  (2  Sam. 
xsiii.  29;  1  Chron.  xi.  31). 

Rib'lah  [fertility]. 

A  town  in  the  land  of  Hamath  (2  Kin. 
xxiii.  33;  xxv.  21).  The  Egyptians  were  en- 
camped there  when  Jehoahaz  was  brought  in 
as  a  prisoner  (xxiii.  33).  When  Zedekiah 
was  captured  after  his  escape  from  Jerusa- 
lem, lie  was  brought  to  Nebuchadnezzar, 
then  encamped  at  Riblah,  who  jiut  out  his 
eyes,  and  had  him  bound  to  be  carried  to 
Babylon.  His  sons  aiid  the  princes  of  Judah 
were  also  slain  at  Riblah  (xxv.  6,  7,  21 ;  Jer. 
xxxix.  5-7;  lii.  9-11,  27).  Buckingham,  in 
1816,  met  with  ruins  at  a  place  called  by  him 
Rubla,  but  now  more  generally  spelled  Rib- 
leh,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Orontes,  about 
36  miles  north  by  east  of  Ba'al-bek,  in  the 
midst  of  the  great  plain  of  Ccelesyria,  very 
suitable  for  the  encampment  of  a  great  army, 
and  with  easy  access  southward  or  north- 
ward if  commotion  arose.  The  ruins  consist 
of  low  mounds  surrounded  by  the  remains 
of  old  buildings.  It  is  extremely  doubtful 
whether  it  is  identical  with  Riblah  on  the 
northern  boundary  of  Palestine,  east  of  Ain 
{Num.  xxxiv.  11). 

Rid'dle. 

lu  biblical  usage,  any  dark  saying,  of 
which  the  meaning  is  not  at  once  clear  and 
must  be  discovered  by  shrewd  thought  (Num. 
xii.  8,  in  E.  V.  dark  speeches;  Prov.  i.  6, 
R.  V.  margin).  It  may  be  a  parable  (Ps. 
xlix.  4;  Ixxviii.  2;  in  E.  V.  dark  saying), 
and  be  proposed  merely  in  order  to  arouse 
attention  and  start  inquiry,  and  make 
the   truth    more  vivid   and   impressive,   the 


propounder  intending  to  give  an  explanation 
immediately  (Ezek.  xvii.  2-24)  ;  or  the  riddle 
may  be  set  forth  for  men  to  guess,  as  the 
riddle  of  Samson  and  those  of  Solomon  and 
Hiram  to  which  .Tosephus  refers  (Judg.  xiv. 
12-19;  Antiq.  viii.  5,  3).  The  riddle  of 
Samson  was  jjrojxtsed  in  verse.  It  was  not 
projierly  a  riddle  at  all,  since  the  discovery 
of  its  meaning  was  not  within  the  realm  of 
possibility  for  the  Philistines.  It  was  not 
guessable,  for  they  were  not  ac(iuainted  with 
the  fiicts  on  which  it  was  based. 

The  Greeks  and  Romans  were  fond  of  the 
riddle  or  enigma.  One  of  the  most  cele- 
brated was  put  into  the  mouth  of  the 
monster  named  the  sphinx,  which  had  been 
sent  to  ravage  the  territory  of  Thebes.  She 
asked  :  "  What  animal  goes  on  four  feet  in 
the  morning,  on  two  at  noon,  and  on  three 
in  the  evening?"  After  many  had  failed, 
ffidipus  answered  that  it  was  man,  who  in 
infancy  creeps  on  all  fours,  at  maturity 
walks  on  two  feet,  and  in  old  age  uses  a 
staff.  Thereupon  the  sphinx  flung  herself 
to  the  ground  and  perished. 

Rie,  obsolete  spelling  of  Rye.     See  Spelt. 

Rim'mon  I.,  in  A.  V.  twice  Remmon  (Josh. 
xix.  7,  13) ;  in  R.  V.  once  Rimmouo  (1  Chron. 
vi.  77)   [a  pomegranate]. 

1.  A  Benjamite,  M'hose  two  sons  were  cap- 
tains under  Ish-bosheth,  and  became  his  mur- 
derers (2  Sam.  iv.  2). 

2.  A  town  in  the  south  of  Judah  near  Ain 
(Josh.  XV.  32  ;  1  Chron.  iv.  32 ;  Zech.  xiv.  10), 
so  near  indeed  as  to  form,  apparently,  one 
community  with  it  (Neh.  xi.  29).  It  was 
soon  transferred  with  Ain  and  other  towns 
to  Simeon  (Josh.  xix.  7).  It  is  identified 
with  the  ruin  Umm  er-Rumamin,  about  10 
miles  northeast  by  north  of  Beer-sheba. 

3.  A  border  town  of  Zebulun,  but  assigned 
to  the  Levites  (Josh.  xix.  13  ;  1  Chron.  vi. 
77;  and  Josh.  xxi.  35,  where  Dimnah  is 
doubtless  a  misreading,  resh  being  mistaken 
for  daleth,  q.  v.).  Methoar  in  A.  Y.  of  Josh. 
xix.  13  is  imi)roperly  regarded  as  part  of  the 
name  ;  whereas  it  describes  the  boundarj'  as 
"stretching"  to  Neah.  The  name  of  the 
town  is  preserved  in  Rummaneb,  a  village 
6  miles  north,  slightly  east,  of  Nazareth. 

3.  A  rock  near  Gibeah,  where  600  van- 
quished Benjamites  took  refuge  and  re- 
mained four  months  (Judg.  xx.  4.5-47;  xxi. 
13).  It  is  probably  the  detached  limestone 
eminence  3i  miles  east,  slightly  north,  of 
Bethel.  It  is  separated  from  all  apjiroach 
on  the  south,  the  north,  and  the  west  by 
ravines,  and  has  caverns,  in  which  the 
refugees  may  have  lived.  The  name  still 
lingers  in  Rammun,  a  village  on  the  summit. 

Rim'mon  II.  [thunderer]. 

A  Syrian  god,  who  had  a  temple  at  Damas- 
cus, in  which  Naaman  and  his  royal  master 
were  accustomed  to  bow  themselves  for  wor- 
ship (2  Kin.  V.  18).  In  Assyria  Rimmon,  or 
Ramman  as  his  name  was  pronounced  there, 


Rimmono 


622 


Rock-badger 


was  nnmtiercd  among  the  twelve  great 
deities.  He  was  the  god  of  rain  and  storm, 
lightning  and  thunder.  Sometimes  he  was 
dreaded  as  the  destroyer  of  crops  and  the 
scatterer  of  the  harvest,  and  at  others  was 
adored  as  the  lord  of  fecundity.  He  was 
identical  with  Hadad,  the  supreme  god  of 
the  Syrians.  The  two  names  are  combined 
in  Hadad- Rimmon. 

Rim'mo-no.     See  Rimmon. 

Rim-mon-pe'rez,  in  A.  V.  Rimmon-parez 
[pomegranate  of  tlie  breach  or  cleft]. 

A  camping  ground  of  the  Israelites  in  the 
wilderness  (Num.  xxxiii.  19,  20).  Situation 
unknown. 

Ring.     See  Ornament  and  Seal. 

Rln'nah  [a  wild  cry,  a  shout]. 

A  man  of  Judah,  a  son  of  Shimon  (1  Chron. 
iv.  20). 

Ri'phath. 

A  people  descended  from  Gomer  (Gen.  x. 
3 ;  in  1  Chron.  i.  fi  Diphath ;  see  Daleth). 
Josephus  identifies  them  with  the  Paphla- 
gonians  (Antiq.  i.  6,  1).  The  name  is  per- 
haps preserved  in  the  Eiphaan  mountains, 
which  were  supposed  by  the  ancients  to  skirt 
the  northern  shore  of  the  world. 

Ris'sah  [a  ruin,  or  dew,  rain]. 

A  camping  ground  of  the  Israelites  in  the 
wilderness  (Num.  xxxiii.  21,  22).  Exact 
situation  unknown. 

Rith'mah  [broom,  plant]. 

A  camping  ground  of  the  Israelites  in  the 
wilderness  (Num.  xxxiii.  18,  19) ;  perhaps 
hard  by  Kadesh  in  the  wady  known  as  Abu 
Retemat,  the  equivalent  of  the  ancient 
name ;  see  Kadesh  1. 

Riv'er. 

Of  several  words  translated  river,  only 
three  require  mention  here :  1.  Nahar,  a 
stream,  in  Greek  potamos,  applied  to  the 
largest  rivers  known  to  the  Hebrews,  as  the 
Tigris  and  Euphrates  (Gen.  ii.  14 ;  Rev.  ix. 
14),  the  Abana  and  Pharpar  (2  Kin.  v.  12), 
the  Jordan  (Mark  i.  5),  and  the  affluents 
of  the  Upper  Nile  (Zeph.  iii.  10).  The  river 
or  the  great  river  usually  denotes  the  Eu- 
phrates (Gen.  XV.  18;  xxxi.  21).  2.  Nahal, 
sometimes  a  perennial  stream  like  the  Jab- 
bok  (Dent.  ii.  37),  but  usually  a  winter 
torrent,  the  bed  of  which  is  dry  in  summer ; 
a  wady.  See  Brook.  3.  Y^'or,  a  stream, 
used  almost  exclusively  of  the  Nile  and  its 
mouths,  and  sounding  much  like  the  native 
Egyptian  name  of  that  river  (Gen.  xli.  1  ;  2 
Kin.  xix.  24 ;  Ezek.  xxix.  3).  It  once  de- 
notes the  Tigris  (Dan.  xii.  5-7;  cp.  x.  4,  E. 
V.  margin). 

Riv'er  of  E'gypt. 

1.  The  Nile,  and  specifically  its  most  east- 
ern channel,  the  Pelusiac  branch  (Gen.  xv. 
18)  ;  see  Shihor.  In  this  passage  the  two 
great  rivers,  the  Nile  and  the  Euphrates,  are 
named   broadly  as    the   boundaries  of   the 


promised  land.  The  brook  of  Egypt  or 
wady  el-*Arish  was  commonly  regarded  as 
the  southwestern  limit  of  Palestine  ;  but  the 
country  between  this  wady  and  the  east- 
ern branch  of  the  Nile  was  mainly  desert, 
and  the  Nile  was  virtually  6n  the  boundary 
of  Egypt.  The  passage  means  that  the  de- 
scendants of  Abraham  should  possess  the 
land  as  far  as  Egypt.  The  distinction  be- 
tween the  Nile  and  the  wady  el-'Arish  is 
well  established  ;  for  the  former  is  a  nahar 
and  the  latter  a  nahal. 

2.  A  great  wady  or  nahal,  uniformly  called 
in  the  R.  V.  the  In-ook  of  Egypt.  It  was  tlie 
southwestern  border  of  Canaan  (Num.  xxxi  v. 
5;  1  Kin.  viii.  65;  2  Kin.  xxiv.  7),  and  the 
limit  in  the  same  direction  of  the  tribe  of 
Judah  (Josh.  xv.  4,  47).  It  was  known  to 
the  Assyrians  by  the  same  name  as  to  the 
Hebrews,  and  likewise  as  a  boundary.  It  is 
the  wady  el-'Arish,  a  watercourse  nominally 
dry,  but  which  after  heavy  rains  runs  north- 
ward from  the  desert,  being  fed  by  tribu- 
taries, one  of  which  passes  Kadesh-barnea. 
It  falls  into  the  Mediterranean,  about  50 
miles  south  of  Gaza. 

Ri-zi'a,  in  A.  Y.  Rezia  [delight]. 

An  Asherite,  a  son  of  Ulla  (1  Chron.  vii. 
39). 

Riz'pah  [a  hot  stone]. 

A  daughter  of  Aiah  and  concubine  of  Saul. 
On  her  account  the  quarrel  arose  between 
Ish-bosheth  and  Abner,  which  resulted  in 
Abner's  going  over  to  David  (2  Sam.  iii.  6-8). 
Her  children,  Armoni  and  Mephibosheth, 
were  put  to  death  during  the  famine  which 
arose  in  David's  reign  on  account  of  Saul's 
treatment  of  the  Gibeonites  (2  Sam.  xxi.  8- 
11). 

Road. 

An  inroad,  a  raid,  an  incursion  into  an 
enemy's  countrj"^  (1  Sam.  xxvii.  10,  in  R.  V. 
raid).  This  sense  is  now  ob-solete  in  ordinary 
language.  When  a  road  in  the  modern  sense 
is  intended,  the  A.  V.  and  R.  V.  generally 
use  the  term  way,  or  sometimes  path.  See 
Palestine  5. 

Rob'ber.     See  Thief. 

Ro-bo'am.     See  Rehoboam. 

Rock. 

Rocks  were  found  nearly  everywhere  in 
the  hilly  and  mountainous  districte  of  Pales- 
tine. Some  had  definite  names,  as  the  rock 
of  Oreb  (Judg.  vii.  25),  the  rock  of  Etam 
(xv.  8).    See  Oreb,  Etam. 

Rock-badg'er. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Shaphan,  on 
the  margin  of  the  R.  V.,  where  coney  appears 
in  the  text.  The  animal  intended  by  the 
Hebrew  word  is  small  and  wary,  dwells 
among  the  rocks  (Ps.  civ.  18;  Prov.  xxx. 
24,  26),  and  chews  the  cud,  but  does  not  part 
the  hoof  (Lev.  xi.  5;  Dent.  xiv.  7).  The 
corresponding  name  in  the  dialect  of  south- 
ern Arabia  denotes  the  Hyrax  syriacus,  the 


Bodanim 


623 


Eomans 


so-called  rook-badjser.  The  hyrax  looks  like 
a  rabbit  or  badger,  but  lias  more  allinity  to 
the  rliiiioeeros  and  tlie  tajjir;  indeed,  its 
structure  is  so  anomalous  that  it  has  been 
given  a  whole  order,  Hi/racoiden,  to  itself. 
It  moves  its  jaws  as  if  it  were  chewing  the 


Koek-badger  {Hyra    syriaai!<). 

cud,  bnt  it  does  not  really  ruminate.  The 
species  syriacns  is  found  in  the  peninsula  of 
Sinai,  northern  Palestine,  and  the  region 
round  the  Dead  Sea.  Its  fur  is  tawny,  with 
a  yellow  spot  on  the  back.  It  lives  in  clefts 
of  rocks,  but  does  not  scoop  out  a  hole. 
Small  parties  meet  together,  with  a  sentinel 
on  some  eminence  to  give  warning  of  danger. 
It  is  rarely  seen  except  in  the  morning  and 
evening,  when  it  comes  forth  to  feed. 

Rod'a-nim  [a  plural  form,  Rodanites]. 

A  people  descended  from  Javan  (Hebrew 
text  of  1  Chron.  i.  7;  and  Septuagint  and 
Samaritan  text  of  Gen.  x.  4).  If  Rodanim  is 
the  correct  reading,  the  people  of  Rhodes 
and  of  the  neighboring  islands  of  the  ^Egeau 
Sea  are  probably  intended.     See  Dodanim. 

Roe. 

A  deer  ( Capreolus  capr.ra,  the  Cervn.^  capre- 
olus  of  Linnaeus)  which  is  described  under 
Roebuck  2  (2  Sam.  ii.  IS ;  1  Chron.  xii.  8,  in 
Hel)rew  -fbi;  and  Prov.  v.  19,  A.  V.,  iu  He- 
brew ya'Hnh) ;  see  Gazelle  and  Doe. 

Roe'buck. 

1.  The  rendering  in  A.  V.  of  the  Hebrew 
S'bi  in  Deut.  xii.  15,  22;  xiv.  5;  xv.  22;  1 
kin.  iv.  23.     R.  V.  substitutes  gazelle  (q.  v.). 

2.  The  rendering  in  R.  V.  of  the  Hebrew 
Yalimur.  The  animal  was  ceremonially  clean 
and  used  for  food  (Deut.  xiv.  5;  1  Kin.  iv. 
23,  in  A.  V.  fellow  deer).  Etymology  indi- 
cates that  its  cfilor  was  reddish.  According 
to  Arabian  authorities,  it  casts  its  horns 
every  year,  which  is  characteristic  of  deer. 
In  northern  Galilee  the  name  yahmur  is  still 
given  to  the  roebuck  (Capreolus  cnpriea,  or 
CfrvHs  capreolus).  In  Europe  it  is  a  small  deer 
about  two  feet  high  at  the  shoulder,  but 
in  Asia  it  attains  to  a  larger  size.  In  summer 
it  is  dark  reddish-brown,  in  winter  yellowish- 
gray.  It  has  a  large  patch  of  white  on  the 
rump.  The  antlers  are  about  a  foot  long, 
with  three  points.  It  is  wild  over  a  great 
part  of  Europe  and  Asia.  In  Palestine  it  is 
found  on  mount  Carmel  and  mount  Lebanon. 


Ry  many,  however,  the  yahmur  is  identified 
with  the  bubale,  one  of  the  bovine  antelopes. 
It  is  about  the  size  ol'  a  large  stag,  lias  a  long 
head,  a  narrow  forehead,  and  reddish  or  pale 
brown  hair.     Its  flesh  is  most  .savory. 

Ro'ge-lim  [place  of  fullers  or  .spies]. 
A   town   in   Gilead   where  Karzillai    lived 
(2  Sam.   xvii.  27;   xix.  31).     Site  unknown. 

Roh'gali  [clamor]. 

An  Asherite,  family  of  Beriah,  house  of 
Heber  (1  Chron.  vii.  34). 

Roll. 

The  sheet  of  papyrus  or  the  parchment  on 
which  documents  were  frequently  written  in 
ancient  times  was  rolled  up  or  wound  around 
a  stick,  like  a  modern  map,  and  thus  consti- 
tuted a  roll  (Jer.  xxxvi.  2)  or  a  volume  in 
the  original  sense  of  the  term  (Ps.  xl.  7, 
A.  V.)  ;  see  Book.  The  word  rendered  roll 
in  Is.  viii.  1,  A.  V.,  should  be  translated 
tablet. 

Ro-mam-ti-e'zer  [I  have  exalted  help]. 

A  singer,  a  sou  of  Heman  (1  Chron.  xxv.  4). 
He  obtained  the  twenty-fourth  lot  among  the 
courses  of  the  singers  (31). 

Ro'mans. 

1.  Inhabitants  of  Rome  (1  Mac.  viii.  1 ; 
Acts  ii.  10,  "  sojourners  from  Rome,"  R.  V.). 

2.  Those  who  represent  the  Roman  gov- 
ernment (John  xi.  48  ;  Acts  xxv.  16;  xxviii. 
17). 

3.  Those,  wherever  born  or  of  whatever 
race,  who  possessed  the  rights  of  citizenship 
in  the  Roman  empire  (Acts  xvi.  21,  37,  38 ; 
xxii.  25,  26,  27,  29).  By  the  Porcian  Law, 
which  was  so  named  because  it  was  pro- 
posed and  carried  by  P.  Porcius  Lseca,  a 
tribune  of  tlie  people,  248  B.  c,  it  was  de- 
clared that  no  magistrate  had  the  right  to 
bind,  scoui-ge,  or  kill  a  Roman  citizen.  The 
life  of  one  so  privileged  could  not  be  taken 
away  except  by  a  decision  of  the  whole 
people  met  in  the  comUia  centuriaia,  a  gen- 
eral assembly  of  the  people,  voting  in  divi- 
sions called  centuries.  If  a  magistrate  or 
ruler  of  any  kind  gave  orders  to  .scourge  one 
entitled  to  the  protection  of  this  law,  the 
latter  had  only  to  utter  the  words,  "I  am  a 
Roman  citizen,"  and  all  procedure  was  stayed 
till  the  people  had  decided  on  his  case.  When 
the  power  formerly  possessed  by  the  people 
was  transferred  to  the  emperor,  it  was  to 
him  that  the  right  of  appeal  lay.  The  privi- 
leges of  Roman  citizenship  were  first  limited 
to  residents  in  Rome  itself:  then  they  were 
extended  to  various  Italian  tribes  and  cities; 
then  to  the  greater  part  of  Italy  ;  then  to 
places  beyond  the  Italian  peninsula  ;  and  so 
on  and  on  till,  it  is  said,  Caracalla  (a.  d.  211- 
217)  conferred  them  on  every  inhabitant  of 
the  Roman  empire.  During  the  transition 
period  individuals  who  had  rendered  service 
to  Rome  might  be  declared  citizeii.s,  or  the 
privilege  miglit  be  purchased  for  money,  even 
iu  towns  or  districts  which  were  not  as  yet 


Romans,  Epistle  to  the 


624 


Romans,  Epistle  to  the 


enfranchised.  Sometimes  also  manumitted 
slaves  were  granted  citizenship.  These  ex- 
planations make  it  easy  to  understand  how 
Paul,  though  of  Jewish  descent  (Phil.  iii.  5), 
could  still  bo  a  Roman  citizen  ;  and  how 
Claudius  Lysias  thought  it  worth  his  while 
to  purchase  the  privilege  for  a  great  sum  of 
money  (Acts  xxii.  2!S)  ;  and  how,  when  he 
had  given  orders  that  Paul  should  be  scourged, 
and  was  informed  by  the  centurion  that  the 
apostle  was  a  Roman  citizen,  procedure  was' 
immediately  stopped  (25-29).  One  can  also 
understand  the  alarm  of  the  authorities  at 
Philippi  when  they  had  taken  the  responsi- 
bility of  having  Paul  and  Silas  openly  beaten, 
and,  to  make  matters  worse,  uncondemued, 
without  first  taking  means  to  ascertain 
whether  or  not  they  were  Roman  citizens 
(xvi.  3t)-38).  It  will  appear  also  that  Paul 
simply  exercised  his  legal  right  when  he 
took  his  ai)peal  to  Cfesar;  that  is,  to  the 
Roman  emperor  (xxv.  11). 

Ro'mans,  E-pis'tle  to  the. 

The  first  of  St.  Paul's  epistles  according  to 
the  order  in  which  they  are  placed  in  our 
N.  T.  In  order  of  composition,  however,  it 
was  the  sixth,  since  it  was  written  from 
Corinth,  as  appears  from  the  salutations  (cp. 
xvi.  23  with  1  Cor.  i.  14  and  2  Tim.  iv.  20), 
and  from  the  fact  that  it  was  carried  to  Rome 
by  Phoebe,  a  servant  or  deaconess  of  the  church 
at  Cenchreje  (Rom.  xvi.  1),  which  was  near 
Corinth  (Acts  xviii.  18)  ;  and,  if  so,  it  must 
have  been  written  during  the  visit  to  Greece 
mentioned  in  Acts  xx.  2,  3.  That  was  in  the 
•winter  of  A.  D.  57-58.  The  apostle  had  long 
wished  to  visit  Rome  (Rom.  i.  10-12;  xv.  23), 
and  it  was  his  purpose,  his  work  in  the  east 
having  been  finished  (xv.  23),  to  visit  the 
•capital  on  his  way  to  Spain  (28).  Before 
doing  so,  however,  he  was  determined  to  re- 
turn to  Jerusalem  to  present  the  gifts  of  the 
gentile  churches  (25,  26).  Not  knowing, 
however,  what  might  be  his  fate  on  this  dan- 
gerous journey  (30-32  ;  Acts  xx.  22),  he  sent 
this  letter  to  the  Christians  at  Rome,  where 
he  had  many  friends  (cp.  Rom.  xvi.),  for,  as 
the  apostle  of  the  gentiles,  he  considered  the 
church  at  Rome  to  be  under  his  care  (xv.  15, 
16),  although  he  had  never  visited  it.  The 
theme  of  the  epistle,  which  is  one  of  the 
most  elaborate  ever  written  by  him,  was 
naturally  determined  by  the  controversies 
through  which  he  had  passed  and  by  the 
need  of  stating,  formally  and  completely, 
the  gospel  which  he  preached  among  the 
gentiles.  It  is  a  full  presentation,  therefore, 
of  the  way  of  salvation.  Hence  its  supreme 
importance.  That  he  addressed  it  to  the 
Christians  at  Rome  indicates,  no  doubt,  his 
appreciation  of  the  influence  which  the 
church  of  the  world's  metropolis  would  exert, 
and  the  consequent  necessity  of  establishing 
it  in  the  faith  that  it  might  resist  the  assaults 
of  error.  The  epistle  may  be  analyzed  as 
follows:    After   the  salutation    (i.  1-7)  and 


statement  of  his  interest  in  them  (8-15),  he 
epitomizes  the  character  of  his  gospel  and, 
in  doing  so,  gives  the  theme  of  the  epistle: 
"The  gospel  is  the  power  of  God  unto  sal- 
vation to  every  one  that  believeth.  For 
therein  is  the  righteousness  of  God  revealed 
from  faith  to  faith"  (16,  17). 

He  then  proves  the  universal  need  of 
righteousness  (i.  18-iii.  20).  He  first  shows 
that  the  gentile  world  is  in  a  state  of  sin  and 
just  condemnation  (i.  18-32),  and  then  that 
the  Jewish  world  is  no  exception,  but  is  like- 
wise guilty  before  God  (ii.).  To  the  objection 
that  this  destroys  the  privileges  of  the  Jew, 
he  replies  by  showing  that  their  privilege 
consisted  in  being  the  trustees  of  revelation, 
but  that  their  own  Scriptures  declared  them 
to  be  sinful  (iii.  1-19),  so  that  there  is  no  ex- 
ception to  the  universal  guilt.  In  fact,  the 
law  only  increases  the  consciousness  of  sin 
(20). 

He  then  states  the  righteousness  which 
God  has  provided  for  every  believer  through 
the  redemptive  and  sacrificial  work  of  Christ 
(iii.  21-30),  and  proves  that  this  way  of  salva- 
tion is  that  taught  in  the  O.  T.  (31-iv.  25),  that 
it  is  the  basis  of  Christian  experience  (v.  1-11 ), 
and  that  it  proceeds  upon  the  same  principle 
of  moral  government,  on  which  God  acted 
when  he  dealt  with  mankind  in  the  person 
of  their  first  head  and  representative,  Adam 
(12-21). 

The  apostle  then  refutes  three  objections 
which  would  be  brought  against  his  doctrine 
of  salvation  by  the  work  of  Christ  for  us  re- 
ceived through  faith  alone.  The  first  objec- 
tion is  that  on  this  doctrine  men  may  con- 
tinue in  siu  and  yet  be  saved,  to  which  he 
replies  no,  because  faith  in  Christ  involves 
vital  union  with  him,  whereby  the  believer 
rises  with  Christ  into  a  new  moral  life  (vi.  1- 
14).  The  second  objection  is  that  Paul's  doc- 
trine of  deliverance  from  the  law  released 
men  from  moral  obligation,  to  which  he  re- 
plies no,  because  the  believer  accepts  a  new 
and  higher  obligation,  whereby  he  devotes 
himself  to  the  will  of  God  (vi.  15-vii.  6).  The 
third  objection  is  that  Paul's  doctrine  makes 
the  law  of  God  an  evil  thing,  to  which  he 
replies  no,  for  the  reason  that  the  law  cannot 
save  is  not  that  the  law  is  evil,  but  that  man 
is  sinful  and  cannot  keep  it  (7-25). 

Having  refuted  objections,  he  shows  (viii.) 
that  on  the  basis  of  Christ's  redemptive  work 
provision  is  made  for  the  spiritual  renewal, 
complete  sanctification,and  final  glorification 
of  those  who  are  in  Christ,  and  who,  being 
cho.sen  and  called  by  God,  will  certainly 
enjoy  the  perfect  fruition  of  God's  love. 
Having  thus  stated  the  gospel  way  of  salva- 
tion, the  apostle  proceeds  to  adjust  it  to  the 
fact  that  Israel,  the  chosen  people,  had  as  a 
nation  rejected  it.  He  does  this  by  teaching 
that  the  saving  promise  of  God  had  never 
been  made  to  the  Jews  as  a  nation,  but  only 
to  the  "election,"  the  true  seed  of  Abraham, 
whom  God  had  chosen  (ix.  1   13),  and  he  jus- 


Rome 


625 


Rose 


tifies  from  Scripture  this  doctrine  of  sover- 
eis'i  election  (14-29);  then,  further,  that  the 
rejection  of  the  Jews  was  due  to  their  refusal 
of  the  very  way  of  salvation  taught  by  their 
own  Scriptures  (30-x.  21),  yet  that  the  re- 
jection of  Israel  was  not  complete,  for  the 
promised  remnant,  the  election,  did  believe 
(si.  1-10),  and,  finally,  that  in  the  end  the 
Jews  will  be  converted,  and  with  the  gentiles 
trust  in  the  promised  Redeemer  (ll-.3()). 

The  rest  of  the  epistle  consists  of  an  ex- 
hortation to  Christian  living  (xii.),  to  the 
l>erformance  of  civil  and  social  duties  (xiii.), 
and  to  Christian  charity  and  unity  (xiv.  1- 
XV.  13),  ending  with  personal  messages  and 
salutations  (14-xvi.  27).  G.  t.  p. 

Rome. 

The  date  7.j3  B.  c.  is  accepted  by  the  best  au- 
thorities for  the  traditional  founding  of  Rome 
by  Romulus,  who  became  its  first  king.  The 
little  kingdom  grew  in  size  and  importance, 
absorbing  its  immediate  neighbors  through 
the  reigns  of  seven  kings,  until  the  tyranny 
of  Tarquinius  Superbus  drove  the  people  to 
take  the  government  into  their  own  hands 
and  establish  a  republic.  In  the  beginning, 
the  power  was  entirely  in  the  hands  of  a  few 
patrician  families,  the  plebeians  merely  ac- 
quiescing in  measures  taken.  The  plebs, 
however,  demanded  and  obtained  privilege 
after  privilege  until  every  Roman  citizen 
had  a  voice  in  the  government.  During  the 
period  of  the  republic,  Rome  extended  her 
boundaries  at  first  over  all  Italy,  and  finally 
over  the  whole  known  world. 

Rome's  first  contact  with  Asia  occurred  190 
B.  c,  when  the  Roman  army  defeated  An- 
tiochus  the  Great,  king  of  Syria,  at  the  battle 
of  Magnesia,  and  Rome  assumed  a  protectorate 
over  certain  cities  in  Asia  Minor  (cp.  1  Mac. 
i.  10).  Most  of  Rome's  conquests  after  this 
were  of  a  peaceful  nature,  other  nations 
Avillingly  acknowledging  her  superiority. 

In  63  B.  c.  Judiea  became  formally 
subject  to  Rome,  being  taken  by  Pompey 
after  he  liad  reduced  the  Seleucidan  kingdom 
to  the  level  of  a  province.  It  was  required 
to  pay  tribute,  but  was  left  for  a  time  under 
native  rulers. 

Meantime,  several  parties  jealous  of  each 
other  had  been  growing  up  in  the  state.  As 
the  result  of  an  internal  political  struggle, 
the  triumvirate  of  Ciesar.  Pompey,  and 
Crassus  was  formed  to  rule,  but  by  the  death 
of  Crassus,  and  the  defeat  of  Pompey  in  a 
civil  .struggle,  the  power  fell  into  the  hands 
of  Caesar  alone.  This  did  not  last  long. 
Cfesar  was  murdered  by  his  enemies  in  44  B.  c, 
civil  war  again  broke  out.  a  second  triumvi- 
rate was  formed  by  Antony,  Octavian.  and 
Lepidus,  and.  like  the  first,  was  soon  reduced 
to  one  man,  Octavian.  Full  of  ambition, 
Octavian  had  himself  proclaimed  emperor 
with  the  title  of  Augustus,  and  the  Roman 
empire  began. 

It  was  during  the  reign  of  Augustus  that 
40 


Christ  was  born ;  during  tliat  of  his  successor 
Tiberius,  that  the  crucifixion  took  place. 
The  martyrdom  of  James  the  brother  of 
j  John  took  place  in  the  reign  of  the  emperor 
i  Claudius  I  Acts  xi.  28;  xii.  1,2).  It  was  to  the 
emperor  Nero  that  Paul  ajipealed  (xxv.  11). 
I  The  destruction  of  Jerusalem  ])rophesied  by 
I  our  Lord  (Mat.  xxiv. ;  Mark  xiii.  ;  Luke  xix. 
41-44 ;  xxi.  5-36)  was  accomi>lished  in  the 
year  a.  d.  TO  by  Titus,  who  afterwards  be- 
came emperor. 

When  the  empire  was  at  its  great^^st  size 
it  extended  3000  miles  from  east  to  west,  and 
2000  from  north  to  south,  and  contained  a 
population  of  about  120,000,000. 

Weakened  by  excesses  and  corruption 
within,  and  attacked  by  enemies  without, 
the  empire  began  to  fail,  receiving  its  first 
serious  check  on  the  final  separation  of  the 
eastern  empire  in  395,  and  coming  finally  to 
an  end  by  the  capture  of  Rome  by  the  Goth 
Odoacer  in  476. 

During  the  decline  of  Rome's  civil  power 
the  Christians  there  had  V)cen  growing  in 
power  and  influence.  Although  it  had  been 
the  policy  of  Rome  to  tolerate  the  religions 
of  her  conquered  peoples,  the  Christians  were 
persecuted  almost  from  the  first.  This  was 
due  mainly  to  two  causes :  their  uncompro- 
mising attitude  toward  all  heathen  rites  and 
religions,  and  their  unceasing  efforts  to  make 
converts.  The  persecutions  were  especially 
severe  under  Nero,  who  attempted  to  throw 
on  the  Christians  the  blame  for  some  of  his 
own  nefarious  deeds.  Persecutions  were  also 
very  severe  under  Domitian,  but  notwith- 
standing constant  imprisonment  and  death 
the  Christians  continued  to  grow  in  numbers 
and  influence  until  the  church  in  Rome  and 
the  bishoi)of  Rome  became  no  inconsiderable 
factor  in  the  general  growth  of  Christianity. 
The  Christian  religion  was  otEcially  adopted 
and  declared  the  religion  of  the  state  by  the 
emj)eror  Constantine  early  in  the  fourth  cen- 
tury. 

Roof.     See  House. 

Room. 

1.  A  chamber  or  other  apartment  in  a 
house  (Acts  i.  13).     See  House  and  P.\l.\ce. 

2.  In  A.  V.  room  is  also  u.sed  in  the  sense 
of  place  or  position  in  society,  a  meaning 
which  is  now  obsolete  (Mat.  xxiii.  6;  Luke 
xiv.  7,  8;  XX.  46).  Uppermost  or  chief  room 
is  the  translation  of  the  Greek  proiollixia, 
first  place  for  reclining:  see  Meals.  The 
scribes  and  Pharisees  were  censured  for  seek- 
ing the  place  of  honor  at  feasts,  desiring  to 
recline  on  the  most  important  couch.  R.  V. 
substitutes  place  or  seat  for  room,  when  used 
in  this  obsolete  sense. 

Rose. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  H"ha-fxeleth 
(Song  ii.  1  :  Is.  xxxv.  1).  in  the  Engli.<h  ver- 
sions and  by  several  Jewish  scholars  of  tlie 
Middle  Ages.  Modern  interpreters  are  di- 
vided in  opinion.  The  most  important  sugges- 


Rosh 


626 


Eumah 


tions  are  the  following:  1.  Some  expositors, 
incliuling  Tristram,  following  the  Targiim 
of  Song  ii.  1,  and  sometimes  appealing  to  a 
doubtful  etymology,  understand  the  beauti- 
ful, white  sweet-scented  narcissus  {Na)-cissus 
tasetta),  common  in  spring  in  the  plain  of 
'Sharon  and  in  the  hill  country.  2.  A  Syriac 
word,  seemingly  kindred  to  the  Hebrew 
name,  denotes  colchicum  and  the  crocus, 
which  are  strikingly  alike  and  which,  when 
the  rainy  season  sets  in,  carpet  the  fields 
with  bright  flowers.  The  prevalent  opinion, 
perhaps  represented  by  E.  V.  margin,  is  that 
meadow  .saffron  (Colchicum  aidumnale)  is 
meant,  with  its  pale  lilac  flowers.  3.  An  As- 
syrian word  still  nearer  to  the  Hebrew  form, 
refers  to  marsh  plants,  so  that  the  Hebrew 
has  been  understood  by  some  interpreters  of 
late  to  denote  Cyperus  syriacus,  known  also 
as  Cuperus  papyrus,  which  grows  on  the  Nahr 
el-'Aujah  in  the  plain  of  Sharon  and  in  other 
marshy  districts  of  Palestine.  It  flowers 
toward  the  end  of  autumn. 

The  true  rose  is  a  native  of  Media  and 
Persia.  It  was  early  transplanted  to  the 
countries  on  the  Mediterranean,  and  grows 
on  the  mountains  of  Palestine.  The  maid 
who  recognized  the  voice  of  Peter  at  the 
gate,  was  named  Rhoda,  a  rose  (Acts  xii.  1.3) ; 
and  the  true  rose  is  probablj-  intended  in 
Wisd.  ii.  8  ;  Ecclus.  xxiv.  14  ;  xxxix.  13  ;  1.  8, 
where  the  Greek  word  is  used.  Tristram, 
however,  judges  from  its  growing  at  Jericho 
and  by  the  waters,  that  the  oleander  is  meant 
in  these  passages. 

Rosh  [in  Hebrew  a  head,  a  chief,  a  prince], 

1.  A  son  of  Benjamin,  who  went  down  to 
Egypt  with  Jacob  and  his  sons  (Gen.  xlvi. 
21).  He  did  not  give  rise  to  a  tribal  family 
(Num.  xxvi.  38),  because  probably,  like  Er 
and  Onan  of  Judah,  he  died  without  issiie. 

2.  A  northern  people  mentioned  with 
Meshech  and  Tubal  (Ezek.  xxxviii.  2,  3; 
xxxix.  1,  both  R.  V.  text).  Gesenius  be- 
lieves Eosh  to  be  the  Russians,  though  they 
are  nowhere  else  mentioned  by  this  or  any 
similar  name  for  centuries  afterwards.  The 
text  of  the  A.  V.  and  the  margin  of  the  E.  V. 
render  Rosh  "chief  prince,"  in  which  case 
Rosh  as  a  proper  name  disappears. 

Ru'by. 

1.  The  plural,  rubies,  is  the  rendering 
of  the  Hebrew  P'nhum,  which  occurs  only  in 
the  plural.  The  margin  of  the  R.  V.  has 
coral,  red  coral  or  pearls.  The  name  may 
signify  branches  and  thus  aptly  describe 
coral ;  but  this  signification  is  not  estab- 
lished. It  was  ruddy  in  hue  (Lam.  iv.  7), 
and  was  i)recious  (Job  xxviii.  18 ;  Prov.  iii. 
15).  The  color  is  a  good  reason  for  not  re- 
garding it  as  a  pearl.  The  true  or  oriental 
ruby  is,  like  the  sapphire,  a  variety  of 
corundum.  It  is  a  clear,  bright  gem,  rich 
red  in  color.  The  spinel  ruby  is  a  deep  red, 
and  the  balas  ruby  a  rose-red,  variety  of 
spinel. 


2.  The  marginal  rendering  of  the  Hebrew 
'Odem,  red  gem  (Ex.  xxviii.  17  ;  Ezek.  xxviii. 
13).  In  the  text  it  is  translated  sardius, 
which  is  the  better  rendering. 

Rue. 

A  iilant,  in  Greek  pcqanon,  of  which  the 
Pharisees,  careful  about  minute  points,  were 
scrupulously  accurate  in  paying  tithes  (Luke 
xi.  42).  It  is  Ruta  graveoleiis,  a  half  shrubby 
plant,  two  or  three  feet  high,  with  pinnate 
bluish-green    leaves,   all    dotted    over  with 


Rue. 

odoriferous  glands  and  yellowish  corymbose 
flowers,  mostly  with  eight  stamens.  Its  odor 
is  very  powerful.  It  is  a  native  of  the 
Mediterranean  region.  It  was  cultivated  in 
Palestine  as  a  medicine,  and  perhaps  as  a 
condiment  for  food.  Had  it  been  wild,  it 
would  not  have  been  a  tithable  plant. 

Ru'fus  [red]. 

A  son  of  that  Simon  of  Cj'rene  who  was 
compelled  to  bear  the  cross  of  Christ  (Mark 
XV.  21).  He  may  have  been  the  same  as  the 
Rufus  at  Rome  to  whom  Paul  sent  a  saluta- 
tion  (Rom.  xvi.  13). 

Ru-ha'mah  [she  hath  obtained  mercy] . 

One  of  the  symbolical  names  with  which 
the  children  of  Judah  and  Israel  shall  event- 
ually greet  each  other  (Hos.  ii.  1). 

Ru'mali  [height,  high  place]. 

The  place  to  which  the  father  of  Jehuia- 
kim's  queen  belonged  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  36).  An 
ancient  opinion  is  that  it  was  the  same  as 
Arumah  in  the  neighborhood  of  Shechem. 
It  may,  however,  have  been  the  town  in 
Galilee  (War  iii.  7,  21). 


n 


Rush 


627 


Sabbath 


Rush. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Gome  in  Job 
viii.  11  and  Is.  xxxv.  7.     See  Papyrus. 

Rust. 

A  corrosive  or  disfiguring  accretion,  in 
Greek  ios,  which  denotes  the  rust  of  iron, 
the  verdigris  of  brass,  the  tarnish  on  gold 
and  silver  (Jas.  v.  .3).  The  Greek  word  brosis, 
eating,  corrosion,  is  used  in  Mat.  vi.  19,  20. 

Ruth  [possibly,  sightly]. 

A  Moal)itess  married  first  to  Mahlon  of 
Bethlehem,  who  was  sojourning  in  Moab  with 
his  parents  and  brother  because  of  a  famine 
in  Judah.  The  three  men  died.  Ruth  left  her 
native  land  and  accompanied  her  mother-in- 
law  Naomi  to  Bethlehem.  While  gleaning 
in  the  field  of  Boaz,  a  kinsman  of  Naomi's 
deceased  husband,  she  found  favor  in  his 
eyes.  Custom  required  a  kinsman  of  Mahlou 
to  marry  Kuth  :  and  Boaz  took  her  to  wife, 
after  one  nearer  of  kin  than  he  had  refused. 
By  this  marriage  Ruth  became  an  ancestress 
of  David.  The  transaction  between  Boaz  and 
Ruth  was  not  a  levirate  marriage  (Deut.  xxv. 
7-10;  cp.  Ruth  i.  11-13),  for  Boaz  was  not  a 
brother  of  Ruth's  deceased  husband.  Qistom 
required  that  when  the  widow  of  a  childless 
man  desired  to  sell  his  estate  if  there  was  no 
brother,  then  the  nearest  of  kin  and  heir  to 
the  deceased  should  buy  or  redeem  it  of  the 
widow  (iv.  3, 4,  9).  The  property  was  thereby 
retained  in  the  family.  Custom  was  also 
urgent  that  the  kinsman  voluntarily  assume 
levirate  duties  or  take  the  woman  to  wife, 
if  he  would  not  thereby  endanger  his  own 
inheritance  (iii.  9;  iv.  .5,  6).  It  was  consid- 
ered magnanimous  to  do  so.  and  a  mark  of 
loyalty  to  the  family.  A  son  born  of  such 
union  was  legally  the  son  of  the  deceased 
(iv.  .5,  10.  14,  17) :  and  doubtless  ultimately 
received  the  firstborn's  right  in   the  estate. 

In  the  Hebrew  collection  the  Book  of  Ruth 
is  placed  among  the  rolls  which  were  pub- 
licly read  on  specified  anniversaries :  be- 
cause, its  .scenery  being  the  harvest  field,  it 
was  read  at  Pentecost,  the  harvest  festival. 
In  the  Septuagint  and  in  Josephus"  enumera- 
tion of  the  canonical  books  it  stands  im- 
mediately after  Judges,  as  in  the  English 
version.  The  events  recorded  occurred  in 
the  days  of  the  judges  (i.  1),  60  years  or 
more  before  David's  birth  (iv.  21,  22).  The 
marriage  of  a  pious  Israelite  with  a  ^loabitess 
is  recounted,  and  the  issue  of  the  marriage  is 
an  ancestor  of  David.  After  the  exile  such 
a  marriage  would  have  been  regarded  as 
discreditable,  and  would  not  have  been  in- 
vented. The  narrative  is.  accordingly,  his- 
torical. Its  historical  character  receives 
confirmation  from  the  appropriateness  of 
the  event  to  the  period,  for  about  that  time 
friendly  intercourse  prevailed  between  Israel 
and  Moab  (1  Sam.  xxii.  3,  4).  The  event  is 
related  without  disapi)robatiou  and  without 
explanation  or  apology :  an  indication  that 
it  was  committed  to  writing  before  the  exile. 


The  language  is  also  as  pure  as  admittedly 
early  writings,  such  as  Judges  v.  The  book 
did  not  receive  its  final  literary  form  until 
a  considerable  time  after  the  event ;  for  it 
explains  the  drawing  oflT  of  the  shoe  in  mat- 
ters of  attestation  as  a  custom  of  former 
times  (iv.  7),  and  it  brings  down  the  geueal- 
og^•  to  David. 


Rye.    See  Spelt. 


s. 


Sab'a-oth  [in  Hebrew,  hosts,  armits]. 

The  Lord  of  Sabaoth  is  the  same  as  Lord 
of  hosts,  the  second  part  of  the  title  being 
left  untranslated  (Rom.  ix.  29  with  Is.  i.  9; 
Jas.  v.  4).     See  Lord. 

Sa'hat.    See  Shebat. 

Sab 'bath  [rest]. 

The  divinely  instituted  day  of  rest,  or- 
dained for  all  men.  God  having  completed 
the  work  of  creation  in  six  days  ceased  from 
creative  work  on  the  seventh  day.  And  (Jod 
blessed  the  seventh  day.  and  hallowed  it  ; 
because  that  in  it  he  rested  from  all  his  work 
which  he  had  made  in  a  creative  manner 
(Gen.  ii.  1-3)  ;  see  Creation.  The  next  ref- 
erence to  a  division  of  time  into  periods  of 
.seven  days  occurs  in  the  account  of  Ihe 
flood,  when  Noah  was  forewarned  of  the  im- 
minence of  the  storm  a  week  before  it  broke 
in  its  fury,  and  again  when  he  sent  forth  the 
birds  at  intervals  of  seven  days  to  discover 
through  them  the  stage  of  water  (Gen.  vii. 
4  ;  viii.  10,  12).  But  it  is  not  only  in  this 
express  mention  of  the  week,  but  also  in  the 
entire  chronology  of  the  flood,  when  inter- 
preted according  to  its  own  principles,  that 
the  hebdomadal  division  of  time  is  found  to 
have  existed  at  that  early  date.  The  events 
are  measured  by  intervals  of  the  week  both 
in  the  Hebrew  narrative  and  in  the  Assyrian 
account ;  see  Flood.  And  what  is  more, 
there  is  repeated  evidence  that  the  seventh 
day  was  regarded  as  a  season  of  divine  be- 
nevolence toward  man.  According  to  both  ac- 
counts, and  reckoning  from  the  day  when  the 
flood  began,  the  divine  jiower  which  caused 
the  storm  was  restrained  at  the  close  of  a  sixth 
day.  and  the  first  day  that  dawned  fair  and 
beautiful  was  a  seventh  day  ;  and  the  day 
when  the  inmates  of  the  ark  w'ere  jiermitted 
to  disembark,  and  when  they  ofl'ered  sacri- 
fices of  thanksgiving,  was  likewise  a  seventh 
day.  A  glance  at  the  chronology  will  show 
that  not  improbably  Noah  disjiatched  the 
birds  in  connection  with  the  conventional 
seventh  day  because  it  was  a  day  of  divine 
favor. 

From  the  days  of  Noah  until  the  exodus 
there  is  no  express  mention  in  the  Hebrew 
records  of  a  sanctification  of  the  s<'venth  day 
by  rest  from  labor  and  by  religious  worship. 
There    is   no   reason   why  there   should  be. 


Sabbath 


628 


Sabbath 


There  was  no  event  specially  to  emphasize 
the  day.  And  probably  in  that  age  the  Sab- 
))ath  was  somewhat  less  sharply  marked  ott" 
from  the  other  days  of  the  week,  even 
among  the  ])eople  of  God,  than  it  was  later; 
for  the  nomad  sliei)herds  had  certain  labors 
which  must  be  performed,  and  the  Israelites 
in  Egypt  were  not  their  own  masters  and 
could  not  rest  on  the  seventh  day  :  but  when 
the  nation  was  organized  at  Sinai  a  diflereut 
mode  of  life  was  adopted,  the  people  were 
al)le  to  frame  their  own  laws,  they  formed 
an  independent  community,  they  led  camp 
life  in  the  wilderness  and  exchanged  it  for  the 
settled  life  of  agriculturists  and  traders,  and 
as  a  natural  result  rest  on  the  Sabbath  made 
a  greater  outward  difference  than  it  had  done 
before.  Still,  in  both  the  Hebrew  and  Baby- 
lonian literature  relating  to  the  period  before 
the  exodus  there  are  incidental  references  to 
a  period  of  seven  days  (Gen.  xxix.  27,  28). 
These  are  doubtless  to  be  understood  in  the 
sense  in  which  we  use  the  term  week,  reck- 
oning seven  days  from  any  date  we  please. 
At  any  rate  time  was  frequently  measured 
by  periods  of  seven  days.  Several  causes 
doubtless  contributed  to  make  this  custom 
general,  among  others  the  phasing  of  the 
moon.  But  over  and  beyond  the  appropri- 
ateness of  a  lunar  subdivision  of  the  lunar 
month,  there  was  the  conception,  traceable  in 
the  narrative  of  the  flood,  that  the  seventh 
day  was  one  of  divine  rest  and  favor  toward 
men. 

It  is  dis])uted  whether  the  name  Sabbath 
was  used  for  the  recurring  .seventh  day  in 
Assyria  and  Babylonia.  A  day  of  propitiat- 
ing the  gods  was  called  by  a  name  which 
may  be  pronounced  shabaUu,  Sabbath.  But 
other  pronunciations  are  equally  possible, 
and  yield  a  sense  which  satisfies  the  given 
description  of  the  day.  There  is  no  evidence 
that  it  was  a  particular  day  of  the  week  or  a 
day  when  labor  was  suspended.  Tablets, 
copied  in  the  reign  of  Ashurbanipal,  about 
Grub  B.  c,  show  that  the  seventh,  fourteenth, 
nineteenth,  twenty-first,  and  twenty-eighth 
days  of  each  month  were  regarded  as  inaus- 
j)icioiis  for  certain  specified  acts.  These 
unlucky  days,  it  will  be  observed,  are  not 
con'nected  with  the  phasing  of  the  moon  ; 
for  it  does  not  quarter  on  the  nineteenth 
day,  and  in  months  of  thirty  days,  as  were 
those  in  question,  it  would  only  occasionally 
quarter  on  the  seventh  day.  The  unluckiness 
of  the  day  was  connected  with  the  number 
seven.  Not  only  was  the  recurring  seventh 
day  ill-fated,  but  also  the  nineteenth,  that  is 
the  forty-ninth  day,  the  seventh  .seventh  day 
reckoned  from  the  first  day  of  the  preceding 
month.  These  recurring  .seventh  days  were 
not  days  of  national  rest  when  the  tablets 
Wete  in  force  ;  a  few  specified  acts  only  were 
daiigerous  on  those  days.  Business  and  toil 
l'>ro'ceeded  as  usual.  The  most  that  can  at 
I>rcsent  be  claimed  is  that  if  these  tablets 
bear  witness  to  the  Sabbath  at  all,  they  tes- 


tify to  the  degradation  of  the  nobler  concep- 
tion of  an  earlier  age.  They  do  not  per- 
petuate the  thought  which  is  discoverable  in 
even  the  Assyrian  narrative  of  the  flood. 
They  are  not  up  to  the  standard  of  the  fourth 
commandment  as  promulgated  in  Israel  cen- 
turies before  at  Sinai,  and  familiar  in  all  its 
loftiness  to  the  Israelites  of  the  time  of  Jere- 
miah, who  was  a  younger  contemporary  of 
Ashurbanipal. 

As  in  these  tablets,  so  among  the  Hebrews, 
it  was  not  the  moon  which  determined  the 
Sabbath  ;  for  among  the  Hebrews  it  was  not 
the  seventh  day  onlj^  which  was  sacred,  but 
the  day  which  began  and  which  consecrated 
the  seventh  month,  and  the  entire  seventh 
year,  and  the  completion  of  the  seventh 
seventh  year.  And  these  seasons  were  all 
associated  with  the  idea  of  rest,  of  worship, 
of  liberty,  of  good  will  to  man,  and  of  divine 
favor. 

The  first  occurrence  of  the  name  Sabbath 
in  the  Hebrew  records  is  in  Ex.  xvi.  23. 
The  Israelites  had  not  reached  mount  Sinai, 
nor  had  the  ten  commandments  been  spoken 
from  its  summit,  but  in  the  wilderness  of 
Sin  when  manna  began  to  be  given  a  double 
amount  fell  on  the  sixth  day ;  and  Moses 
said:  "This  is  that  which  the  Lord  hath 
spoken.  To-morrow  is  a  solemn  rest,  a  holy 
sabbath  unto  the  Lord  :  bake  that  which  ye 
will  bake, . . .  and  all  that  remaineth  over  lay 
up  for  you  to  be  kept  until  the  morning."  None 
fell  on  the  morrow,  and  Moses  said  in  regard 
to  what  had  been  kept  over :  "  Eat  that 
to-day  ;  for  to-day  is  a  sabbath  unto  the 
Lord  :  to-day  ye  shall  not  find  it  in  the  field. 
Six  days  ye  shall  gather  it;  but  on  the  sev- 
enth day  is  the  sabbath,  in  it  there  shall  be 
none"  (23-26;  cp.  5). 

Shortly  afterwards  the  connnandment  re- 
quiring the  Sabbath  to  he  kept  was  promul- 
gated with  nine  other  laws  by  Jehovah  at 
Sinai,  and  afterwards  written  by  the  finger 
of  God  on  tables  of  stone  (Ex.  xxxi.  18; 
Dent.  ix.  10).  Like  its  com]ianion  laws,  it 
was  of  perpetual  obligation.  It  commences, 
"  Remember  the  sabbath  day  to  keep  it 
holy,"  the  word  remember  being  appropri- 
ately used,  since  the  ])eople  did  not  now  for 
the  first  time  learn  that  tlie  Sabbath  existed. 
In  repeating  the  laws  forty  years  later  at 
Shittim,  Moses  recalls  the  fact  that  the  Lord 
their  God  had  commanded  them  to  observe  the 
day ;  and  then  instead  of  staling  the  reason  for 
the  ordination  of  the  Sal)l>ath.  lie  assigns  Jeho- 
vah's deliverance  of  his  ]ie<)i)le  from  bondage 
or  labor  in  Egypt  as  the  reason  why  Israel 
s])ecially  is  under  obligation  to  keep  the  day 
of  rest  instituted  by  (Jod  (Deut.  v.  1.5).  The 
Sabbath  was  to  be  kejit  by  a  holy  convoca- 
tion for  the  ■worship  of  the  Ijord  (Lev.  xxiii. 
3;  cp.  Ezek.  xlvi.  3),  and  sliould  be  a  sign 
showing  that  God  was  their  sanctifier  (Ex. 
xxxi.  13).  The  doctrine  clearly  was  that 
the  day  was  ordained  by  God;  that  it  was 
established  as  a  day  of  iihysical   rest  and  re- 


Sabbath 


629 


Sabbath 


freshment  for  man ;  that  the  obligation  to 
keep  it  arises  from  God"s  own  example,  his 
connecting  a  blessing  with  it.  and  his  ex- 
plicit command,  and  that  his  redemption  of 
his  people  lays  them  under  special  obligation 
to  set  the  day  apart ;  that  it  is  to  be  observed 
by  God's  people  as  a  Sabbath  unto  him,  and 
is  to  include  a  holy  assemblage  for  worship. 
It  was  a  reminder  of  God's  complacency  in 
the  Contemplation  of  his  finished  work,  and 
of  Jehovah's  redemption  of  his  people  from 
Egyptian  service.  In  the  tabernacle  and 
temple  worship  the  preeminence  of  the  Sab- 
bath over  the  other  days  of  the  week  was 
shown  by  the  offering  upon  it  of  two  lambs, 
while  one  was  sacrificed  on  an  ordinarj- 
week  day  (Num.  xxviii.  9.  19).  The  twelve 
cakes  of  showbread  were  also  to  be  presented 
on  that  day  I  Lev.  xxiv.  5-6;  1  Chron.  ix. 
32 1.  In  enforcing  the  law.  no  fire  was  al- 
lowed to  be  lit  by  an  I.^raelite  in  his  habita- 
tion ou  the  Sabbath  day  ;  anyone  doing  work 
on  it  was  to  be  put  to  death :  and  one  who 
gathered  sticks  on  the  Sabbath  in  the  wilder- 
ness was  in  fact  stoned  to  death  ( Ex.  xxxv.  .3 ; 
Num.  XV.  .32-36)  ;  see  Poishmext.  Isaiah 
(Ivi.  2-6:  Iviii.  13)  and  Jeremiah  (xvii.  21- 
27)  strongly  counseled  the  keeping  of  the 
day.  A  psalm  or  song  was  composed  for 
the  Sabbath,  in  which  delight  is  expressed 
in  the  worship  of  Jehovah  and  thought  is 
directed  to  God's  works  of  creation  (Ps. 
xciii.  Ezekiel  complains  that  the  Sabbaths 
had  to  a  large  extent  been  profaned  or  pol- 
luted (Ezek.  XX.  12.  24:  xxii.  6.  26:  xxiii. 
3t).  In  Nehemiah's  time,  traders,  espe- 
cially those  of  Tyre,  continually  brought 
merchandise  to  Jerusalem  for  sale  on  the 
sacred  day.  till  Xehemiah  peremptorily  for- 
bade the  practice  to  be  continued,  and  took 
strong  measures  against  those  who  attempted 
to  disregard  his  directions  (Neh.  x.  31: 
xiii.  15-22).  At  the  commencement  of  the 
war  of  independence  under  the  Maccabee 
family,  the  Jews  were  of  opinion  that  they 
had  no  right  to  defend  themselves  on  the 
Sabbath  if  they  were  attacked  by  an  enemy. 
The  campaign  therefore  began  with  the 
slaughter  of  ICHJO  unresisting  Jews,  consist- 
ing of  patriots  and  their  families.  The  sur- 
vivors resolved  in  future  to  defend  them- 
selves if  they  were  directly  attacked  on  the 
sacred  day.  but  not  to  engage  in  offensive 
operations  (1  Mac.  ii.  31-41).  Even  then 
they  were  at  a  disadvantage  with  the  gen- 
tiles, who  labored  under  no  such  restriction. 
The  latter  pushed  on  siege  and  other  opera- 
tions on  the  Sabbath  unmolested,  provided 
they  abstained  from  directly  attacking  the 
Jews.  Pompey  rai.sed  his  banks  and  mounted 
his  battering-rams  against  Jerusalem  on  the 
Sabbath  without  any  interference  from  the 
inhabitants,  but  delayed  the  effort  to  breach 
the  walls  till  the  sacred  day  was  over  ( Antiq. 
xiv.  4.  2  and  S'.  In  the  time  of  our  Lord 
the  Pharisees  applied  the  law  to  the  most 
trivial    acts,    and    forbade   manv   works   of 


necessity  and  mercy.  They  denounced  Jesus 
because  he  healed  sick  people  on  the  Sabbath, 
though  if  ox,  or  ass.  or  sheep  fell  into  a 
pit  on  that  day,  they  did  not  consider  it  at 
all  unlawful  to  take  him  out  without  delay. 
They  also  led  forth  the  animals  to  be  watered 
just  as  on  ordinary  week  days  (Mat.  xii.  9- 
13  :  Luke  xiii.  lf»-17).  It  was  not  merely  to 
healing  on  the  Sabbath  that  they  objected. 
When  the  disciples  of  Jesus,  psissing  on  the 
Sabbath  through  the  grain  fields,  plucked 
some  of  the  ears,  and,  rubbing  them  in  their 
hands,  ate  them,  being  hungry,  the  Pharisees 
denounced  this  as  though  it  were  in  essence 
the  same  as  reaping,  threshing,  and  grinding. 
Our  Lord  made  a  notable  reply:  "The  sab- 
bath was  made  for  man,  and  not  man  fur  the 
sabbath  :  so  that  the  Son  of  man  is  Lonl 
even  of  the  sabbath"  'Mark  ii.  23-28).  The 
Sabbath  was  instituted  for  the  benefit  of 
mankind,  its  obligation  lasts  as  long  as  man 
has  the  same  needs  as  at  creation,  the  Son 
of  man  is  not  the  slave  of  the  Sabbath,  but 
its  lord. 

The  day  for  synagogue  worship  was  the 
seventh  day  of  the  week.  Saturday  (Mat. 
xii.  9.  10  ;  Acts  xiii.  14).  The  apostolic  Chris- 
tian church  from  the  beginning  held  a.ssem- 
blages  for  worship  on  the  first  day  of  the 
week,  which  was  the  day  on  which  Christ 
rose  from  the  dead  for  our  justification  (Acts 
ii.  1,  probably:  xx.  7).  On  that  day  the 
apostle  Paul  directed  the  Christians  of 
Oialatia  and  Corinth  to  make  their  weekly 
contribution  to  the  charities  of  the  church 
(1  Cor.  xvi.  1.  2).  It  was  designated  the 
Lord's  day  (Kev.  i.  10);  see  Lord's  Day. 
This  day,  like  the  former  appointment  of  the 
seventh  day.  sets  apart  one  whole  day  in 
seven  to  be  a  Sabbath  unto  the  Lord.  It  is 
equally  a  reminder  of  the  Lord's  redemption 
of  his  people.  It  is  accompanied  by  the  same 
evidence  of  divine  favor  in  the  form  of 
physical  and  spiritual  blessings. 

The  Sabbath  of  the  land  was  a  year  in 
which  the  land  of  Canaan  had  a  solemn  rest. 
It  came  round  once  every  seven  years.  In 
it  the  ground  was  not  sown  or  reaped,  nor 
the  vineyard  pruned,  nor  its  fruits  gathered 
in.  The  spontaneous  growth  of  field  and 
orchard  was  free  to  all.  In  the  Sabbatic  year 
also  the  creditor  released  the  Hebrew  debtor 
from  his  obligation  and  freed  the  Hebrew- 
slave  (Ex.  xxiii.  10,  11  ;  Lev.  xxv.  3-7:  Deut. 
XV.  1-18;  Neh.  x.  31 1.  On  the  completion 
of  seven  such  Sabbaric  years,  that  is,  at  the 
end  of  forty-nine  years,  the  trumpet  was 
blown  to  proclaim  liberty  throughout  the 
land,  and  the  year  of  jubile  was  ushered  in 
(Lev.  XXV.  >^10)  ;  see  Jubilk.  Reliable 
historical  notices  of  the  observance  of  the 
Sabbatical  year  are  the  covenant  of  Nehe- 
miah's  time  (Neh.  x.  31).  the  1.50th  year  of 
the  Selencidan  era  or  164-163  B.  c.  (1  Mac. 
vi.  49.  .53 ;  cp.  Antiq.  xii.  9.  5).  the  178th  Se- 
lencidan year  or  13<i-135  B.  c.  (Antiq.  xiii.  8, 
1  ;  War  i.  2.  4i,  the  decree  issued  by  Caesar 


Sabbath 


630 


Sackcloth 


exeniptiiif^  the  Jews  from  tribute  during  the 
Sabbatic  j'ear  (Autiq.  xiv.  10,  6  ;  cp.  Tacitus, 
Hist.  V.  4),  the  year  38-37  B.  C.  (Autiii-  xiv. 
16,  2  ;  XV.  1,  2),  and  the  year  before  the  fall 
of  Jerusalem,  A.  D.  68-(JS)  (Talmud).  See 
also  Antiq.  xi.  8,  5.  If  the  Israelites  dis- 
obeyed God's  laws,  they  were  to  be  carried 
into  captivity,  the  land  lying  desolate,  hav- 
ing rest  and  being  left  to  enjoy  its  Sabbaths, 
or  the  rest  which  the  Israelites  had  not  al- 
lowed it  on  their  weekly  and  septennial  Sab- 
baths (Lev.  xxvi.  34-43).  Jeremiah  prophe- 
sied that  the  people  should  be  punished 
for  their  idolatry  by  the  desola^tion  of 
their  land  and  their  bondage  to  the  Baby- 
lonians for  seventy  years  (Jer.  xxv.  7-11). 
The  chronicler  also  connects  the  captivity 
with  the  disobedience  of  the  people  and  the 
pollution  of  the  temjjle ;  and  he  adds  that 
they  were  servants  unto  the  Babylonians  for 
seventy  years,  as  Jeremiah  had  foretold  they 
should  be,  until  the  land  had  enjoyed  her 
Sabbaths  ;  for  as  long  as  she  lay  desolate  she 
kept  Sabbath,  to  fulfill  three  score  and  ten 
years  (2  Chron.  xxxvi.  14,  16,  20,  21). 
It  must  not  be  inferred  from  these  words-that 
the  people  had  ignored  the  Sabbatic  year  ex- 
actly .seventy  times,  or  that  the  neglected 
Sabbatic  years  were  continuous  ;  and  it  is  not 
stated  that  the  Sabbatic  year  was  neglected. 
Doubtless  it  had  been  neglected  sometimes, 
for  an  idolatrous'  and  disobedient  people 
would  scarcely  obey  an  injunction  when 
obedience  would  apparently  involve  i)ecuni- 
ary  loss. 

Evidently  any  period  of  time  which  was 
kept  as  a  Sabbath  could  be  called  a  Sabbath. 
Not  only  were  the  seventh  day  and  the  sev- 
enth year  Sabbaths,  but  also  the  day  of  atone- 
ment on  the  tenth  day  of  the  seventh  mouth 
(Lev.  xxiii.  32). 

A  Sabbath-day's  journey  was  a  journey  of 
limited  extent  proper,  in  the  estimation  of 
the  scribes,  on  a  Sabbath  day.  The  expres- 
sion occurs  in  Acts  i.  12,  where  this  is  stated 
to  be  the  distance  between  mount  Olivet  and 
Jerusalem,  or  from  Jerusalem  to  a  place  on 
the  mountain  from  which  Bethany  was  visible 
(Luke  xxiv.  50).  If  the  measurement  be  made 
from  the  eastern  gate  of  Jerusalem  (the  Jew- 
ish method  of  reckoning)  to  the  site  of  the 
church  of  the  Ascension,  crowning  the 
mount  of  Olives,  the  distance,  as  the  crow 
flies,  will  be  about  2200  English  feet;  but  in 
actual  travel  it  will  be  considerably  more. 
According  to  Josephus,  the  mount  was  dis- 
tant 6  or  7  stades  from  the  city  (Antiq.  xx.  8, 
6;  War  v.  2,  3).  The  regulation  of  the  Sab- 
bath-day's journey  liad  its  origin  in  the  in- 
junction not  to  leave  the  camp  on  the  Sab- 
bath (Ex.  xvi.  29).  It  was  reckoned  at  2000 
cubits,  partly  on  the  erroneous  interpretation 
of  Num.  XXXV.  5,  according  to  wliirh  the 
district  pertaining  to  a  Levitical  city  ex- 
tended 2000  cubits  from  the  wall  on  every 
side,  and  partly  on  the  belief,  derived  from 
Jo.sli.   iii.  4,  that  the  camp  of  the   Israelites 


was  2000  cubits  from  the  tabernacle,  to  which 
of  course  they  might  go  on  the  Sabbath.  A 
man  might  travel  on  the  Sabbath  within  the 
city  where  he  resided  as  far  as  its  limits  al- 
lowed, lie  the  city  never  so  large. 

Sa-toe'ans. 

The  people  of  Sheba  (Is.  xiv.  14),  a  nation 
far  off  (Joel  iii.  8)  ;  also  the  people  of  Seba 
(Is.  xiv.  14  ;  cp.  Ezek.  xxiii.  42). 

Sab'tah  and  Sabta. 

A  Cushite  people  (Gen.  x.  7  ;  1  Chron.  i.  9), 
probablj' of  southern  Arabia.  The  important 
city  of  Sabbatha  or  Sabota  in  the  country  of 
the  Chatramotites  (Hadramaut)  is  strongly 
advocated,  but  the  identification  is  doubtful. 
Gesenius  suggests  Sabat,  Saba,  or  Sabai,  near 
the  modern  Arkiko,  an  Abyssinian  town  on  a 
bay  of  the  Red  Sea. 

Sab'te-ca,  iu  A.  V.  Sabtecha  and  Sabte- 
chab. 

A  Cushite  people  (Gen.  x.  7 ;  1  Chron.  i.  9), 
probably  of  southern  Arabia.  More  precise 
geographical  details  cannot  be  given. 

Sa'car  [merchandise]. 

1.  A  Hararite,  father  of  one  of  David's 
mighty  men  (1  Chron.  xi.  35).  In  2  Sam. 
xxiii.  33  Sharar. 

2.  A  son  of  Obed-edom  (1  Chron.  xxvi.  4). 
Sack'but. 

A  mediaeval  wind  instrument,  having  a 
long  bent  tube  of  brass  with  a  movable  slide 
for  changing  the  pitch  of  the  tone,  as  in  the 
trombone.  The  instrument  referred  to  by 
this  name  in  the  English  version  of  Dan.  iii. 
5,  belonged  to  an  entirely  different  class.  It 
was  a  stringed  instrument.  It  is  called  iu 
Aramaic  sabb'ka',  which,  if  Semitic,  jirobably 
describes  the  lacing  of  the  strings.  The  name 
is  evidently  identical  with  the  Greek  s<ini- 
huM,  which  was  an  instrument  of  music 
somewhat  like  the  harp  or  lyre,  but  with 
only  four  strings.  Stralio  ailirms  that  the 
Greek  word  is  of  barbarian,  i.  e.  oriental,  ori- 
gin ;  and  Athenseus  states  that  the  instru- 
ment was  invented  by  the  Syrians. 

Sack'cloth. 

A  coarse  cloth,  of  a  dark  color,  usually 
made  of  goat's  hair  (Rev.  vi.  12).  It  was 
called  in  Hebrew  sal-,  from  which  the  Eng- 
lish word  is  derived.  It  was  worn  customarily 
by  mourners  (2  Sam.  iii.  31  ;  2  Kin.  xix.  1,  2), 
often,  if  not  habitually,  by  ])rophets  (Is. 
XX.  2 ;  Rev.  xi.  3),  and  by  captives  (1 
Kin.  XX.  31 ;  cp.  Is.  iii.  24).  The  garment 
of  sackcloth  probably  resembled  a  sack,  with 
openings  made  for  the  neck  and  arms,  and 
slit  down  the  front.  It  was  cast  about  the 
loins  (Gen.  xxxvii.  34  ;  1  Kin.  xx.  31),  and 
girded  on  (2  Sam.  iii.  31  ;  Ezek.  vii.  18;  Joel 
i.  8)  ;  and  was  usually  worn  over  other  rai- 
ment (Jon.  iii.  6;  cp.  2  Sam.  xxi.  10),  but 
.sometimes  next  to  the  skin  (1  Kin.  xxi.  27  ; 
2   Kin.  vi.    30;  Job  xvi.  15;  Is.  xxxii.   11). 

The  cloth  was  also  used  for  making  sacks, 
which  were  known  by  the  san)e  name  as  the 
material  ((ien.  xlii.  25;  Josh.  ix.  4). 


Sacrifice 


631 


Saffron 


Sac'ri-fice.     See  Offerings. 

Sad'du-cees. 

A  Jewish  jmrty,  the  opponents  of  the 
Pharisees  (Autiii.  xiii.  10,  H).  They  were 
I'umpardtively  few  in  number,  but  they  were 
educated  men,  and  mostly  wealthy  and  of 
good  jiosition  (ibid.  ;  xviii.  1,  4).  The 
name.  Judged  by  the  orthography,  is  derived 
from  Zadok.  which  was  often  written  Sad- 
diiuk  in  Greek.  The  rabbins  say  that  the 
]iarty  took  its  name  from  its  founder  Zadok, 
w  ho  lived  about  300  B.  f. ;  but  since  it 
appears  that  the  members  and  adherents  of 
the  highest  priestly  aristocracy  constituted 
the  party,  it  is  now  generally  believed  that 
the  name  refers  to  the  high  priest  Zadok, 
who  otHciated  in  David's  reign,  and  in  whose 
family  the  high-priesthood  remained  until 
the  political  confusion  of  the  Maccabsean 
times,  his  descendants  and  partisans  being 
Zadokites  or  Sadducees. 

In  opposition  to  the  Pharisees,  who  laid 
great  stress  on  the  tradition  of  the  elders, 
the  Sadducees  limited  their  creed  to  the  doc- 
trines which  they  found  in  the  sacred  text 
itself.  They  held  that  the  word  of  the 
written  law  was  alone  binding  (Antiq.  xiii. 
10.  <3i.  They  maintained  the  right  of  private 
interpretation  (xviii.  1,  4).  They  held  to 
the  letter  of  Scripture,  even  when  it  led  to 
severity  in  the  administration  of  justice  (xx. 
9.  1).  In  distinction  from  the  Pharisees, 
they  denied  :  1.  The  resurrection  and  future 
retribution  in  Sheol,  asserting  that  souls  die 
with  the  body  (Mat.  xxii.  23-^33;  Acts  xxiii. 
b :  Antiq.  xviii.  1,  4  ;  War  ii.  6,  14).  2.  The 
existence  of  angels  and  spirits  (Acts  xxiii. 
8).  3.  Fatali.sm  :  contending  for  the  freedom 
of  the  will,  teaching  that  all  our  actions  are 
in  our  own  power,  so  that  we  are  ourselves 
the  causes  of  what  is  good  and  receive  what 
is  evil  from  our  own  folly,  and  affirming  that 
God  is  not  concerned  in  our  doing  good  or 
not  doing  what  is  evnl  (Antiq.  xiii.  o,  9;  War 
ii.  8,  14).  In  denying  immortality  and  the 
resurrection,  they  were  relying  on  the  ab- 
sence of  an  explicit  statement  of  these  doc- 
trines in  the  Mosaic  law,  and  they  failed  to 
hold  the  faith  of  the  patriarchs  regarding 
Sheol.  which,  though  it  was  undeveloped,  yet 
contained  the  germs  of  the  later  biblical  doc- 
trine of  the  resurrection  of  the  body  and  a 
future  retribution.  The  patriarchs  unques- 
tionably believed  in  the  continued  existence 
of  the  soul  after  death.  In  affirming  that 
there  is  neither  angel  nor  spirit,  the  Saddu- 
cees were  setting  themselves  against  the 
elaborate  angelology  of  the  Judaism  of  their 
time ;  but  they  went  to  the  other  extreme, 
and  again  fell  short  of  the  teaching  of  the 
law  (Ex.  iii.  2;  xiv.  19).  They  probably  at 
first  emphasized  the  truth  that  God  directs 
affairs  with  respect  to  man's  conduct,  pun- 
ishing or  rewarding  in  this  life  according  as 
man's  deeds  are  good  or  evil.  If  they  actu- 
ally taught,  as  Josephus   affirms  they  did, 


that  God  is  not  concerned  in  our  doing 
good  or  refraining  from  evil,  they  rejected 
the  clear  teaching  of  the  Mosaic  law  which 
they  professed  to  believe  (Gen.  iii.  17  ;  iv.  7  ; 
vi.  5-7).  It  is  probable  that  they  began  by 
!  denying  what  is  not  expressly  taught  in  the 
letter  of  Scripture;  but  as  they  yielded  more 
fully  to  Greek  influence,  they  adopted  the 
,  princijdes  of  the  Aristotelian  philosophy, 
and  refused  to  accept  any  doctrine  which 
they  could  not  prove  by  pure  reason. 
As  to  the  origin  and  growth  of  the  Saddu- 
I  cees,  Schiirer  suggests  that  the  priestly  house 
j  of  Zadok,  which  was  at  the  head  of  afl'airs 
I  in  the  fourth  and  third  centuries  B.  c.  under 
the  Persian  and  Grecian  kings,  began,  un- 
consciously perhaps,  to  place  political  above 
religious  considerations.  In  the  time  of  Ezra 
and  Nehemiah  the  family  of  the  high  priest 
was  worldly  and  inclined  to  resist  the  strict 
separation  of  Jew  from  gentile.  See  Elia- 
SHIB  o.  In  the  time  of  Antiochus  Epiph- 
anes  a  large  number  of  priests  were  friendly 
to  Greek  culture  (2  Mac.  iv.  14-16),  and  the 
high  priests  Jason,  Menelaus,  and  Alcimus 
were  pronounced  Hellenizei-s.  The  people 
took  a  determined  stand  under  the  Macca- 
bees for  purity  of  Israel's  religion  ;  and  when 
this  party  triumphed  and  the  Maccabees  se- 
cured the  high-priesthood,  the  Zadokites 
were  forced  into  retirement  and  driven  to 
politics,  and  they  continued  to  be  ready  to 
neglect  the  customs  and  traditions  of  the 
elders  and  favor  Greek  culture  and  influ- 
ence. John  Hyrcanus.  Aristobulus,  and 
Alexander  Jannseus  (135-78  B.  c.)  favored 
the  Sadducees,  and  the  conduct  of  political 
aflairs  was  largely  in  their  hands  under  the 
Romans  and  the  Herods,  for  the  high  priests 
of  this  period  were  Sadducees  (Acts  v.  17; 
Antiq.  xx.  9,  1).  The  Sadducees,  as  well  as 
the  Pharisees,  who  visited  John  the  Baptist 
in  the  wilderness,  were  addressed  by  him  as 
a  generation  of  vipei"s  (Mat.  iii.  7).  They 
joined  with  the  Pharisees  in  demanding 
from  our  Lord  a  sign  from  heaven  (Mat.  xvi. 
1-4),  and  .Jesus  warned  his  disciples  against 
both  (6-12).  The  Sadducees  attempted  to 
embarrass  him  by  putting  to  him  an  ensnar- 
ing question  regarding  the  resurrection,  but 
he  refuted  their  arguments,  and  reduced 
them  to  silence  (xxii.  23-33).  They  joined 
with  the  priests  and  the  captain  of  the 
temple  in  persecuting  Peter  and  John  (Acts 
iv.  1-22).  Both  Pharisees  and  Sadducees 
were  in  the  sanhedrin  which  tried  Paul, 
and  the  apostle,  taking  note  of  the  fact, 
deverlv  set  them  at  variance  with  each  other 
(xxiii.  6-10). 

Sa'doc  [Hebrew  i^adol:  just,  righteous]. 
An  ancestor  of  Christ,  who  lived  after  the 
exile  (Mat.  i.  14). 

Saffron. 

A  fragrant  plant  (Song  iv.  14),  called  in 
Hebrew  Larkom,  in  Arabic  larlam.  It  is  the 
saffron  crocus  {Crocus  satirus),  a  native,  appa- 


Sala 


632 


Salt 


n 


rently,  of  northern  Italy  and  of  western 
Asia.  From  a  remote  period  of  antiquity  it 
has  been  largely  cultivated  in  southern  Eu- 
rope and  Asia.  The  flowers  are  light  violet 
in  color,  veined  with  red.  Tlie  dried  stigmas, 
pulverized  or  pressed,  yield  a  yellow  dye. 
Clothing  and  rooms  were  sprinkled  with 
water  scented  with  saffron,  olive  oil  perfumed 
with  it  was  used  as  an  ointment,  food  was 
spiced  with  it,  and  it  was  employed  in  medi- 
cine. 

Sa'la  and  Salah.     See  Shelah. 

Sal'a-mis. 

A  city  on  the  east  or  southeast  coast  of 
Cyprus,  traditionally  reported  to  have  been 
built  by  Teucer,  from  the  island  of  Salamis, 
ofl"  the  coast  of  Greece.  It  contained  syna- 
gogues of  the  Jews,  in  which  Paul  on  his 
first  missionary  journey  preached  (Acts  xiii. 
4,  5).  The  place  was  subsequently  named 
Constantia,  and  is  now  called  Famagusta. 

Sa-la'tM-el.     See  She.\ltiel. 

Sal'e-cah,  in  A.  V.  Sal'cah  and  Sal'chah 
[perhaps,  a  road]. 

A  city  of  Bashan,  near  Edrei  (Deut.  iii. 
10;  Josh.  xii.  5;  xiii.  11).  It  was  on  the 
boundary  of  Og's  kingdom,  and  afterwards 
constituted  the  northei'n  limit  of  the  Gadites 
(1  Chron.  v.  11).  It  is  now  known  as  Sal- 
khad,  a  slight  modification  of  the  ancient 
name,  35  miles  east  of  Edrei,  and  66  east, 
very  slightly  north  of  the  Jordan,  opposite 
to  Beth-shean,  in  Samaria. 

Sa'lem  [complete,  peaceful,  peace]. 

A  natural  abbreviation  of  the  name  Jeru- 
salem, the  city  or  foundation  of  peace  (Ps. 
Ixxvi.  2;  and  probably  Gen.  xiv.  18).  See 
Mklchizedek  and  Shalem. 

Sa'lim  [perhaps,  Aramaic  sh'lim,  com- 
pleted]. 

A  place  near  which  were  the  waters  of 
^non  (John  iii.  23) ;  see  jEnon. 

Sal'lai  [perhaps,  exalted]. 

1.  A  chief  of  a  family  of  Benjamites  who 
resided  at  Jerusalem  (Neh.  xi.  8). 

2.  A  father's  hou.se  among  the  priests  after 
the  captivity  (Neh.  xii.  20)  ;  see  Sallu. 

Sal'lu  [elevation,  exaltation]. 

1.  A  Benjamite,  a  son  of  Meshullam  and  a 
chief  of  a  family  resident  af  Jerusalem  (1 
Chron.  ix.  7;  Neh.  xi.  7). 

2.  A  chief  of  the  priests  who  came  from 
Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Neh.  xii.  7).  In 
the  next  generation  a  father's  house,  which 
occupies  the  same  position  in  the  correspond- 
ing catalogue,  bore  the  name  Sallai  (ver.  20). 
One  of  the  two  names  has  probably  been 
misread,  the  difference  being  merely  that 
between  a  jod  and  a  vau  (q.  v.). 

Sal'ma.     See  Salmon. 

Sal'mai,  in  A.  V.  Shalmai,  in  R.  V.  of 
Ezra  ii.  46  Shamlai ;  the  forms  being  con- 
fused in  the  Hebrew  text  itself. 

Founder  of  a  family  of  Nethinim,  mem- 


bers of  which  returned  from  captivity  with 
Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii.  46;  Neh.  vii.  48). 

Sal'mon  or  Salmah  or  Salma. 

Father  of  Koaz.  He  was  a  man  of  Judah, 
descended  through  Perez,  Hezron,  and  Kam 
(Ruth  iv.  18-21 ;  Mat.  i.  4  ;  Luke  iii.  32).  In 
the  Hebrew  text  of  Ruth.  iv.  20,  not  21,  the 
form  Salmah  is  used,  of  which  Salma  is  the 
later  orthography  (1  Chron.  ii.  11).  He  lias 
sometimes  been  thought  to  have  been  the 
ancestor  of  the  inhabitants  of  Bethlehem, 
mentioned  in  1  Chron.  ii.  51,  54.  But  the 
genealogy  of  Salma,  ancestor  of  the  Betlile- 
hemites,  is  traced  back  by  the  line  of  Caleb, 
not  of  Ram.  The  difl'erent  lineage  i)ro))at)ly 
indicates  a  difie  rent  person  ;  though,  of  course, 
genealogies  may  intertwine.  For  Salmon  of 
Ps.  Ixviii.  14,  see  Zalmon. 

Sal-mo'ne. 

A  promontory,  constituting  the  most  east- 
erly portion  of  Crete.  It  still  retains  its 
ancient  name  (Acts  xxvii.  7). 

Sa'lom.     See  Salu. 

Sa-lo'me  [probably,  whole,  perfect,  integ- 
rity, peace]. 

The  wife  of  Zebedee,  and  the  mother  of 
James  and  John  (cp.  Mat.  xxvii.  56  with  Mark 
XV.  40  and  xvi.  1).  She  was  one  of  the 
Christian  women  who  from  a  distance  saw 
the  crucifixion  (Mat.  xxvii.  56),  and  who 
went  to  the  sepulcher  of  our  Lord  on  the 
resurrection  morning  with  sweet  spices  to 
anoint  his  body  (Mark  xvi.   1). 

Salt. 

Salt  of  poor  quality  could  be  scraped  up 
on  the  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea,  when  the 
salty  water  had  evaporated,  or  be  cut  from 
the  neighboring  cliffs.  It  was  used  in  Canaan 
and  the  adjacent  regions  as  a  condiment  and 
preservative  for  animal  food  (Job  vi.  6 ; 
Ecclus.  xxxix.  26).  Under  the  law,  it  was 
presented  with  offerings  of  all  kinds  (Lev. 
ii.  13;  Ezek.  xliii.  24:  Antiq.  iii.  9,  1).  Salt 
land  is  unfruitful  (Job  xxxix.  6),  and  when 
a  captured  city  was  doomed  to  utter  destruc- 
tion the  final  step  sometimes  was  to  sow  it 
with  salt.  Abimelech  thus  treated  Shechem 
(.Tudg.  ix.  45).  Salt  preserves  from  corrup- 
tion and  renders  food  ])alatable,  and  is  there- 
fore used  figuratively  for  the  true  disciples 
of  Jesus,  who  by  their  precepts  and  exam- 
ple raise  the  moral  tone  of  society  (Mat.  v. 
13;  Mark  ix.  .50;  Luke  xiv.  34).  Salt  is  also 
used  for  wholesome  character  and  speech 
(Mark  ix.  50  ;  Col.  iv.  6).  Salt  when  exposed 
to  the  rain  and  sun  or  stored  in  damp  houses 
is  apt  to  lose  its  taste  and  become  useless.  It 
cannot  be  used  like  much  other  refuse  as  a 
fertilizer,  for  it  is  good  for  nothing  (Mat.  v. 
13;  Luke  xiv.  .35).  During  the  convulsion 
in  which  the  guilty  cities  of  the  plain  were  de- 
stroyed. Lot's  wife,  lingering  in  the  doomed 
region,  perished,  and  was  transformed  into  a 
pillar  of  salt  (Gen.  xix.  26;  Wisd.  x.  7; 
Antiq.    i.    11,    4).     She   was   probably   over- 


Salt,  City  of 


633 


Salutation 


•whelnipd  by  a  shower  of  salt  or  incrusted 
witli  sjilt. 

A  fovt'iiaiit  of  Kilt  was  a  covenant  of  per- 
manent rontinuanee  and  perpetual  <)l)liga- 
tion  (Lev.  ii.  lo ;  Num.  xviii.  li) ;  2  Cbrou. 
xiii.  5). 

Salt,  Cit'y  of. 

A  litv  in  the  wilderness  of  Judah.  It  is 
mentioned  along  with  En-gedi  on  the  shore 
of  the  Dead  Sea,  from  which  therefore,  pre- 
sumably, it  was  not  far  distant  (Josh.  xv.  62). 
Exact  situation  unknown. 

Salt,  Valley  of. 

A  valley  in  which  the  army  of  Da- 
vid slew  18,000  men  of  Aram  (2  Sam. 
viii.  13)  or  rather  Edoni  (14 ;  1  Chron. 
xviii.  12  ;  cp.  1  Kin.  xi.  15-17;  Ps.  Ix.  title)  ; 
see  D.\LETH.  Amaziah,  king  of  Judah,  slew 
10.000  Edomites  in  the  valley  of  Salt,  and 
then  took  their  capital.  Sela  (2  Kin.   xiv.  7  ; 

2  Chron.  xxv.  11).  The  natural  locality  in 
which  to  look  for  the  valley  of  Salt  is  at  the 
southern  end  of  the  Dead  Sea,  where  there 
is  a  range  of  hills  5  miles  in  length,  con- 
sisting of  layers  of  salt,  and  between  this 
chain  and  the  sea  is  a  valley  6  or  8  miles 
long.  It  is  against  this  identification,  how- 
ever, that  the  Hebrew  word  ge'  applied  to 
it  is  the  appropriate  one  for  a  glen  rather 
than  a  broad  valley.  It  may  have  been  a 
gorge  descending  from  the  Edomite  hills,  in 
the  direction  of  the  salt  range. 

Salt  Sea. 

The  name  given  in  the  O.  T.  to  what  is 
now  generally  called  the  Dead  Sea  (Gen.  xiv. 

3  ;  Num.  xxxiv.  3,  12 ;  Deut.  iii.  17 ;  Josh. 
XV.  2.  r>).    See  Dead  Sea. 

Salt'wort. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  MaUuah,  sa- 
line plant  (Job  XXX.  4  ;  in  A.  V.  mallows). 
It  was  used  as  food  by  the  very  poor.  Two 
genera  of  plants  are  commonly  so  designated, 
Snlicortiia  and  F^alsola,  but  neither  is  suitable 
for  food.  The  plant  intended  is  probably 
some  other  chenopod,  as  spinach  or  better 
sea  purslane  (Atriplei  halimus).  This  latter 
is  a  bush.  It  grows  abundantly  in  salt 
marshes  along  the  Mediterranean  and  on  the 
shores  of  the  Dead  Sea.  Its  small,  thick, 
.sour  leaves  would,  in  extreme  need,  furnish 
a  miserable  food. 

SaTu  [elevated,  exalted]. 

A  Simeonite,  father  of  Zimri  whom  Phine- 
has  slew  (Num.  xxv.  14 ;  in  A.  Y.  of  1  Mac. 
ii.  26  Salom). 

Sal-u-ta'tion. 

Among  the  Hebrews  salutation  on  meeting 
consisted  in  the  expression  of  good  wishes  or 
a  solemn  blessing.  The  forms  most  prevalent 
were:  1.  "Blessed  be  thou  of  the  Lord,"  or 
"  God  be  gracious  unto  thee,"  or  the  equiv- 
alent (Gen.  xliii.  29  ;  Ruth  iii.  10  ;  1  Sam.  xv. 
13).  2.  "  The  Lord  be  with  thee,"  to  which 
the  rejoinder  was,  "  The  Lord  bless  thee  " 
(Ruth  ii.  4).     3.   "  Peace  be  unto  thee,"   or 


"  Peace  be  upon  thee,"  jieace  meaning  wel- 
fare (Luke  xxiv.  36).  This  was  the  common- 
est of  all  salutations,  and  is  still  in  useanmng 
the  Jews.  Tln'  rejily  is:  "Upon  thee  l>e 
peace."  If  the  occasion  made  the  words  aji- 
propriate,  the  form  was:  "Peace  be  unto 
thee,  and  to  thine  house"  (1  Sam.  xxv.  6; 
Luke  X.  5).  4.  "Hail!"  a  common  saluta- 
tion in  the  Greek  jieriod  (Mat.  xxvi.  4!): 
xxvii.  29;  xxviii.  9;  Luke  i.  28).  5.  "Let 
the  king  live  forever"  was  the  salutation 
addressed  by  a  subject  to  the  Hebrew  mon- 
arch (1  Kin.  i.  31),  and  was  employed  in  the 
Babylonian  and  Persian  courts  (Neh.  ii.  3; 
Dan.  ii.  4  ;  iii.  9  ;  v.  10  ;  vi.  6.  21). 

At  parting  a  blessing  was  invoked  (Gen. 
xxiv.  60;  xxviii.  1  ;  xlvii.  10  ;  Josh.  xxii.  6), 
which  eventually  assumed  the  conventional 
form,  "  Go  in  peace,"  or  "  Farewell  "  (1  Sam. 
i.  17;  XX.  42;  2  Sam.  xv.  9;  Mark  v.  34; 
Acts  xvi.  36) ;  and  the  rejoinder  to  a  superior 
might  be,  "  Let  thv  servant  find  grace  in  thr 
sight"  (1  Sam.  i.  18). 

Abraham  and  Lot  rose  up  to  meet  passing 
strangers,  bowed  before  them  to  the  earth, 
and  pressed  hospitality  upon  them  (Gen. 
xviii.  2  ;  xix.  1)  ;  Boaz  exchanged  greeting 
with  his  reapers  (Ruth  ii.  4)  ;  travelers  on 
the  road  saluted  workmen  in  the  field  (Ps. 
cxxix.  8)  ;  members  of  a  family  greeted  each 
other  in  the  morning  and  after  long  separa- 
tion (Ex.  iv.  27  ;  Prov.  xxvii.  14).  The  salu- 
tation was  often  withheld  from  men  f>f  a  dif- 
ferent religion  (Mat.  v.  47)  ;  and  rightly  so, 
when  it  was  apt  to  lead  to  fellowship  and  to 
imply  a  wish  for  the  success  of  a  bad  cause 
(2  John  11).  Messengers  might  be  charged 
to  salute  no  man  by  the  way  (2  Kin.  iv.  29  ; 
Luke  X.  4),  for  the  formality  incident  to  of- 
fering a  greeting  and  receiving  a  response  in- 
volved delay.  The  bow  was  not  a  mere  nod, 
but  profound  obeisance  or  prostration  ;  and 
in  deferential  greeting  a  rider  dismounted 
from  his  beast  or  left  his  chariot  (1  Sam.  xxv. 
23:  2  Kin.  v.  21). 

Letters  in  Palestine,  before  the  conquest 
of  the  country  by  the  Hebrews,  and  in 
Egypt,  always  began  with  salutations.  The 
greetings  are  all  framed  on  the  same  model. 
A  son  begins  a  letter  to  his  father  thus  :  "  To 
Dudu,  my  lord,  my  father,  speaketh  thus 
Aziru  thy  son,  thy  servant.  At  the  feet  of 
my  father  I  prostrate  myself.  Unto  the  feet 
of  my  father  may  there  be  peace."  A  sub- 
ject addresses  his  liege,  the  king  of  Egyjit. 
after  this  manner:  "To  the  king  my  lord, 
my  god,  my  sun-god.  speaketh  thus  Yapahi 
thy  servant  and  the  dust  of  thy  feet.  At  the 
feet  of  the  king  my  lord,  my  god,  my  sun- 
god,  .seven  times  seven  times  I  prostrate  my- 
.self."  The  governor  of  a  district  writes  to 
his  equals:  "To  the  kings  of  Canaan,  ser- 
vants, my  brothers,  thus  the  king."  And 
Pharaoh  begins  a  letter  to  a  neighboring 
monarch  with  the  words:  "To  Kallima-Sin, 
king  of  Karduniyash,  my  brother,  .speaketh 
thus  Nibnuariya  [Amenophis  iii.]  the  great 


Samaria  634 


Samaria 


king,  king  of  Egypt,  thy  brother.  To  me  is 
peace  [welfare].  May  peace  be  to  thee  and 
thy  house,  to  thy  children,  magnates, 
horses,  chariots,  in  thy  land  may  there  be 
abundant  peace." 

The  usual  epistolary  salutation  in  the 
Greco-Roman  period  in  Palestine  was  briefer, 
more  direct,  more  businesslike,  and  in  it 
the  name  of  the  writer  commonly  stands 
first.  "  King  Alexander  to  his  brother  Jon- 
athan, greeting"  (1  Mac.  x.  18).  "King 
Demetrius  unto  the  nation  of  the  Jews, 
greeting  "  (25  ;  and  so  Acts  xv.  23  ;  xxiii.  26  ; 
Jas.  i.  1).  The  letter  was  frequently  con- 
cluded with  a  salutation,  derived  from  Latin 
usage,  "Farewell"  (Acts  xv.  29;  xxiii.  30). 
To  the  brief  salutation  after  the  Latin  man- 
ner, the  Hebrews,  following  their  own  cus- 
toms, often  added  a  prayer  for  peace  (2  Mac. 
i.  1).  Their  salutation  also  was  often  elab- 
orate (1-5),  and  the  old  order  was  frequently 
observed  (ix.  19,  20).  The  salutations  with 
which  Paul  begins  his  letters  are  equally 
manifold  (Rom.  i.  1-7).  In  the  epistles  to 
Timothy  he  wishes  his  true  child  in  the  faith, 
grace,  mercy,  and  peace  ;  but  his  usual  greet- 
ing is,  "Grace  unto  you  and  peace,"  and  he 
was  apt  to  close  his  letters  with  salutations 
from  himself  and  others  (1  Thcs.  i.  1 ;  v.  26- 
28,  his  first  letter). 


1 


Shemer ;  and  as  it  expressed  the  idea  of 
watching,  guarding,  keeping,  it  suggested  an 
appropriate  designation  for  a  city  on  a  hill. 
Accordingly  Omri  called  the  city  Shom'ron, 
place  of  watch  (1  Kin.  xvi.  24).  The  emi- 
nence which  the  city  crowned  was  some- 
times denominated  the  mountain  of  Samaria 
(Amos  iv.  1 ;  vi.  1).  It  stood  in  the  midst  of 
a  fertile  valley  (Is.  xxviii.  1).  The  site  was  so 
well  chosen  that  the  city  continued  to  be  the 
capital  of  the  kingdom  to  the  captivity  of  the 
ten  tribes,  the  successive  sovereigns  reigning, 
and  at  their  death  being  buried,  there  (1  Kin. 
xvi.  28,  29;  xx.  43;  xxii.  10,  37,  51,  etc.). 
Scarcely  was  Samaria  built  before  hostilities 
arose  between  Benhadad  I.,  king  of  Syria, 
and  Omri.  The  former,  if  his  son  spoke  the 
truth,  had  the  advantage,  and,  to  please  the 
victor,  Omri  had  to  make  streets  in  Samaria 
for  Syrian  merchants  (1  Kin.  xx.  34).  Dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Ahab,  Omri's  son  and  suc- 
cessor, the  city  was  unsuccessfully  besieged 
by  Benhadad  II.  (1-21).  In  or  near  the  cap- 
ital was  a  pool,  on  the  side  of  which  the  royal 
attendants  washed  the  blood-stained  chariot 
ill  Avliirh  Ahab'sbody  was  brought  home  from 
Ramdth-gilead  (xxii.  38).  In  the  days  of 
probably  Joram  it  was  unsuccessfully  be- 
sieged by  Benhadad  II.  (2  Kin.  vi.  8-vii.  20). 
The  elders  of  Samaria,  afraid  of  displeasing 


Sebustiuh,  ancitully  .Samaria,  as  seen  from  the  east-northeast,  with  Mountains  of  Ephraim  in  the 
background  and  the  Mediterranean  Sea  in  the  distance. 


Sa-ma'ri-a. 

1.  The  capital  of  the  ten  tribes  during  the 
longest  period  of  their  history.  It  was  built 
or  commenced  by  Omri,  king  of  Israel,  on  a 
hill  purchased  for  two  talents  of  silver  or 
about  $3900.     The  former  owner's  name  was 


Jehu,  obeyed  his  order  to  murder  Ahab's 
seventy  sons  (x.  1-10).  All  along  from  the 
commencement  of  the  city  it  had  been  a 
place  notorious  for  its  idolatry.  Ahab  had  led 
the  way  in  this  heathen  worship  by  rearing 
a  temple  and  an  altar  to  Baal  (1  Kin.  xvt. 


Samaria 


635 


Samaria 


32),  and  as  in  his  reign  reference  is  made  to 
400  prophets  of  the  Asherah  who  ate  at 
Jezebel's  table  (xviii.  19),  it  is  probable  that 
the  idol  so  named  remained  till  Jehu's  reign 
(2  Kin.  xiii.  6).  Attendant  on  this  idolatry 
was  great  corruption  of  morals  (Hos.  vii.  1-8  ; 
xiii.  16;  Amos  iv.  1;  viii.l4).  Against  these 
idolatrous  practices  Elijah  worked  (1  Kin. 
xviii.).  Elisha  made  the  city  his  headquar- 
ters (2  Kin.  V.  3-9  ;  vi.  32).  And  doubtless 
Hosea  labored  there.  Samaria  and  the  king- 
dom were  threatened  with  judgment  by  many 
prophets  (Is.  vii.  9;  viii.  4;  Jer.  xxxi.  5; 
Ezek.  xvi.  46,  51,  53,  55  ;  xxiii.  33  ;  Hos.  viii. 
5,  6  ;  xiii.  16  ;  Amos  iii.  12 ;  Mic.  i.  5-9).  At 
length,  the  menaced  infliction  came.  The 
siege  was  begun  by  the  Assyrians  under  Shal- 
maueser,  724  B.  C,  and  three  years  later,  in 
722.  the  city  was  captured  by  the  king  of  As- 
syria (2  Kin.  xvii.  3-6).  The  glory  of  the  cap- 
ture is  claimed  by  Sargon,  Shalmaneser's  suc- 
cessor, who  in  that  year  ascended  the  throne ; 


province  of  Syria.  Gabinius  fortified  it  anew 
(Antiq.  xiii.  15,  4  ;  xiv.  4,  4  ;  5,  3).  It  was 
rebuilt  and  refortilied  by  Herod  the  Great, 
who  called  it  SeV^aste,  a  Greek  word  corre- 
sponding to  Augustus,  the  title  of  his  patron, 
the  first  Eomau  emperor  (xv.  8,  5).  At  Sa- 
maria the  evangelist  Philip  labored  success- 
fully (Acts  viii.  5-8),  and  the  doubtful  con- 
version of  Simon  Magus  took  place  (9-13). 
To  follow  up  Philip's  success,  Peter  and  John 
came  for  a  time  from  Jerusalem  (14-25).  The 
site  has  been  thoroughly  identified  as  es-Se- 
bustieh,  a  village  and  ruin  on  a  hill  6  miles 
northwest  of  Shechem,  in  the  center  of 
Palestine.  The  sides  are  steep,  the  summit 
a  table-land  aljout  a  mile  from  east  to  west. 
There  are  broken  columns,  large,  sometimes 
carved,  stones,  evidently  from  important 
buildings,  and  heaps  of  rubbish.  Some  of 
this  debris  has  descended  from  higher  to 
lower  levels,  recalling  the  proi)hecv  of  Micah 
(i.  6). 


Herod's  Colonnade  at  Sebustieh. 


see  Sargon.  The  conquerors  repeopled  the 
town  with  foreigners  (24) ;  see  Samaritan. 
In  332  or  331  B.  c.  Alexander  the  Great  took 
Samaria,  and  transferred  its  inhabitants  to 
Shechem,  placing  Syro-Macedouians  in  their 
room.  About  the  year  109  B.  c.  Samaria  was 
besieged  by  John  Hyrcanus,  who  drew 
around  it  a  wall  of  circumvallation  80  stades 
or  about  9  miles  in  extent.  The  city  held  out 
for  a  year,  but  was  ultimately  forced  by  fam- 
ine to  surrender.  The  victor  demolished 
it  entirely,  attempting  to  efl'aceall  proofs  that 
a  fortified  city  had  ever  stood  on  the  hill 
(Antiq.  xiii.  10,  2  and  3  ;  War  i.  2,  7  and  8). 
It  was  again  inhabited  in  the  time  of  Alex- 
ander Jannjeus.     Pompey  annexed  it  to  the 


2.  The  territory  occupied  by  the  ten  tribes, 
or  the  kingdom  of  Israel  personified  (1  Kin. 
xiii.  .32  ;  xxi.  1  ;  2  Kin.  xvii.  24  ;  Neh.  iv.  2  ; 
Is.  vii.  9  ;  Jer.  xxxi.  5  ;  Ezek.  xvi.  46;  Amos 
iii.  9).     See  Ii?RAEL. 

3.  The  district  of  Samaria,  occupying  cen- 
tral Palestine,  between  Galilee  on  the  north 
and  Juda?a  on  the  south  (1  Mac.  x.  30^. 
Josephus'  description  of  its  limits  (War  iii. 
3,  4,  and  5)  is  not  very  intelligible,  but  he 
makes  it  plain  that  the  northern  limit  passed 
through  "  a  village  that  is  in  the  great  plain 
called  Ginea."  This  is  apparently  En-gan- 
nim  (Josh.  xix.  21  ;  xxi.  29  >,  at  the  southern 
angle  of  the  plain  of  Efdraelon.  The  south- 
ern limit  was  the  toparchy  Acrabattene,  some 


Samaritan 

6  or  7  miles  south  of  Shechem.  Samaria  ex- 
tended to  the  Jordan  on  the  east,  hut  did  not 
reach  the  Mediterranean  on  the  west.  Accho 
belonged  to  Judaja.  The  Talmud  makes 
Antipatris  the  western  limit.  It  compre- 
hended the  old  territories  of  Manasseh  west 
of  the  Jordan,  and  of  Ephraim,  with  a  por- 
tion of  Issachar  and  Benjamin.  I'omj)ey,  in 
(>3  B.  c,  attached  it  to  the  province  of  Syria 
(Antiq.  xiv.  4,  4).  In  A.  D.  6  the  emperor 
Angustus  erected  Juda?a,  Samaria  and  Idu- 
msea  into  a  division  of  the  prefecture  of 
Syria,  called  the  province  of  Judsea,  and 
placed  it  under  procurators  (xvii.  13,  5;  cp. 
11,  4),  and  this  arrangement  obtained  in  the 
time  of  our  Lord. 

Sa-mar'i-tan. 

In  the  only  passage  in  which  the  word  is 
found  in  the  O.  T.  (2  Kin.  xvii.  29)  it  means 
an  individual  belonging  to  the  old  kingdom 
of  northern  Israel.  In  later  Hebrew  litera- 
ture it  signifies  an  inhabitant  of  the  district 
of  Samaria  in  central  Palestine  (Luke  xvii. 
11).  How,  then,  did  the  Samaritan  nation- 
ality or  race  arise  ?  When  Sargon  captured 
Samaria,  he  carried  into  captivity,  by  his 
own  account,  27,280  people.  That  he  left 
many  Israelites  in  the  land  is  evident.  Find- 
ing that  the  remaining  Israelites  were  re- 
bellious, he  began  a  systematic  course  for 
their  denationalization.  He  introduced  col- 
onists from  Babylonia  and  Hamath  (2  Kin. 
xvii.  24)  and  Arabia,  who  continued  to  prac- 
tice idolatry  in  their  new  home.  The  popula- 
tion of  the  country  had  been  thinned,  and  the 
cultivation  of  the  soil  interrupted,  by  these 
wars,  so  that  opportunity  was  afforded  for 
wild  beasts  to  multiply,  which  God  used  as  a 
scourge.  Lions  killed  some  of  the  idolaters. 
The  newcomers  concluded  that  they  did  not 
understand  how  to  worship  the  particular 
god  of  the  country,  and  they  informed  the 
king  of  Assyria.  He  sent  them  a  priest  from 
among  the  captive  Israelites,  who  took  up 
his  residence  at  Bethel  and  began  to  instruct 
the  people  regarding  Jehovah.  He  was  un- 
able to  persuade  them  to  abandon  their  an- 
cestral idolatry.  They  erected  images  of 
their  gods  on  the  high  places  of  the  Israel- 
ites, and  combined  their  idolatries  with  the 
worship  of  Jehovah  (2.5-33).  This  dual  wor- 
ship they  kept  up  until  after  the  fall  of  Je- 
rusalem (34-41).  Esarhaddon  continued  the 
policy  of  his  grandfather,  Sargon  ( Ezra  iv.  2), 
and  the  great  and  noble  Asnapper,  perhaps 
Ashurbanipal,  completed  the  work  by  adding 
to  the  population  people  from  Elam  and  else- 
where (9,  10). 

The  new  province  of  the  Assyrian  em|)ire 
was  weak,  and  Josiah  or  his  agents  traversed 
its  whole  extent,  everywhere  destroying  the 
high  places  with  which  it  abounded  (2  Chron. 
xxxiv.  6,  7).  The  idols  wore  still  on  these 
high  places,  but  it  is  probable  that  idolatry 
was  decreasing  under  the  influence  of  the 
Israelites   who   remained    in    the    land    and 


636 


Samaritan 


^^^■j 


through  the  teaching  of  the  priests.  And 
this  act  of  Josiah's  was  another  blow  to  it. 
Several  decades  later  some  among  the  Samari- 
tans were  in  the  habit  of  visiting  the  temple 
at  Jerusalem  for  worshij)  (Jer.  xli.  5).  When 
Zerubbabel  led  back  his  band  of  exiles  from 
Babylonia  to  Jerusalem,  the  Samaritans 
asked  permission  to  jiarticipate  in  the  erec- 
tion of  the  temple  on  the  ground  that  they 
had  worshiped  the  God  of  Israel  ever  since 
the  time  of  Esarhaddon  (Ezra  iv.  2). 

There  was  early  a  repugnance  on  the  part 
of  most  of  the  Jews  to  social  and  religious 
association  with  the  Samaritans,  and  this 
feeling  developed  into  intense  antipathy  as 
years  rolled  on  (Ezra  iv.  3  ;  Ecclus.  1.  25,  26 ; 
Lukeix.  52,  53  ;  John  iv.  9).  The  Samaritans 
were  neither  of  pure  Hebrew  blood  nor  of 
uncontaminated  worship.  Josephus  (Antiq. 
ix.  14,  3)  says  that  when  the  Jews  were  in 
prosperity,  the  Samaritans  claimed  that  they 
were  allied  to  them  in  blood  ;  but  when  they 
saw  them  in  adversity,  they  declared  that 
they  had  no  relationship  to  them,  but  were 
descended  from  the  Assyrian  immigrants. 
When  the  offer  of  the  Samaritans  to  assist 
in  rebuilding  the  tem])le  was  rejected  by 
Zerubbabel,  Je.shua,  and  their  associates,  the 
Samaritans  made  no  further  efforts  at  con- 
ciliation, but  did  their  best  with  other  ad- 
versaries to  prevent  the  completion  of  the 
work  (Ezra  iv.  1-10)  ;  they  also  opposed  the 
rebuilding  later  on  of  the  walls  of  Jerusalem 
by  Nehemiah  (Neh.  iv.  1-23).  Their  leader 
on  the  latter  occasion  was  Sanballat,  the 
Horonite.  It  was  he  whose  son-in-law  was 
put  out  of  the  priesthood  by  Nehemiah  ;  and 
the  father-in-law  probably  founded  the  Sa- 
maritan temple  on  mount  Gcrizim,  which  he 
designed  for  the  use  of  the  expelled  digni- 
tary ;  see  Sanballat.  Henceforward  fugi- 
tives from  discipline  at  Jerusalem  were  ac- 
customed to  go  to  the  rival  edifice  on  mount 
Gerizim  where  they  were  sure  of  obtaining  a 
warm  welcome  (Antiq.  xi.  8,  7).  During  the 
persecution  under  Antiochus  Epiphanes  they 
declared  that  they  were  not  of  the  same  race 
as  the  Jews,  and  gratified  the  tyrant  by  ex- 
pressing a  desire  that  their  temple  on  mount 
Gerizim  might  in  future  be  dedicated  to 
Jupiter,  the  defender  of  strangers  (2  Mac.  vi. 
2).  About  129  B.  e.  John  Hyrcanus  took 
Shechem  and  Gerizim,  destroying  the  Sa- 
maritan temple  (Antiq.  xiii.  9,  1)  ;  but  the 
worshipers  continued  to  offer  their  adora- 
tions on  the  summit  of  the  hill  where  the 
sacred  edifice  had  stood.  They  did  so  when 
our  Lord  was  on  earth  (John  iv.  20,  21). 

In  the  time  of  Christ  their  theological 
tenets  did  not  essentially  differ  from  those 
of  the  .Tews,  and  especially  of  the  Sadducean 
sect.  They  shared  with  them  the  expecta- 
tion of  a  coming  Messiah  (John  iv.  25).  They, 
however,  accepted  no  more  of  the  O.  T.  than 
the  Pentateuch.  The  main  cause  for  the 
Samaritans'  receiving  the  gospel  so  gladly 
when  Philip  preached  to  them  was  the  mira- 


Samaritan  Pentateuch 


637 


Sampsames 


cles  whifli  he  wrouglit  (Arts  viii.  5,  6)  ;  but 
another  ini<h)iil)ti'illy  was  tliat,  unlike  Juda- 
ism, Christianity  followed  the  example  and 
teaching  of  its  founder  and  admitted  Sa- 
maritans within  its  pale  and  to  the  same 
privileges  as  those  possessed  hy  the  Jewish 
converts  (Luke  x.  'J!»-37  ;  xvii.  l(i-18;  John 
iv.  1-42).  About  150  Samaritans  still  exist  at 
and  around  Nablus,  the  ancient  Shechem. 

Sa-mar'it-an  Pen'ta-teuch. 

The  Samaritans  possessed  the  Pentateuch 
in  Ilebri'w.  It  was  quoted  by  Jerome,  Euse- 
bius,  and  other  Christian  fathers.  In  A.  D. 
161G  Fietro  della  ^'alle  pui-ehased  a  copy  from 
the  Samaritans  of  Damascus,  which  was 
placed  in  1623  in  the  library  of  the  Oratory 
in  Paris.  By  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury fifteen  other  copies,  more  or  less  com- 
plete, had  reached  Europe,  and  the  number 
has  since  been  increased.  INIorin,  or  Morinus, 
who  first  studied  it,  considered  the  Samaritan 
text  vastly  superior  to  that  of  the  Masoretes. 
Controversy  on  the  subject  went  on,  with 
occasional  intervals,  for  nearly  two  centuries, 
till,  in  1815,  the  great  Hebrew  scholar  Gese- 
nius,  who  had  made  a  very  careful  examina- 
tion of  the  Samaritan  text,  jiroved  it  to  be 
far  inferior  to  that  of  the  Hebrew  Masoretes, 
and  of  small  critical  value.  Most  of  the 
Samaritan  rolls,  containing  the  whole  or  a 
part  of  the  Pentateuch,  are  supposed  not  to 
be  older  than  the  tenth  century  of  the  Chris- 
tian era  ;  one  or  two  in  the  custody  of  the 
Samaritans  at  Nablus,  the  ancient  Shechem, 
are  considered  to  be  older.  The  several 
rolls  are  in  the  Samaritan  character,  that  on 
the  Maccabjean  coins,  which  was  also  that  of 
the  Hebrews  before  they  introduced  the 
present  square  letters.  The  Samaritan  text 
frequently  diflTers  from  the  Hebrew  text  of 
the  Masoretes.  In  Deut.  xxvii.  4  we  read 
that  Moses  directed  the  people  when  they 
passed  the  Jordan  to  set  uji  certain  stones  in 
mount  Ebal,  plaster  them,  and  write  on  them 
the  law.  Here  the  Samaritans  have  substi- 
tuted Gerizim  for  Ebal,  to  increase  the  ven- 
eration for  their  sacred  mountain.  There  are 
various  other  less  important  variations;  see 
Chronology.  Most  of  them  are  manifestly 
due  to  the  haste  of  the  scribes  or  to  altera- 
tions which  they  deliberately  made  In 
about  2000  places  the  text  agrees  with  that 
of  the  Septuagint  against  the  Hebrew  read- 
ings, which  indicates  that  the  Greek  trans- 
lators used  a  Hebrew  text  much  like  that 
possessed  by  the  Samaritans.  An  interesting 
inquiry  is :  At  what  date  and  how  did  the 
Samaritans  obtain  this  Pentateuch  ?  An  old 
and  still  widely-received  opinion  is  that  they 
did  so  by  transcribing  copies  of  the  sacred 
volume  which  had  existed  among  them  prior 
to  the  disruption  of  the  monarchy,  under 
Eehoboam  931  B.  c.  Another  view  is  that 
the  volume  was  circulated  among  them  by 
the  priest  who  was  sent  to  instruct  the 
heathen  colonists   brought  from  Assyria  to 


repeoi)le  Samaria  after  its  original  inhab- 
itants had  l)een  carried  captive,  about  722 
B.  c.  A  third  opinion  is  that  the  Samaritan 
Pentateuch  was  carried  from  Jerusalem  by  a 
renegade  priest  about  the  time  that  the  tem- 
ple was  built  on  mount  Gerizim.  The  form 
of  the  letters  and  the  alteration  already 
mentioned  of  Ebal  into  (ierizim  in  the  sacred 
text  atford  a  certain  slight  sujijiort  to  the 
third  hypothesis.  At  any  rate  the  change 
was  made  after  Gerizim  had  become  the 
scene  of  temjile  worship. 

The  Samaritan  Pentateuch  must  not  be 
confounded  with  the  Samaritan  version  of 
the  Pentateuch,  made  into  the  dialect  of  the 
Samaritans  early  in  the  Christian  era.  They 
possess  an  Arabic  translation  also,  made  in 
the  eleventh  or  twelfth  century,  a  book  of 
Joshua,  founded  on  the  canonical  book  of 
the  same  name  and  written  about  the  thir- 
teenth century  A.  D.,  and  some  other  litera- 
ture. 

Sa'mech. 

The  fifteenth  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alpha- 
bet. No  letter  of  the  English  alphabet  orig- 
inally corresponds  to  it,  and  s  is  forced  into 
service  in  anglicizing  Hebrew  names  which 
contain  it,  as  Joseph.  It  heads  the  fifteenth 
section  of  Ps.  cxix.,  in  which  section  each 
verse  of  the  original  begins  with  this  letter. 

Sam-gar-ne'bo  [Shumgir-Nabu,  be  gracious, 
Nebo !] 

One  of  Nebuchadnezzar's  princes  who  en- 
tered Jerusalem  (Jer.  xxxix.  3j. 

Sani'lah  [a  garment]. 

A  king  of  the  Edomites,  a  native  of  Mas- 
rekah  (Gen.  xxxvi.  36,  37). 

Sa'mos  [a  height  by  the  seashore]. 

An  island  about  80  miles  in  circumference 
off  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  south  by  west 
of  Ephesus,  and  nearly  opposite  to  the 
promontory  of  Trogyllium.  After  the  defeat 
of  Antiochus  the  Great  by  the  Romans  at 
Magnesia,  in  190  B.  c,  it  was  independent 
(1  Mac.  XV.  23)  ;  but  it  was  under  the  influ- 
ence of  Pergamos,  and  along  with  Pergamos 
it  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans  in 
134  B.  c.  At  the  time  Paul  reached  it  (Acts 
XX.  15),  it  still  enjoyed  the  autonomy  con- 
ferred upon  it  by  the  Romans  in  19  b.  c.  Its 
inhabitants  were  noted  for  commercial  enter- 
prise.    Many  of  their  coins  still  exist. 

Sam-0-thra'ce,  in  A.  V.  Sam-o-thra'ci-a 
[Sam OS  of  Thrace]. 

An  island  in  the  archipelago  off  the  coast 
of  Thrace  and  oppo.site  the  mouth  of  the 
Hebrus.  It  has  an  area  of  about  .30  square 
miles,  and  has  in  it  a  mountain  5000  feet 
high.  Paul's  vessel  made  a  straight  course 
to  the  island  from  Troas,  in  Asia  Minor  (Acts 
xvi.  11). 

Samp'sa-mes. 

A  country,  rather  than  a  king,  which  was 
friendly  to  Rome  (1  Mac.  xv.  23).  Not  iden- 
tified. 


Samson 


638 


Samson 


Sam'son  [sunny,  little  sun,  perhaps,  de- 
stroyer]. 

Oue  of  the  most  eminent  of  the  Hebrew 
judges.  He  was  the  son  of  a  Daiiite  called 
Manoah,  was  born  at  Zorah,  within  the  limits 
of  the  southern  territory  of  Dan,  and  had 
his  birth  and  his  subsequent  career  announced 
beforehand  to  his  parents  by  the  angel  of  the 
Lord.  He  was  a  Nazirite  from  his  birth, 
no  razor  coming  upon  his  head,  and  no  wine 
or  strong  drink  entering  into  his  mouth.  As 
long  as  he  submitted  to  these  restrictions  he 
was  capable  of  heroic  achievements  against 
the  Philistines  (Judg.  xiii.  1-24).  Circum- 
stances conspired  at  this  time  to  separate 
Judah  and  Dan  from  the  rest  of  the  Hebrews 
and  to  compel  these  two  tribes  to  act  alone. 
They  were  at  the  mercy  of  the  Philistines, 
who  had  promptly  embraced  the  opportunity 
to  oppress  them.  Isolated,  Judah  was  able 
to  do  little  more  than  harass  the  oppressors 
by  bold  deeds  and  stratagems.  The  Spirit 
of  the  Lord  early  moved  Samson  to  com- 
mence his  lifework  in  the  camp  of  Dan  (25)  ; 
but  almost  from  the  outset  he  showed  one 
conspicuous  weakness  in  his  character.  He 
was  the  slave  of  passion.  He  was  betrothed 
to  a  Philistine  woman,  a  native  of  Timnath  ; 
but  she  married  another  man,  and  in  revenge 
Samson,  aided  perhaps  by  his  friends,  caught 
300  jackals  or  foxes,  tied  them  together  in 
pairs  by  the  tails,  with  a  burning  torch  be- 
tween, and  turned  them  loose  amidst  the  rip- 
ened grain  of  the  Philistines  (xiv.  1-xv.  5). 
The  Philistines  invaded  Judah  and  demanded 
that  Samson  be  delivered  unto  them.  He 
permitted  his  craven  countrymen  to  bind 
him  in  whom  they  failed  to  perceive  their 
deliverer.  But  when  he  was  about  to  be 
surrendered  to  the  uncircumcised  Philistines 
the  Spirit  of  the  Lord  came  mightily  upon 
him,  and  he  snapped  the  ropes  asunder.  The 
Philistines,  amazed  at  his  display  of  strength, 
feared  him.  He  seized  the  jawbone  of  an 
ass,  and  as  the  Philistines  turned  to  flee,  he 
pursued  them  and  slew  a  thousand  men  in 
round  numbers.  They  fell  in  several  heaps. 
Samson  acknowledged  that  the  work  was  of 
Cxod,  and  confessed  his  own  need  of  help  lest 
he  die  of  thirst.  God  in  his  providence 
caused  a  spriug  to  give  forth  its  water.  The 
men  of  Judah  now  recognized  him  as  their 
deliverer  (6-20).  Afterwards  he  fearlessly 
went  to  Gaza,  and  there  he  fell  into  sin.  The 
Gazites  thought  that  their  opportunity  had 
come  to  seize  him,  and  they  shut  the  city 
gates  ;  but  at  midnight  he  came  to  the  gate, 
and,  finding  it  closed,  laid  hold  of  its  doors 
and  plucked  them  and  the  bar  away  and 
carried  them  to  the  top  of  a  hill  in  the  direc- 
tion of  Hebron.  An  entanglement  with  the 
woman  Delilah,  from  the  valley  of  Sorek, 
caused  his  ruin.  By  direction  of  her  country- 
men, she  importuned  him  to  tell  her  in  what 
his  great  strength  lay.  At  first  he  gave  her 
deceitful  answers,  but  at  last  he  revealed  the 
secret.     If  his  head  were  shaved,  he  would 


become  weak  as  another  man.  The  Philis- 
tines at  once  shaved  his  head,  and  found 
that  his  strengtli  had  departed.  They  there- 
fore put  out  his  eyes,  and  made  him  grind  in 
the  prison  house  at  Gaza.  They  brought  hiin 
out  to  exhibit  him  to  the  people  on  occasion 
of  a  great  festival  and  public  sacrifice  to 
their  god  Dagon.  His  hair  had  by  this  time 
begun  again  to  grow,  and  he  was  again  ful- 
filling his  Nazirite  vow.  The  great  temple 
was  full  of  people,  and  some  three  thousand 
more  were  on  the  roof.  Samson  knew  the 
structure  of  the  building,  for  he  had  been  in 
Gaza  before  when  he  possessed  his  sight.  He 
asked  the  lad  who  attended  him  to  let  him 
rest  himself  against  the  two  middle  pillars 
on  which  the  roof  was  supported,  and  grasp- 
ing them  he  prayed  to  God  for  one  more 
manifestation  of  favor  and  the  gift  of  strength 
that  he  might  be  avenged  on  the  Philistines. 
He  then  dragged  the  jtillars  from  their  posi- 
tion, brought  down  the  roof  and  perished  with 
a  multitude  of  his  foes  (xvi.  1-31).  Notwith- 
standing the  defects  in  his  character,  the  N.  T. 
names  him  with  those  Hebrew  heroes  whose 
animating  principle  was  faith  (Heb.  xi.  32). 

Samson  had  the  strength  of  a  man  in  a 
preternatural  degree.  When  the  Sj)irit  of 
the  Lord  impelled  him  from  time  to  tiuie,  he 
accomi)lished  his  great  deeds.  His  strength 
did  not  reside  in  his  long  hair.  His  unshorn 
locks  were  the  external  evidence  of  his  rela- 
tion to  God,  a  public  profession  that  he  was 
acting  as  the  servant  of  the  Lord.  When  he 
allowed  his  hair  to  be  cut,  he  broke  his  vow, 
and  it  is  significantly  said  that  the  Lord 
abandoned  him.  His  marvelous  strength 
failed  when  God  left  him,  and  it  returned 
when  God  granted  his  prayer.  His  preter- 
natural strength  was  a  sign,  testifying  to  the 
men  of  Judah  that  this  Nazirite  was  indeed 
called  of  God  to  deliver  them  from  their 
enemies,  and  bearing  witness  among  the 
Philistines  to  the  superiority  of  the  servant 
of  Jehovah. 

Various  attempts  have  been  made  to  group 
the  deeds  of  Samson.  Ewald,  led  by  a 
favorite  theory  of  his,  thought  he  could  dis- 
cover a  drama  in  five  acts.  In -fact  the  nar- 
rative itself  describes  five  groups  of  related 
deeds.  1.  Those  that  resulted  from  his 
wooing  of  the  woman  of  Timnath  ;  namely, 
his  rending  the  lion,  slaughter  of  thirty 
Philistines  at  Ashkelon,  release  of  the  jack- 
als bearing  burning  torches  among  the 
ripened  grain  of  tlie  Philistines,  and  a  defeat 
of  the  Philistines  who  had  l)urned  the  woman. 
2.  The  events  at  the  rock  of  Etam,  when  his 
fellow-countrymen  asked  permission  to  de- 
liver him  into  the  hands  of  tlie  Phili.stines, 
and  he  broke  hisbondsof  rope  in  the  presence 
of  the  uncircumcised,  slew  a  thou.sand  of 
their  number  with  the  jawbone  of  an  ass, 
and  by  prayer  obtained  watt^r  to  quench  his 
thirst.  3.  The  visit  to  Gaza,  when  he  car- 
ried off  the  doors  of  the  city  gate.  4.  His 
passion   for  the   Philistine  woman  Delilah, 


Samuel 


C39 


Samuel 


when  lie  broke  the  seven  green  withes 
wherewith  she  had  bound  him  and  then  tlie 
nine  eords  with  which  she  next  l)ound  him, 
and  tore  away  the  web  with  which  she  had 
woven  his  locks.  5.  A  blind  slave  at  Gaza, 
when  he  pulled  doAvn  the  pillars  on  which  the 
roof  of  Dagon's  temple  rested.  The  particu- 
lar achievements  in  the  five  groujis  are 
twelve  as  enumerated.  Samson's  name  may  be 
interpreted  as  meaning  sunny,  and  a  strenu- 
ous eti'ort  has  been  made  by  Koskoff,  Stein- 
thal,  and  others  like  minded,  to  connect  them 
with  the  twelve  labors  of  Hercules  or  with 
the  Babylonian  Izdubar  or  otherwise  with 
the  sun-god  Shamash.  Hercules  wandered  in 
search  of  adventures,  slew  a  lion,  slept,  was 
sold  as  a  slave,  immolated  himself  volun- 
tarily. Izdubar  overcame  the  lion,  rejected 
the  advances  of  Ishtar,  the  goddess  of  love. 
Hercules  is  a  sun-myth.  The  story  of  Izdu- 
bar is  the  history  of  an  ancient  king  of 
Erech  embellished  with  legend  and  wrought 
out  into  an  epic  in  twelve  parts;  see  Nim- 
BOD.  But  with  neither  the  sun-god  nor  the 
king  of  Erech  is  Samson  to  be  identified ; 
for — 1.  The  ancient  Hebrews  themselves  as- 
signed Samson  to  a  time  well  within  their 
historical  i)eriod,  in  the  generation  before 
Samuel  and  Saul.  2.  The  Hebrew  account 
of  Samson  states  definitely  the  place  of  his 
birth  and  his  deeds,  and  gives  the  location 
of  his  grave.  3.  The  enumeration  of  twelve 
labors  is  a  matter  of  some  importance  to 
those  who  would  identify  Samson  with  Her- 
cules or  Izdubar,  but  in  itself  the  number  is 
not  of  consequence.  And  the  number  twelve 
is  not  so  readily  made  out.  The  cry  of  Sam- 
son to  God  for  drink  can  scarcely  be  called  a 
labor  of  Samson's.  The  narrative  speaks  of 
other  deeds  of  Samson  which  it  does  not  spe- 
cify (Judg.  xiii.  25),  showing  that  the  narrator 
did  not  think  of  tw^elve  achievements  only. 
4.  While  the  stieugth  which  Samson  exer- 
cised was  the  gift  of  God  and  was  not  in- 
herent in  him  as  a  man,  while  it  failed  when 
he  was  left  to  himself,  yet  it  was  preter- 
natural in  the  sense  that  what  he  accom- 
j)lished  by  it  might  have  been  a  work  of 
nature,  but  was  not.  In  most  of  the  exam- 
ples aflorded  of  it,  it  finds  parallels  in  human 
annals.  David  without  a  weapon  slew  a  lion 
and  a  bear  ;  Jonathan  and  his  armor-bearer, 
and  Eleazar  and  Shammah  and  Abishai  each 
single-handed  performed  prodigies  of  valor 
equal  to  Samson's  (1  Sam.  siv.  1-17;  2  Sam. 
xxiii.  9-12,  18),  and  modern  history  i>resents 
other  parallels.  The  nature  of  the  feats  per- 
formed in  carrying  oflT  the  doors  of  Gaza's 
gate  and  in  dragging  the  two  columns  from 
their  position  cannot  be  determined  until 
information  is  at  hand  regarding  the  struc- 
ture of  these  particular  doors  and  the  archi- 
tecture of  Dagon's  temple.  The  deeds  may 
have  been  superhuman  and  miraculous. 

Sam'u-el,  in  A.  V.  once  Shemuel  (1  Chron. 
vi.  33)  [name  of  God]. 


The  earliest  of  the  great  Hebrew  prophets 
after  Moses  and  the  last  of  the  judges.  His 
father,  Elkanah,  was  a  Levite,  family  of 
Kohath,  house  of  Izhar  (see  Elk.\nah  4); 
he  was  a  Zophite,  because  descended  through 
Zophai  or  Zuph  (1  Sam.  i.  1  ;  1  Chron.  vi. 
26,  3.'))  ;  and  he  was  a  man  of  the  hill 
country  of  Ephraim  or  an  Ephraimite,  be- 
cause the  family  had  been  assigned  resi- 
dence in  that  tribe  (Josh.  xxi.  5 ;  1  Chron. 
vi.  66).  Elkanah  lived  in  Ramah  or,  as  it 
was  called  to  distinguish  it  from  other  towns 
of  the  name,  Eamathaim  of  the  Zophites  (1 
Sam.  i.  1,  19;  ii.  11).  He  had  two  wives. 
Peninnah  and  Hannah.  Hannah  had  no 
child  and  prayed  earnestly  to  God  that  she 
might  give  birth  to  a  boy,  vowing  that  if  her 
prayer  were  answered  the  infant  should  be 
devoted  for  life  to  Jehovah,  apparently  as  a 
Nazirite,  for  she  added,  "There  shall  no 
razor  come  upon  his  head"  (cp.  Num.  vi. 
1-5).  Her  petition  was  granted.  She  named 
the  boy  Samuel ;  and  when  he  was  weaned 
she  brought  him  to  the  tabernacle  at  Shiloh, 
and  put  him  in  charge  of  the  high  i)riest, 
Eli,  to  train  him  for  his  sacred  duties  (1 
Sam.  i. ;  ii.  1-17).  While  yet  a  child  he 
ministered  before  God,  clad  in  the  simple 
linen  ephod  which  was  worn  by  ordinary 
priests  when  engaged  in  the  sanctuary  and 
^ven  by  laymen  (ii.  18).  He  lived  at  the 
tabernacle,  sleeping  in  some  chamber  con- 
nected with  it,  opened  the  doors  of  the  sanc- 
tuary in  the  morning,  and  otherwise  assisted 
Eli  in  his  ministrations  (iii.  1,  3,  15).  He 
had  not  advanced  beyond  early  boyhood 
when  Jehovah  revealed  to  him  the  approach- 
ing doom  of  Eli's  house  for  the  foolish  in- 
dulgence which  the  father  had  shown  to  his 
unworthy  sons  (iii.  1-18).  Josephus  says  that 
Samuel  was  twelve  years  old  at  this  time 
(Antiq.  v.  10,  4).  His  statement  is  about 
right;  but  his  authority  for  it  is  unknown. 
By  the  time  that  the  child  had  reached  man- 
hood all  Israel,  from  Dan  even  to  Beer-sheba, 
knew  that  he  was  established  to  be  a  prophet 
of  the  Lord,  for  the  Lord  revealed  himself 
to  Samuel  in  Shiloh  (1  Sam.  iii.  20,  21).  Soon 
afterwards  the  judgment  threatened  against 
Eli  and  his  house  began  by  the  death  of  Eli's 
two  sons  in  battle,  the  cai)ture  of  the  ark  by 
the  Philistines,  and  the  death  of  Eli  on  hear- 
ing the  fatal  news  (iv.  1-22).  The  ark  was 
soon  restored  to  the  Israelites ;  but  it  was 
kept  in  seclusion  and  placed  for  safe  keeping 
with  a  proper  guardian  at  Kirjath-jearim 
until  the  people  should  be  sjiiritually  pre- 
pared to  receive  it.  Samuel  was  an  ac- 
credited prophet  and,  since  the  death  of  Eli, 
the  chief  religious  authority  in  the  land. 
He  addressed  himself  to  the  work  of  reform- 
ing the  people.  Twenty  years  after  the 
restoration  of  the  ark  he  found  the  moral 
condition  of  the  nation  improved,  and  he 
convoked  an  assembly  at  Mizpah,  near  the 
place  where  the  ark  had  been  lost,  to  make 
confession   of  sin,  to  fast  before  the  Lord, 


Samuel,  Books  of 


640 


Samuel,  Books  of 


and  to  beseech  a  return  of  his  favor.  The 
Philistines  gathered  their  forces  to  battle 
when  they  heard  of  this  assembly ;  but 
Samuel  exhorted  the  people  to  pray  for  de- 
liverance, and  he  himself  besought  the  Lord 
for  Israel.  A  thunderstorm  discomfited  the 
Philistines,  the  Israelites  discerned  the  hand 
of  God,  embraced  the  opportunity,  pursued 
the  enemy,  and  gained  such  a  victory  over 
the  Philistines  as  deterred  those  pertinacious 
foes  from  again  invading  the  land  while  Sam- 
uel was  at  theheadof  afiairs(l  Sam.vii.  3-14) ; 
see  Philistines  and  Samuel,  Books  of. 
This  signal  deliverance  indicated  that  Gtod 
had  raised  up  Samuel  to  be  judge,  in  the 
usual  sense  of  defender  and  director.  Like 
Deborah,  and  more  fully  like  Moses,  Samuel 
was  accredited  prophet  and  judge.  In  the 
discharge  of  his  duties  he  went  annually  in 
circuit  to  Bethel,  Gilgal,  and  Mizpah ;  but 
his  residence  was  at  Ramah,  where  a  com- 
pany of  prophets  gathered  about  him  to  be 
at  his  service  in  the  work  of  reform  (vii. 
15-17;  xix.  18-20).  Here  he  built  an  altar 
to  the  Lord ;  for  God  had  forsaken  Shiloh, 
the  ark  was  in  necessary  seclusion,  the  cov- 
enant was  in  abeyance  because  the  Israelites 
had  broken  it  by  their  idolatries  and  sacri- 
lege, and  he  was  Jehovah's  representative; 
see  Altar.  During  the  years  of  his  vigorous 
administration  the  land  enjoyed  freedom 
from  foreign  domination.  When  he  was  old 
he  made  his  two  sons  judges  at  Beer-sheba. 
They  proved  themselves  unworthy  of  their 
high  trust,  taking  bribes  and  perverting  jus- 
tice. Their  misconduct  and  the  threatening 
attitude  of  the  surrounding  heathen  nations 
])roduced  the  request  on  the  part  of  the 
Israelite  elders  and  people  for  the  institution 
of  kingly  government;  and  Samuel  was  di- 
vinely commissioned  to  anoint  first  Saul, 
and  when  he  was  rejected,  David  ;  see  the  de- 
tailed account  in  Samuel,  Books  of.  Samuel 
died  while  David  was  a  fugitive  from  Saul  in 
the  wilderness  of  En-gedi.  He  was  buried 
in  his  house  at  Ramah,  all  Israel  lamenting 
his  loss  (xxv.  1).  On  the  night  before  the 
battle  of  Gilboa,  Saul  desired  the  woman 
with  the  familiar  spirit  at  En-dor  to  call  up 
Samuel  from  Sheol  (xxviii.  3-25);  see  Saul. 
Heman,  one  of  David's  singers,  was  a  grand- 
son of  Samuel  (1  Chron.  vi.  33,  R.  V.  ;  cp.  28). 
Samuel  is  in  the  list  of  O.  T.  heroes  whose 
animating  principle  was  faith  (Heb.  xi.  32). 

Sam'u-el,  Books  of. 

Two  ])ooks  of  the  O.  T.  They  were  orig- 
inally one,  as  appears  from  the  Masoretic 
note  to  1  Sam.  xxviii.  24,  which  states  that 
this  verse  is  the  middle  of  the  book.  They 
are  treated  as  one  by  Josephus  in  his  enu- 
meration of  the  books  of  the  O.  T.,  and  in  He- 
brew manuscripts.  The  division  was  intro- 
duced into  the  printed  Hebrew  Bible  in  1517, 
and  was  derived  from  the  Septuagint  and 
Vulgate.  As  Samuel  is  the  leading  person 
during  the  first  half  of  the  period  covered. 


as  he  was  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  prophets 
that  Israel  ever  had,  the  organizer  of  the 
kingdom,  the  agent  in  the  selection  of  both 
Saul  and  David  for  the  throne,  and  the  coad- 
jutor of  Saul  so  long  as  the  king  remained 
faithful  to  his  theocratic  obligations,  the  book 
appropriately  bears  Samuel's  name.  As  it 
contains  the  history  of  the  first  two  kings, 
it  is  divided  in  the  Septuagint  into  two  books, 
and  called  Fir.st  and  Second  of  Kingdoms; 
and  the  two  books  which  continue  the  liis- 
tory,  and  are  known  in  the  English  version 
as  First  and  Second  Book  of  the  Kings,  are 
called  Third  and  Fourth  of  Kingdoms  in  the 
Septuagint.  Jerome  substituted  Book  of 
Kings  for  Book  of  Kingdoms  in  his  Latin 
version. 

The  work  is  divisible  into  three  sections : 
1.  Samuel,  the  ])rophet  and  judge  (i.-vii.), 
including  his  birth  and  early  life,  the  causes 
which  led  to  his  call  to  the  prophetic  office 
(iii.  20),  and  which  left  him  as  prophet  in 
possession  of  the  .sole  authority  and  opened 
the  way  for  his  judicial  administration  (iv.), 
his  reformatory  work,  and  the  attestation  of 
his  right  to  the  judgeship,  which  was  afforded 
by  the  deliverance  of  Isi'ael  from  Philistine 
oppression  by  his  hand  (vii.  1-12).  Summary 
of  his  administration  (13-17).  2.  Saul  the 
king  (viii.-xxxi.),  including  (a)  The  popular 
demand  for  a  king  in  Samuel's  old  age  and 
Samuel's  promise  to  accede  to  it  (viii.),  the 
interview  between  Samuel  and  Saul  and  the 
anointing  of  Saul  in  private  (ix.  1-x.  16),  the 
public  assembly  called  by  Samuel  at  Mizpah, 
and  tlie  selection  of  Saul  by  lot  (17-26), 
the  dissatisfaction  of  a  portion  of  the  people 
(27),  the  occasion  which  won  the  people  for 
their  divinely  appointed  king  and  his  induc- 
tion into  office  (xi.),  Samuel's  farewell  ad- 
dress (xii.).  (b)  Revolt  against  the  Philis- 
tines, and  Saul's  failure  to  observe  his  theo- 
cratic obligations  (xiii.),  the  feat  of  Jonathan, 
leading  to  the  rout  of  the  Philistines  (xiv.  1- 
46),  summary  of  Saul's  wars  (47,  48),  his 
family  (49-51),  the  particulars  of  one  of 
these  wars,  that  with  Amalek,  in  which  Saul 
again  and  in  aggravated  manner  shows  his 
c(mtempt  for  his  theocratic  obligations  (xv.). 
Then  follows  (c)  An  account  of  the  latter 
years  of  Saul's  reign,  with  special  reference 
to  the  relations  between  the  king  and  David 
(xvi.-xxxi.)  ;  Saul  having  been  rejected  by 
God,  Samuel  by  divine  direction  anoints 
David  (xvi.  1-13),  Saul  troubled  by  an  evil 
spirit  summons  David  as  harpist  to  court 
(14-23),  David  slays  Goliath  and  l)ecomes  a 
permanent  attache  of  Saul's  court  (xvii.  1- 
xviii.  5).  jealousy  of  Saul  and  his  attempts 
on  David's  life  (6-xix.  17),  flight  of  David 
from  court  and  his  wandering  life  (18-xxvii. 
12),  invasion  of  the  Philistines  and  Saul's 
inquiry  of  the  woman  with  the  familiar 
si)irit  (xxviii.),  David,  expelled  from  the 
Philistine  camp,  pursues  a  marauding  band 
of  Amalekites  (xxix.,  xxx.),  battle  of  (iilboa 
and   death    of    Saul    (xxxi.).     3.   David    the 


Samuel,  Books  of 


641 


Samuel,  Books  of 


kiiij;  (2  Sam.  i.-xxiv.).  Announcenu'iit  of 
Siiul's  ileatli  to  David  (i.),  contest  for  \hv 
throne  between  David,  supjjorted  by  tlie  men 
of  Judah,  and  Isb-boslieth  as  head  of  the 
otlier  tribes  (ii.-iv.),  David  made  king  by  all 
Israel  (v.  1-3),  his  reign  (4-xxiv.).  See 
David. 

The  autlior  of  the  double  book  was  a 
I)ropliet,  for  it  is  placed  among  the  prophets  in 
the  Hebrew  canon.  Samuel  wrote  a  book  and 
laid  it  up  before  the  Lord  (1  Sam.  x.  25),  and 
part  of  tlie  double  book  may  be  derived  from 
tlie  History  of  Samuel  the  Seer  (1  Chron. 
xxix.  29);  but  scarcely  half  of  the  book 
<'ould  have  come  from  his  pen,  for  he  died 
before  the  end  of  Saul's  reign  (1  Sam.  xxv.  1). 
It  was  written  after  David's  death  (2  Sam. 
V.  5).  An  allusion  to  the  kings  of  Judah 
probably  indicates  that  the  book  was  not 
-completed  until  after  the  division  of  the 
Israelites  into  the  kingdoms  of  Judah  and 
Israel  (1  Sam.  xxvii.  6),  but  the  distinction 
between  Israel  and  Judah  existed  in  the 
time  of  David  (xi.  8;  xvii.  52;  xviii.  6;  2 
Sam.  iii.  10;  xxiv.  1).  From  Jer.  xv.  1 
it  has  been  inferred  that  Jeremiah  was  ac- 
quainted with  1  Sam.  xii.  There  is  no  refer- 
ence to  the  captivity,  and  it  is  universally 
believed  that  the  book  was  composed  before 
the  fall  of  Jerusalem. 

There  were  several  documents  relating  to 
the  period  treated  in  the  book,  such  as  the 
History  of  Samuel  the  Seer,  the  Hi.story  of 
Kathan  the  Prophet,  and  the  History  of  Gad 
the  Seer  (1  Chron.  xxix.  29),  but  the  author 
does  not  mention  the  sources  whence  he  de- 
rived his  information,  as  do  the  authors  of 
Kings  and  Clironicles,  and  it  is  uncertain 
what  records  he  used.  Wellhausen  presents 
an  analysis  of  the  books  and  their  sources 
(Prolegomena^).  1.  Samuel  as  a  youth.  He 
is  in  training  for  the  priesthood,  and  he 
foretells  the  collapse  of  the  government 
which  existed  before  the  kingdom  was  estab- 
lished (1  Sam.  i.-iii.).  The  .story  was  in- 
vented after  Samuel's  career  had  made  him 
noted.  Chap.  ii.  1-10  is  an  addition  of  un- 
known origin,  and  verses  27-3fi  are  a  Deuter- 
onomistic  but  preexilic  insertion  (pp.  126, 
281,415;  cp.  Kittel  ii.  29,  Anm.  6).  2.  Ac- 
count of  the  fall  of  the  house  of  Eli  (iv.-vi.) ; 
but  iv.  IS*"  is  an  addition  (p.  254).  3.  Saul's 
elevation  to  the  throne.  "There  are  two  ac- 
counts of  this,  (a)  According  to  one  account, 
Saul  was  privately  appointed  king  by  Samuel, 
who  is  a  seer,  and  uses  his  authority  to  arouse 
Saul  to  the  help  of  Israel  (ix.  1-x.  16) ;  but 
ix.  9  is  a  gloss,  and  x.  8  is  from  a  later  hand. 
Samuel  bade  Saul  to  await  the  fitting  oppor- 
tunity to  come  forward  (x.  7),  and  about  a 
month  later  (ver.  27'',  E.  V.  margin)  the 
opportunity  is  afforded  by  the  investment  of 
Jabesh-gilead  by  the  Ammonites.  Saul  sum- 
mons the  people  to  arms,  leads  them  against 
the  foe,  is  victorious,  is  hailed  as  deliverer, 
and  is  taken  to  Gilgal  and  made  king  (xi.) ; 
but  verses  12-14  are  an  interpolation  bv  the 
41 


author  of  viii.  and  x.  17  .seq.,  intended  to 
luunionize  this  account  with  bis  own.  The 
Philistines  in  Israel  and  tlieir  defeat  by  Saul 
and  Jonathan  (xiii.,  xiv.,  except  that  xiii. 
7-15,  with  x.  8,  are  from  a  later  hand,  but  older 
than  cliap.  vii.).  (b)  According  to  the  other 
account,  Samuel  called  the  peoi'le  to  repent- 
ance (vii.  2-4).  Then  he  summoned  them  to 
Mizpah,  near  Jerusalem,  to  pray  for  relief 
from  the  oppression  of  the  Philistines.  The 
Philistines  fell  upon  the  assembly,  but  were 
routed  and  driven  fn)m  the  borders  (5-14). 
Samuel  administered  the  government  suc- 
cessfully until  he  became  old  (15-17).  Samuel 
having  grown  old  and  his  sons  proving  ill- 
fitted  to  rule,  the  elders  of  Israel  ask  for  a 
king,  desiring  to  cast  off"  the  rule  of  (iod 
and  become  like  other  nations  (viii.).  Saul 
was  accordingly  chosen  king  by  lot  at  Mizpah 
(x.  17-27"),  and  Samuel  delivered  a  farewell 
address  (xii.).  4.  Chap.  xv.  is  a  secondary  pro- 
duction. It  is  the  original  from  which  xiii. 
7-15  is  copied,  and  it  is  closely  related  to 
xxviii.  3-25.  5.  There  are  two  comi)lete 
documents  about  David,  which  sui>plenient 
each  other.  The  first  is  contained  in  1  Sam. 
xvi.-2  Sam.  viii.  The  second  account  em- 
braces 2  Sam.  ix.-l  Kin.  ii.  It  is  mutilated 
at  the  beginning,  but  is  otherwise  intact,  ex- 
cept that  2  Sam.  xxi.-xxiv.  are  additions. 
The  first  account  embodies  a  history  of  David 
from  his  anointment  by  Samuel  to  his  flight 
from  Saul.  It  is  connected  with  1  Sam.  xiv. 
52  in  xvi.  14.  David,  as  a  brave  man,  recom- 
mended by  his  skill  in  playing  the  harj), 
comes  to  Saul's  court  and  is  made  his  armor- 
bearer  (xvi.  14-23)  ;  but  ver.  14  shows  marks 
of  the  redactor.  Something  followed  this 
originally,  telling  of  wars  with  the  Philis- 
tines, but  quite  different  from  the  fight  be- 
tween David  and  Goliath,  which  now  stands 
here.  In  the  conflict  witli  the  Philistines 
David  acquits  himself  with  distinction,  is  pro- 
moted step  by  step,  and  is  given  the  king's 
daughter  to  wife  (xviii.  6-30)  ;  but  the  reflec- 
tions on  Saul  are  due  to  a  late  reviser.  Chap, 
xviii.  29^  Septuagint,  is  ctmtinued  in  the  ref- 
erence to  the  popular  applause  which  is  ac- 
corded David,  and  which  arouses  the  jealousy 
of  Saul,  so  that  in  a  fit  of  madness  he  hurls 
a  spear  at  David  (xix.  9,  10).  After  discus.s- 
ing  the  matter  with  Jonathan,  David  fled. 
Saul  slew  the  priests  at  Nob,  because  their 
chief  had  befriended  David  (xxi.  2-7,  E.  V. 
1-6 ;  xxii.  6-23).  The  fugitive  gathered 
a  band  of  desperate  men  about  him  and 
abode  in  the  wilderness  of  Judah  (xxii. 
1-5).  There  are  various  additions  to  this 
continuous  history  of  David.  The  anointing 
of  David  fxvi.  1-13),  which  depends  on  the 
legend  of  the  battle  of  the  shepherd  boy 
with  Goliath  (xvii.  1-xviii.  5).  Saul's  pur- 
pose to  slay  David  is  urged  by  Jonathan  as  a 
reason  why  David  should  bide  him.«elf  (xix. 
1-7),  which  is  a  late  addition,  for  it  shows 
acquaintance  with  cha]).  xvii.  After  Saul 
had  hurled  his  spear  at  David,  the  latter  fled 


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Samuel,  Books  of 


for  the  first  time  (xix.  8-10).  But  David  is 
still  at  home,  and  with  the  aid  of  his  wife 
escapes  a  second  time,  ileeing  to  Samuel  in 
Ramah  (xix.  11-24) ;  but  verses  18-24  are 
corrupt  and  were  unknown  to  the  author  of 
XV.  35.  Verse  18  seems  to  look  back  to  xvi. 
1-13.  David  is  in  Gibeah.  The  king  misses 
him  at  the  feast;  and  when  the  deadly- 
hatred  of  Saul  is  proven,  David  finally  flees 
for  good  (xx.)  ;  l)ut  this  account  is  impossible 
in  its  present  setting.  David  at  Nob  obtains 
the  sword  of  Goliath  from  the  high  priest 
(xxi.  8-10,  E.  V.  7-9).  For  fear  of  Saul 
David  flees  that  day  to  Achish,  king  of 
Gath  (11-16,  E.  V.  10-15).  The  account 
of  David's  life  in  the  wilderness,  a  fu- 
gitive from  Saul  (xxiii.-xxvii.),  contains 
three  additions  to  the  early  document, 
namely,  xxvii.  7-12;  xxvi.  1-25;  and  xxiii. 
14-xxiv.  23,  E.  V.  22.  The  last  two 
are  parallel.  Chapter  xxvi.  was  placed  be- 
fore chapter  xxvii.  on  account  of  xxvi.  19, 
and  the  passage  xxiii.  14-xxiv.  23  was  placed 
before  xxv.  to  avoid  juxtaposition  with 
xxvi.  Chapter  xxviii.  1,  2  is  the  immediate 
continuation  of  chapter  xxvii.,  and  is  itself 
continued  in  xxix.-xxxi.  Verses  3-25,  Saul's 
interview  with  the  woman  of  En-dor,  is 
closely  related  to  xv.,  which  is  the  original 
from  which  xiii.  7-15  is  copied.  Neither 
XV.  nor  xxviii.  belongs  to  the  fundamental 
tradition.  Each  is  a  prelude  to  the  events 
that  follow. 

Biblical  critics  of-  all  schools  are  agreed 
that  the  author  of  the  Books  of  Samuel  de- 
rived the  material  for  his  history  from  various 
sources,  and  all  critics  would  rejoice  to  have 
these  sources  definitely  determined.  But  all 
are  not  agreed  that  Wellhausen's  analysis, 
which  is  essentially  that  of  the  divisive 
school,  is  successful  nor  that  his  method  is 
legitimate.  The  analysis  is  based  upon  con- 
tradictions which  are  alleged  to  exist  be- 
tween certain  parts  of  the  narrative.  To 
this  allegation  of  contradictions  and  conse- 
quent evidence  of  diversity  of  document  it 
is  replied : 

I.  The  author  saw  no  contradictions  be- 
tween these  .separate  parts. 

II.  The  argument  that  contradictions  exist 
in  the  account  re.sts  upon  a  special  private 
exposition  of  the  narrative,  and  upon  a 
manipulation  of  the  text,  which  combine  to 
produce  inconsistencies.  Other  interjireta- 
tion  is  valid  which,  without  effort,  .shows  a 
consistent  narrative  throughout.  1  Sam.  vii. 
13,  14  is  said  to  be  irreconcilably  contradic- 
tory to  all  else  that  has  been  transmitted. 
Subsequently  we  find  the  domination  of  the 
Philistines  in  no  wise  overthrown  ;  they  not 
only  continue  to  press  across  the  borders  in 
Samuel's  lifetime,  but  they  are  in  possession 
of  the  Israelite  land,  one  of  their  otficials 
dwells  at  Gibeah  of  Benjamin  (Wellhausen). 
Driver,  with  more  caution,  says:  "The  con- 
sequences of  the  victory  at  Ehcn-ezer  are  in 
vii.  13  generalized  in  terms  hardly  reconcil- 


able with  the  subsequent  history :  contrast 
the  picture  of  the  Philistines'  ascendancy 
immediately  afterwards  (x.  5 ;  xiii.  3, 19),  etc." 
The  passage  does  not  afiirm,  as  Wellhausen 
assumes  it  does,  that  the  Israelites  captured 
Ekron  and  Gath.  They  may  have  done  so  ; 
the  passage  states  that  Israel  recovered  pos- 
session of  its  ancient  territory.  The  Philis- 
tines came  no  more  as  occupants  within  the 
border  of  Israel,  but  Israel  delivered  its 
border  from  Ekron  to  Gath  out  of  the  hand 
of  the  Philistines  (vii.  13,  14  ;  cp.  border,  Jer. 
xxxi.  17).  The  hand  of  the  Lord  was  against 
the  Philistines  all  the  days  that  Samuel  ruled 
(ver.  13) ;  all  his  days  being  equivalent,  as 
the  expression  frequently  is  in  Scripture,  to 
his  administration.  The  Philistines,  how- 
ever, repeatedly  crossed  the  border  of  Israel 
afterwards.  They  did  so  before  Samuel 
died.  They  even  placed  ofiicers  in  towns  of 
Judah  for  the  collection  of  tribute,  as  David 
did  in  Damascus  (2  Sam.  viii.  6 ;  in  E.  V., 
garrisons).  But  they  did  not  settle  in  the 
country  again,  nor  did  they  expel  the  He- 
brews who  inhabited  it  (as  Judg.  i.  34-36). 
By  the  victory  at  Eben-ezer  Samuel  de- 
livered the  Israelites  from  the  dominion  of 
the  Philistines  and  recovered  the  borders  of 
Israel,  and  during  his  vigorous  administra- 
tion the  dread  of  his  name  deterred  the 
Philistines  from  renewing  their  invasions, 
and  his  presence  inspired  the  Israelites  with 
confidence  ;  but  when  he  grew  old,  and  began 
to  relinquish  the  reins  of  government  to  his 
ineflicient  sons,  the  people  lost  heart  at  the 
thought  of  their  inveterate  enemies.  Samuel 
was  too  old  to  lead  them  to  battle,  his  sons 
were  despicable,  the  Ammonites  and  the 
Philistines  were  as  mighty  as  ever  and  only 
biding  their  time.  The  senility  of  a  ruler, 
or  the  accession  of  a  new  and  untried  king, 
was  usually  the  opportunity  for  which  a 
waiting  foe  watched.  Nahash  the  Ammonite 
may  have  already  begun  to  harass  the  Israel- 
ites across  the  Jordan  (1  Sam.  xii.  12),  though 
this  interpretation  is  not  absolutely  necessary. 
"Make  us  a  king,"  the  elders  of  Israel  said 
to  Samuel,  "that  he  may  go  before  us  and 
fight  our  battles"  (viii.  5-20).  The  claim  of 
a  foreign  prince  to  suzerainty  over  a  people 
might  be  ignored  for  years :  but  in  time, 
when  the  former  lord  became  strong  enough, 
he  himself  visited  the  refractory  with  an 
army  and  punished  them,  or  else  trusting  to 
the  fear  which  his  prowess  had  begun  to  in- 
spire, on  noting  the  weakness  and  helpless- 
ness of  his  former  tributaries,  he  sent  his 
oflicials  to  inquire  why  the  tribute  had  been 
withheld,  and  to  receive  it  anew.  If  the 
demand  was  acceded  to,  the  domestic  gov- 
ernment of  the  subject  people  was  not  dis- 
turbed. This  latter  course  the  Philistines  pur- 
sued. When  the  inability  of  Israel  to  offer 
resistance  became  evident,  perhaps  after  the 
rejection  of  Samuel  by  the  representatives  of 
the  peoi'le  was  known,  the  Philistines  as- 
serted their  authority  (ix.  16),  sent  oflicials 


I 


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643 


Samuel,  Books  of 


into  the  country  (x.  5),  and  nltinuitoly,  as  a 
prewiutionary  uioasurc,  jaTliaps  not  until 
Saul  was  proclaimed  kiiij;  at  (iilj^al,  went  so 
far  as  to  forbid  tires  in  the  forges  lest  tlie 
Israelites  should  jirovide  themselves  with 
WH'apons  (xiii.  19-:i2). 

When  the  elders  of  Israel,  dismayed  by 
the  strength  of  tlie  hostile  nations  by  which 
they  were  surrounded,  demanded  a  king,  the 
aged  Samuel  was  hurt  at  llie  slight  which 
was  apparently  put  upon  him  ;  but  he  was 
divinely  informed  that  the  people  were  not 
rejecting  him,  but  through  lack  of  faith 
were  repudiating  the  rule  of  the  invisible 
King,  and  he  was  instructed  to  accede  to  the 
popular  request.  Accordingly  he  dismissed 
the  elders  with  the  promise  that  he  would  do 
as  they  desired  (1  Sam.  viii.). 

Shortly  after  this  God  revealed  to  the 
prophet  that  a  man  of  Benjamin  should  come 
to  him,  and  that  he  should  anoint  this  Ben- 
jamite  to  be  king  and  the  deliverer  from  the 
Philistines  (1  Sam.  ix.  16).  When  Saul  arrived 
Samuel  entertained  him,  and  in  the  evening 
the  two  sat  on  the  housetop  and  communed 
together.  The  sulyect  of  their  conversation  is 
not  hard  to  divine.  The  pro])het  told  Saul 
of  his  call  to  deliver  Israel  from  the  newly 
reimposed  yoke  of  the  Philistines,  instructed 
him  out  of  his  experience  how  to  meet  the 
foe,  and  informed  him  upon  what  conditions 
he  might  have  God's  help  in  war.  On  the 
morrow,  before  Saul  left,  Samuel  privately 
anointed  him,  gave  him  several  signs  by 
which  he  should  know  of  a  surety  that  God 
had  called  him  to  the  work,  and  dismissed 
him  with  the  charge  to  be  governed  by  provi- 
dential indications,  "and,"  said  the  prophet, 
"  go  down  to  Gilgal  and  tarry  seven  days  till 
I  come  and  show  thee  what  thou  shalt  do  " 
(x.  7,  8).  The  meaning  of  this  charge  must  be 
gathered  from  the  housetop  conference  and 
from  the  event  (ix.  lG-25;  xiii.  8).  Saul  was 
not  to  proclaim  himself  king  nor  to  attempt  to 
free  the  nation  from  Philistine  domination 
until  circumstances  indicated  the  time,  and 
then  he  was  to  make  Gilgal  the  rendezvous 
and  wait  seven  days  for  the  prophet  to  come  to 
offer  sacrifice,  to  entreat  the  favor  of  the  Lord 
on  the  undertaking,  and  to  instruct  him  (x. 
8;  xiii.  12).  The  object  of  tliis  delay  at  Gil- 
gal was  to  declare  publicly  that  the  king  was 
merely  the  vicegerent  of  heaven,  to  show 
the  people  that  Saul  recognized  that  his  royal 
authority  did  not  include  the  priestly  office, 
that  king  and  prophet  must  work  together. 
It  was  clearly  the  idea  of  the  two  men  that 
they  should  cooperate.  Saul  observed  the 
principle  that  underlay  this  advice.  For  a 
time  he  exalted  the  prophet  and  ranked  him- 
self only  as  a  colaborer  (xi.  7),  and  he  felt 
that  he  needed  to  know  the  will  of  the  Lord 
through  the  prophet  (xxviii.  15)  ;  and  Samuel 
for  his  part,  when  Saul  was  established  on 
the  throne,  pui-posed  still  to  assist  the  people 
of  God  (xii.  23),  and  even  after  Saul's  sin  and 
God's  rejection  of  him  Samuel  went  up    to 


Gibeah  of  Benjamin,  where  Saul  held  court, 
to  assist  him  in  the  administration  of  the 
kingdom  by  instructing  him  as  to  God's  will 
(xiii.  15). 

As  directed  by  Samuel,  Saul  returned  to 
his  father's  house.  The  signs  occurred,  and 
especially  when  he  met  a  band  of  prophets, 
})rophesying  as  they  pa.ssed  the  station  of 
the  Philistine  official,  the  Sjiirit  of  the  Lord 
smote  him  there,  and  he,  too,  prophesied. 
His  countrymen  were  worshiping  God  while 
their  enemies  triumjjhed  over  them.  He  dis- 
cerned the  anomaly  and  prophesied.  The 
man  was  awakening  to  the  religious  aspect  of 
his  appointed  work  (1  Sam.  x.  9-13). 

Samuel  now  fulfilled  his  promi.se  to  the 
representatives  of  the  nation.  He  did  not 
use  his  authority  to  place  Saul  on  the  throne  ; 
the  matter  was  too  delicate  and  the  issues  too 
great.  He  summoned  the  people  to  Mizpah 
and  the  choice  was  left  to  God.  The  lot  was 
cast  before  the  Lord,  and  Saul  was  chosen,  a 
man  of  fine  appearance,  fitted  to  call  forth 
the  admiration  and  win  the  confidence  of  the 
people  ;  a  man  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  the 
border  tribe  between  north  and  south,  in 
order  to  avoid  the  ancient  and  growing  dis- 
sension in  the  nation.  The  choice  was  pub- 
licly committed  to  God  in  order  to  secure  the 
allegiance  of  the  pious  part  of  the  people  for 
the  divinely  appointed  king.  The  people 
shouted  "God  save  the  king,"  and  the  king- 
dom was  formally  established  (1  Sam.  x.  24, 
25).  The  precautions  taken  by  Samuel  were 
fully  justified  by  the  event.  The  selection, 
although  made  by  God  himself,  did  not  ap- 
prove itself  to  all  the  people ;  there  were 
jealousies,  and  the  dissatisfied  asked  in  dis- 
dain, "  How  shall  this  fellow,  out  of  one  of 
the  smallest  families  of  a  small  tribe,  save 
us?"  (27).  But  Saul  quietly  retired  to  his 
father's  house,  accompanied  by  certain  men 
of  valor,  to  bide  his  time  and  await  devel- 
opments. He  made  no  claim  to  the  throne 
in  the  face  of  disaffection  ;  he  did  not  begin 
a  civil  war  to  secure  the  crown  ;  but  he  let 
the  matter  drop  until  God  should  change  the 
heart  of  the  people  and  place  him  on  the 
throne  without  shedding  the  blood  of  his 
brethren.  He  devoted  himself  to  attending 
to  his  father's  estate. 

About  a  month  elapsed  in  this  manner  (1 
Sani.x.27,  R.  V. margin).  Nahash  the  Ammon- 
ite had  pushed  his  invasion  almost  to  the  Jor- 
dan and  was  now  besieging  Jabesh  in  Gilead. 
The  people  of  that  town  were  in  sore  straits. 
Nahash  imposed  ignominious  conditions  of 
surrender,  as  a  taunt  to  all  Israel.  The  men 
of  Jabesh,  however,  secured  a  week's  respite 
in  order  to  send  me.ssengers  into  all  the 
coasts  of  Israel.  Some  of  these  messengers, 
or  all  of  them,  came  to  Gibeah  and  made 
known  their  distress.  Saul  was  in  the  field, 
but  when  he  returned  and  learned  the  ex- 
tremity of  his  fellow-countrymen,  and  the 
reproach  offered  to  Israel  by  their  heathen 
foe,  the  Spirit  of  God  came  mightily  upon 


Samuel,  Books  of 


644 


Samuel,  Books  of 


him,  aud  he  sent  through  all  the  borders  of 
Israel  calliug  the  i)eople  to  follow  him  and 
Samuel.  They  responded  as  one  man.  Saul 
led  them  to  victory,  raised  the  siege  of  Ja- 
besh,  and  put  Nahash  to  flight  (xi.  1-11). 
The  Philistines  had  no  cause  to  forbid  the 
relief  of  .labesh  in  Gilead  ;  on  the  contrary, 
it  was  to  their  advantage  that  the  country 
tril)utary  to  them  should  be  kept  intact.  The 
same  story  of  subject  peoples  being  left  by  the 
sovereign  state  to  settle  their  own  domestic  dis- 
putes  aud  fight  out  their  quarrels  with  their 
neighbors  is  familiar  in  the  annals  of  Assyria 
and  Egypt.  Flushed  with  victory  and  proud 
of  their  leader,  the  people  asked  :  "  Who  is  he 
that  said.  Shall  Saul  reign  over  us?  bring 
the  men  that  we  may  put  them  to  death." 
Saul  forbade  slaughter,  and  at  Samuel's  sug- 
gestion the  people  went  to  Gilgal,  which  was 
not  far  ofl',  renewed  the  kingdom  and  made 
Saul  king,  and  this  act  being  accomplished, 
Samuel  formally  delivered  the  government 
into  Saul's  hands  (xi.  12-xii.  25). 

Saul  was  now  king,  but  the  work  which  he 
had  been  raised  up  to  do  was  only  begun. 
The  Ammonites  were  driven  from  the  b(n-- 
ders,  but  the  Israelites  still  sufl'ered  the  hu- 
miliation of  subjection  to  the  Philistines, 
They  managed  indeed  their  own  internal 
affairs  ;  they  had  a  king  of  their  own  with 
a  royal  guard  of  three  thousand  men  ;  but 
they  paid  tribute  to  the  Philistines,  must 
tolerate  Philistine  officials  in  their  borders, 
and  were  compelled  to  keep  their  forges  idle. 
Saul  was  biding  his  time.  Two  years,  accord- 
ing to  the  present  questionable  Hebrew  text, 
passed  by,  when  the  opportunity  arrived. 
Jonathan  smote  the  Philistine  official  at  Geba, 
and  the  Philistines  assembled  their  armies  to 
avenge  the  insult  and  quell  the  insurrection. 
The  time  for  action  had  come  ;  Saul  blew  the 
trumpet  for  war,  and  the  Israelites  assembled 
after  him  at  Gilgal.  This  was  what  Samuel 
had  charged  him  to  do  (1  Sam.  xiii.  1-7).  Well- 
hausen  excludes  the  interview  between  Sam- 
uel and  Saul  at  Gilgal  from  the  original  nar- 
rative as  being  a  late  addition.  Pie  bases  his 
exclusion  of  it  on  the  change  of  place  be- 
tween verses  4  and  16.  Wellhausen  identi- 
fies Gibeah  of  Benjamin  with  Geba  of  Benja- 
min (vers.  3,  4,  16).  He  may  be  right  in  so 
doing,  for  the  two  names  are  confused  also 
in  the  text  of  Judges.  But  he  does  not  ac- 
curately give  the  statements  of  the  Het)rew 
account.  "At  the  beginning  of  the  narra- 
tive," he  says,  "Saul  is  at  Gibeah,  and  there 
the  Philistines  seek  for  him,  stojiping  Ix'fore 
the  place  because  they  meet  with  resistance 
there.  Suddenly  it  is  silently  assumed  (xiii. 
7)  that  Saul  has  remained  at  Gilgal  since  his 
selection  as  king."  In  view  of  verse  4,  this 
is  misrepresentation  on  the  part  of  Well- 
hausen. What  the  ])as.sage  plainly  says  is 
quite  different.  Saul's  troops  were  in  Mich- 
mash  and  Bethel  and  Jonathan's  in  Gibeah 
of  Benjamin  when  Jonathan  smote  the  Phi- 
listine otlieial  in  Geba  (2,  3).    Then  Saul  blew 


the  trumpet  and  the  people  gathered  together 
after  him  to  Gilgal  (3,  4;  cp.  7).  According 
to  the  analysis  of  Wellhausen,  xiii.  1-6  is 
continued  in  verse  16,  "  Now,  as  for  Saul  and 
Jonathan  and  the  peo])le  that  were  found 
with  them,  they  were  dwelling  in  Geba  of 
Benjamin  and  the  Philistines  had  encamped 
in  Michmash."  This  is  straightforward  and 
consistent;  but  Wellhausen  continues:  "In 
xiii.  16  the  reader  again  has  the  impression 
that  Saul  had  l^een  long  at  Gibeah  with  his 
men,  when  the  enemy  jiitched  their  camp 
ojjpositc.  Only  thus  can  the  contrast  be- 
tween the  circumstantial  i>artici])le  and  the 
inchoative  jierfect  be  understood."  But  the 
statement  of  Wellhausen  is  again  inaccurate. 
The  narrative  had  left  the  Philistines  at 
Michmash  (ver.  5)  and  Saul  at  Gilgal  accord- 
ing to  Wellhauseu's  analysis  (ver.  4),  and 
still  at  Gilgal,  if  verse  7  be  included  in  the 
narrative.  Now  it  states  that  Saul  and  his 
men  were  abiding  at  Geba  of  Benjamin, 
but  the  Philistines  had  encamped  in  Mich- 
mash. The  same  difficulty,  if  difficulty 
it  be,  lies  against  the  narrative  which  Well- 
hausen calls  original,  as  against  the  narrative 
which  appears  in  the  present  Hebrew  text. 
This  simply  means  that  the  section  which 
Wellhausen  omits,  verses  7  to  15,  is  in  place, 
which  tells  of  the  events  at  Gilgal,  and 
concludes  by  saying  that  Samuel  arose  and 
went  up  from  Gilgal  unto  Gibeah  of  Ben- 
jamin ;  and  Saul  after  having  numbei-ed  his 
troops,  was  with  Jonathan  and  these  men  at 
Geba  of  Benjamin.  The  departure  from 
Gilgal  is  expressly  stated  with  regard  to 
Samuel,  and  it  is  not  necessary  explicitly  to 
re]jeat  it  in  regard  to  Saul  and  his  men,  it  is 
understood  of  itself.  And  the  author  u.sed 
the  participle  to  indicate  the  continuing  cir- 
cumstance that  Saul  was  abiding  at  Geba. 

The  passage  is  intelligible  with  the  present 
Hebrew  text.  The  supposed  difficulty  like- 
wise vanishes  when  the  text  is  emended  by 
the  aid  of  the  Sei)tuagint.  The  Greek  trans- 
lation has  an  additional  clause,  and  Driver 
conjectures  that  the  original  text  read : 
"And  Samuel  arose  and  gat  him  up  from 
Gilgal  [and  went  on  his  way.  And  the  rest 
of  the  people  went  up  after  Saul  to  meet  the 
men  of  war ;  aud  they  came  from  Gilgal]  to 
Gibeah  of  Benjamin  and  Saul  numbered," 
and  so  forth.  "  The  omission  in  the  Maso- 
retic  text  is  evidently  due  to  the  recurrence 
of  '  from  Gilgal '  "  ( Text  of  Samuel,  p.  78).  In 
view  of  verse  16  this  new  text  justifies  Well- 
hausen's  identification  of  Gibeah  and  Geba 
in  this  chapter  ;  but  it  implies  that  verses  7 
and  8''  form  an  integral  part  of  the  original 
narrative.  And  this  result  Driver  accepts, 
rejecting  Wellhausen's  exclusion  of  x.  8  and 
xiii.  7-15.  from  the  original  narrative  {In- 
troduction^, ]).  176).  Thus  either  with  the 
Masoretic  text  upon  which  the  English  ver- 
sion is  based,  or  with  the  text  as  emended 
by  the  aid  of  the  Septuagint,  the  entire  chap- 
ter is  a  unit. 


Samuel,  Books  of 


645 


Samuel,  Books  of 


But  while  1  Sam.  xiii.  is  a  unit  in  itself,  it  is 
asserted  to  l)e  distiuct  in  authorsliip  from 
chap.  XV. ;  for  in  these  two  chapters  there 
is  a  double  and  contradictory  account  of 
Saul's  rejection  by  God.  But  the  assertion 
cannot  stand  examination.  Samuel  indeed 
twice  rebuked  Saul  at  Gilfjal,  l)ut  he  only 
once  decjiared  that  God  had  rejected  Saul 
from  being  king.  When  at  the  beginning  of 
his  reign,  when  about  to  undertake  the  spe- 
cial work  to  which  he  had  been  called,  Saul 
failed  to  obey  Samuel's  charge  to  wait  seven 
days  until  the  prophet  should  come  to  im- 
plore God's  aid  by  sacrifice,  he  was  rebuked 
but  he  was  not  rejected  :  "  Hadst  thou  been 
faithful  to  the  theocratic  requirements,  thy 
kingdom  would  have  been  established  for- 
ever ;  but  now  it  shall  not  continue.  God 
hath  chosen  a  man  after  his  own  heart  and 
appointed  him  to  be  prince  over  his  people  " 
(xiii.  13,  14).  Saul  is  not  declared  unworthy 
to  be  king  over  God's  people,  Samuel  does 
not  abandon  him,  but  goes  to  the  capital, 
where  he  can  still  assist  him.  The  ]>rophet 
only  declares  that  Saul's  kingdom  shall  not 
continue  forever ;  it  shall  eventually  pass 
from  Saul's  family  under  the  control  of 
another.  But  after  Saul's  second  flagrant 
violation  of  his  theocratic  obligations,  when 
he  disobeyed  the  command  of  God  in  the 
war  with  Amalek,  he  was  rejected  from  being 
king  (xv.  23) ;  and  Samuel  abandoned  him 
and  came  no  more  to  see  him  until  the  day 
of  his  death  (34,  35),  a  man  of  a  diflerent 
tribe  was  anointed  (xvi.  1,  13),  the  spirit 
which  qualified  the  theocratic  king  for  his 
high  office  departed  from  Saul  and  came 
mightily  upon  David  (1.3,  14),  and  not  Saul, 
but  David,  became  the  deliverer  of  Israel 
(xvii.). 

The  account  of  Samuel's  judgeship  and  of 
Saul's  elevation  to  the  throne,  the  earlier 
years  of  his  reign,  and  his  rejection  by 
God,  is  thus  found  to  be  capable  of  consist- 
ent interpretation  throughout.  Examination 
of  the  history  of  David  reveals  its  consistency 
likewise.  See  D.A.viDaud  Jox.\th.\n.  There 
is  no  ground,  therefore,  for  the  assumption 
that  contradictory  documents  have  been 
combined  to  form  the  First  Book  of  Samuel. 

III.  It  further  appears  that  while  the  con- 
tents of  the  alleged  documents  into  which 
the  narrative  has  been  distributed  are  con- 
sistent, they  also  imply  each  other.  (1)  The 
original  narrative  in  1  Sam.  ix.  16,  and  x.  5, 
implies  that  the  Philistines  had  renewed  the 
exercise  of  sovereignty  over  Israel.  The  ex- 
planation is  found  in  the  preceding  chapter, 
which  is  alleged  to  be  a  later  narrative  ;  for 
the  threatening  attitude  of  the  Philistines 
and  other  ancient  foes,  when  Samuel  began 
to  relax  the  reins  of  government,  is  implied 
in  viii.  1.  5,  20.  The  original  narrative  thus 
requires  chap.  viii.  as  an  integral  part.  The 
only  escape  is  to  magisterially  declare  that 
the  Israelites  had  been  subject  to  the  Philis- 
tines  ever   since   the   ark    was   taken,   that 


Samuel  never  delivered  Israel  from  the  Phi- 
listine yoke,  that  the  story  of  the  second 
battle  of  Ebenezer  is  a  pure  fabrication  (vii. 
2-17).  And  this  dogmatic  assertion  Well- 
hausen  does  not  hesitate  to  make.  He  saj's 
that  "there  cannot  be  a  word  of  truth  in 
the  entire  narrative."  Driver  does  not  ex- 
plicitly deny  that  the  event  occurred,  but  he 
admits  that  chaps,  ix.  and  x.  do  not  connect 
directly  with  vii.  1,  and  says  that  "it  is 
probable  that  the  original  sequel  of  iv.  l*"  to 
vii.  1,  has  here  been  omitted  to  make  room 
for  vii.  2  11'."  In  other  words,  vii.  2-17  and 
viii.  afford  a  consistent  picture  of  the  times, 
as  has  been  already  shown  ;  and  it  is  the 
theory  of  the  divisive  critics  which  fails  to 
explain  the  existing  phenomena.  (2)  The 
original  narrative  in  xi.  implies  the  public 
selection  of  Saul  to  be  king  which  is  related 
in  the  alleged  later  narrative  (x.  17-27).  If, 
as  asserted,  Saul  had  only  been  anointed  in 
private  (x.  1),  what  gave  him  such  respect  in 
the  eyes  of  the  people  a  month  later  that 
men  from  all  the  tribes  sprang  to  arms  at  his 
summons  and  followed  him  to  the  relief  of 
Jabesh  in  Gilead?  Chapter  xi.  requires  that 
some  event  preceded  like  that  which  is  re- 
corded in  the  alleged  later  narrative  (x.  17-27). 
(3)  The  original  narrative  of  David's  career, 
it  is  said,  first  mentions  him  as  an  adult  man, 
accustomed  to  arms,  who  is  skillful  in  play- 
ing the  harp  and  is  accordingly  summoned 
by  Saul  to  court,  to  soothe  him  with  music 
whenever  he  is  suffering  from  his  malady 
(xvi.  14-23),  and  it  is  continued  in  xviii.  6- 
30.  "But  it  is  manifest  that  these  two  pas- 
sages do  not  connect ;  xviii.  6  refers  to  the 
return  of  David  from  the  slaughter  of  the 
Philistine  (R.  V.  margin,  Philistines).  The 
account  of  the  combat  between  David  and 
Goliath,  which  is  assigned  to  a  different  and 
later  author,  intervenes  and  supi)lies  the 
missing  link  ;  but  this  has  been  eliminated 
from  the  original  narrative  by  the  divisive 
critics,  largely  on  the  allegation  that  in  xvii. 
33  David  is  represented  as  a  youth,  and  in 
verses  55-58  Saul  does  not  know  David.  On 
other  equally  valid  interpretation  these  al- 
leged inconsistencies  with  the  original  narra- 
tive do  not  exist.  See  David.  To  make 
them  out  the  divisive  critics  are  obliged  to 
discard  xvii.  14.  Saul  is  not  asking  who 
David  is,  but  is  inquiring  who  and  what 
David's  father  is.  That  something  is  needed 
between  xvi.  23,  and  xviii.  6,  is  admitted. 
Wellhausen  says  it  was  something  quite  dif- 
ferent from  what  now  .stands  there,  because 
chap,  xvii,  tells  of  David's  killing  but  one 
man,  whereas  xviii.  7  speaks  of  him  as 
having  .slain  his  ten  thousand.  As  though 
the  slaying  of  their  champion,  and  thereby 
putting  the  Philistines  to  flight,  was  not  in 
the  language  of  song  the  slaying  of  ten  thou- 
sand !  The  author  of  the  Book  of  Samuel 
evidently  understood  it  so.  Thus  the  original 
narrative  of  David's  career  implies  the  exist- 
ence of  the  alleged  later  story,  and  again  the 


Sanballat 


646 


Sarah 


only  escape  from  this  dilemma  is  to  assert 
that  some  part  of  the  origiual  narrative  has 
heen  replaced  by  something  quite  ditferent. 
The  Book  of  Samuel  does  not  make  the  dif- 
ficulty. It  is  the  theory  which  fails  to  ex- 
plain the  existing  phenomena. 

San-bal'lat  [the  moon-god  Sin  hath  given 
life]. 

An  influential  Samaritan  (Neh.  ii.  10).  He 
was  a  Horonite.  This  designation  scarcely 
means  a  native  of  Horonaini  in  ^loab,  else  he 
would  probably  be  called  a  jNIoaljite;  but 
rather  describes  him  as  a  man  of  Beth-horon 
(cp.  iv.  2;  vi.  2).  He  was  opposed  to  the  re- 
building of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  by  Nehe- 
miah  and  tried,  unsuccessfully,  to  stop  it  (iv. 

7,  8).  Next  he  plotted  with  others  to  invite 
Nehemiah  to  a  conference,  and  assassinate 
him  when  he  came  (vi.  1-4).  This  new  de- 
vice failing,  he  tried  intimidation,  but  in 
vain  (5-14). 

Sanballat  the  Horonite  was  a  contemporary 
of  the  high  priest  Eliashib,  great-grandfather 
of  Jaddua ;  was  associated  with  Tobiah  the 
Ammonite ;  and  opposed  the  rebuilding  of 
the  wall  of  Jerusalem  by  Nehemiah  in  the 
twentieth  year  of  Artaxerxes.  A  son  of  the 
high  priest  Joiada  took  Sanballat's  daughter 
to  wife,  and  for  this  ofl'ense  was  expelled 
by  Nehemiah  (Neh.  iii.  1 ;  iv.  3,  7 ;  xiii. 
4,  28).  Josephus  mentions  one  Sanballat,  a 
Cuthean  by  birth,  whom  Darius,  the  last  king 
[of  Persia,  336-330  B.'  c]  sent  to  Samaria 
as  governor  (Antiq.  xi.  7,  2 ;  8,  2),  but  who, 
on  the  defeat  of  Darius,  went  over  to  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  332  B.  c.  (8,  4).  His  daugh- 
ter Nicaso  was  taken  to  wife  by  Manasseh, 
brother  of  the  high  priest  Jaddua.  This  for- 
eign marriage  offended  the  Jewish  authori- 
ties, and  they  drove  Manasseh  from  the  altar 
at  Jerusalem  ;  but  Sanballat,  with  the  appro- 
bation of  Alexander,  built  a  temple  on  mount 
Gerizim  and  made  his  son-in-law  its  priest 
(7,  2 ;  8,  2  and  4).  These  statements  of  the  Jew- 
ish historian  do  not  accord  with  the  facts  of 
Sanballat's  history  already  recited.  The  older 
commentators  thought  that  Josephus  speaks 
of  a  later  Sanballat.  Jose])hus,  however, 
doubtless  has  in  mind  Sanballat  the  Horonite 
and  the  marriage  referred  to  in  Neh.  xiii.  28; 
but  he  has  probably  lowered  the  date  of  San- 
ballat 100  years  to  conform  the  facts  to  his 
belief  that  the  son-in-law  of  Sanballat  not 
only  founded  or  greatly  promoted  the  Samari- 
tan religion,  but  also  built  the  temple  on 
Gerizim,  and  that  this  temple  was  erected 
after  Alexander's  conquest  of  the  country 
(Antiq.  xiii.  9,  1  ;  200  years  before  128  B.  c. 
or  thereabout),  and  that  Alexander  and  the 
high  priest  Jaddua  were  contemporaries  (xi. 

8,  5).  Josephus  assigns  a  false  date  here  ;  as 
he  also  does  when  he  dates  Nehemiah' s  com- 
mission in  the  twenty-fifth  year  of  Xerxes, 
who  reigned  but  21  years  (Antiq.  xi.  5,  7),  in- 
stead of  in  the  twentieth  year  of  his  succes- 
sor,  Artaxerxes  (Neh.  ii.    1),  and  when  he 


dates  the  arrival  of  Ezra  in  Jerusalem  in  the 
seventh  year  of  Xerxes  (Antiq.  xi.  5,  2),  in- 
stead of  21  years  later,  in  the  seventh  year 
of  Arta.xerxes  (Ezra  vii.  1,  8),  and  when  he 
confounds  Onias  I.  with  Onias  III.,  who  lived 
a  century  later  (1  Mac.  xii.  7,  20 ;  Antiq.  xii. 
4,  10). 

San'dal.     See  Clothing,  Shoe.» 

San'he-drin  and  Sanhedrim  [Talmudic 
Hebrew,  from  Greek  sioietlriun,  a    council]. 

The  name  generally  given  by  writers  on 
Jewish  antiquities  and  history  to  the  highest 
Jewish  assembly  for  government  in  the  time 
of  our  Lord.  The  English  version  uses  the 
more  familiar  word  council ;  see  Council. 

San-san'nah  [a  i)alm  leaf]. 

A  town  in  the  extreme  south  6t  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  31) ;  perhaps  the  same  as  Hazar- 
susah,  which  occupies  the  corresponding  po- 
sition in  the  list  of  cities  assigned  to  the 
Simeonites  (cp.  Josh.  xix.  5). 

Saph  [a  basin,  foundation,  threshold]. 

A  Philistine  giant,  slain  by  Sibbechai  in  a 
battle  at  Gob  (2  Sam.  xxi.  18).  Called  in  1 
Chron.  xx.  4  Sippai. 

Sa'phir.    See  Shapuir. 

Sap-pM'ra  [beautiful,  or,  less  probably,  a 
sapphire] . 

The  wife  of  that  Ananias  who  was  struck 
dead  for  having  lied  unto  God.  She  shared 
her  husband's  sin  and  its  penalty  (Acts  v. 
1-10). 

Sap'phire. 

A  precious  stone  (Tobit  xiii.  16),  called  in 
Hebrew  sajjjnr,  in  Greek  sappheiros.  It  was 
the  middle  gem  in  the  second  row  of  the  high 
priest's  breastplate  (Ex.  xxviii.  18),  and 
adorned  the  second  foundation  of  the  New 
Jerusalem  (Rev.  xxi.  19).  It  was  susceptible 
of  a  fine  polish  (Lam.  iv.  7),  and  was  of  great 
value  (Job  xxviii.  16 ;  cp.  Song.  v.  14  ;  Is. 
liv.  11).  The  sapphire  is  one  of  the  three 
varieties  of  corundum,  the  others  being 
corundum  proper  and  emery.  It  is  of  a  blu- 
ish color,  and  transparent  or  translucent  (cp. 
Ex.  xxiv.  10).  It  is  inferior  in  hardness  only 
to  the  diamond,  and  is  still  greatly  prized. 
The  ancients  obtained  it  from  India  and 
Ethiopia.  Fine  specimens  are  brought  from 
Ceylon. 

Sa'rah,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  twice  Sara  (Heb. 
xi.  11  ;  1  Pet.  iii.  6)  [a  princess]. 

1.  The  wife  of  Abraham,  ten  years  his 
junior,  married  to  him  in  Ur  of  the  Chal- 
dees  (Gen.  xi.  28-31  ;  xvii.  17).  .She  was  also 
his  half-sister,  being  the  daughter  of  his 
father,  but  not  of  his  mother  (xx.  12).  Her 
name  was  originally  Sarai,  meaning  perhaps 
])rincely  or  contentious.  When  Abraham 
departed  frcmi  Haran  to  go  to  Canaan,  Sarai 
was  about  sixty-five  years  old  (xii.  4).  Evi- 
dently .she  was  a  well-preserved  woman  :  for 
she  lived  to  be  one  hundred  and  twenty-seven 
years  old  ;  and  shortly  after  leaving  Haran, 
when  about  to  enter  Egypt,  Abraham  feared 


Sarai 


647 


S argon 


lest  her  beauty  should  attract  the  Egyptians 
and  lead  to  his  murder,  and  he  represented 
that  she  was  his  sister,  keeping  back  the  fact 
that  she  was  his  wife  (10-20).  Yeai-s 
later  he  did  so  again  at  the  court  of  Abime- 
lech,  king  of  (ierar  (xx.  1-18).  Why  he  did 
so  is  uiit  stated,  nor  is  it  said  that  Abimelech 
was  influenced  by  her  beauty.  The  king  of 
Gerar  may  have  thought  of  the  desirability 
of  an  alliance  with  the  powerful  Hebrew 
chieftain,  and,  with  this  end  in  view,  deter- 
mined to  take  a  woman  of  the  immediate 
family  of  Abraham  into  his  harem,  as  was 
frequently  done  by  princes  of  that  period 
when  they  coucluded  alliances.  Sarai  had 
a  female  slave,  Hagar,  but  she  herself 
worked  for  the  household  with  her  own 
hand  (xviii.  tJ).  Sarai  was  childless;  and 
when  about  seventy-five  years  old  she  con- 
cluded that  she  was  an  ob.stacle  to  the 
promi.se  made  to  Abraham  of  numerous  pos- 
terity, and  she  entreated  her  husband  to 
fcike  Hagar  as  a  .secondary  wife.  He  did  so, 
apparently  without  asking  divine  direction 
before  doing  so,  and  became  the  father  of 
Ishmael  (xvi.  1-16).  Afterwards  Sarai,  when 
about  eighty-nine,  received  a  promise  from 
God  that  she  should  herself  bear  a  son  (cp. 
Heb.  xi.  11,  12),  and  in  the  course  of  a  year 
gave  birth  to  Isaac  the  child  of  promise.  It 
was  when  this  promise  was  made  to  her  that 
God  changed  her  name  to  Sarah,  meaning 
princess  (Gen.  xvii.  15-22  ;  xviii.  9-15 ;  xxi.  1- 
5).  When  Isaac  was  weaned,  his  parents  made 
a  great  feast,  at  which  Sarah  saw  Ishmael, 
Hagar's  son,  mocking.  She  insisted  that  both 
mother  and  son  should  be  sent  away  (9-21). 
Sarah  died  at  Kirjath-arba  (Hebron)  at  the 
age  of  127  (xxiii.  1,  2),  and  was  buried  in 
the  cave  of  Machpelah,  which  Abraham  pur- 
chased at  that  time  for  a  family  sepulcher. 

2.  For  Sarah  of  Num.  xxvi.  46,  A.  V.,  a 
different  word  in  Hebrew,  see  Seeah. 

Sa'rai.     See  Saeah  1. 

Sar'a-mel.    See  Asaramel. 

Sa'raph  [burning,  fiery]. 

A  descendant  of  Shelah,  the  son  of  Judah. 
At  one  time  he  exercised  dominion  in  Moab 
(1  C'hron.  iv.  22). 

Sar'dlne.     See  Saedius. 

Sar'dis. 

A  city  first  of  the  Maeonians  and  then  the 
capital  of  Lydia.  It  was  situated  at  the  foot 
of  mount  Tmolus,  on  the  banks  of  the  river 
Pactolus,  a  tributary  of  the  Hermus.  Most 
of  the  city  was  on  a  somewhat  swampy  plain, 
but  the  citadel  was  on  a  hill  flanked  on  one 
side  by  a  precipice.  It  was  the  capital  of  a 
very  fertile  region.  One  of  its  kings  was 
Croesus,  who  was  proverbial  for  his  wealth. 
In  546  B.  c.  it  was  captured  by  Cyrus  the 
Great,  and  afterwards  became  the  seat  of  a 
Persian  satrap.  The  burning  of  Sardis  by 
the  Athenians.  499  b.  c,  brought  on  the 
Persian  invasion  of  Greece  in  the  reigns  of 


Darius  and  Xerxes.  In  334  B.  c.  it  sur- 
rendered to  Alexander  the  Great,  after  his 
victory  at  the  Grauicus.  In  214  B.  c.  it  was 
taken  by  Autiochus  the  Great,  but  he  lost  it 
again,  after  having  been  severely  defeated,  in 
190  B.  c,  by  the  Romans  at  the  battle  of 
Magnesia.  They  annexed  it  for  a  time  to 
the  kingdom  of  Pergamos,  but  in  129  b.  c. 
constituted  the  Eoman  province  of  Asia, 
within  the  limits  of  which  Sardis  fell.  Jews 
dwelt  in  the  city  (Antiq.  xiv.  10,  24),  and  a 
Christian  community  early  grew  up  there 
(Rev.  i.  11 ;  iii.  1,  4).  Sardis  (now  called 
Sert-Kalessi)  is  only  a  miserable  hamlet,  con- 
sisting of  a  few  houses.  But  there  are  re- 
mains in  its  vicinity  of  a  magnificent  temple, 
coming  down,  it  is  believed,  from  Lydian 
times,  with  the  ruins  of  a  course  for  foot- 
racing, a  theater,  and  Christian  churches. 
The  citadel  is  of  sandstone,  partly  rent 
asunder  as  if  by  one  of  the  earthquakes 
which  have  frequently  visited  the  region. 

Sar'di-us,  in  A.  V.  of  Rev.  iv.  3  Sardine. 

A  variety  of  chalcedony,  which  the  Greeks 
called  snrdios  and  sardion.  It  was  a  precious 
stone  (Rev.  iv.  3),  and  constituted  the  sixth 
foundation  of  the  wall  about  the  New  Jeru- 
salem (xxi.  20).  Two  sorts,  distinguished  by 
their  color,  were  known  by  the  name  of 
sardius :  the  transparent  red  being  our  car- 
nelian  and  the  brownish  red  being  the  variety 
of  caruelian  to  which  we  restrict  the  name 
sardius.  According  to  Pliny,  it  was  found 
near  Sardis,  whence  it  derived  its  name,  but 
the  finest  qualities  were  brought  from  Baby- 
lon. The  best  carnelians  now  come  from 
India  ;  some  also  occur  in  Arabia,  whence 
the  ancient  Hebrews  may  have  obtained 
them. 

In  the  O.  T.  sardius  is  the  rendering  of 
the  Hebrew  'Odem,  reddish  gem.  It  was  the 
first  stone  in  the  first  row  on  the  high  priest's 
breastplate  (Ex.  xxviii.  17),  and  was  one  of 
the  stones  with  which  Tyre  adorned  itself 
(Ezek.  xxviii.  13).  The  marginal  reading  is 
ruby,  but  the  Septuagint  renders  'odem  by 
sardion.  So  does  Josephus  in  one  place 
(War  V.  5,  7),  while  in  another  he  has  sar- 
donyx, which  is  but  another  variety  of  chal- 
cedony (Antiq.  iii.  7,  5). 

Sar'do-nyx. 

A  variety  of  chalcedony,  called-  by  the 
Greeks  snrdonvx,  finger-nail  onyx.  It  forms 
the  fifth  foundation  of  the  wall  surrounding 
the  New  Jerusalem  (Rev.  xxi.  20).  It  is  like 
the  onyx  in  structure,  but  includes  layers  of 
camelian  along  with  others  of  white,  whitish- 
brown,  or  sometimes  of  black  color.  It  was 
obtained  chieflv  in  India  and  Arabia  (Pliny, 
Hist.  Nat.  xxxvii.  23). 

Sa-rep'ta.     See  Zaeephath. 

Sar'gon  [Assyrian  Sharrukinu,  the  consti- 
tuted king]. 

A  king  of  Assyria,  mentioned  by  name  in 
Scripture  in  Is.  xx.  1  only.  He  succeeded 
the  last  Shalmaueser.     He  was  perhaps  of 


Sargon 


648 


Satan 


royal  blood,  as  he  claims ;  but  it  is  believed 
that  he  usurped  the  throne,  assuming  the 
name  of  Sargon,  an  ancient  and  celebrated 
Babylonian  king.  He  either  secured  the 
throne  and  then  completed  the  siege  of  Sa- 
maria, which  Shalmaneser  had  begun  in  724 
B.  c,  or  else  he  ascended  the  throne  immedi- 
ately after  the  fall  of  Israel's  capital,  and, 
perhaps  as  the  general  who  had  brought 
these  military  operations  to  a  successful  ter- 
mination, claimed  the  capture  as  an  act  of 
his  accession  year.  The  biblical  record  is 
not  clear  (2  Kin.  xvii.  1-ti).  The  Hebrew 
writer  relates  that  Shalmauesercame  against 
Hoshea,  and  proceeds  by  saying  that  the 
king  of  Assyria  found  conspiracy  in  Hoshea 
and  cast  him  into  prison,  and  that  the  king 
of  Assyria  besieged  Samaria  three  years,  and 
in  the  ninth  year  of  Hoshea  took  the  city. 
Until  the  claim  of  Sargon  to  have  captured 
Samaria  came  to  light,  readers  of  the  Hebrew 
narrative  inferred  that  Shalmaneser  was  the 
conqueror  of  Samaria.  But  the  inference 
was  not  warranted,  for  the  writer  continues 
to  speak  of  the  king  of  Assyria,  where  it  is 
probable  that  he  does  not  mean  the  conqueror 
of  Samaria  (ver.  24,  26,  27).  He  does  not 
specify  the  particular  king,  but  uses  the  gen- 
eral title  ;  and  when  he  recurs  to  the  siege, 
he  names  Shalmaneser  as  the  besieger,  but 
continues  by  saying,  "  They  took  it"  (xviii. 
9,  10).  At  any  rate,  Samaria  fell  in  the  clos- 
ing months  of  722  B.C.,  and  Sargon  ascended 
the  throne  on  the  12th  of  Tebet,  the  tenth 
month,  of  that  year.  Immediately  after  his 
accession,  the  Babylonians,  as.sisted  by  the 
Elamites,  revolted,  and  Sargon  was  for  a 
time  unable  to  reduce  them  to  subjection. 
In  720  the  remaining  Israelites  of  Samaria 
in  alliance  with  the  men  of  Hamath  rebelled, 
but  Sargon  subdued  them,  and  placed  captive 
Hamathites  as  colonists  in  Samaria.  In  the 
same  year  he  defeated  the  allied  forces  of 
Hanun,  king  of  Gaza  and  Sib'e,  better  known 
to  readers  of  the  Bible  as  So,  the  tartan  of 
Egypt  in  a  battle  fought  at  Riphia.  Sargon 
took  Carchemish,  the  capital  of  the  Hittites, 
in  717,  and  with  the  capture  of  their  capital 
the  empire  of  the  Hittites  fell.  In  716  his 
armies  waged  war  in  Armenia,  in  715  they 
were  still  engaged  in  war  in  Armenia,  and 
were  carrying  on  operations  in  Media.  In 
this  year  also  Arab  tribes  were  planted  as 
colonists  in  Samaria  by  his  orders,  and  he  re- 
ceived tribute  from  Pharaoh  of  Egypt.  He 
boasts  of  having  subjugated  Judah.  The 
tablet  on  which  this  boast  appears  was  in- 
scribed before  the  close  of  714,  to  judge  from 
its  contents.  The  combined  Assyrian  and 
Hebrew  data  point  to  the  end  of  715  or  the 
beginning  of  714  as  the  date  when  Hezekiah 
acknowledged  the  suzerainty  of  Assyria  by 
beginning  to  pay  tribute.  Merodach-baladan 
incited  the  nations  from  Elam  to  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea  to  revolt  from  Assyria.  In  711, 
therefore,  Sargon  dispatched  troops  against 
Ashdod,  and  in  710  he  captured  Babylon  and 


n 


assumed  the  title  of  king  of  Babylon.  He 
began  to  erect  a  new  palace  and  town  10 
miles  northeast  of  Nineveh  in  712  and  named 
it  Dur-shurrukin,  Sargonsburg.  The  ruins 
are  known  as  Khor.sabad  ;  see  Nineveh. 
He  took  up  his  residence  there  about  707. 
He  was  murdered  in  705  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Sennacherib. 

Sa'rid  [survivor]. 

A  village  on  the  southern  frontier  of  Zebu- 
lun  (Josh.  xix.  10,  12).  Conder,  reading  with 
Septuagint  and  Syriac  version  d  instead  of 
r,  places  it  doubtfully  at  Tell  Shadud,  on  the 
northern  part  of  the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  5 
miles  southwest  of  Nazareth. 

Sa'ron.     See  Sharon. 
Sar'se-chim. 

One  of  Nebuchadnezzar's  princes  who  en- 
tered Jerusalem  (Jer.  xxxix.  3). 

Sa'ruch.     See  Sekug. 

Sa'tan  [Hebrew  satan,  an  adversarv]. 

The  devil  (Mat.  iv.'l  with  10,  11  ;  Mark  i. 
13) ;  preeminently  "  the  adversary  "  (Job  i.  6 ; 
Zech.  iii.  1,  margin),  because  animated  by 
a  disposition  iKjstile  to  all  goodness  and 
the  chief  opponent  of  God  and  man  (Job  ii. 
3;  Luke  xxii.  3;  cp.  1  Chron.  xsi.  1  and  Ps. 
cix.  6,  but  see  R.  V.),  aiming  to  undo  the 
work  of  God  (Mark  iv.  15),  seeking  to  per- 
suade men  to  sin  (Luke  xxii.  3 ;  Acts  v.  3 ; 
xxvi.  18),  desirous  of  leading  them  to  re- 
nounce God  (Job  ii.  5 ;  Mat.  iv.  9,  10),  and 
endeavoring  to  prevent  their  acceptance  and 
salvation  by  God  (Zech.  iii.  1,  2).  lie  is  sonie- 
times  influential  in  bringing  about  ])by.^ical 
sickness,  pecuniary  loss,  bereavement  (Job  i. 
11-22;  ii.  4-7;  Luke  xiii.  16).  He  is,  how- 
ever, under  the  control  of  God.  Only  by 
God's  permission  can  he  pursue  his  malicious- 
designs  (Job  i.  12;  ii.  5,  6;  Luke  xxii.  32). 
When  permission  is  granted  him  to  carry 
out  his  evil  plots,  it  is  only  that  he  may  be- 
come an  instrument  in  furthering  the  divine 
plan.  In  Job's  case,  the  vain  efforts  of  Satan 
to  induce  the  patriarch  to  sin  resulted  in  dis- 
ciplining his  character  and  maturing  his  faith 
in  God.  In  the  fully  revealed  doctrine  of 
Satan,  which  is  seen  in  the  N.  T.,  he  is  the 
god  of  this  world  who  has  access  to  the  hearts 
of  men.  deceives  them,  and  receives  their 
witting  or  unwitting  obedience  (Luke  xxii. 
3  ;  Acts  V.  3 ;  xxvi.  18  ;  2  Cor.  iv.  4  ;  2  Thes. 
ii.  9  ;  Rev.  xii.  9).  He  is  the  ruler  of  a  king- 
dom, having  principalities,  powers,  and  de- 
mons under  him  (Mat.  xii.  24,  26;  Luke  xi. 
18  ;  Rev.  xii.  7). 

Satan  was  the  seducer  of  Adam  and  Eve 
(2  Cor.  xi.  3  ;  Rev.  xii.  9).  This  fact  may 
have  become  known  to  them.  If  not,  it  was- 
discerned  as  soon  as  the  existence  of  the 
devil  and  his  work  became  known,  for  the 
temptation  of  Eve  came  from  without  through, 
the  persuasions  of  an  irrational  creaturc 
The  malignant  spirit  behind  the  serjtent, 
hostile  to  good,  seeking  to  undo  the  work  of 


Satrap 


God,  and  siipernaturally  lending  speech  to  the 
reptile,  or  communicating  with  the  mind  of 
the  woman,  so  that  she  thought  she  heard 
articulate  speech,  was  evidently  Satan.  This 
doctrine  went  hand  in  hand  with  the 
doctrine  concerning  the  devil,  and  received 
the  highest  sanction  (Wisd.  ii.  24 ;  John 
viii.  44;  Eom.  xvi.  20;  2  Cor.  xi.  3;  Ecv. 
xii.  9) ;  see  Serpent.  Satan  produced  de- 
moniacal possession  (Mat.  xii.  22-29;  Mark 
111.22-27;  Luke  xl.  14-23).  He  approached 
Jesus  with  temptation  (Mat.  iv.  1-11).  He 
steals  the  word  from  the  heart  of  the  igno- 
rant or  inattentive  hearer  (Mark  iv.  15).  He 
entered  into  the  heart  of  Judas  before  the 
commission  of  the  great  crime  (Luke  xxii.  3  ; 
John  xiii.  27).  He  had  to  do  with  Peter's 
fall  (Luke  xxii.  31).  It  was  under  tempta- 
tion by  Satan  that  Ananias  and  Sapphira  lied 
to  the  Holy  Ghost  (Acts  v.  3).  He  hindered 
Paul  in  his  ministrj^  (1  Thes.  ii.  18),  having 
previously  sent  a  messenger  to  buifet  him 
(2  Cor.  xii.  7).  Pergamos,  where  a  faithful 
Christian,  Antipas,  sutfered  martyrdom,  was 
a  place  where  Satan  dwelt  (Rev.  ii.  13). 
Men  with  hearts  unchanged  are  under  Satan's 
power  (Acts  xxvi.  18).  An  assembly  of  those 
who  have  grievously  erred  from  the  faith, 
and  perhaps  from  morality,  is  the  synagogue 
of  Satan  (Rev.  ii.  9 ;  iii.  9"^;  cp.  1  Tim.  v.  15). 
Those  who  are  expelled  from  the  church  are 
said  to  be  delivered  to  Satan  ;  but  this  is  de- 
signed to  produce  their  reformation,  and  not 
their  destruction  (1  Cor.  v.  5 ;  1  Tim.  i.  20). 
There  are  depths  in  Satan  which  inexperi- 
enced Christians  fail  to  fathom  (Rev.  ii.  24). 
He  is,  moreover,  so  plausible  that  he  seems 
to  be  an  angel  of  light  (2  Cor.  xi.  14).  He 
sometimes  gains  advantages  over  Christians 
(ii.  11),  but  he  shall  ultimately  be  bruised 
under  their  feet  (Rom.  xvi.  20).  He  is  the 
real  agent  in  the  operations  carried  on  by 
the  man  of  sin  (2  Thes.  ii.  1-12),  but  the  day 
■will  come  when,  after  a  temporary  triumph, 
Satan  shall  be  expelled  from  the  earth,  and, 
being  bound,  shall  be  cast  into  the  abyss 
(Rev.  xii.  9;  xx.  1,  2).     See  Devil. 

Simon  Peter  was  called  Satan  when  he 
took  it  upon  him  to  contradict  Christ's  proph- 
ecy of  his  death  and  resurrection,  for  he 
was  a  stumbling-block  to  Christ,  opposed  him, 
and  minded  not  the  things  of  God  (Mat.  xvi. 
23;  Mark  viii.  33). 

Sa'trap  [from  Persian  khshutrapiiwan,  ab- 
breviated khshatrapd,  protector  of  the  land, 
in  Hebrew  '"hnshdrapan]. 

The  official  title  of  the  viceroy,  who,  in 
behalf  of  the  Persian  monarch,  exercised 
the  civil  and  military  authority  in  .several 
small  provinces  combined  in  one  government. 
Each  of  these  provinces  had  its  own  governor 
(Ezra  viii.  36  and  Esth.  iii.  12,  in  A.  V.  lieu- 
tenant). The  title  is  used  in  Aramaic  his- 
torical documents  written  after  the  Persian 
conquest,  in  referring  to  high  officials  of  the 
Babylonian  empire  and  of  the  kingdom  ruled 


649  Saul 

j  — 

by  Darius  the  Mede  (Dan.  iii.  2  and  vi.  1,  in 
A.  Y.  prince). 

Sa'tyr. 

A  sylvan  god  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 
a  companion  of  Bacchus.  At  first  he  was 
represented  with  long-pointed  ears,  snub  nose, 
and  goat"s  tail.  At  a  later  period  goafs  legs 
were  added.  He  was  supposed  to  possess  a 
half  brutal  and  lustful  nature.  Satyr  is  the 
rendering  of  the  Hebrew  S^ir,  he  goat,  and 
is  applied  to  wild  animals  or  demons  which 
should  dance  among  the  ruins  of  Babylon 
(Is.  xiii.  21)  and  of  the  Edomite  cities  (xxxiv. 
14).  The  word  commonly  signifies  a  he  goat. 
In  two  passages  it  denotes  an  object  of  idola- 
trous worship  (Lev.  xvii.  7  ;  2  Chron.  xi.  15, 
both  R.  v.).  In  the  latter  place  it  is  mentioned 
with  calf  idols,  suggesting  that  it  refers  to  idols- 
having  the  likeness  of  goats.  In  Is.  xiii.  21, 22 
it  is  associated  with  wild  animals,  in  xxxiv.  14 
with  a  creature  of  the  night  also,  which  may 
be  either  some  nocturnal  animal  (in  A.  V. 
the  screech  owl)  or  a  nocturnal  demon ;  see 
XiGHT  MoxsTEE.  In  the  adaptation  of 
Isaiah's  words  in  Revelation,  the  language  is 
quoted  from  the  Septuagint  and  the  word 
demons  is  used  (Rev.  xviii.  2,  R.  V.).  Accord- 
ingly, interpreters  dispute  whether  the  He- 
brew prophet  meant  that  wild  goats,  ostriches, 
wolves,  jackals,  and  other  beasts  of  the  desert 
should  wander  among  the  forsaken  ruins,  or 
whether  he  introduced  into  the  imagery  of 
his  poetic  description  a  popular  belief  in  de- 
mons which  appeared  in  the  fonn  of  goats 
and  haunted  desert  places. 

Saul  [asked  (of  God)]. 

1.  A  king  of  Edom,  from  Rehoboth,  on  the 
Euphrates  (Gen.  xxxvi.  37,  38,  in  E.  V. 
Shaul). 

2.  The  first  king  of  Israel,  son  of  Kish,  a 
Benjamite  ;  see  Kish.  The  prophet  Samuel 
had  grown  old  ;  his  sons  showed  Ijy  their  con- 
duct that  they  did  not  possess  his  upright 
character  and  could  not  carry  on  his  work  ; 
and  the  surrounding  nations  were  evidently 
ready  to  harass  and  oppress  Israel  (1  Sam.  viii. 
1,  3.  20  ;  xii.  12).  The  elders  of  Israel  accord- 
ingly came  to  Samuel  and  demanded  that  the 
form  of  government  be  changed  and  that  a 
visible  king  be  set  over  them,  so  that  they 
might  be  like  the  well-organized  nations 
about  them,  and  have  one  who  could  lead 
them  to  victory  over  their  foes  (viii.  4,  5,  19, 
20).  Although  the  ultimate  organization  of 
the  Hebrews  as  a  kingdom,  with  an  earthly 
monarch  as  the  representative  of  Jehovah, 
had  long  been  contemplated  (Gen.  xvii.  6, 
16;  XXXV.  11;  Dent.  xvii.  14-20i,  yet  the 
spirit  of  the  people  in  demanding  a  king  at 
this  crisis  was  irreligious.  They  lacked 
abiding  faith  in  God,  without  which  the  rule 
of  Jehovah  as  theocratic  king  was  impossi- 
ble. They  were  turning  from  faith  in  the 
invisible  God  to  put  confidence  in  a  visible 
king.  By  divine  direction  Samuel  informed 
the  elders  what  the  people  would  have  to  en- 


Saul 


650 


Saul 


dure  from  a  king,  btit  on  their  persisting  iu 
their  demand,  be  ]irumised  to  do  as  they  de- 
sired and  dismissed  them. 

The  elevotion  of  Saul  to  the  throne.  About 
this  time  the  asses  of  Kish,  a  Benjamite, 
went  astray,  and  his  sou,  Saul,  was  sent  to 
seek  them.  Saul  was  at  the  time  a  young 
man,  perhaps  thirty-five  years  okl ;  and  lie 
was  head  and  shoulders  taller  than  any  of  the 
people.  Not  finding  the  asses,  after  three 
days'  search,  he  was  about  to  give  up  the 
quest  and  return  home.  His  servant,  how- 
ever, suggested  one  further  ett"()rt.  Persons 
of  whom  the  servant  made  inquiry  concern- 
ing the  asses  probably  told  him  that  there 
was  a  man  of  God  in  the  neighboring  city 
who  might  give  the  desired  information,  and 
he  persuaded  Saul  to  go  to  him.  The  man 
of  God  was  Samuel,  who  had  been  told  by 
God  to  expect  a  Benjamite  and  to  anoint  him 
prince  over  Israel.  Saul  and  his  family  in 
Gibeah  knew  Samuel  well  by  report  (1  Sam. 
X.  14-16),  but  Saul  seems  not  to  have  met  the 
prophet  before  and  not  to  have  understood 
that  Samuel  was  the  man  of  God  of  whom 
the  people  spake.  He  refers  to  him  as  the 
man  (ix.  7),  and  on  meeting  him  at  the  city 
gate  does  not  know  him  (18,  19).  Samuel  in- 
formed Saul  that  the  asses  had  been  recov- 
ered, intimated  to  him  that  he  would  be  chosen 
king,  and  put  him  in  the  place  of  honor  at 
the  sacrificial  feast  which  he  was  about  to 
celebrate.  Next  morning,  as  the  guest  was 
leaving  the  town,  the  prophet  took  a  vial  of 
oil,  poured  it  upon  his  head,  and  having 
kissed  him,  said,  "  Is  it  not  that  the  Lord 
hath  anointed  thee  to  be  prince  over  his  in- 
heritance?" and  charged  him  not  to  disclose 
the  secret,  to  go  to  Gilgal  at  the  proper  time 
and  tarry  there  seven  days,  until  he  himself 
should  come  and  ofier  sacrifice  and  give  in- 
struction (ix.  20-x.  16).  Samuel  soon  sum- 
moned the  people  to  Mizpah.  The  choice  was 
left  to  God.  The  lot  was  cast,  and  Saul  was 
chosen.  But  he  had  hidden  himself.  When 
he  was  brought  from  his  hiding  place  and  stood 
forth,  towering  above  the  multitude,  he  was 
received  with  enthusiasm.  God  had  selected 
a  man  of  fine  appearance  in  order  to  win  the 
admiration  and  confidence  of  all  the  Israel- 
ites, and  a  man  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin, 
which  stood  on  the  border  between  Ephraim 
and  Judah,  in  order  to  satisfy  both  north  and 
south.  Samuel  had  committed  the  choice  to 
God  iu  order  to  secure  the  allegiance  of  the 
godly  men  for  the  king.  A  large  company  of 
men,  obedient  to  God,  escorted  Saul  home ;  but 
certain  men  of  Belial  were  nevertheless  dissat- 
isfied, and  Saul  retired  to  private  life  until 
private  jealousies  should  be  overcome.  He 
devoted  himself  to  the  cultivation  of  his 
father's  fields.  A  month  later  (x.  27,  R.  V. 
margin)  the  town  of  Jabesh  in  Gilead  was 
straitly  besieged  by  the  Ammonites.  At  the 
request  of  the  citizens,  the  besiegers  scorn- 
fully granted  a  truce  of  seven  days  in  order 
that  the  townspeople  might  invoke  the  aid 


of  their  fellow-countrymen.  The  messen- 
gers, or  some  of  them,  came  to  Gibeah  with 
their  mournful  story.  Saul  heard  it  when 
he  returned  from  the  field.  The  Spii'it  of 
God  stirred  him.  He  sent  summons  to  the 
tribes  to  follow  him  and  Samuel  to  the  rescue 
of  their  imperiled  brethren.  Jabesh  was  re- 
lieved. The  people  asked  where  were  they 
who  had  refused  to  recognize  Saul  as  king, 
and  they  carried  Saul  to  Gilgal,  the  nearest 
place  of  customary  sacrifice,  where  he  was 
inducted  into  office  and  Samuel  laid  down 
his  judgeship  (xi.  1-xii.  25);  see  Samuel, 
Books  of. 

The  reign  of  Satd.  The  age  of  Saul 
when  he  began  to  reign  is  unknown,  as  the 
Hebrew  text  of  1  Sam.  xiii.  1  is  defective, 
the  numeral  being  omitted.  The  number 
thirty  is  derived  from  the  Septuagint.  He 
was  at  any  rate  old  enough  to  have  a  sou 
capable  of  holding  a  military  command.  Saul 
established  a  small  standing  army  of  3000 
men  ;  2000  of  these  were  with  him  at  Mich- 
mash  and  Bethel,  and  1000  were  stationed 
with  Jonathan  at  Gibeah  (xiii.  2).  Jonathan 
smote  a  Philistine  garrison,  or  rather  deputy, 
at  Geba  (3) ;  see  Garrison.  The  Philistines 
heard  thereof,  and  held  the  Israelites  in 
abomination.  The  Israelites,  learning  of 
their  danger,  responded  to  Saul's  summons  to 
assemble  at  Gilgal  (3,  4),  whither  Samuel  had 
promised  to  come  in  this  emergency  and  en- 
treat the  favor  of  the  Lord  (8,  11,^12;  x.  8). 
A  Philistine  army  advanced  into  tlie  land  of 
Israel  and  pitched  at  Michmash.  Great  fear 
seized  the  Israelites,  Samuel  intentionally 
delayed  to  appear,  the  people  began  to  scatter 
and  leave  the  king,  and  a  descent  of  the 
PhilLstiues  upon  Saul  and  his  decreasing 
forces  seemed  imminent  (xiii.  8,  11,  12)  ;  and 
therefore  Saul  presumed  to  conduct  the  sac- 
rifice. But  Samuel  came,  rebuked  the  king 
for  transgressing  God's  command  (x.  8),  and 
declared  that  Saul  on  account  of  his  disobedi- 
ence should  not  found  a  dynasty  (xiii.  9-14). 
Samuel  went  up  to  Saul's  town  of  Gibeah, 
where  he  would  be  near  the  king.  Saul  and 
Jonathan  took  post  at  Geba  of  Benjamin, 
while  the  Philistines  lay  encamped  at  Mich- 
mash. By  a  feat  of  valor,  Jonathan  started 
a  panic  in  the  garrison  of  the  Philistines, 
which  spread  to  their  camp  and  to  their 
prowling  bands.  Saul  took  advantage  of  it, 
and  .secured  a  victory  (xiii.  15-xiv.  46). 
Afterwards  Samuel  directed  Saul  to  wage 
a  war  of  extermination  against  the  Amalek- 
ites.  Saul  undertook  the  war,  but  he  spared 
the  best  of  the  cattle  to  sacrifice  to  the  Lord 
at  Gilgal.  and  also  saved  their  king.  For 
this  second  act  of  disobedience,  by  which  he 
showed  that  he  could  not  be  trusted  to  act  as 
God's  instrument,  but  desired  to  assert  his 
own  will  in  God's  kingdom,  he  was  rejected 
from  l)eing  king  (xv.  1-3.5) ;  see  Samuel, 
Books  of.  Samuel,  therefore,  was  sent  to 
Bethlehem  to  anoint  David  king  (xvi.  1-13). 
The  Spirit  of  the  Lord  now  departed  from 


Saul 


651 


Saviour 


Sun!,  aud  he  begau  to  be  trou})led  by  au  evil 
spirit.  A  harper  was  required  to  charm  away 
his  melancholy  madness,  aud  David  was  se- 
lected to  discharge  the  duty  (14-23).  The 
plaudits  with  which  the  youthful  son  of  Jesse 
was  welcomed  on  returning  from  his  great 
victory  over  Goliath  so  excited  Saul's  jeal- 
ousy that  before  long  the  hero  was  a  fugitive, 
pursued  with  relentless  fury  by  the  now  vin- 
dictive monarch  (xvii.-xxx.)  ;  see  David. 
At  last  the  end  came.  The  Philistines,  in- 
vading the  Israelite  territory,  pitched  in 
Shunem,  near  the  valley  of  Jezreel.  Saul, 
following  to  give  them  battle,  established  his 
headquarters  on  the  slope  of  mount  Gilboa. 
Sad  forebodings  of  his  fate  troubling  him,  he 
made  a  night  journey  quite  close  to  the  Phi- 
listine camp,  to  En-dor,  where  lived  a  woman 
who  was  reputed  to  have  the  power  of  calling 
up  even  the  dead,  and  he  was  there  informed 
that  he  aud  his  sons  should  perish  on  the 
morrow  (xxviii.  1-25).  The  morrow  came, 
and  the  battle  began.  The  Philistine  archers 
did  great  execution  in  the  Israelite  ranks. 
They  slew  three  of  Saul's  sons,  including  the 
eldest,  the  unselfish  aud  heroic  Jonathan. 
They  seriously  wounded  Saul  himself,  on 
which  he  called  to  his  armor-bearer  to  thrust 
him  through.  The  young  man  declined  the 
responsibility,  whereupon  the  erring  monarch 
fell  upon  his  sword,  and  died.  The  victori- 
ous Philistines,  finding  his  corpse,  severed 
the  head  from  the  body,  aud  affixed  the  lat- 
ter, with  the  bodies  of  his  sons,  to  the  wall 
of  Beth-shean,  whilst  they  sent  his  armor  as 
a  trophy  to  be  kept  in  the  temple  of  Ashtaroth. 
The  men  of  Jabesli-gilead,  whom  Saul  had 
saved  in  the  early  part  of  his  reign,  feeling 
gratitude  for  their  deliverance,  crossed  the 
Jordan  by  night  to  Beth-shean,  took  down 
the  bodies,  and  gave  them  honorable  inter- 
ment, while  David  mourned  the  fate  of  the 
Lord's  anointed  and  the  beloved  Jonathan 
in  plaintive  poetry  (xxxi.  ;  2  Sam.  i.).  The 
length  of  Saul's  reign  is  not  stated  in  the  O.  T., 
but  both  Paul  and  Josephus  are  able  to  assign 
it  forty  years  (Acts  xiii.  21 ;  Antiq.  vi.  14,  9). 
Saul  and  the  ivomun  of  En-dor.  The  old 
man  covered  with  a  robe,  who  figures  in  the 
interview  between  the  woman  of  En-dor  and 
Saul  (1  Sam.  xxviii.  3-19),  has  been  explained 
in  three  different  ways.  He  was  the  woman's 
accomplice,  and  when  he  appeared  she  uttered 
a  loud  cry,  and  she  pronounced  the  man  who 
had  come  to  seek  her  aid  to  be  Saul.  The 
loud  cry  was  her  customary  trick.  She  knew 
that  the  king  was  in  the  neighborhood,  and 
she  had  at  once  detected  that  her  visitor  was 
he,  in  his  tall  stature,  in  his  bearing,  in  bis 
woi-ds,  and  in  the  manner  of  his  attendants. 
Or  else  the  apjiearance  was  a  spirit,  quite  un- 
expected by  her,  at  which  she  uttered  a 
loud  cry,  because  she  was  really  startled.  If 
an  unexpected  appearance,  it  was  either  the 
devil,  as  Luther  and  Calvin  believed,  and  as 
those  understand  who  think  that  certain  phe- 
nomena of  ancient  sorcery  and  modern  spir- 


itualism are  due  to  Satanic  agency  (sec  Devil 
and  Demoniac),  or  else  Samuel,  reappearing 
as  did  Moses  aud  Elijah  on  the  mount  of 
Transfiguration  (1  Chron.  x.  13,  Septuagint ; 
Ecclus.  xlvi.  20),  and  so  most  of  the  evangel- 
ical interpreters  since  the  Eeformation.  The 
basis  for  the  opinion  that  Samuel  appeared  is 
that  the  narrator  refers  to  the  person  as 
though  he  is  Samuel  (1  Sam.  xxviii.  14, 
1.5,  It),  20),  and  that  the  words  .spoken  by 
him  were  fulfilled.  The  biblical  recorder 
simply  describes  what  occurred.  It  is  to 
be  noted  that  the  woman  was  a  law- 
breaker, and  was  also  condemned  by  the 
religion  of  Jehovah.  Moreover,  she  alone 
saw  the  apparition,  and  she  described  the 
apj)earance  in  most  vague  terms — an  old 
man  rising  from  the  earth  aud  covered  with 
a  robe.  This  description  would  apply  to  any 
aged  person,  but  Saul  concluded  that  Samuel 
had  really  appeared.  The  words  which  were 
uttered  by  the  robed  figure  boldly  forecast 
the  future  as  a  fortune  teller  does  or  else 
predicted  it  with  full  knowledge.  The  words 
came  true,  but  tliey  were  in  part  fulfilled  by 
Saul's  own  deliberate  act.  If  Samuel  him- 
self appeared,  then  this  is  the  sole  instance 
recorded  in  Scripture  where  the  spirit  of  a 
departed  saint  has  returned  to  earth  and 
conversed  with  men,  since  the  case  of  Moses 
and  Elijah  in  converse  with  the  transfigured 
Christ  is  not  analogous.  Moreover,  it  would 
be  strange,  indeed,  if,  after  God  had  refused  to 
answer  Saul,  either  by  dreams  or  by  prophets, 
his  servant  Samuel  should  appear,  and  espe- 
cially if  be  should  appear  at  an  interview 
strictly  forbidden  by  God,  and  at  the  behest 
of  a  woman  who  was  condemned  alike  by 
the  law  of  the  land  and  by  the  law  of  God 
(Ex.  xxii.  18;  Lev.  xx.  27;  Deut.  xviii.  10- 
14;  1  Sam.  xxviii.  3,  9;  1  Chron.  x.  13). 

3.  The  original  name  of  the  apostle  Paul 
(Acts  vii.  58 ;  xiii.  9). 

Sav'iour. 

One  who  saves  from  any  evil  or  danger 
(2  Kin.  xiii.  5;  Neh.  ix.  27).  In  the  O.  T.  it 
is  specially  used  of  God,  Jehovah,  viewed  as  the 
deliverer  of  his  chosen  people  Israel  (2  Sam. 
xxii.  3  ;  Ps.  cvi.  21 ;  Is.  xliii.  3,  11 ;  xlv.  15, 
21 ;  xlix.  26  ;  Ixiii.  8;  Jer.  xiv.  8  ;  Hos.  xiii.  4). 
The  Greek  word  soter,  preserver,  deliverer 
(Herod,  vii.  139),  is  used  by  the  classical 
writers  specially  of  their  gods,  though  some- 
times a  king  assumed  the  title,  as  did  Ptolemy 
Soter  and  Demetrius  I.  In  the  N.  T.  it  is  used 
of  God  the  Father  (1  Tim.  i.  1  ;  iv.  10;  Titus 
i.  3;  iii.  4;  Jude  25),  but  especially  of  Jesus 
Christ  the  Son,  who  saves  his  people  from  their 
sins  (Mat.  i.  21),  delivering  them  out  of  their 
sinful  condition  and  misery,  from  guilt,  the 
wrath  of  God,  the  power  of  sin  and  the  do- 
minion of  Satan,  aud  bringing  them  into  a 
state  of  salvation  in  blessed  communion  with 
God  (Luke  xix.  10 ;  Acts  v.  31 ;  Rom.  v.  8- 
11 ;  Phil.  iii.  20,  21 ;  1  Tim.  i.  15;  2  Tim.  i. 
10 ;  Tit.  ii.  13,  14  ;  Heb.  vii.  25). 


Saw 


652 


School 


Saw. 

A  toothed  tool  for  cutting  wood  and  for 
shaping  stone  (1  Kin.  vii.  9  ;  Is.  x.  15).  Vic- 
tims of  persecuting  rage  were  sometimes 
sawn  asunder  (Heb.  xi.  37).  If  David  cut 
the  Ammonites  of  Kabbah,  and  other  towns 
which  fell  into  his  hands,  witli  saws,  harrows, 
and  axes  (2  Sam.  xii.  .'51  ;  1  C'hron.  xx.  3),  it 
was  an  act  of  exceptional  severity  on  his 
part,  and  foreign  to  all  else  that  is  known  of 
his  character.  A  change  of  resh  to  niem  in 
the  verb  used  in  Chronicles,  and  of  resh  to 
daleth  in  the  verb  in  Samuel,  would  make 
the  record  state  that  David  exacted  labor 
from  the  captives  (2  Sam.  xii.  31,  R.  V. 
margin). 

The  saws  used  by  the  ancient  Egyptians 
had,  so  far  as  known,  but  one  handle.  The 
blade  was  usually  of  bronze,  let  into  the 
handle  or  bound  to  it  by  thongs.  The  teeth 
commonly  inclined  toward  the  handle.  The 
wood  was  placed  perpendicularly  in  a  frame, 
and  was  sawn  downward.  The  Assyrians 
used  a  double-handled  saw  also,  with  a  blade 
of  iron. 

Scape'goat.     See  Azazel. 

Scarlet. 

A  bright,  rich  crimson,  not  the  hue  of  re- 
cent origin  known  as  scarlet.  The  coloring 
matter  was  obtained  by  the  Israelites  from 
an  insect  {Coccus  ilicis),  called  kennez  by  the 
Arabs,  whence  the  English  word  crimson  is 
derived.  The  insect  abounds  in  Palestine  on 
the  holm  oak  {Quercus  coccifera).  The  fe- 
male alone  yields  the  coloring  matter.  She 
attains  the  form  and  size  of  an  ordinary  pea, 
is  violet-black  in  color,  covered  with  a  whit- 
ish powder,  and  wingless.  Filled  with  eggs 
containing  red  matter,  she  adheres  to  the 
leaves  and  twigs  of  the  oak,  and  feeds  on  its 
juices.  From  the  resemblance  of  the  insect 
to  a  berry,  the  Greeks  called  it  kokkon,  berry. 
It  is  related  to  the  cochineal  insect  of  Mexico 
(Coccus  cacti) ;  but  it  yields  a  much  less 
valuable  dye,  and  has  been  supplanted  com- 
mercially by  its  Mexican  congener.  The 
color  was  called  by  the  H(>br(!\vs  shani,  bright- 
ness, crimson,  sh'ni  tola'dth,  hriglitncss  of  the 
worm,  worm  crimson,  tolti'uth  sltuni,  worm  of 
briglitness,  crimson  worm,  fola\  worm,  and 
in  Greek  kokkinos,  pertaining  to  the  coccus. 

The  color  and  the  method  of  obtaining  it 
were  early  known  (Gen.  xxxviii.  28).  It 
was  much  used  in  the  hangings  of  the  taber- 
nacle and  in  the  high  priest's  vestments.  It 
was  employed  in  the  ceremony  attending  the 
purification  of  the  leper,  arid  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  water  of  separation  (Lev.  xiv.  4 ; 
Num.  xix.  6;  Heb.  ix.  19). 

Scep'ter. 

A  rod  held  in  the  hands  of  kings  as  a  token 
of  authority  (Ps.  xlv.  6;  Amos  i.  5;  Wisd. 
X.  14;  Heb.  i.  8;  War  i.  33,  9).  It  has  been 
used  from  time  immemorial.  The  statF  was 
not,  however,  a  symbol  of  royal  sovereignty 
exclusively.      It  might  be  carried  by  any 


leader  ( Judg.  v.  14,  E.  V.  ;  Baruch  vi.  14) ; 
among  the  Greeks  l)y  kings,  judges,  heralds, 
and  speakers  given  the  floor  by  the  herald 
(Iliad  i.  238;  ii.  100;  vii.  277;  xxiii.  5«J8). 
Nor  is  tlie  Hebrew  name  shebet  a  si)ecific 
term,  but  it  denotes  any  rod,  such  as  the 
walking  .stick,  which  was  often  carried  as  a 
mark  of  dignity  (Gen.  xxxviii.  18),  the  shep- 
herd's staff  (Lev.  xxvii.  32;  Ps.  xxiii.  4; 
Mic.  vii.  14),  or  the  rod  used  in  threshing 
cummin  (Is.  xxviii.  27).  The  royal  scepter 
was  doubtless  often  of  wood.  The  scej^ter 
of  Ahasuerus  was  made  of  gold  (Esth.  iv.  11), 
and  so  too  was  the  famed  scepter  of  Aga- 
memnon (Iliad  ii.  100).  A  reed  was  placed  in 
Christ's  hand  when  he  was  mocked  as  king 
(Mat.  xxvii.  29). 

Sce'va. 

A  member  of  one  of  the  Jewish  families 
from  which  the  high  priests  were  ordinarily 
chosen.  His  seven  sous  were  exorcists  (Acts 
xix.  M). 

School. 

There  were  no  schools  for  children  in 
ancient  Israel.  But  instruction  was  not 
lacking.  Parents  gave  their  children  re- 
ligious instruction  (Gen.  xviii.  19 ;  Deut.  vi. 
7;  Susanna  3;  2  Tim.  iii.  l.")).  Tlie  older 
people  had  opportunity  for  obtaining  further 
knowledge  from  the  priests  and  Levites,  who 
could  be  found  at  the  sanctuary  and  in  the 
towns  assigned  to  them  throughout  the  land, 
and  who  occasionally  itinerated  for  the  pur- 
po.se  of  publicly  teaching  tlie  statutes  of  tlie 
law  (Lev.  x.  11 ;  2  Chron.  xvii.  7-10  ;  Hag.  ii. 
11).  The  great  festivals  kept  alive  the 
knowledge  of  those  events  at  the  birth  of 
the  nation  which  obligated  the  Israelites  as 
a  people  to  serve  Jehovali,  their  redeemer  and 
bountiful  benefactor.  The  prophets  by  their 
public  preaching  spread  religious  knowledge 
and  quickened  religious  life.  Business  nego- 
tiations and  legal  processes  were  conducted 
in  the  open  street,  affording  constant  instruc- 
tion to  the  public  through  eye  and  ear. 
Reading  and  writing  were  perhaps  not  un- 
common among  the  young  (Judg.  viii.  14  ;  Is. 
X.  19).  Men,  married  and  unmarried,  who 
desired  instruction  in  religion  and  training 
for  religious  work,  gatliered  in  some  com- 
munity about  a  prophet  and  were  taught  by 
him  (2  Kin.  iv.  1 ;  vi.  1,  2).  They  were 
called  sons  of  the  prophets.  They  should  be 
distinguished  from  the  prophets  who  came 
together  to  be  under  the  direction  of  Samuel 
in  their  religious  work  and  took  up  their 
residence  in  a  quarter  of  his  town  of  Ramah 
(1  Sam.  xix.  18-20).  In  the  time  of  Elijah 
and  Elisha  they  were  found  in  Bethel,  Jeri- 
cho, and  Gilgal  (2  Kin.  ii.  3,  5;  iv.  38).  In 
the  Greco-Roman  period  the  education  of 
the  young  was  carefully  attended  to  (con. 
Apion.  i.  12;  ii.  19).  Slaves  and  others  were 
employed  as  tutors  by  the  wealthy  (.\ntiq. 
xvi.  8,  3).  The  scribes  also  imparted  instruc- 
tion.    The  subject  which  they  discussed  was 


Schoolmaster 


653 


Scourge 


the  law.  Chambers  connected  with  the  outer 
court  of  the  temjile,  and  outside  of  Jerusa- 
lem a  room  in  the  synagogue,  were  used  as 
lecture  rooms  (Luke  ii.  46).  The  instruction 
was  nominally  free,  but  it  is  said  that  in  the 
time  of  ilerod  the  Great  the  porter  collected 
entrance  money.  Not  only  was  instruction 
imparted  directly  to  the  pupils  in  these 
schools,  but  learned  men  held  public  dis- 
putations with  each  other  there  in  the  pi'es- 
euce  of  the  scholars. 

School'mas-ter. 

The  rendering  in  Gal.  iii.  24,  25,  A.  V.,  of 
the  Greek  Faidagugus,  one  who  leads  a  boy,  a 
pedagogue.  It  is  translated  tutor  in  the 
E.  V.  of  this  passage  and  1  Cor.  iv.  15.  The 
piddagogos,  or  pedagogue,  in  a  Greek  house- 
hold was  a  trusted  slave,  to  whose  care  the 
children  were  committed  (Life  76  ;  Herod, 
viii.  75).  He  always  accompanied  them 
when  they  were  out  of  doors.  He  was  re- 
sponsible for  their  personal  safety,  guarded 
them  from  physical  evil  and  bad  company, 
and  led  them  to  and  from  school.  The 
law  as  a  pedagogue  led  us  to  Christ.  It 
prepared  us  to  receive  him  as  our  Redeemer.  It 
displayed  the  justice  of  God  and  convinced 
us  that  we  were  unrighteous ;  its  threaten- 
iugs  pressed  us  to  seek  refuge  from  the  wrath 
and  curse  of  God  ;  it  made  apparent  the  in- 
ability of  man  to  obtain  salvation  by  the 
Avorks  of  the  law  ;  it  exhibited  the  plan  of 
salvation  in  types  and  cereinonies  and  ex- 
cited to  faith  in  the  coming  Redeemer  (Gal. 
iii.  24;  Eom.  iii.  19-21 ;  iv.  15;  vii.  7-25). 

Sci'ence. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Madda'  and 
the  Greek  Gnosis  in  Dan.  i.  4  and  A.  V.  of  1 
Tim.  vi.  20.  The  word  is  not  used  in  its 
modern  sense.  It  does  not  denote  knowledge 
gained  by  observation  of  phenomena  and 
systematized.  The  Hebrew  and  Greek  words 
mean  simply  knowledge.  The  false  knowl- 
edge spoken  of  by  Paul  is  the  teaching  of 
Judaizing  and  mystic  sects  in  the  apostolic 
age,  which  they  boastfully  claimed  to  be 
certain  (cp.  Col.  ii.  8),  against  which  Paul 
urgently  warns  men  (1  Cor.  viii.  1,  7),  and 
which  counterfeits  the  true  knowledge  which 
he  praised  and  in  which  he  desired  Chris- 
tians to  grow  (xii.  8 ;  xiii.  2 ;  Phil.  i.  9). 

Scor'pi-on. 

A  small  animal  with  a  tail  armed  with  a 
sting  which  inflicts  great  pain  (Eev.  ix.  5, 
10).  It  was  called  'akrah  by  the  Hebrews, 
and  slorpios  by  the  Greeks.  It  abounds  in 
Palestine,  and  is  common  in  the  wilderness 
south  of  Judah  (Deut.  viii.  15) ;  see  Akrabbim. 
Eehoboam  threatened  to  chastise  his  sub- 
jects, not  with  whips,  but  with  scorpions  (1 
Kin.  xii.  11 :  2  Chron.  x.  14),  which  many 
interpreters  think  mean  whips  armed  with 
sharp  points  to  make  the  lash  more  severe. 
The  scorpion  is  a  small  invertebrate  animal  of 
the  order  Arachnida.  It  is  closely  akin  to  the 
higher  spiders,  having,  like  them,  eight  legs ; 


but  it  differs  in   shape,  and  in  having  the 
poison  bag  not  in  proximity  to  the  jaws,  but  at 


Scorpion. 

the  extremity  of  the  tail.  It  has  a  pair  of  nip- 
pers like  the  lobster.  The  tail  is  long  and 
jointed,  and  capable  of  being  curled  up  over 
the  back.  The  last  joint  is  swollen,  contains 
the  venom  gland,  and  is  armed  with  a  per- 
forated sting  by  means  of  which  the  poison 
is  discharged.  The  scorpion  feeds  princi- 
pally on  beetles  and  locusts,  which  it  seizes 
with  its  nippers  and  stings  to  death.  Some 
eight  or  more  species  exist  in  Palestine.  The 
largest  is  about  eight  inches  long,  and  black. 

Scourge  and  Scourg'ing. 

Scourging  is  severe  punishment  or  torture 
by  lashing.  It  was  not  imposed  as  a  penalty 
by  the  Mosaic  law,  not  even  according  to 
Lev.  xix.  20  (see  E.  V.  against  A.  V.).  The 
law  authorized  beating,  when  the  culprit  lay 
down  and  was  smitten  on  the  back  (Deut. 
XXV.  2,  3)  ;  but  this  was  not  scourging,  and 
is  distinguished  from  scourging  (2  Cor.  xi.  24, 


Roman  Scourges. 

25).  Scourging  is  perhaps  alluded  to  by  Ee- 
hoboam as  a  known  punishment  (1  Kin.  xii. 
11,  14),  and  it  was  employed  by  Antiochus 
Epiphanes  to  drive  the  Jews  by  its  tortures 


Screech  Owl 


654 


Scripture 


to  eat  swine's  flesh  (2  Mac.  vi.  30;  vii.  1). 
As  a  legal  penalty  it  was  recognized  by  the 
later  Jewish  law,  which  prescribed  beating 
or  scourging  for  ecclesiastical  ofl'enses  ;  such 
as  transgression  of  ceremonial  ordinances  for 
which  the  Mosaic  law  did  not  specify  the 
punishment,  disobedience  of  the  orders  of 
the  sanhedrin,  and  heresy.  Eods  were  used 
for  beating  (2  Cor.  xi.  25) ;  and  for  scourging 
a  whip  was  employed,  which  consisted  of 
three  thongs,  one  of  ox  hide  and  two  of  ass's 
hide.  The  number  of  stripes  ranged  from  a 
few  blows  up  to  thirty-nine,  this  limit  being 
set  in  order  to  avoid  all  danger  of  exceeding 
the  forty  blows  allowed  by  the  Mosaic  law 
in  corporal  punishment  (Deut.  xxv.  2,  3). 
When  the  punishment  was  inflicted  in  the 
synagogue  (Mat.  x.  17 ;  xxiii.  34),  it  was  ad- 
ministered by  the  hazzan  or  attendant;  but 
culprits  were  also  beaten  before  the  san- 
hedrin (Acts  V.  40). 

The  Romans  used  a  scourge  of  cords  or 
thongs,  made  more  iiainful  by  various  ex- 
pedients which  cruelty  suggested.  Pieces  of 
lead  or  brass,  or  small,  sharp-pointed  bones, 
were  attached  to  the  lashes.  The  Romans 
employed  scourging  as  a  punishment  or  as 
torture  to  extract  confession  or  testimony. 
After  the  Porcian  law  of  248  b.  c.  and  the 
Sempronian  law  of  123  B.  c,  Roman  citizens 
were  exempted  from  scourging  (Livy  x.  9) ; 
but  free  persons  not  Roman  citizens  might  be 
beaten,  and  slaves  ^^courged,  and  lawless  gov- 
ernors did  not  scruple  to  scourge  free  pro- 
vincials and  Roman  citizens  (War  ii.  14,  9  ; 
Tacitus,  Hist.  iv.  27).  Criminals  condemned 
to  crucifixion  were  ordinarily  scourged  be- 
fore being  executed  (Livy  xxxiii.  36) ;  so 
Jesus,  and  many  of  the  Jews  before  the 
revolt  and  after  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  by 
the  Romans  (Mat.  xxvii.  26;  Warii.  14,  9;  v. 
11, 1).  The  victim  was  stripped  to  the  waist, 
and  bound  in  a  stooping  position,  with  the 
hands  behind  the  back,  to  a  jjost  or  pillar. 
The  sutfering  under  the  lash  was  intense. 
The  body  was  frightfully  lacerated.  The 
Christian  martyrs  at  Smyrna  about  A.  D.  155 
were  so  torn  with  the  scourges  that  their 
veins  were  laid  bare,  and  the  inner  muscles 
and  sinews,  and  even  the  bowels,  were  ex- 
posed (Eusebius,  Hist.  iv.  15). 

Screech  Owl. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Lilith,  a 
nocturnal  being  (Is.  xxxiv.  14 ;  in  R.  V. 
night  monster).  It  frequents  the  ruins 
of  cities.  Tristram  believes  it  to  be  the 
tawny  owl  {Syniium  ahico),  which  is  found 
in  Gilead,  Baslian,  Lebanon,  and  the  valley 
of  the  Jordan,  breaking  in  on  the  stillness 
of  night  with  its  hooting.  See  NiGHT  Mon- 
ster and  S.\TYR. 

Scribe. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  f^opher,  Ara- 
maic l^npher. 

1.  A  secretary,  a  government  or  other  clerk 
(2  Kin.  xii.  10;  Ezra  iv.  8).     Levites  were 


employed  as  scribes  for  the  business  of  repair- 
ing the  temple  (2  Chron.  xxxiv.  13). 

2.  A  copier  of  the  law  and  other  parts  of 
the  Scriptures  (Jer.  viii.  8).  The  most  noted 
of  these  earlier  scribes  was  the  priest  Ezra,  who 
was  a  ready  scribe  in  the  law  of  Moses,  and 
had  set  his  heart  to  seek  the  law  of  the  Lord 
and  to  do  it,  and  to  teach  in  Israel  statutes  and 
judgments  (Ezra  vii.  6,  10).  In  this  latter 
respect  he  is  the  prototype  of  the  scribes  of 
later  times,  who  were  professional  interpre- 
ters of  the  law.  In  the  N.  T.  they  are  called 
ffr  am  mate  is,  or  more  exactly  Jtowifcof,  rendered 
lawyers,  and  rioiiiodiddskdloi,  teachers  of  the 
law.  They  devoted  themselves :  1.  To  the 
study  and  interpretation  of  the  law,  which 
it  will  be  remembered  was  both  civil  and  re- 
ligious; and  to  determining  its  application  to 
the  details  of  daily  life.  The  decisions  of  the 
great  scribes  became  the  oral  law  or  tradition. 

2.  To  the  study  of  the  Scriptures  generally 
in  regard  to  historical  and  doctrinal  matters. 

3.  To  teaching,  each  noted  scribe  having  a 
company  of  disciples  about  him  ;  see  School. 
The  profession  of  scribe  received  a  great  im- 
pulse after  the  return  of  the  Jews  from  ex- 
ile, when  prophecy  had  ceased  and  it  only 
remained  to  study  the  completed  Scriptures 
and  make  them  the  basis  of  the  national  life. 
The  scribes  were  becoming  numerous  in  the 
Maccab?ean  period  (1  Mac.  vii.  12),  and  at  the 
time  of  Christ  had  attained  paramount  influ- 
ence among  the  people.  The  sanhedrin 
counted  many  of  them  among  its  members 
(Mat.  xvi.  21;  xxvi.  3).  Though  there  were 
candid  men  among  them  who  believed  in 
Christ's  teaching  (viii.  19),  yet  the  mass 
of  them  were  hopelessly  prejudiced  against 
him.  They  murmured  at  or  found  fault  with 
much  that  he  and  his  disciples  said  or  did 
(xxi.  15),  and  they  had  a  large  share  in  the 
responsibility  for  his  death.  They  were  also 
associated  with  the  rulers  and  elders  in  the 
persecution  of  Peter  and  John  (Acts  iv.  5, 
etc.),  and  in  that  which  led  to  the  martyr- 
dom of  Stephen  (vi.  12)  ;  but  the  section  of 
them  which  agreed  with  the  Pharisees  in 
opinion  took  Paul's  part  with  respect  to  the 
resurrection  (xxiii.  9). 

Scrip. 

A  bag  or  wallet  for  carrying  provisions  or 
articles  required  on  a  journey  (Mat.  x.  10.  in 
R.  V.  wallet).  The  scrip  of  modern  Palestine 
is  the  skin  of  a  kid  stripped  ofi"  whole  from 
the  carcass  and  tanned,  and  slung  from  the 
shoulder  by  straps.  Every  shepherd  and 
farmer  has  such  an  article.  David  had  one 
in  which  he  put  the  five  stones  from  the 
brook  with  which  he  armed  himself  for  the 
encounter  with  Goliath  (1  Sam.  xvii.  40). 

Scrip'ture. 

A  writing,  a  narnvtive  or  other  matter 
committed  to  writing  (Dan.  x.  21.  in  R.  V. 
writing)  ;  especially  the  sacred  writings  of 
the  Hebrews,  viewed  either  collectively  or 
individually,  or  even  a  single  passage  or  quo- 


I 


Scythian 


655 


Seba 


tation  from  them,  as  in  Mark  xii.  10;  xv.  28 ; 
Luke  iv.  21  ;  Jcihn  xix.  37.  Wheu  this  col- 
lection of  sjicreil  documents  is  thought  of  as 
forming  one  hook,  the  word  is  singular,  the 
Scripture  (Johu  vii.  42  ;  x.  35  ;  xvii.  12  ;  xix. 
28  ;  (ial.  iii.  22).  More  frequently  the  many 
documents  from  diti'erent  authors  which  con- 
stitute the  O.  T.  are  in  mind  and  the  plural 
is  used,  the  Scriptures  (Mat.  xxi.  42  ;  Luke 
xxiv.  27  :  John  v.  39  ;  Eom.  i.  2).  The  epis- 
tles of  Paul  at  once  took  their  place  with  the 
other  Scriptures  as  authoritative  (2  Pet.  iii. 
16).    See  Caxon,  Inspiration. 

Scjrth'i-an. 

A  native  of  Scythia.  This  name  was  ap- 
plied originally  to  the  region  immediately 
north  of  the  Black  Sea,  aud  east  of  the  Car- 
pathian mountains.  Wheu  the  conquests  of 
Alexander  the  Great  revealed  the  existence 
of  men  in  Asia  like  the  European  Scythians 
in  race,  an  Asiatic  Scythia  began  to  be  recog- 
nized ;  and  finally,  all  northeastern  Europe 
and  central  and  northern  Asia  were  supposed 
to  be  traversed  by  the  nomad  Scythian  race. 
They  were  far  behind  in  civilization  ;  so  that 
at  last  the  name  Scythian  was  used  as  M'e 
now  use  Tartar,  or  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
used  the  term  Barbarian  (2  Mac.  iv.  47 ;  Col. 
iii.  11) ;  see  Beth-shean. 

Sea. 

1.  The  ocean  or  general  gathering  of  the 
waters,  as  distinguished  from  the  dry  land 
of  the  globe  (Gen.  i.  10  ;  Ps.  viii.  8  ;  Eev.  vii. 
1-3;  xxi.  1). 

2.  A  more  or  less  detached  portion  of  that 
ocean  (Gen.  xlix.  13  ;  Acts  x.  6),  or  a  large 
inland  lake  of  fresh  or  salt  water  (Num. 
xxxiv.  11,  12;  Mat.  iv.  18).  The  chief  seas 
with  which  the  Israelites  had  to  do  were  the 
Mediterranean,  the  Eed  Sea,  the  Dead  Sea, 
and  the  sea  of  Galilee.  The  Mediterranean 
was  referred  to  as  the  sea,  or  was  called  the 
great  sea,  the  sea  of  the  Philistines,  the 
hinder  or  western  sea,  in  A.  V.  the  utmost 
and  uttermost  sea ;  see  Mediterranean 
Sea.  The  Dead  Sea  was  variously  known  as 
the  Salt  Sea,  the  eastern  sea,  sea  of  the 
Arabah  or  the  plain,  and  according  to  A.  Y. 
of  Zech.  xiv.  8,  the  former  sea  ;  see  Dead 
Sea.  The  sea  of  Galilee  was  also  named  the 
sea  of  Chinnereth,  lake  of  Gennesaret,  and 
sea  of  Tiberias ;  see  Galilee,  Sea  of. 

3.  A  large  river  with  its  network  of 
branches,  channels,  and  irrigating  canals,  as 
the  Euphrates  (Jer.  li.  36,  42)  and  the  Nile 
(Nah.  iii.  8). 

4.  The  large  basin  in  Solomon's  temple 
where  the  priests  washed  their  hands  and 
feet  preparatory  to  ministering  in  the  sanc- 
tuary or  at  the  altar  (1  Kin.  vii.  39) ;  see 
Molten  Sea. 

Sea  Mew. 

The  rendering  in  E.  V.  of  Lev.  xi.  16  and 
Deut.  xiv.  15  of  the  Hebrew  noun  f^hahaph,  a 
bird  ceremonially  unclean.  The  A.  V.  makes 
it  the  cuckoo.     The  Septuagint  and  Vulgate 


regard  it  as  a  sea  mew  or  gull.  Sea  mew  is 
an  indefinite  term,  broad  enough  to  include 
gulls,  terns,  and  petrels,  all  of  which  abound 
on  the  shore  and  lakes  of  Palestine.  If  any 
single  species  is  meant,  perhaps  it  is  the 
Sterna  Jluviaiilis,  the  common  tern,  or  sea 
swallow.  This  bird  looks  lean,  which  the 
name  shaliaph  may  denote ;  and  it  might 
be  included  under  the  designation  sea  mew, 
for  the  Ster)iinx,  or  terns,  are  a  sub-family 
of  the  Laridse,  or  gulls.  It  is  plentiful  along 
the  shores  of  Palestine. 

Sea  Mon'ster. 

Any  great  fish  of  the  sea  (Gen.  i.  21 ;  Job 
vii.  12  ;  in  A.  V.  whale).  It  is  the  rendering 
of  the  Hebrew  Tannin.  See  Dragon.  In 
Lam.  iv.  3,  the  Hebrew  tannin,  although  it 
is  singular  number,  stands  in  the  Hebrew 
before  a  plural  verb.  It  is  doubtless  a  copy- 
ist's error  for  tannim,  jackals.  This  reading 
is  adopted  by  the  E.  V. 

Seal. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Tahash  in 
E.  v.,  with  porpoise  on  the  margin  (Ex. 
xxvi.  14 ;  XXXV.  7  ;  Num.  iv.  25 ;  Ezek.  xvi. 
10)  ;  in  A.  V.  badger.  Its  skin  was  used  for 
the  outer  covering  of  the  tabernacle  and  for 
sandals.  Tahash  corresponds  to  the  Arabic 
tuhas,  which  embraces  seals  and  specially 
denotes  the  dugong  {Halicore  hemprichii). 
The  latter  belongs  to  the  order  Sirenia.  of 
which  the  nearest  allies  are  mammals  of  the 
whale  order.  It  is  generally  ten  to  twelve 
feet  long,  with  a  round  head,  breasts  for 
suckling  its  young,  and  a  fish-like  tail.  The 
color  is  slaty  above  and  white  below.  It  is 
believed  to  be  one  of  the  animals,  if  not  in- 
deed the  animal,  which  gave  rise  to  the 
fabled  mermaid,  half  woman,  half  fish.  It 
is  common  among  the  coral  banks  of  the  Eed 
Sea,  whence  it  extends  as  far  as  the  coasts  of 
Australia. 

2.  A  signet  ring  or  cylinder,  engraven  with 
the  owner's  name  or  some  design,  or  both 
(Ex.  xxviii.  11 ;  Esth.  viii.  8).  It  was  worn 
on  the  finger,  if  a  ring,  or  was  strung  on 
a  cord  and  hung  around  the  neck  (Gen. 
xxxviii.  18,  E.  V. ;  Jer.  xxii.  24).  Men  affixed 
their  seal  as  signature  to  letters  or  other  docu- 
ments (1  Kin.  xxi.  8;  Neb.  ix.  .38;  Esth.  viii. 
8;  Jer.  xxxii.  10,  44;  John  iii.  33).  These 
were  usually  written  on  clay,  and  the  seal 
was  pressed  on  the  soft  material  and  left  its 
mark  (Job  xxxviii.  14).  Chests,  boxes,  tombs, 
or  anything  which  required  to  be  guarded 
from  being  opened,  were  sealed  with  the  signet 

,  of  the  person  who  had  authority  to  prohibit 
intrusion  (Job  xiv.  17;  xli.  15;  Dan.  vi.  17; 
Mat.  xxvii.  66;  Eev.  v.  1). 

Se'ba. 

A  Cushite  people  (Gen.  x.  7),  who  probably 
dwelt  originally  in  southern  Arabia.  Seba  is 
associated  with  Sheba  as  a  remote  .southern 
country  (Ps.  Ixxii.  10)  ;  and  with  Egypt  and 
Ethiopia  as  though  in  Africa,  whither  many 
Cushites    migrated    (Is.    xliii.   3;    xiv.    14). 


Sebam 


656 


Sela-hammahlekotli 


Josepbus  identifies  Seba  with  the  isle  of 
Meroii  (Antiq.  ii.  10,  2).  The  region  so  named 
is  situated  between  the  Nile  and  its  afHuent, 
the  Atbara.  It  is  about  400  miles  long  by 
200  broad.  But  this  district  is  not  called 
Seba  in  Egyptian  documents,  and  was  known 
to  the  Hebrews  as  Cusb.  Eather  then  is 
Seba  identical  with  the  neighboring  country 
on  the  Red  Sea,  possessing  the  harbor  Saba 
and  the  town  Sabai. 

Se'bam,  in  A.  V.  Shebam.    See  Sibmah. 

Se'bat.     See  Shkbat. 

Sec'a-cah  [hedge,  inclosure]. 

A  village  in  the  wilderness  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  61).  Conder  places  it  doubtfully  at  the 
ruin  called  Sikkeh  or  Dikkeh,  about  2  miles 
east  of  Bethany. 

Se'cu,  in  A.  V.  Sechu  [hill,  watchtower]. 

A  village  near  Samuel's  town  of  Eamah  (1 
Sam.  xix.  22),  probably  in  the  direction  of 
Gibeah  (9).  Conder  doubtfully  suggests  as 
its  site  Shuweikeh,  about  3  miles  northwest 
by  north  of  ei'-Ram  (Eamah  1). 

Se-cun'dus  [second,  secondary;  following, 
favorable]. 

A  man  of  Thessalonica  who  accompanied 
Paul  from  Macedonia  int  Asia  Minor  (Acts 
XX.  4). 

Seer.     See  Prophet. 

Se'gub  [exalted]. 

1.  The  youngest  or  younger  son  of  Hiel. 
He  died  when  his  father  set  up  the  gates  of 
Jericho,  which  he  was  then  fortifying  (1 
Kin.  xvi.  34),  completing  the  fulfillment  of 
the  curse  pronounced  by  Joshua  (Josh.  vi. 
26). 

2.  Son  of  Hezron,  by  a  daughter  of  Machir 
(1  Chron.  ii.  21,  22). 

Se'ir  [hairy,  shaggy]. 

1.  A  land  and  its  inhabitants.  Seir  was 
the  mountain  range  of  Edom  (Gen.  xxxvi. 
21;  Num.  xxiv.  18;  Ezek.  xxxv.  15).  The 
original  inhabitants  of  these  mountains  were 
Horites  or  cave  dwellers  (Gen.  xiv.  6).  In 
Gen.  xxxvi.  20  the  original  population  is 
personified  as  an  individual  and  the  tribes 
descended  from  it  are  classed  as  children 
(cp.  Mizraim  or  Egypt,  Gen.  x.  6,  13).  Seir 
is  elsewhere  used  collectively  for  the  people 
(Ezek.  XXV.  8).  Esau  took  up  his  abode  in 
mount  Seir  (Gen.  xxxii.  3),  and  his  descend- 
ants dispossessed  the  Horites  (Deut.  ii.  12; 
Josh.  xxiv.  4).  A  remnant  of  the  Amalek- 
ites  (1  Sam.  xiv.  48;  xv.  7;  2  Sam.  viii.  12) 
took  refuge  in  these  mountain  fastnesses, 
hut  were  finally  destroyed  by  the  Simeonites 
(1  Chron.  iv.  42,  43). 

2.  A  ridge  on  the  border  line  of  the  terri- 
tory of  Judah  west  of  Kirjath-jearim  (Josh. 
XV.  10).  It  is  commonly  supposed  to  be  that 
on  which  the  village  of  Saris  stands. 

Se'l-rah,  in  A.  V.  Se'i-rath  [a  hairy  ani- 
mal, she  goat] .  Applied  to  a  locality,  it  may 
mean  shaggy  with  trees. 

A  locality  in  mount  Ei)hraim,  probably  in 


the  southeastern  part,  to  which  Ehud  escaped 
after  murdering  Eglon  ( Judg.  iii.  26). 

Se'la,  in  A.  V.  once  Selah  (2  Kin.  xiv.  7) 

[rock]. 

A  place  in  Edom  taken  by  Amaziah,  king 
of  Judah,  and  named  by  him  Joktheel  (2 
Kin.  xiv.  7).  It  was  situated  toward  the 
wilderness  (Is.  xvi.  1,  E.  V.).  It  is  scarcely 
referred  to  in  Jiidg.  i.  36  ;  but  i)robably  in  2 
Chron.  XXV.  12;  Is.  xlii.  11;  and  Obad.  3. 
The  last  passage  represents  the  inhabitants 
of  Sela  as  dwelling  high  up,  the  situation  of 
their  houses  resembling  that  of  eagles'  nests. 
All  this  points  to  the  ravine  called  by  the 
Greeks  Petra,  which  is  simply  a  translation 
of  the  Hebrew  Sela.  Josepbus  says  that  the 
name  which  the  city  bore  in  his  days  was 
Petra  (Antiq.  iv.  4,  7).  About  300  B.  c.  Petra 
passed  from  the  Edoniites  to  the  Nabathsean 
Arabs.  The  dynasty  which  now  began  to 
rule  in  Petra  contained  several  kings  of  the 
name  of  Aretas,  one  of  whom  is  mentioned 
in  2  Cor.  xi.  32.  The  kingdom  of  the 
Nabathseans  came  to  an  end  in  a.  d.  105  and 
Arabia  Petrsea  was  made  a  province  of  the 
Eoman  empire.  SeeNEBAiOTH.  The  place  was 
rediscovered  by  Burckhardt  in  1812,  and 
has  since  been  visited  by  various  travelers. 
It  lies  in  a  nook  excavated  by  water  on  the 
southeastern  flank  of  mount  Hor.  The  val- 
ley, with  branching  side  valleys,  may  be 
4500  feet  long  by  740  to  1500  broad,  and  is 
surrounded  on  all  sides  by  precipitous  cliffs. 
The  chief  portion  of  it  is  called  wady  Musa, 
the  valley  of  Moses,  though  probably  he  was 
never  there.  A  rivulet  traverses  it  through  its 
whole  length.  The  variegated  colors  of  the 
rocks — red,  brown,  yellow,  white— add  to 
the  beauty  of  the  spot.  There  are  tombs, 
remains  of  temples,  an  amphitheater,  a  tri- 
umphal arch,  etc.,  most  of  them  apparently 
of  Eoman  times.  Besides  these,  there  are 
tombs  and  dwelling  houses  in  the  adjacent 
cliffs,  some  of  which  may  be  of  older  date. 

Se'lah  [elevation]. 

A  word  occurring  seventy-one  times  in 
the  Psalms,  as  well  as  in  Hah.  iii.  3,  9,  13. 
Stainer  gives  six  distinct  opinions  as  to  its 
meaning:  (1)  a  pause;  (2)  a  repetition,  like 
da  capo ;  (3)  the  end  of  a  strophe ;  (4)  a 
playing  with  full  power  (fortixaimo);  (5)  a 
bending  of  the  body,  an  obeisance  ;  and  (6) 
a  short,  recurriug  sym]»hoiiy  iritunieHo).  It 
probably  means  an  orchestral  interlude  (cp. 
opinion  6)  or  a  change  from  piano  to  forte. 

Se-la-ham-mali'le-koth  [rock  of  division 
or  escapes]. 

A  cliff  in  the  wilderness  of  Maon.  It  was 
so  called  because  David  on  one  side  of  the 
eminence  eluded  Saul  on  the  other  (1  Sam. 
xxiii.  28).  Conder  points  out  that  about  8 
miles  east-northeast  of  Maon  there  is  a 
cliff  at  the  wady  el-Malaki,  a  narrow  but 
deep  chasm,  impassable  except  by  making  a 
circuit  of  many  miles.  Saul  might  have 
been   near  enough   to  see   David,   and   yet 


I 


Seled 


657 


Seneh 


have  been  utterly  unable  to  approach  him 
directly. 

Se'led  [exultation]. 

A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Jerahmeel  (1 
Chion.  ii.  30). 

Se-leu'ci-a  [relating  to  Seleucus]. 

A  city  on  the  seacoast  of  Syria  (1  Mac.  xi. 
8),  near  the  mouth  of  the  Orontes,  called 
after  Seleucus  Nicator,  one  of  Alexander  the 
Great's  generals,  and  subsequently  himself  a 
conqueror  and  a  king.  It  was  the  seaport 
of  Antioch,  the  latter  city  being  16  miles  up 
the  river.  Paul  sailed  thence  on  his  first 
missionary  journey  (Acts  xiii.  4).  The  ruins 
of  the  harbor  and  city  still  remain  at  es- 
Suweidiyeh.  The  two  piers  of  the  former 
are  called  Paul  and  Barnabas. 

Se-leu'cus. 

A  king  of  Syria  (1  Mac.  vii.  1 ;  2  Mac.  iii. 
3),  called  Philopator.  He  was  son  and  suc- 
cessor of  Antiochus  the  Great,  and  reigned 
from  1S7-175  B.  c,  when  he  was  murdered 
by  Heliodorus,  one  of  his  courtiers.  He  was 
followed  on  the  throne  by  Antiochus  Epiph- 
anes :  see  Antiochus.     During  his  father's 


Seleucus  Philopator. 

reign  he  fought  in  the  disastrous  battle  of 
Magnesia.  During  his  own  administration 
he  sought  to  strengthen  his  kingdom,  and 
was  conciliatory  toward  the  Jews;  although 
it  is  said  that  he  attempted  to  plunder  the 
temple  (2  Mac.  iii.  4-40),  possibly  to  help 
raise  the  enormous  tribute  which  he  was 
compelled  to  pay  the  Romans. 

Sem.     See  Shem. 

Sem-a-cM'ah  [Jehovah  hath  sustained]. 

A  Levite,  descendant  of  the  doorkeeper 
Obed-edom  (1  Chron.  xxvi.  7). 

Sem'e-i  [Greek  from  Hebrew  Shim'i, 
Shimei]. 

An  ancestor  of  Christ,  who  lived  after  the 
time  of  Zerubbabel  (Luke  iii.  26). 

Sem-it'ic. 

The  languages  which,  speaking  broadly, 
were  or  are  vernacular  to  the  descendants  of 
Shem  are  called  Shemitic  or  Semitic,  the 
former  being  derived  from  the  Hebrew  Shem, 
and  the  latter  ultimately  from  the  Greek  form 
Sem.  The  Semitic  languages  constitute  one  of 
the  leading  families  of  languages.  As  not  all 
the  descendants  of  Shem  speak  these  tongues, 
and  some  do  so  who  are  descended  from  other 
42 


sons  of  Noah,  it  has  been  proposed  to  call 
them  the  Syro-Arabian  languages,  but  the 
term  Semitic  holds  its  place.  Doubtless  there 
was  at  first  but  one  Semitic  language,  but 
the  separation  of  the  tribes  speaking  it  led 
ultimately  to  its  divergence  into  several  dia- 
lects. In  each  the  roots  of  the  words  are 
nearly  always  triliteral,  the  three  radical 
letters  being  three  consonants.  Many  tri- 
literals  appear  to  be  based  on  preexisting  bi- 
literals  ;  and  it  is  even  supposed  by  some 
that  originally  there  were  but  two  radical  con- 
sonants. The  various  modifications  of  mean- 
ing were  produced  from  these  roots  by  the  use 
of  vowels,  of  which  three  only,  a,  i,  and  u, 
were  originally  employed :  thus  the  three 
consonants  k,  .%  r  suggest  the  idea  of  cutting 
off,  and  kasar  denotes  he  reaped,  k'sor  reap, 
ISser  reaper,  kasir  harvest,  kasur  reaped. 
The  meaning  was  also  modified  by  laying 
stress  on  certain  of  the  consonants  and  by 
means  of  affixes :  thus  gadal  he  became 
large,  giddal  he  magnified,  gaddel  magnify, 
viigdal  a  tower. 

The  Semitic  family  of  languages  falls  into 
two  great  divisions,  northern  and  southern. 
The  northern  division  subdivides  into  an 
eastern  group  consisting  of  the  Babylonian 
and  Assyrian  ;  a  central  group  composed  of 
the  dialects  of  the  Aramaic  language,  em- 
bracing Syriac,  Xeo-Syriac,  and  ]\Iandaitic 
of  the  east,  and  the  Aramaic  of  the  west, 
namely  Samaritan,  the  so-called  Chaldee  of 
the  Bible,  Targums  and  Talmud,  and  the 
dialect  of  the  Palmyrene  and  Xabathtean  in- 
scriptions ;  and  a  western  group  containing 
Hebrew,  Moabite,  and  Phoenician.  The 
southern  division  is  subdivided  into  Arabic  ; 
Himyaritic  or  Sabsean  of  southern  Arabia ; 
and  Ge'ez  or  Ethiopic  and  Amharic  of  Africa. 

Semitic  writing  is  in  most  of  the  dialects 
from  right  to  left :  that  is,  in  the  other  direc- 
tion from  English.  Hence  the  title-page  in 
the  Hebrew  Bible  is  at  what  looks  like  the 
end  of  the  volume.  From  this  it  reads  back- 
ward, till  it  ends  at  what,  if  it  were  English, 
would  be  called  the  beginning  of  the  book. 

The  intellectual  ability  of  the  Semitic  race 
is  shown  by  the  place  which  the  Jews  take 
in  every  Christian  country  where  they  set- 
tle. Its  prowess  is  also  great ;  but  in  by- 
gone history,  whenever  the  Semites  and  the 
Aryans  have  encountered  each  other  in  war, 
the  contest,  however  .severe  and  protracted, 
has  in  the  long  run  ended  in  favor  of  the 
Aryans.  Thus  the  Aryan-Persian  termi- 
nated the  Semitic-Babj-lonian  empire.  Aryan 
Eome  ultimately  destroyed  Semitic  Car- 
thage, and  the  Aryan  warriors  of  Europe, 
after  a  time,  set  bounds  to  the  Saracen 
Semites. 

Se-na'ah,     See  Hassexaah. 

Se'neh  [thorn  bush,  bramble]. 

A  sharp  rock,  one  of  two  which  flanked  a 
pass  running  east  and  west  between  ^lich- 
mash  and  Gibeah.   It  was  the  more  southerly 


Senir 


658 


Sennacherib 


of  the  cliffs,  and  nearer  Gibeah  than  Mich- 
mash.  It  was  between  these  two  rocks  that 
Jonathan  and  his  armor-bearer  passed  when 
they  were  going  to  surprise  the  Philistine 
garrison  (1  Sam.  xiv.  4,  5).  It  overlooked 
the  wady  Suweinit,  about  3^  miles  southeast 
by  south  of  Michmash. 

Se'nir,  in  A.  "V.  twice  Shenir  (Deut.  iii.  9; 
Song  iv.  W)  [coat  of  mail]. 

The  Amorite  name  of  Hermon  (Deut.  iii. 
9).  In  Song  iv.  8  Senir  and  Hermon  are  dis- 
tinguished, each  probably  being  a  distinct 
peak  of  the  giant  mountain.  Fir  timber  was 
obtained  ou  Senir  (Ezek.  xxvii.  5). 

Sen-nach'e-rib  [the  moon-god  Sin  hath 
increased  the  brothers]. 

A  .son  of  Sargon,  who  succeeded  to  the 
Assyrian  throne  on  the  murder  of  his  father, 
on  the  12th  of  Ab,  705  b.  c.  Though  a  war- 
rior, he  was  inferior  to  Sargon  in  ability. 
He  was  boastful,  cruel,  and  not  wise  enough 
to  perpetuate  his  conquests  by  conciliating 
those  whom  he  had  vanquished.  On  his 
accession  Merodach-baladan  of  Babylon  at- 
tempted to  throw  off  the  Assyrian  yoke. 
Sennacherib  defeated  him  and  his  ally,  the 
king  of  Elam,  placed  Belibni  on  the  Baby- 
lonian throne,  and  returned  in  triumph  to 
Nineveh,  laden  with  captives  and  spoil.  Dis- 
content and  rebellion  manifested  themselves 
in  the  west  also,  among  the  peoples  who  had 
submitted  to  Sargon.  To  quell  this  revolt, 
Sennacherib  in  701  appeared  in  Phcenicia, 
capturing  Great  and  Little  Zidon,  Zarephath, 
Achzib,  and  Accho,  but  Tyre  appears  to  have 
held  out.  Neighboring  states  hastened  to 
announce  their  submission.  Proceeding  to 
the  Philistine  countrj^,  he  took  Ashkelon, 
Beth-dagon,  and  Joppa.  Next  he  invested 
and  captured  Lachish,  sent  a  detachment  of 
his  troops  to  Jerusalem,  secured  the  release 
of  the  dethroned  king  of  Ekron  from  Jeru- 
salem, defeated  the  combined  armies  of  Egypt 
and  Ethiopia  at  the  battle  of  Eltekeh,  and 
added  Ekron  to  his  conquests.  On  this  cam- 
paign he  not  only  took  Lachish  and  Eltekeh, 
cities  of  Judah,  but  by  his  own  account 
took  46  fortified  towns  of  Judah,  carried 
away  200,150  people  captive,  and  seized  mul- 
titudes of  horses,  mules,  asses,  camels,  and 
sheep.  His  career  of  conquest  was  cut  short 
by  the  plague,  which  devastated  his  army 
and  compelled  him  to  return  to  Nineveh. 
No  express  mention  is,  of  course,  to  be  ex- 
pected in  the  Assyrian  inscriptions  of  his 
failure  to  possess  himself  of  Jerusalem,  but 
it  is  clearly  implied ;  for  he  is  unable  to  tell 
of  the  capture  of  the  city,  and  he  apparently 
covers  up  the  inglorious  conclusion  of  the 
campaign  by  placing  at  the  close  of  his  nar- 
rative the  account  of  the  tribute  which  he 
received  from  Hezekiah.  Here  is  his  own 
account  of  the  matter:  "Hezekiah  himself 
I  shut  up  like  a  bird  in  a  cage  in  Jerusalem, 
his  royal  city.  I  erected  fortifications  against 
him  and  blocked  the  exits  from  the  gate  of 


his  city.  I  severed  his  towns,  which  I  i)lun- 
dered,  from  his  dominions  and  gave  them  to 
Mitinti,  king  of  Ashdod,  Padi,  king  of  Ekron, 
aud  Silbel,  king  of  Gaza.  Thus  I  diminished  his 
country.  To  the  former  contribution,  their  an- 
nual gift,  I  added  the  tribute  of  subjection  to 
ray  sovereignty  aud  imposed  it  ou  them.  The 
fear  of  the  glory  of  my  sovereignty  over- 
whelmed him,  even  Hezekiah ;  and  he  sent 
after  me  to  Nineveh,  my  royal  city,  the  Arabs 
and  his  loyal  subjects,  whom  he  had  brought 
for  the  defense  of  Jerusalem,  his  royal  city, 
and  had  furnished  with  pay,  along  with 
thirty  talents  of  gold,  800  talents  of  pure 
silver,  precious  stones,  couches  of  ivory, 
thrones  of  ivory,  elephants'  hides,  ivory, 
rare  woods  of  various  kinds,  a  vast  treasure, 
as  well  as  his  daughters,  the  women  of  his 
palace,  and  others ;  and  he  sent  his  am- 
bassador to  offer  homage."  A  story  was  told 
the  Greek  historian  Herodotus  by  the  Egyp- 
tian   priests    that    Sennacherib    advanced 


Sennacherib  on  his  Throne  at  Lachish. 

against  Egypt,  and  had  reached  Pelusium, 
when  immense  numbers  of  field  mice  de- 
stroyed the  bowstrings  of  the  Assyrians, 
who  next  morning  commenced  their  flight 
from  the  country.  For  the  series  of  historic 
events  in  which  Sennacherib  and  Hezekiah 
figure  as  antagonists,  see  Hezekiah.  Sen- 
nacherib's fiiilure  against  Jerusalem  was  in 
701  B.  c.  In  the  meantime  new  troubles  for 
Sennacherib  arose  in  Babylonia  ;  and  in  tlie 
third  year  of  Belibni,  in  700  B.  c.  the  Assyrian 
king  marched  to  the  south,  removed  Belibni, 
and  placed  his  own  son  Ashurnadinshum 
on  the  throne.  Freed  from  concern  for  tlie 
south  Sennacherib  next  turned  his  attention 
to  the  northwest  and  brought  Cilicia  under 
the  Assyrian  yoke.  In  694  he  made  a  novel 
expedition  by  ship  and  attempted  to  root 
out  the  followers  of  Merodach-baladan  from 
their  last  refuge,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ulai. 


Senuah 


659 


Sepulcher 


The  campaign  was  in  a  measure  successful ; 
but  the  Ehimites  invaded  Babylonia,  seized 
Ashurnadinshuni,  and  jilaeed  a  Babylonian 
king  on  the  throne,  who  held  the  country 
for  a  year  and  a  lialf.  lUit  though  Sennach- 
erib took  Erech,  captured  the  Babylonian 
king,  and  devastated  Elam,  yet  another 
Babylonian  king  ascended  the  throne,  and 
the  Assyrians  did  not  succeed  in  finally 
chastising  Babylonia  until  689.  Then  Sen- 
nacherib advanced  against  Babylon,  captured 
and  plundered  the  city,  massacred  the  in- 
habitants, fired  the  buildings,  razed  the  walls 
and  temples,  and  flooded  the  ruins  with  water 
from  the  Euphrates  and  its  canals.  The  last 
eight  years  of  his  reign  were  mostly  peace- 
ful. He  had  some  time  before  surrounded 
Nineveh  with  a  wall,  8  miles  in  circumfer- 
ence. About  695  B.  c.  he  finished  a  great 
palace  which  he  had  built  for  himself  in  the 
northwestern  part  of  Nineveh.  It  was  1500 
feet  long  and  TOO  broad,  with  great  courts, 
halls,  and  chambers.  He  restored  another 
palace,  and  constructed  a  system  of  canals 
by  which  he  brought  good  drinking  water 
to  the  city.  After  a  reign  of  twenty-four 
years  and  five  months,  he  was  assassinated 
on  the  20th  of  Tebet,  which  possibly  fell  at 
the  close  of  681,  but  more  probably  corresponds 
with  January,  680.  The  deed  was  done  by 
two  of  his  sons,  Adrammelech  and  Sharezer, 
who  were  excited  against  him  because  his  fa- 
vorite in  the  family  wasanother  brother,  Esar- 
haddon  (2  Kin.  xix.  37 ;  2  Chron.  xxxii.  21). 

Se-nu'ah.     See  H.-vssenuah. 

Se-o'rim  [barley]. 

A  descendant  of  Aaron.  His  family  had 
grown  to  a  father's  house  in  the  time  of 
David,  and  constituted  the  fourth  course 
when  David  distributed  the  priests  into  di- 
visions (1  Chron.  xxiv.  1,  6,  8). 

Se'pliar  [numbering]. 

A  place  which  form- 
ed the  limit  in  one  di- 
rection of  the  territory 
settled  by  the  descend- 
ants of  Joktan  (Gen. 
X.  30).  It  was  prob- 
ably in  southern  Ara- 
bia. Despite  the  first 
letter,  it  is  commonly 
identified  with  Zafar, 
which  begins  with  the 
Arabic  pointed  za 
(teth).  Two  places 
bore  this  name.  One 
was  a  seaport  in  Ha- 
dramaut,  near  the  in- 
cense mountain  ;  the 
other  was  in  southern 
Yemen,  and  was  the 
capital  of  the  Himyar- 
ite  kings. 

Seph'a-rad. 

A  place  to  which  the  people  of  Jerusalem 
were  to  be  carried  away  captive  (Obad.  20). 


Its  situation  is  unsettled.  Sparda,  a  district 
frequently  mentioned  iji  the  Persian  inscri))- 
tions  along  with  Ionia,  Armenia,  and  C'appa- 
docia,  and  probably  identical  with  Sardis  in 
Asia  Minor,  has  been  suggested  ;  -but  this 
identification  requires  the  assumi)ti()n  that 
Obadiah  prophesied  after  the  exile,  which 
few  critics  believe.  Happier  is  (he  id(^ntifi- 
cation  with  Shaparda,  which  Sargon,  who 
transported  Israelites  to  the  cities  of  the 
Medes  (2  Kin.  xvii.  6),  mentions  as  a  district 
of  southwestern  Media. 

Seph-ar-va'im  [twin  Sipparas]. 

A  place  conquered  by  the  Assyrians,  and 
from  which  they  brought  colonists  to  in- 
habit Samaria  when  the  ten  tribes  were 
carried  into  captivity  (2  Kin.  xvii.  24). 
The  city  stood  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the 
Euphrates,  above  Babylon  and  hard  by  the 
border  of  Mesopotamia.  It  was  a  seat  of  the 
worship  of  the  sun-god,  and  hence  was  known 
as  Sippar  of  Shamash.  But  Anuuit,  wife  of 
the  god  of  the  sky,  was  also  specially  wor- 
shiped there,  apparently  in  a  distinct  section 
of  the  city.  Hence  there  was  also  Sippar  of 
Anunit.  The  duality  of  the  town  .sntticiently 
explains  the  Hebrew  name,  which  is  dual  in 
form  and  is  equivalent  to  the  twin  cities  of 
Sippara.  It  is  now  called  Abu  Habba.  Sippar 
of  Anunit  was  apparently  another  designa- 
tion of  Agade,  the  old  capital  of  Sargon  I. 

Se'phar-vites. 

Natives  or  inhabitants  of  Sepharvaim  (2 
Kin.  xvii.  31). 

Se-phe'la.     See  Shephelah. 

Sep'tu-a-glnt.     See  Versions. 

Sep'ul-cher. 

The  Hebrews,  as  a  rule,  buried  their  dead 
in  caverns,  natural  or  artificial  (Gen.  xxiii. 
9  ;  Is.  xxii.  16;  Mat.  xxvii.  60  ;  John  xi.  38), 
natural  caves  being  often  extended  by  exca- 


I'lan  of  the  so-called  Tombs  of  the  Kings. 


vation  (Gen.  1.  5).  The  cliffs  near  Jerusalem 
are  full  of  such  sepulchers.  The  entrance  to 
the  cavern  or  its  chambers  was  closed  by  a 


Sepulcher 


660 


Sepulchers  of  the  Kings 


stone  (Mat.  xxvii.  60)  to  exclude  jackals  and 
other  beasts  that  prey  upon  dead  bodies.  It 
was  desirable  that  the  sepulchers  should  be 
at  a  distance  from  human  habitations.  They 
might  be  in  gardens  attached  to  d\Yellings 


Sealed  Stone  at  Entrance  of  a  Tomb. 

(2  Kin.  xxi.  18,  26),  or  within  the  city  walls 
(1  Kin.  ii.  10)  :  but  they  were  generally  out- 
side the  town.  Even  then  trees  or  gardens 
might  surround  them  (John  xix.  41).  Often, 
however,  they  were  excavated  high  up  in  the 
face  of  a  precipitous  cliff,  with  their  entrance 
far  above  the  ground.  Frequently  the  tomb 
was  whitewashed  (I^at.  xxiii.  27),  not  only 


shaft  into  the  side  of  the  cavern  and  closed 
by  a  flat  stone  or  door,  or  a  shelf  for  bodies  was 
hewn  around  the  chamber.  Sometimes  there 
were  double  tiers  of  niches  or  shafts.  CofBns 
were  not  necessary  ;  but  occasionally  among 
the  wealthy  the  body  was  inclosed  in  a  stone 
sarcophagus,  and  placed  in  the  tomb.  The 
entrance  was  sometimes  richly  ornamented. 
Sometimesa  monument  was  erected.  It  might 
consist  of  a  simple  pillar  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  17,  R. 
v.),  or  it  might  assume  the  form  of  a  mauso- 
leum (1  Mac.  xiii.  27).  The  Hebrews  and 
their  neighbors  were  fond  of  family  burial 
places,  and  the  sepulcher  with  its  chambers 
and  niches  was  adapted  to  this  purpose  (Gen. 
xlix.  29-31 ;  2  Sam.  ii.  32  ;  1  Kin.  xiii.  22  ;  1 
Mac.  i.x.  19;  xiii.  25).  Public  burial  places 
were  used  by  the  poor  and  were  provided  for 
strangers  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  6 ;  Jer.  xxvi.  23  ;  Mat. 
xxvii.  7).  When  the  Palestine  explorers 
found  a  grave  dug  down  in  the  ground  and 
covered  with  earth,  they  assumed  it  to  be  a 
Christian  tomb ;  but  if  they  found  one  run- 
ning horizontally  into  a  clifl',  they  presumed 
it  to  be  Jewish.     See  Gkave. 

Sep'ul-cher,  Ho'ly.     See  C'.\lvary. 

Sep'ul-chers  of  the  Kings,  or  of  Da'vid. 

The  royal  burial  place  in  the  city  of  David, 
not  far  from  the  king's  garden  and  the  pool 
of  Shelah  (1  Kin.  ii.  10;  2  Chrou.  xxi.  20; 
Neh.  iii.  1.5,  16),  and  doubtless  in  the  field  of 
burial  which  belonged  to  the  kings  (2Chron. 
xxvi.  23 ;  cp.  2  Kin.  xv.  7).  Theodoret  quotes 
Josephus  as  saying  that  the  tomb  is  near  Si- 
loam,  is  in  fashion  like  a  cave,  and  reveals  the 


Portal  of  the  so-called  Tombs  of  the  Judges,  near  Jerusalem. 


for  cleanliness  and  beauty,  but  also  that  it 
might  be  clearly  seen  and  not  touched,  for 
the  touch  brought  defilement.  Inside  the 
sepulcher  the  individual  grave  was  sunk  in 
the  floor  and  covered  by  a  slab  of  stone,  or 
"was  cut  as  a  niche  in  the  wall,  or  driven  as  a 


royal  lavishness  (Qusest.  6  in  iii.  Reg.).  It  con- 
sisted of  several  chambers  (Antiq.  vii.  15,  3). 
It  was  robbed  of  large  treasure  by  John  Hyr- 
canus  ;  and  the  report  of  the  sum  which  that 
prince  had  obtained  led  Herod  the  Great  to 
search  it,  in  the  hope  of  securing  additional 


I 


Serah 


661 


Seraphim 


lihinder ;  but  he  became  frifjlitened,  aluiiuloned 
the  seareh,  and  erected  a  jji-oiiitiatory  nioiiu- 
iiieiit  of  white  stoue  at  its  mouth  (ibid.;  xiii.  8, 
4;  xvi.  7,  1 ;  War  i.  2,  5).  It  was  extant  in  the 
time  of  Christ  (Acts  ii.  29).  All  the  kings 
from  David  to  Hezekiah  inclusive  were  bur- 
ied in  the  city  of  David.  The  common  royal 
sepulcher  was  by  implication  ordinarily  used  ; 
but  Asa  and  probably  Hezekiah  had  tombs 
of  their  own  (2  Chron.  xvi.  14  ;  xxxii.  33,  R. 
v.),  and  Jehoram,  Joash,  Uzziah,  and  Ahaz 
were  not  admitted  to  the  royal  .sepulcher 
(xxi.  20;  xxiv.  25;  xxvi.  23;  xxviii.  27). 
Mana.sseh,  Amon,  and  Josiah  were  buried  at 
Jerusjilem  in  their  own  tombs  (2  Kin.  xxi.  18, 
2(j ;  xxiii.30with2Chron.xxxv.24).  Jehoahaz 
died  in  Egypt,  and  Jehoiachin  and  Zedekiah 
doubtless  in  Babylonia.  Jehoiakim  was  prob- 
ably left  unburied. 

The  caverns  of  the  kings,  which  are  re- 
ferred to  by  Josephus  (War  v.  4,  2),  may  be 
what  is  now  known  as  the  grotto  of  Jeremiah. 

Se'rah,  in  A.  V.  once  Saxali  (Num.  xxvi. 
46)   [abundance]. 

A  daughter  of  Asher  (Gen.  xlvi.  17 ;  1 
Chron.  vii.  30). 

Se-ra'iali  [soldier  of  Jehovah] 

1.  A  son  of  Kenaz  (1  Chron.  iv.  13). 

2.  A  scribe  who  had  held  office  under  David 
(2  Sam.  viii.  17) ;  see  Shavsha. 

3.  A  Simeonite,  son  of  Asiel  (1  Chron.  iv. 
35). 

4.  One  of  those  sent  to  arrest  Baruch  the 
scribe  and  Jeremiah  the  prophet  (Jer.  xxxvi. 
26). 

5.  The  chief  priest  when  Nebuchadnezzar 
captured  Jerusalem.  He  was  put  to  death 
by  Nebuchadnezzar  at  Riblah  (2  Kin.  xxv. 
18-21 :  Jer.  lii.  24-27).  He  was  the  father  of 
Jehozadak,  who  was  carried  into  captivity ; 
and  the  grandfather  of  Jeshua,  who  was  high 
priest  immediately  after  the  exile;  and  he 
was  also  an  ancestor  of  Ezra,  the  .scribe  (1 
Chron.  vi.  14,  15  ;  Ezra  iii.  2  ;  vii.  1). 

6.  "A  quiet  prince,"  or  "the  chief  cham- 
berlain," or  the  "quartermaster,"  the  son  of 
Neriah.  He  was  carried  captive  to  Babylon 
(Jer.  li.  59-64,  A.  V..  E.  V.,  and  margin). 

7.  The  son  of  Tanhumeth,  a  Netophathite 
(2  Kin.  xxv.  23;  Jer.  xl.  8). 

8.  One  of  those  who  accompanied  Zerub- 
babel  from  Babylon  (Ezra  ii.  2).  Called  in 
Neh.  vii.  7  Azariah. 

9.  A  chief  of  the  priests  who  returned 
from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Neh.  xii.  1, 
7).  A  father's  house  bore  his  name  in  the 
next  geueration  (ver.  12).  Possibly  the  same 
as  number  8. 

10.  A  priest,  doubtless  head  of  a  father's 
house  and  probably  of  the  father's  house  just 
mentioned,  who  with  Nehemiah  signed  the 
covenant  to  keep  separate  from  the  heathen 
and  observe  the  law  of  God  (Neh.  x.  2). 
Probably  also  he  is  identical  with  the  follow- 
ing. 

il.  A  priest,  son  of  Hilkiah  and  ruler  of 


the  house  of  God  after  the  exile  (Neh.  xi.  11 ; 
cp.  the  preceding).  The  name  Azariah  oc- 
curs in  the  corresponding  place  in  1  Chron. 
ix.  11.  Different  persons  are  probably  in- 
tended, of  whom  Azariah  lived  before  and 
Seraiah  after  the  exile.  Possibly,  however, 
different  persons  are  intended,  each  of  whom 
lived  after  the  exile,  Azariah  being  a  prede- 
cessor of  Seraiah.  Or  the  text  may  be  cor- 
rupt ;  in  one  of  the  passages  the  name  may 
have  been  misread  by  a  copyist ;  or  as  botii 
names  belong  to  the  high-priestly  genealogy 
and  succeed  each  other  there  (1  Chron.  vi. 
12-15),  something  may  have  slipped  from  the 
text,  as,  for  example :  "  Seraiah,  son  of"  may 
have  been  lost  before  Azariah  in  Chronicles, 
or  "son  of  Azariah"  after  Seraiah  in  Nehe- 
miah. 

Ser'a-phim. 

Celestial  beings  who  stood  before  the  en- 
throned Lord  when  he  appeared  in  vision  to 
Isaiah.  Each  had  six  wings:  with  twain  he 
covered  his  face,  and  with  twain  he  covered 
his  feet,  and  with  twain  he  did  fly.  And 
one  cried  unto  another,  and  said:  "Holy, 
holy,  holy,  is  the  Lord  of  hosts:  the  whole 
earth  is  full  of  his  glory"  (Is.  vi.  2,  3).  The 
prophet  having  confessed  his  sinfulness,  one 
of  the  seraphim  flew  unto  him,  having  a  live 
coal  in  his  hand,  which  he  had  taken  with 
the  tongs  from  off  the  altar;  and  he  touched 
the  prophet's  mouth  with  it,  and  said  :  "  Lo, 
this  hath  touched  thy  lips;  and  thine  in- 
iquity is  taken  away,  and  thy  sin  purged." 

Scripture  affords  no  further  information 
regarding  the  seraphim.  They  are  men- 
tioned in  this  one  passage  only.  What  were 
they?  1.  Gesenius  derives  their  name  from 
the  Arabic  sharafa,  high,  noble.  The  Arabic 
root  would  regularly  be  saraph  in  Hebrew ; 
but  there  is  no  evidence  that  it  was  ever 
used  by  the  Hebrews.  No  other  word  in 
Hebrew  is  traceable  to  this  root.  Gesenius 
has  sought  his  derivation  outside  of  the  He- 
brew lexicon.  These  facts  stamp  his  ex- 
planation as  improbable.  2.  Cheyne  conjec- 
tures that  the  seraphim  are  the  serpent-like 
lightning,  referring  to  the  fact  that  saraph 
and  s'raphim  denote  the  fiery  serpents  in  the 
wilderness  (Num.  xxi.  6,  8;  Is.  xiv.  29 ;  xxx. 
6).  But  even  if  the  words  seraphim  and 
fiery  serpent  have  the  .same  form  in  the 
singular  number,  which  is  uncertain,  and 
if  they  are  from  the  same  Semitic  root, 
which  is  probable,  they  yet  need  not  signify 
the  same  beings  or  similarly  shaped  beings. 
Shape  is  not  denoted  by  the  name.  The 
common  characteristic,  which  finds  expres- 
sion in  the  word,  is  burning,  in  the  transitive 
sense ;  not  ardent  or  glowing  beings,  but 
beings  that  burn  things.  Nor  do  the  sera- 
phim resemble  serpents  outwardly,  for  they 
have  hands,  feet,  and  wings.  Cheyne  admits 
that  Isaiah  did  not  regard  them  as  animals 
in  form.  3.  The  seraphim  are  identical 
with  the  Egyptian  griffins,  serref  (Dillmann^ 


Sered 


662 


Seven 


I 


•(uoting  L.  Stern),  and  were  borrowed  by  the 
Israelites.  If  so,  they  were  personifications 
of  natural  objects  or  phenomena;  and  in  the 
vision  of  Isaiah  they  symbolically  rei)resent 
the  powers  of  nature  attendant  upon  nature's 
Lord  (cp,  Zech.  vi.  1-8,  R.  V.).  4.  They  are 
an  order  of  angels.  So  the  Jews  understood. 
The  Targiim  inserts  the  word  in  Ezek.  i.  8 ; 
Zech.  iii.  7.  They  are  consuming  beings, 
who  cry  "Holy,  holy,  holy,"  who  are  most 
impressed  with  the  attribute  of  holiness  in 
God,  worship  him  most  fondly  in  that  charr 
acter,  and  execute  his  purposes  of  holiness 
in  the  world  (Delitzsch,  modified).  The  con- 
clusive argument  in  favor  of  this  theory 
against  the  third  is  that  their  adoration  of 
holiness  in  God  and  their  employment  in  the 
mini.stry  of  atonement  indicate  moral  beings, 
and  not  iihysical  powers  personified. 

Se'red  [fear]. 

A  son  of  Zebulun,  and  founder  of  a  tribal 
family  ((4en.  xlvi.  14;  Num.  xxvi.  26). 

Ser'gi-us  Pau'lus  [faulus  means  small, 
little]. 

The  proconsul  of  Cyprus,  which  consti- 
tuted a  senatorial  province  at  the  time  of 
Paul's  visit  there  (Acts  xiii.  5-12). 

Se'ron  [perhaps,  a  Greek  form  of  Hiram 
(cp.  Herod,  vii.  98)]. 

Commander  of  the  army  of  Syria  (1  Mac. 
iii.  1:5)  in  the  reign  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes. 
He  attempted  to  suppress  the  revolt  of  the 
Jews,  but  was  defeated  by  Judas  Maccabaeus 
near  Beth-horon  in  166  B.  c.  (14-24).  Josephus 
states  that  Seron  lost  his  life  in  the  battle 
(Autiq.  xii.  7,  1). 

Ser'pent. 

1.  An  animal  which  creeps  on  its  belly 
(Gen.  iii.  1,  14) ;  having  bead,  tail,  and  body 
(15 ;  Ex.  iv.  4),  but  no  limbs.  It  is  generically 
called  nahash  in  Hebrew,  ophis  in  Greek 
(Gen.  iii.  13  with  2  Cor.  xi.  .3;  Num.  xxi.  9 
with  John  iii.  14).  As  it  wriggles  along,  its 
mouth  is  apt  to  come  in  contact  with  the 
dust,  which  it  licks  (Mic.  vii.  17 ;  cp.  Gen. 
iii.  14;  Is.  Ixv.  25).  The  bite  of  some  species 
infuses  fatal  poison  into  the  wound  (Num. 
xxi.  6;  Ps.  Iviii.  4;  Prov.  xxiii.  32).  Some 
can  be  charmed  (Ecc.  s.  11).  The  serpent  is 
found  in  the  wilderness  and  in  inhabited 
districts,  by  the  road,  in  hedges,  on  rocks,  in 
walls  (Gen.  xlix.  17 ;  Num.  xxi.  6 ;  Prov. 
XXX.  19;  Ecc.  x.  8;  Amos  v.  19). 

The  fiery  serpents  which  bit  the  children 
of  Israel  in  the  wilderne.ss  and  caused  death 
(Num.  xxi.  6),  were  a  kind  of  snake  found 
in  Arabia  and  el.sewhere,  whose  bite  pro- 
duces the  fiery  burning  of  inflammation  and 
thirst.     See  Brazen  Serpent. 

Tlie  serjjent  of  the  temptation  was  an  or- 
dinary snake,  one  of  the  beasts  of  the  field, 
comparable  with  them  in  subtlety  and  .skill 
in  .securing  prey,  and,  after  it  was  involved 
in  the  temptation  of  man,  cursed  among 
them  (Gen.  iii.  1,  14).  Perhaps  Eve  saw 
nothing  more  than  a  snake ;  but  the  devil 


was  in  this  serpent,  as  afterwards  the  demons 
were  in  men  and  in  the  swine,  controlling 
it,  lending  it  supernatural  subtlety,  and  using 
it  as  a  means  bv  whicli  to  ai)proach  Eve  (Wisd. 
ii.  24;  John  viii.  44;  Rom.  xvi.  20:  2  Cor. 
xi.  3;  Rev.  xii.  9) ;  see  Satan.  It  suffered  in 
the  punishment,  as  did  other  innocent  ani- 
mals when  made  the  instruments  of  sin 
(Lev.  XX.  15,  16).  Its  mode  of  locomotion 
was  not  new,  it  had  doubtless  always  crept; 
but  now  this  groveling  on  the  earth  and  ac- 
cidental swallowing  of  dust  is  made  the 
memorial  of  its  degradation.  It  does  not 
suffer  thereby,  save  as  it  is  loathed  and  killed 
by  man.  But  the  more  distinctly  man  recog- 
nizes that  the  evil  sjjirit  was  the  serpent's 
master,  the  more  does  man  transfer  his  en- 
mity to  tlie  archfiend. 

2.  A  species  of  serpent,  in  Hebrew  pethen 
(Ps.  xci.  13,  in  E.  V.  adder).     See  Asp. 

Se'rug,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Saruch  [shoot, 
branch]. 

Son  of  Reu,  father  of  Nahor,  and  ancestor 
of  Abraham  (Gen.  xi.  20,  23  ;  1  Chron.  i.  26  ; 
Luke  iii.  35). 

Serv'ant. 

One  who  serves,  in  Hebrew  usually  'cbed. 
It  is  a  geuei-al  term,  including  voluntary  and 
involuntary  service,  and  embracing  all  who 
are  under  obligation  of  any  kind  to  render 
service  to  another,  from  the  slave  captured 
in  war  or  purchased  at  a  ])rice,  to  the  envied 
official  of  a  king  and  the  willing  worshiper 
of  God  (Gen.  xxxix.  1  with  xii.  12;  xl.  20; 
Ex.  xxxii.  13;  Acts  xvi.  17).  It  is  system- 
atically employed  by  orientals  when  ad- 
dressing a  superior,  whether  man  or  God 
(Gen.  xxxii.  4,  20;  1.  18;  Deut.  iii.  24; 
2  Sam.  ix.  2  ;  Luke  ii.  29 ;  Acts  iv.  29) ;  and 
is  applied  to  conquered  nations  compelled 
to  pay  tribute  to  their  conqueror  (2  Sam.  viii. 
2).  God  also  designates  his  worshipers  serv- 
ants (Gen.  xxvi.  24 ;  Num.  xii.  7  ;  2  Sam. 
vii.  5).    See  Minister,  Slave. 

Seth,  in  A.  V.  once  Sheth  (1  Chron.  i.  1) 
[appointed,  substituted]. 

A  son  of  Adam.  He  was  born  after  the 
murder  of  Abel,  for  whom  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent he  became  a  substitute  (Gen.  iv.  25  ;  v. 
3).  He  became  the  father  of  Enos.  and  died 
at  the  age  of  912  (Gen.  v.  6-8  ;  Luke  iii.  38). 

Se'thur  [hidden]. 

The  representative  spy  from  the  tribe  of 
Asher  (Num.  xiii.  13). 

Sev'en. 

Seven  is  an  ordinary  numeral,  and  it  was 
commonly  used  without  religious  signifi- 
cance ;  but  it  was  also  a  sacred  number 
among  the  Hebrews  and  other  Semites,  and 
also  among  the  Aryans  of  Persia  and  even 
of  Greece  (Iliad  xix.  243).  Its  sacredness  is 
traceable  to  remote  antiquity.  It  is  seen  in 
the  seven  pillars  of  wisdom's  house  (Prov. 
ix.  1),  the  seven  locks  into  which  Samson, 
who  was  consecrated  to  God,  braided  his  hair 


Sevens 


663 


Shaluuniiii 


Jodg.  xri.  13;  19;.  the  seven  Tictiins  to  atone 
for  the  faffoAcoi  covenant  2  Sam.  xxL  6.  $•>. 
the  seven  stanes  of  the  ancieni  Aiahs  aneaied 
whh  the  blood  of  the  covenanting  pajties 
(Haod.  m.  S),  the  seven  lamfag  to  attest  the 
cond^aoB  of  a  treaty  (Gen.  xxL  2d-30>.  the 
Hebrew  woods  for  oath  and  taking  an  oath, 
vhirh  incorporate  the  nmnber  seven,  and 
the  aKiednesB  <^  the  seventh  ptntko  oi 
time.  The  idea  that  seviea  derived  its  sacxed 
chatacter  &om  the  £Kt  that  three  pins  foor 
make  sevoi,  is  pure  £uirjr.  It  wasaacxed  be- 
cause men  saw  that  God  recog'U'Bd  the  nom- 
b^.  He  placed  seven  hmiinaiies  in  the  skj. 
son,  moon,  and  five  planets.  He  cansed  the 
moon  to  phase  every  sevoi  days.  These 
phenomena,  however,  were  bat  confirmafagy 
and  served  as  ronindeis  oi  a  greater  recog- 
nition. God  had  Useed  the  sevoith  day 
and  hallowed  it.  Far  moxe  was  needed  than 
the  sigiB  of  the  sky  to  onginate  the  saeied- 
nesB  of  seven.  Twelve  did  not  become  a 
sacred  number,  although  God  made  the 
moon  to  maik  off  twelve  nMmtie  in  tibe  year, 
placed  twelve  siany  agiE  in  the  xodiac.  and 
made  the  snn  to  confoim  its  eomse  to  the  zo- 
diac and  to  retom  in  ^sii^  as  nearly  at  the 
condusion  of  twelve  lonar  months  as  the 
moon  renews  itself  afker  four  phaangs. 
Ifan  noted  these  i^ienoniena  in  the  earliest 
times,  adofiied  tlMan  into  hB  daily  life  and 
language,  and  ceiebiated  ^srtain  of  tiiem 
with  leSgiGas  festivals,  ^bi  Babylonia  man 
even  made  twdve  the  baas  of  an  arithmeti- 
eal  system,  and  in  Assyria  he  pantheon  con- 
tained twdve  great  gods.  Notwithstanding 
an  thK.  twelve  did  not  become  a  sacred 
number :  but  seven  did  becon>ea^«red  num- 
ber, and  the  seventh  poition  of  time  a  sacred 
se^nrn ;  and  not  laa^f  was  the  lecnrm^ 
seventh  poxtion  of  time  sacred,  bat  it  in- 
volved a  benediction.  It  was  cheri^ied  in 
hoaiy  antiqaity  as  a  aeaiann  of  divine  &vor 
toward  man.  vriien  themanifestatiom  of  G«3d's 
good  win  was  to  be  experled.    See  Sabbath. 

Se-'ve'B^  in  A.  V.    Sj-r  Zz    '    . 
An.  affofrding  entrance' 

A  town  constitating  ~ 
Egypt  in  one  diiectioiL 

peods  on  the  trandbt:  '    1 .' : 

XXX.  Gl  ICasispxoha''  ren- 

dering is  that  <4' the  mi : . 
Syene,"  then  the  towr 
soath  of  Egypt,  on  tb- 
and  is  the  Booian  Syen^ 
on  the  Egyptian  side 

where  a  few  lonains  c :  . ::- 

is*-    Here,  or  oa  the  is  bor- 

der garrison  was  stati>: . 

Sba-al'hia.   on        St^-il-i":  cin         -i 
xix.  42»  [fox—' 

AnAmon" 
« Jioeh.  lii.  ^  - 
yiddCJndg 
setdenMBk 


Kin.  iv.  9f.     Not  identified.    Selbit,  3  miles 
nonhwest  of  Aiialon,  has  little  in  its  &\ia. 

A  native  or  inhabitant  either  of  an  un- 
known town  called  Sfaaalbon.  -w  more  pvob- 
aUy  of  Shaalhim  «.2  Sam.  xxiiL  33;  1  Chroo. 
xL  33*. 

Sha'a-Ilm,  in  A.  Y.  ShaliB  [fetxes]. 

A  district  apparently  in  l^iaim.  throogh 
which  SanL  on  leaving  the  land  of  ShaKAah, 
posed  in  quest  of  hK  &ther  s  asses  (1  Sam. 
ix.  4>.    Stuation  unknown. 

Sha'aph. 

1.  A  son  of  JahdaL  included  in  the  regis- 
tiy  of  Cakb  (I  Chrui.  h.  47). 

2.  A  son  of  C^leb  by  his  concnbine  Maacah. 
He  was  ancest(»'  at  the  inhabitants  of  llad- 
mannah  (1  Chrcm.  iL  49}. 

Sha-a-ialm,  in  A.  T.  once  SJiaTati  [two 
gates]. 

1.  A  town  in  the  lowland  of  Jndah  kJoA. 
XV.  36j[^ap)nrently  westof  Soceh  and  Aaekah 
(1  Sam.  xviL  32  with  1).  Not  identified. 
Saireh  auMHig  the  hOb.  5  miles  northeast  by 
north  of  Socoh.  has  not  the  proper  location : 
and  the  ten  and  village  of  Zakarijn^  on  either 
side  of  wady  e&Sont  and  aboot  31  miles  to  the 
n<Hthwcst  of  Socoh,  have  only  one  consonant 
in  camunon  with  Shaaraim.  and  beades  appear 
to  be  named  after  the  profhrt  Zfrhariah. 
whose  giave  is  shown  thoe. 

2.  A  town  of  Simeon  (1  Chron.  iv.  31) ;  see 

Sbat-ash'gax. 

A  chamberlain  of  king  Ahasneras  (Esth. 
iL  14  . 

Shablie-ttiai  [pertaining  to  the  Sabbath]. 
A  chief  Levite.  prominent  in  Ezra's  time 
(Ezra  X.  15 ;  Neh.  viiL  T;  xL  16). 

Sha-chi'a. 

A  Benjamite,  son  of  iSiahaiaim  f  1  Chron. 
viiL10>. 

Sha'draiA  [probably  Bilnilonian,  ^mdmr- 
ml*,  decree  of  the  nMMm-god]. 

llie  name  given  by  the  ^ince  of  tiie 
ennuelis  at  Babylon  to  Hanamah,  one  of  the 
three  fidthful  Hebrews  afterwards  miracn- 
looyy  saved  firom  the  fiery  fiimace  (Dan. 
L  7 :  iiL  12-30ji. 

Sha'ge  [wandering,  a  wandeier]. 

A  Hararite.  the  &lher  of  one  of  David's 
mi^ty  men  (1  Chron.  xL  Si).  Some  expoei- 
tois  woald  read  Agee  instead  of  9iage,  on 
the  ground  of  2  Sam.  "v^i"  11.  The  moie 
appiopiiate  comparism  with  2  Sun.  xxiiL  3S; 
33L  and  the  reading  of  Lncian's  recenaon  of 
tiie  Septnagint  lender  more  psoiaMe  tbe  con- 
jertnre  that  the  name  is  really  Shammah ;  see 


C-"-!  -V-.-- 


ible  dawning]. 
:    —  eroos  descend- 


Shahazumali 


G64 


Shalmaneser 


Sha-haz'u-mah,  in  A.  V.  Sha-haz'l-mali, 
as  in  Hebrew  margiu  [not  improbably,  lofty 
places]. 

A  town  on  the  border  of  Issachar  (Josh. 
xix.  22).     Situation  unknown. 

Sha'lem  [entire,  safe]. 

A  town  near  Slicchem  (Gen.  xxxiii.  18), 
accordinji  to  the  Greek,  Latin,  and  Syriac 
versions,  followed  by  A.  V.  It  is  scarcely 
Salem  (Gen.  xiv.  18),  for  that  town  is  prob- 
ably Jerusalem  ;  nor  Salim,  4  miles  east  of 
Shechem,  which  is  not  mentioned  in  the 
O.  T.  The  word  is  probably  a  common  noun, 
to  be  rendered,  with  K.  V.,  in  peace  or  safety. 

Shalim.     See  Shaalim. 

Shal'i-shah,  in  A.  V.  Shalisha  [a  third 
part] . 

A  district  apparently  in  the  hill  country 
of  Ephraim,  traversed  by  Saul  in  quest  of 
his  father's  asses  (1  Sam.  ix.  4).  Its  situation 
is  unknown.  It  does  not  seem  to  be  the 
same  as  Baal-shalishah. 

Shal'le-cheth  [casting  out]. 

A  gate  of  Solomon's  temple  on  the  west 
(1  Chron.  xxvi.  16). 

Shal'lum  [retribution]. 

1.  A  sou  of  Naphtali  (1  Chron.  vii.  13) ;  see 
Shillem. 

2.  A  descendant  of  Simeon  through  Shaul 
(1  Chron.  iv.  24,  25). 

3.  A  descendant  of  Judah  through  Sisamai 
(1  Chron.  ii.  40,  41). 

4.  The  chief  porter  at  the  sanctuary  (1 
Chron.  ix.  17,  18).  If  before  the  exile,  as  is 
probable,  he  is  mentioned  by  Jeremiah 
(Jer.  XXXV.  4).  He  was  a  son  of  Kore,  a  Kor- 
hite,  and  he  and  his  family  were  keepers  of 
the  gates  of  the  sanctuary  (1  Chron.  ix.  19). 
The  name  Shall  um  may  be  equivalent  to  Me- 
shelemiah  orShelemiah  (xxvi.  1,  14),  whether 
the  registry  of  chajHer  ix.  be  referred  to  the 
time  before  or  after  the  exile.  A  comparison 
of  ix.  21  with  xxvi.  2  raises  a  strong  pre- 
sumption against  the  identification.  If  not^ 
withstanding  this,  the  registry  be  regarded 
as  post-exilic  and  Shallum  be  identified  with 
Shelemiah,  then  Shallum  is  not  the  name  of 
a  person,  but  of  the  family,  in  the  registry. 

5.  A  son  of  Jabesh,  who  murdered  king 
Zechariah  and  reigned  in  his  stead  over  the 
ten  tribes,  but  in  a  month  was  himself  assas- 
sinated by  Menahem  (2  Kin.  xv.  8-15). 

6.  Father  of  a  certain  Jehizkiah  (2  Chron. 
xxviii.  12). 

7.  A  member  of  the  high-priestly  family 
of  Zadok,  and  an  ancestor  of  Ezra.  He  lived 
several  generations  before  the  capture  of  Je- 
rusalem by  Nebuchadnezzar  (1  Chron.  vi.  12- 
15 ;  Ezra  vii.  2).  Called  Meshullam  in  1 
Chron.  ix.  11 ;  see  Meshullam  4. 

8.  A  son  of  Tikvah,  and  the  husband  of 
Huldah,  the  prophetess,  and  in  the  reign  of 
Josiah  the  officer  who  had  charge  either  of 
the  priests'  garments  which  were  kept  in  the 
temple  or  of  the  king's  wardrobe  (2  Kin. 
xxii.  14  ;  2  Chron.  xxxiv.  22). 


9.  Uncle  of  Jeremiah,  and  the  father  of 
Hanameel  (Jer.  xxxii.  7,  8).  He  was  not  a 
member  of  the  high-priestly  family,  as  some 
have  thought ;  for  his  son  lived  at  Anathoth, 
a  town  where  priests  of  Ithamar's  line  dwelt 
(1  Kin.  ii.  26),  and  the  high  priests  of  this 
time  belonged  to  the  line  of  Eleazar. 

10.  Another  name  for  Jehoahaz,  son  of 
Josiah,  king  of  Judah  (2  Kin.  xsiii.  30-34) ; 
see  Jehoahaz. 

11  and  12.  A  porter  of  the  temple,  and  a 
son  of  Bani,  each  of  whom  was  induced  by 
Ezra  to  put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x. 
24,  42). 

13.  A  son  of  Hallohesh,  ruler  of  half  the 
district  of  Jerusalem.  With  his  daughters, 
he  repaired  part  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem 
(Neh.  iii.  12). 

Shal'lun  [perhaps, spoliation]. 

A  ruler  of  part  of  Mizpah,  who  repaired 
the  gate  of  the  fountains  at  Jerusalem  (Neh. 
iii.  15). 

Shal'mai.     See  Salmai. 

Shal'man. 

Tiglath-]>ileser  mentions Salamanu  of  Moab 
among  the  various  princes  who  were  tribu- 
tary to  him  (II.  E.  67,  60),  and  Schrader  be- 
lieves that  this  person  is  Shalman,  the  de- 
stroyer of  Beth-arbel,  to  whom  Hosea  refers 
(Hos.  x.  14),  and  that  Beth-arbel  is  the  town 
of  that  name  east  of  the  Jordan,  near  Pella. 
These  identifications  may  be  correct,  but  they 
are  unsupported.  It  is  not  known  that  Sala- 
manu of  Moab  invaded  the  land  of  Israel, 
but  it  is  known  that  Shalnianeser  of  Assyria 
did.  In  the  light  of  ]ires(  iit  knowledge,  it 
is  more  natural  to  regard  Shalman  as  an  ab- 
breviation of  Shalmaneser,  exactly  such  an 
abbreviation  as  is  Benhadad,  and  to  think 
of  Beth-arbel  as  being  the  town  of  Galilee, 
from  which  Shalmaneser's  army  was  cer- 
tainly not  far  distant.     See  Shalmaneser  4. 

Shal-ma-ne'ser  [Assyrian  Shulmann-asfiar- 
idu,  god  Shulmau  is  chief]. 

The  name  of  several  Assyrian  kings : 

1.  The  builder,  or  rather  rebuilder,  and 
fortifier  of  the  town  of  Calah  (q.  v.).  He 
reigned  about  1.300  b.  c. 

2.  The  son  of  Ashurnasirpal.  He  reigned 
from  about  860  to  825  B.  c,  and  was  the  first  . 
Assyrian  king  who  came  into  conflict  with 
the  Israelites.  He  was  energetic  and  per- 
sistent in  purpose.  He  crossed  the  Eu])hrates 
with  hostile  intent  as  early  as  his  first  year 
and  wasted  the  Hittite  country  as  far  as  the 
Mediterranean ;  and  he  repeatedly  cros.sed 
the  river  later,  besides  waging  war  in  the 
countries  north,  east,  and  south  of  Nineveh. 
To  resist  him  in  the  west,  the  Syrian  league 
was  formed,  which  included  Damascus,  Ha- 
math,  and  the  twelve  kings  of  the  coast,  and 
was  at  times  reenforced  by  the  soldiers  of  the 
neighboring  nations.  Thus,  for  instance,  the 
army  of  Ahab  of  Israel  was  found  fight- 
ing side  by  side  with  the  men  of  Damascus 
against  the  common  As.syrian  foe  at  Karkar 


Shalmaneser 


665 


Shamma 


ill  8J)4  B.  c.  ;  see  Ahab,  Bkniiadad.  Shal- 
iiiiineser  claims  to  have  won  the  battle  of 
Karkar ;  but  he  gained  nothing  if  he  did, 
and  at  ouce  led  his  army  baek  to  Nineveh. 
After  three  years  he  returned,  but  his  on- 
ward course  was  again  stoi)i)ed  by  the  allies. 
The  following  year,  the  eleventh  of  his  reign, 
lie  crossed  the  Euphrates  and  plundered 
many  towns  of  the  kingdom  of  Hamath,  but 
he  was  again  checked.  In  his  fourteenth 
year  he  returned  and  conquered.  The  power 
of  the  league  was  broken.    In  his  eighteenth 


troops  to  oppose  Shalnianeser  and  was  de- 
feated and  ca])tured  ;  and  (hat  this  battle 
took  place  at  the  strategic  point  and  noted 
battleground,  Arbela  in  Galilee.  This  con- 
jecture, which  identities  Shalman  of  Hos.  x. 
14  with  Shalmane.ser,  is  alluring  ;  but  it  is 
only  conjecture.  After  seizing  the  king, 
whether  at  Arbela  or  elsewhere,  Shalmaneser 
laid  siege  to  the  capital.  Samaria  stood  this 
siege  for  three  years  and  then  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Assyrians  (2  Kin.  xvii.  1-6 ; 
xviii.  9, 10).    Whether  Shalmaneser  was  still 


Shalmaneser  receiving  the  Tribute  of  Jehu. 


year,  842  b.  c,  he  defeated  Hazael  of  Damas- 
cus at  mount  Hermon.  The  kings  of  Tyre 
and  Sidon,  and  Jehu  of  Israel,  in  dismay 
hastened  to  make  submission  by  sending 
tribute. 

3.  King  from  783  to  773  b.  c.  His  reign 
does  not  touch  Hebrew  history. 

4.  Successor  of  Tiglath-pileser.  Before  his 
accession  to  the  throne,  and  even  afterwards, 
he  was  known  by  the  name  of  Ululai,  in 
Greek  Iloulaios  (Ptolemy's  canon).  He 
reigned  from  the  25th  of  Tebet,  the  tenth 
month,  727  b.  c,  to  the  12th  of  Tebet,  722  B. 
c.  In  725  he  undertook  an  expedition  to 
foreign  parts.  According  to  the  Syrian  an- 
nals cited  by  Josephus,  Shalmaneser  overran 
Phoenicia.  On  the  approach  of  the  Assyrians, 
Sidon,  Acre,  and  Tyre  on  the  mainland  re- 
volted from  the  dominion  of  island  Tyre  and 
acknowledged  the  suzerainty  of  the  invader. 
The  Assyrian  king  thereupon  withdrew.  He 
returned,  however,  to  war  against  the  island. 
His  ships,  manned  by  his  Phoenician  subjects, 
were  scattered  by  the  Tyrians  in  a  naval  en- 
gagement. After  this  defeat  Shalmaneser 
marched  away,  leaving  troops  enough  to 
maintain  a  siege  of  the  city,  which  was  sus- 
tained for  five  years  (Antiq.  ix.  14,  2),  wlien 
Tyre  submitted  to  Sargon.  When  Shalma- 
neser arrived  in  the  west,  Hoshea  paid  him 
tribute,  as  he  had  done  to  his  predecessor,  but 
he  soon  stopped  his  payments,  relying  upon 
So  of  Egypt  to  aid  him  in  fighting  the  As- 
syrians, and  perhaps  encouraged  by  the  stern 
resistance  of  Tyre.  Shalmaneser  promptly  had 
him  seized  and  imprisoned.  It  is  quite  jiroba- 
ble    that   Hoshea   had   gone   forth  with  his 


on  the  throne  or  had  just  been  succeeded  by 
Sargon,  is  still  a  (juestion  ;  see  Sargon. 

Sha'ma  [hearing,  or  he  hath  heard]. 
A  son  of  Hotham,  the  Aroerite.     He  was 
one  of  David's  mighty  men  (1  C'hron.  xi.  44). 

Sham-a-ri'ah.     See  Shemariah. 

Sha'med.     See  Shemed. 

Slia'iner.     See  Shemer. 

Sham 'gar. 

A  Hebrew  judge,  the  son  of  Anath.  He 
lived  not  long  before  Deborah  and  Barak.  In 
his  days,  through  the  oppression  of  the  Phi- 
listines, the  highways  were  unoccupied,  and 
the  travelers  walked  through  byways  ( Judg. 
v.  6).  But  Shamgar  slew  600  of  the  enemy 
with  an  oxgoad  and  delivered  Israel  (iii.  31). 

Sham'liuth  [desolation]. 

An  Izrahite,  David's  captain  for  the  fifth 
month  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  8).  Perhaps  identi- 
cal with  Shammah  4. 

Sha'mir  [a  thorn]. 

1.  A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  48)  ;  probably  represented  by  the 
ruin  Somerah,  about  13  miles  west-southwest 
of  Hebron. 

2.  A  town  in  mount  Ephraim.  which  the 
judge  Tola,  though  a  man  of  Issachar,  made 
his  residence,  and  where  he  was  buried 
(Judg.  X.  1,  2).     Site  unknown. 

3.  A  Levite,  a  son  of  Micah  (1  Chron. 
xxiv.  24). 

Sham 'ma  [desolation]. 

An  Asherite,  a  son  of  Zophah  (1  Chron.  vii. 


37). 


Shammah 


666 


Shashak 


Sham'mali  [desolation]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Esau  and  also  of  Ish- 
mael  (Gen.  xxxvi.  3,  4,  13,  17).  He  became 
a  duke  of  Edom  (17). 

2.  Third  son  of  Jesse,  and  brother  of 
David  (1  Sam.  xvi.  9 ;  xvii.  13).  See 
Shimea  3. 

3.  One  of  David's  first  three  mighty  men, 
a  son  of  Agee,  a  Hararite  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  11). 
Shammah  tlie  Hararite  is  named  in  ver.  33 ; 
and  in  view  of  1  Chron.  xi.  34  and  textual 
considerations,  is  reasonably  believed  to  be 
this  person  mentioned  again  as  father  of 
Jonathan.  The  words  in  Samuel  and  Chron- 
icles are  to  be  read:  "Jonathan,  son  of 
Shammah  the  Hararite." 

4.  A  Harodite,  also  one  of  David's  mighty 
men  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  25).  In  1  Chron.  xi.  27 
the  plural  form  Shammoth  is  used.  Sham- 
huth  of  1  Chron.  xxvii.  8  is  perhaps  another 
external  and  unessential  variation  of  this 
man's  name. 

Sham'mai  [waste]. 

1.  A  son  of  Onam,  house  of  Jerahmeel, 
tribe  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  ii.  28). 

2.  A  son  of  Eekem,  house  of  Caleb,  tribe 
of  Judah  (1  Chron.  ii.  44). 

3.  A  son  of  a  certain  Ezrah,  registered 
with  the  tribe  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  iv.  17). 

Sham'moth  [desolations].  See  Shammah 4. 

Sliam-mu'a,  in  A.  V.  once  Shammuah  (2 
Sam.  v.  14)   [something  heard,  fame]. 

1.  The  representative  from  the  tribe  of 
Eeuben  sent  to  spy  the  land  of  Canaan 
(Num.  xiii.  4). 

2.  A  son  of  David  by  Bath-sheba,  born  at 
Jerusalem  (2  Sam.  v.  14  ;  1  Chron.  iii.  5) ;  see 
Bath-shua.  He  bore  an  uncle's  name  (ii.  13). 
In  1  Chron.  iii.  5  he  is  called  Shimea;  an  un- 
essential variant,  having  the  same  meaning 
as  Shammua,  differing  only  in  the  mode  of 
formation. 

3.  A  Levite  descended  from  Jeduthun 
(Neh.  xi.  17). 

4.  A  priest  in  the  days  of  the  high  priest 
Joiakim.  He  was  head  of  the  father's  house 
of  Bilgah  (Neh.  xii.  18). 

Sham'she-rai. 

A  Benjamite,  a  son  of  Jeroham  (1  Chron. 
viii.  26). 

Sha'pham. 

A  Gadite  dwelling  in  Bashan  (1  Chron.  v. 
12). 

Sha'phan  [hyrax,  rock  badger]. 

A  scribe  in  the  reign  of  Josiah.  When 
Hilkiah  found  the  book  of  the  law,  he  gave 
it  to  Shaphan,  who  read  it  at  first  privately, 
and  then  to  the  king.  Afterwards  he  was 
one  of  those  who  went  to  Huldah,  the 
prophetess,  to  consult  her  regarding  the 
threatenings  contained  in  the  book  (2  Kin. 
xxii.  8-14).  He  was  the  father  of  Ahikam 
(Jer.  xxvi.  24;  xxxix.  14),  Gemariah  (xxxvi. 
10),  and  Jaazaniah  (Ezek.  viii.  11),  and  the 
grandfather  of  Gedaliah  (2  Kin.  xxv.  22). 


Sha'phat  [he  hath  judged]. 

1.  The  representative  from  the  tribe  of 
Simeon  who  was  sent  to  spy  the  land  of 
Canaan  (Num.  xiii.  5). 

2.  A  Gadite  in  Bashan  (1  Chron.  v.  12). 

3.  Son  of  Adlai,  and  David's  overseer  of 
the  herds  that  were  in  the  valleys  (1  Chron. 
xxvii.  29). 

4.  Father  of  the  prophet  Elisha  (1  Kin. 
xix.  16). 

5.  A  son  of  Shemaiah,  registered  with  the 
descendants  of  David  (1  Chron.  iii.  22). 

Sha'pher.     See  Shepher. 

Sha'pMr,  in  A.  V.  Saphir  [beautiful]. 

A  town  in  Judah  (Mic.  i.  11).  Not  identi- 
fied. Robinson  and  others  locate  it  at  es- 
Suwafir,  5  miles  southeast  of  Ashdod. 

Sha'rai  [perhaps,  free]. 

A  son  of  Bani,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  40). 

Shar'a-im.     See  Shaakaim. 

Sha'rar  [firm]. 

A  Hararite,  father  of  one  of  David's  mighty 
men  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  33).  Called  in  1  Chron. 
xi.  35  Sacar. 

Sha-re'zer,  in  A.  V.  Sherezer  in  Zech.  vii. 
2  [protect  the  king]. 

1.  A  son  of  Sennacherib.  With  one  of  his 
brothers  he  murdered  his  father  (2  Kin.  xix. 
37  ;  Is.  xxxvii.  38). 

2.  A  man  sent  from  Bethel  to  the  priests 
at  Jerusalem  to  inquire  whether  the  fasts 
should  be  kept,  now  that  the  cause  for  them 
no  longer  existed  (Zech.  vii.  2). 

Shar'on,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Saron  (Acts  ix. 
35)  [a  plain]. 

1.  The  seacoast  between  Joppa  and  Carmel, 
and  extending  back  to  the  hills  of  Samaria. 
It  was  a  fertile  region  (Is.  xxxv.  2),  a  pasture 
land  for  flocks  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  29 ;  Is.  Ixv. 
10)  ;  but  like  a  desert  when  devastated  (Is. 
xxxiii.9).  Among  its  flowers,  lilies  and  anem- 
ones are  prominent ;  .see  Lily,  Rose.  Lydda 
was  at  its  southern  limit  (cp.  Acts  ix.  35).  Its 
length  is  about  50  miles,  its  breadth  9  or  10. 
It  is  not  flat,  but  agreeably  undulated,  with 
here  and  there  groves  of  oak,  and  with  ex- 
cellent pasturage,  except  that  in  places  thorns 
and  thistles  too  much  abound. 

2.  A  pasture  region  east  of  the  Jordan 
(1  Chron.  v.  16).     Situation  undetermined. 

Sha-ru'hen. 

A  village  in  the  territory  of  Simeon  (Josh, 
xix.  6),  apparentlv  the  place  called  Shaaraim 
(1  Chron.  iv.  31)  and  Shilhira  (Josh.  xv.  32). 
"The  fortified  town  Sherohan  or  Sheruhan,on 
the  road  from  Egypt  to  Gaza,  a  place  often 
mentioned  in  Egyptian  military  records,  is 
probably  intended. 

Sha'shai  [whitish,  pale]. 

A  son  of  Bani,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife* (Ezra  x.  40). 

Sha'shak. 

A  Benjamite,  a  son  of  Elpaal  (1  Chron. 
viii.  14,  25). 


Shaul 


667 


Shebam 


Sha'ul  [asked]. 

1.  A  king  of  Edom,  from  Rehoboth  on  the 
Euphrates  (Gen.  xxxvi.  37,  in  A.  V.  Saul; 
1  Chron.  i.  48). 

2.  A  son  of  Simeon  by  a  Canaanitish 
woman  (Gen.  xlvi.  10;  Ex.  vi.  15;  1  Chron. 
1.  4S).  He  founded  a  tribal  family  (Num. 
xxvi.  13). 

3.  A  Kohathite  Levite.  descended  through 
Korah,  Abiasaph,  and  Tahath  (1  Chron.  vi. 
24). 

Sha'veh  [a  plain]. 

A  valley,  afterwards  called  the  king's  dale, 
near  Salem,  in  which  the  king  of  Sodom  met 
Abraham  after  the  defeat  of  Chedorlaomer 
(Gen.  xiv.  17, 18).  Absalom  reared  a  memorial 
pillar  for  himself  there  (2  Sam.  xviii.  18), 
which  according  to  Josephus  stood  about  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  from  Jerusalem  (Antiq.  vii. 
10,  3). 

Sha'veh-kir-i-a-tha'im,  in  A.  V.  Shaveh 
Kiriatliaini  [plain  of  Kiriathaim]. 

A  plain  near  the  city  of  Kiriathaim,  in  the 
territory  afterwards  assigned  to  Reuben.  It 
■was  at  first  inhabited  by  Emim  (Gen.  xiv.  5). 
Exact  situation  unknown. 

Shav'sha  and  SMsha  [original  Hebrew 
orthography  and  meaning  of  name  un- 
known]. 

A  scribe  of  David  and  afterwards  of  Solo- 
mon (1  Chron.  xviii.  16;  1  Kin.  iv.  3).  Prob- 
ably identical  with  the  scribe  Seraiah  (2  Sam. 
viii.  17)  and  doubtless  with  the  scribe  Sheva 
(2  Sam.  XX.  25). 

She'al  [an  asking]. 

A  son  of  Bani  induced  by  Ezra  to  put  away 
his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  29). 

She-al'ti-el,  in  A.  V.  of  1  Chron.  iii.  17 
and  of  X.  T.  SalatMel,  the  Greek  form  [I 
have  asked  God]. 

A  son  of  king  Jeconiah  (1  Chron.  iii.  17 ; 
Mat.  i.  12)  and  also  of  Xeri  (Luke  iii.  27).  He 
was  the  father  of  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  iii.  2,  etc.). 
and  yet  apparently  his  uncle,  or  possibly, 
though  not  probably,  his  grandfather  (1 
Chron.  iii.  17-19).  The  explanation  probably 
is  that,  while  neither  the  son  of  Jeconiah 
nor  the  father  of  Zerubbabel  after  the  flesh, 
he  was  the  legitimate  successor  of  .Jeconiah 
to  the  royal  title,  and  on  his  own  death  the 
right  to  the  throne  passed  to  Zerubbabel.  He 
is  the  link  in  the  royal  succession  connecting 
Jeconiah  with  Zerubbabel.  See  AssiE,  Ze- 
ECBBABEL.  and  Genealogy  II. 

She-a-ri'ali  [Jehovah  hath  esteemed]. 

A  descendant  of  Jonathan  (1  Chron.  viii. 
38). 

Shear'ing  House. 

The  place  where  Jehu  slew  the  forty-two 
brethren  of  Ahaziah,  king  of  Judah,  who 
were  going  to  Ahaziah  at  Samaria  while  he 
was  on  a  visit  to  the  wounded  king  of  Israel 
(2  Kin.  X.  12-14).  It  took  its  name  either 
from  the  fact  that  shepherds  there  bound 
the  sheep  which  they  were  about  to  shear,  or 


because  they  were  in  the  habit  of  meeting 
there  (Targum  ;  R.  V.  margin).  The  Hebrew 
name  is  Beth  'eked  haro'im,  in  the  Septuagint 
Baithakath.  The  name  perhaps  lingers  in 
Beit  Kad,  about  3  miles  east  by  north  of 
En-gannim,  and  about  16  northeast  by  north 
of  Samaria. 

She-ar-ja'shub  [a  remnant  shall  return]. 
A  son  of  Isaiah.     His  name  was  designed 
to  embody  a  prophecy  (Is.  vii.  3;  cp.  x.  21). 

She'ba,  I.  [a  man]. 

A  Cushite  people  descended  through  Raa- 
mah  and  closely  related  to  Dedan  (Gen.  x.  7), 
but  also  classed  as  a  Semitic  people  descended 
through  Joktan  (28)  and,  like  Dedan,  from 
Abraham  through  Jokshan  (xxv.  3).  So  far 
as  connected  with  Abraham,  they  migrated 
eastward  (xxv.  6  ;  cp.  Job  i.  15  ;  vi.  19).  They 
dwelt  in  the  south  (Mat.  xii.  42),  and  traded 
in  gold,  incense,  and  precious  stones  (1  Kin. 
X.  1  seq.  ;  Ps.  Ixxii.  10 ;  Is.  Ix.  6  ;  Jer.  vi.  20  ; 
Ezek.  xxvii.  22 ;  xxxviii.  13).  Sheba  was  a 
countrj'  and  people  of  southwestern  Arabia, 
well  known  from  its  own  records  and  classi- 
cal geographers.  Its  capital  was  Saba,  where 
is  now  the  ruin  of  Meriaba.  The  Sabeans 
were  a  great  commercial  people.  They  traded 
not  only  in  the  products  of  their  own  land, 
but  also  in  those  of  India  and  Ethiopia. 
Their  language  was  Semitic.  They  spread 
widely,  and  have  left  traces  of  their  name 
on  the  eastern  coast  of  Arabia,  and  in  the 
northern  desert  along  with  the  Xabathaeans. 
It  is  readily  conceivable  that  in  their  disper- 
sion they  became  mingled  with  other  tribes 
by  intermarriage  or  attached  to  them  by 
political  relations,  and  hence  they  might 
trace  their  descent  by  different  lines  and  be 
classed  variously  in  a  genealogy. 

She'ba,  II.  [seven,  an  oath]. 

1.  A  Simeonite  town,  mentioned  after  Beer- 
sheba  (Josh.  xix.  2).  Three  views  are  enter- 
tained regarding  it.  1.  Its  site  may  be  Tell 
es-Seb'a,  3  miles  east  of  Beer-sheba.  2.  It  is 
a  corruption  of  Shema  (cp.  Septuagint  and 
XV.  26).  3.  Since  it  is  lacking  in  1  Chron.  iv. 
28.  and  this  agrees  with  the  summation  in 
Josh.  xix.  6.  it  is  an  abbreviated  form  of 
Beer-sheba  (see  R.  V.)  or  accidentally  intro- 
duced into  the  text  by  dittography. 

2.  A  Benjamite.  a  son  of  Bichri.  After 
the  collapse  of  Absalom's  rebellion  and  the 
concurrence  of  the  ten  tribes  with  Judah  in 
restoring  David  to  his  throne,  Sheba  blew  a 
trumpet,  and  summoned  the  ten  tribes  to 
renounce  their  allegiance.  He  was  besieged 
in  Abel  of  Beth-maacah  and  lost  his  life 
there,  for  the  inhabitants  cut  off  his  head  and 
threw  it  over  the  wall  to  Joab  (2  Sam.  xx. 
1-22 1. 

3.  A  Gadite  dwelling  in  Gilead  in  Bashan 
(1  Chron.  v.  13,  16). 

She'bah.     See  Shibah. 

She 'bam.    See  Sibmah. 


Shebaniah 


668 


Shechem 


Sheb-a-ni'ah  [perhaps,  Jehovah  hath  dealt 
tenderly]. 

1.  A  I^e%ite  who  was  a  trumpeter  in 
David's  time  (1  Chron.  xv.  24). 

2.  A  father's  house  among  the  priests  in 
the  generation  after  the  exile  (Neh.  xii.  14) ; 
see  Shecaniah  3.  Its  representative  set  his 
seal  to  the  covenant  (x.  4). 

3.  A  Levite  who  assisted  at  the  feast  of 
tabernacles  in  Ezra's  time  (Neh.  ix.  4,  5),  and 
in  behalf  of  his  house  sealed  the  covenant 
(X.  10). 

4.  Another  Levite  who  sealed  the  covenant 
(Neh.  X.  12). 

Sheb'a-rim  [fractures,  breaches,  ruins ; 
perhaps,  quarries]. 

A  locality  near  Ai  (Josh.  vii.  5).  Site  un- 
known. 

She'bat,  in  A.  V.  Sebat,  and  1  Mac.  xvi. 
14,  A.  V.  Sabat,  K.  V.  Sebat. 

The  eleventh  mouth  of  the  year  (Zech.  i. 
7) ;  see  Year. 

Sbe'ber  [breaking,  fracture]. 

A  son  of  Caleb,  by  his  concubine  Maacah 
(1  Chron.  ii.  48). 

Sheb'na,  in  E.  V.  twice  Shebnah  (2  Kin. 
xviii.  18,  26)   [tenderness]. 

The  steward  of  the  king's  house  under 
Hezekiah  (Is.  xxii.  1.5),  a  man  of  great  influ- 
ence, apparently  a  foreigner,  and  fond  of 
display  (16,  18).  As  was  customary  among 
the  wealthy,  he  built  himself  a  sepulcher  in 
his  lifetime  (16).  Isaiah  rebuked  him,  call- 
ing him  the  sliame  <jf  his  lord's  house  ;  and 
predicted  his  fall  and  his  retirement  from 
Judah,  and  the  elevation  of  Eliakim  to  his 
place  (17-25).  Probably  later,  in  701  b.  c, 
Eliakim  held  the  position  of  house  steward, 
while  Shebna  was  only  Hezekiah's  .scribe  or 
secretary  (2  Kin.  xviii*.  18,  26,  37;  xix.  2). 

Sheb'u-el  [captive  of  God]. 

1.  A  son  of  Gershom,  and  a  grandson  of 
Moses  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  16;  xxvi.  24).  Called 
in  xxiv.  20  Shubael,  a  name  which  has  the 
same  meaning. 

2.  A  son  of  Heman,  in  David's  time  (1 
Chron.  xxv.  4).     Called  in  verse  20  Shubael. 

Shec-a-ni'ab,  in  A.  V.  Shecbaniah  ex- 
cept 1  Chron.  xxiv.  11  ;  2  Chron.  xxxi.  15 
[Jehovah  hath  dwelt]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Aaron.  His  family  had 
grown  to  a  father's  house  in  the  time  of  Da- 
vid, and  became  the  tenth  of  the  twenty-four 
courses  into  which  David  divided  the  priests 
(1  Chron.  xxiv.  1,  6,  11). 

2.  A  Levite  in  king  Hezekiah's  reign  (2 
Chron.  xxxi.  15). 

3.  A  chief  of  the  priests,  who  returned 
with  Zerubbabel  from  Babylon  (Neh.  xii.  3, 
7).  In  the  next  generation  a  father's  house 
probably  bore  his  name,  although  it  is  written 
Shebaniah  (ver.  14) ;  see  remarks  under  Beth 
for  the  misreading  of  caph  as  beth.  See  Sheb- 
aniah 2. 

4.  Founder  of  a  family,  presumably  a  de- 


scendant of  David,  but  not  in  the  line  of  suc- 
cession to  the  throne  (1  Chron.  iii.  21,  22),  for 
he  is  loosely  registered,  his  kinship  with 
Zerubbabel  not  l)eing  given.  Perhaps  his 
was  the  family  of  which  the  representative 
returned  from  Babylon  with  Ezra  (Ezra  viii. 
3j.  The  name  of  this  representative  has 
probably  fallen  out  of  the  Hebrew  text  be- 
tween Shecaniah  and  the  words  "  of  the  sous 
of  Parosh."  The  parallel  passage,  1  Esdr. 
viii.  29,  R.  V.,  has:  "Of  the  sons  of  David, 
Attus  the  son  of  Sechenias."  This  agrees 
indeed  with  the  fact  that  Hattush  was  a 
grand.son  of  Shecaniah  (1  Chron.  iii.  22),  but 
it  is  not  supported  by  either  the  Septuagint 
or  Hebrew  of  Ezra  viii.  3. 

5.  A  son  of  Jahaziel  and  descendant  of 
Zattu,  who  returned  from  Babylon  with  Ezra 
(Ezra  viii.  5,  Septuagint;  1  Esdr.  viii.  32). 

6.  A  son  of  Jehiel,  one  of  the  sons  of  Elam. 
He  confessed  the  guilt  of  liimself  and  his 
brethren  who  had  married  foreign  wives,  and 
proposed  to  Ezra  that  they  should  put  them 
away  (Ezra  x.  2,  3). 

7.  Father  of  Shemaiah,  the  keeper  of  the 
east  gate  in  Nehemiah's  time,  and  probably 
a  Levite  (Neh.  iii.  29).  and  not  the  man  of 
Judah  (1  Chron.  iii.  22). 

8.  Father-in-law  of  Tobiah,  the  Ammonite. 
He  was  the  sou  of  Arab  (Neh.  vi.  18). 

She'cbem,  in  A.  V.  once  Sichem  (Gen.  xii. 
6),  twice  Sycbem  (Acts  vii.  16),  Greek  forms 
[shoulder]. 

1.  A  town  among  the  hills  of  Ephraim 
(Josh.  XX.  7).  Abraham  camped  near  by 
(Gen.  xii.  6).  The  tribe  of  Hamor,  a  Hivite 
people,  occupied  the  place  ;  and  Jacob  bought 
of  them  a  parcel  of  ground,  where  Joseph's 
body  was  eventually  buried  (xxxiii.  18,  19  ; 
Josh.  xxiv.  32 ;  in  Acts  vii.  16  oddly  con- 
founded with  Abraham's  purchase  of  Mach- 
pelah).  Simeon  and  Levi  massacred  its  male 
inhabitants,  and  the  sons  of  Jacob  jilundered 
the  town,  on  account  of  the  injury  done  to 
their  sister  Dinah  (Gen.  xxxiv.  25,  27 ; 
xlviii.  22).  Joseph's  brothers  for  a  time  fed 
their  flocks  in  Shechem  (xxxvii.  12,  13).  The 
boundary  between  the  tribes  of  Ephraim  and 
Manasseh  passed  near  it  (Josh.  xvii.  7).  It 
was  made  one  of  the  cities  of  refuge  and  a  Le- 
vitical  city  (xx.  7 ;  xxi.  21 ).  Joshua  summoned 
the  tribes  thither  to  hear  his  farewell  address 
(xxiv.  1).  In  the  time  of  the  judges,  a  tem- 
ple of  Baal-berith  was  maintained  in  the 
town  (Judg.  viii.  3.3).  Gideon's  concubine 
resided  there ;  and  her  son,  Abimelech,  was 
a  native  of  Shechem,  and  for  a  time  was  as- 
sisted in  his  political  designs  by  the  men  of 
Shechem  (ix.  1,  3,  6),  ])ut  they  finally  turned 
against  him  and  lie  destroyed  the  city  (23, 
45).  The  Israelites  met  Kehoboam  there,  to 
sue  for  reforms;  and  when  their  request  was 
refused,  the  ten  tribes  made  Jeroboam  king 
(1  Kin.  xii.  1-19;  2  Chron.  x.  1-19).  Jero- 
boam strengthened  the  place  (cp.  1  Cliron. 
vii.  28),  making  it  for  the  time  his  capital  (1 


Shechem 


G69 


Shechem 


Kin.  xii.  25).  Sbochem  is  mentioned  in  Ps. 
Ix.  t>  aiul  cviii.  7.  It  continued  in  existence 
after  tlie  dost  ruction  of  Jerusalem  (Jer.  xli. 
5)  ;  and  became  the  chief  city  of  the  Samar- 
itans (Ecchis.  1.  26  ;  Antiq.  xi.  8,  6).  It  was 
captured  by  John  Hyrcanus  (xiii.  9,  1). 
It  has  been  frequently  identified  with  the  N. 
T.  Sj'char,  but  the  two,  although  adjacent  to 
each  other,  are  believed  to  bedifl'erent  i)Iaces. 
The  Greeks  termed  it  Neapolis  or  the  New 
City  (War  iv.  8.  1),  a  name  that,  unlike 
mo.st  of  those  which  they  bestowed  on  old 
Hebrew  cities,  took  root  and  still  exists  in 
the  form  Nablus  or  Nabulus.  Shechem,  or 
Nablus,  is  about  31^  miles  north  of  Jeru- 
salem   and    5^    southeast  of    Samaria.      It 


narrow  and  vaulted  over,  besides  which  in 
rainy  weather  some  of  them  become  the  beds 
of  streams.  Eighty  springs  of  water  are  said 
to  exist  in  or  around  the  city  ;  the  fertility 
of  the  district  is,  therefore,  exceptionally 
great.  These  are  used  to  make  channels 
through  the  gardens,  then,  uniting,  to  turn  a 
mill.  The  gardens  and  orchards  are  one  mass 
of  trees,  flowers,  and  fruits,  including  mul- 
berries, oranges,  pomegranates,  etc.  The 
mass  of  the  inhabitants  are  Mohammedans, 
then  follow  a  few  hundred  Greek  Christians, 
a  small  Jewish  population,  and  about  150 
Samaritans,  the  last  named  religionists  living 
most  of  them  together  in  the  northwestern 
part   of  the   city.     Jacob's   well   is  about  2 


Shechem  and  Mount  Gerizim. 


lies  in  the  upland  valley,  bounded  by  mount 
Ebal  on  the  north,  and  mount  Gerizim  on 
the  south,  and,  to  a  considerable  extent,  rises 
along  the  northern  slope  of  the  latter  hill,  so 
that  its  perpendicular  cliff's  are  in  close  prox- 
imity to  part  of  the  city.    The  streets  are 


miles  east-southeast,  and  the  reputed  tomb 
of  Joseph  about  2  east,  of  Shechem. 

2.  The  son  of  Hamor,  the  Hivite,  who  was 
prince  of  Shechem  (Gen.  xxxiv.  1-31). 

3.  A  son  of  Gilead,  and  the  founder  of  a 
tribal  family  (Num.  xxvi.  31  ;  Josh.  xvii.  2). 


Shedeur 


670 


Sheepfold 


4.  A  Manassite,  a  son  of  Shemidah  (1 
Chron.  vii.  19). 

Shed'e-\ir  [emission,  light]. 

Father  of  Elizur,  the  Keubenite  chief  in 
the  wilderness  (Num.  i.  5;  ii.  10). 

Sheep. 

Sheep  were  early  domesticated  (Gen.  iv.  2), 
and   constituted   valuable   property.      They 


Broad-tailed  Sheep  of  Syria. 

were  herded  by  the  Hebrew  patriarchs  (Gen. 
xii.  16),  and  by  their  descendants  when  so- 
journing in  Egypt,  and  later  when  settled  in 
Palestine  (Ex.  x.  9  ;  xii.  32,  38  ;  1  Chron.  xxvii. 
31)  ;  and  they  continued  to  be  kept  down  to 
the  latest  times  (Luke  ii.  8).  The  wilderness 
of  Judaea  and  the  southcouiitry,  and  especially 
the  plateau  of  Moab,  were  pasture  lands  (Num. 
xxxii.  1 ;  .Judg.  v.  16  ;  1  Sam.  xvi. 
11 ;  XXV.  2) ;  and  so  were  neighbor- 
ing countries,  as  Mesopotamia  (Gen. 
xxix.  2) ,  the  land  of  Uz  and  of  the 
Hagarenes  (.Job  i.  3;  1  Chron.  v.  20, 
21),  Midian  (Ex.  ii.  16),  Kedar  and 
the  Nabathsean  country  (Is.  Ix.  7 ; 
Ezek.  xxvii.  21  ;  cp.  1  Sam.  xv.  7, 
9).  In  these  regions  the  sheep, 
owing  to  the  heat  and  dryness  of 
the  climate,  require  water  daily 
(Gen.  xxix.  8,  9 ;  Ex.  ii.  16-19).  The 
sheep  was  a  clean  animal  and  used 
for  food  ;  its  flesh  was  eaten  (1  Sam. 
xiv.  32  ;  XXV.  18;  2  Sam.  xvii.  29  ;  1 
Kin.  iv.  23),  and  the  rich  milk  of 
the  ewes  was  drunk  (Deut.  xxxii. 
14  ;  Is.  vii.  21,  22  ;  1  Cor.  ix.  7).  The 
.skin  served  as  rude  clothing  (Heb. 
xi.  37 ;  cp.  Zech.  xiii.  4 ;  Mat.  vii. 
15),  and  it  was  some  times  converted 
into  leather  (Ex.  xxvi.  14).  From 
the  wool,  cloth  was  woven  (Lev.  xiii. 
47,  48  ;  Job  xxxi.  20 ;  Prov.  xxvii. 
26  ;  Ezek.  xxxi  v.  3) ;  hence  wool  was 
a  valuable  commodity,  and  was  ren- 
dered as  tribute  (2  Kin.  iii.  4  ;  Is. 
xvi.  1).  Sheep  shearing  was  made 
a  time  of  feasting  and  frolic  (Gen. 


xxxviii.  12  ;  1  Sam.  xxv.  4, 11,  36  ;  2  Sam.  xiii. 
23).  The  horns  of  rams  served  as  flasks  and 
trumpets  (Josh.  vi.  4;  1  Sam.  xvi.  1).  As 
the  sheep  was  a  clean  animal,  it  was  used  in 
sacrifice  by  the  Hebrews  and  other  peoples 
(Ex.  XX.  24  ;  John  ii.  14  ;  Num.  xxii.  40).  An 
animal  of  the  flock  might  be  taken  for  a 
burnt  offering  (Lev.  i.  10),  a  sin  offering  of 
the  common  people  (iv.  32),  a  guilt  and  a 
trespass  offering  (v.  15 ;  vi.  6),  and  a  peace 
offering  (xxii.  21)  ;  see  Lamb,  Eam.  The 
sheep  was  known  for  its  aflection  (2  Sam. 
xii.  3),  docility  (John  x.  3,  4),  meekness  and 
submissiveness  (Is.  liii.  7  ;  Jer.  xi.  19),  help- 
lessness when  left  to  itself  (Mic.  v.  8  ;  Mat. 
X.  16),  and  its  need  of  guidance  (Num.  xxvii. 
17;  Ezek.  xxxiv.  5;  Mat.  ix.  36;  xxvi.  31). 

The  sheep  of  Palestine  and  the  adjacent 
regions  are  usually  white  (Ps.  cxlvii.  16;  Is. 
i.  18;  Ezek.  xxvii.  IS),  but  occasionally  they 
are  black  or  brown,  or  piebald,  either  white 
and  tawny  or  white  and  black  (Gen.  xxx.  32). 
Two  breeds  of  sheep  are  found  in  Palestine. 
In  the  northern  districts  a  short-wooled  va- 
riety is  raised,  of  which  both  the  rams  and 
evres  arc  honied.  But  the  broad-tailed  sheep 
{Ovis  lidic<ii(il((fa)  is  more  general.  It  has 
been  bred  since  early  ages  in  Arabia  and 
Palestine  (Herod,  iii.  113;  cp.  Ex.  xxix.  22; 
Lev.  iii.  9  ;  vii.  3;  viii.  25).  The  tails  which 
are  offered  for  sale  in  the  markets  ordinarily 
weigh  ten  or  fifteen  pounds;  but  when  the 
sheep  is  well  fattened,  the  tail  grows  to  an 
enormous  size.  The  Arabs  regard  it  as  a 
delicacy,  frying  it  in  slices. 

Sheep'fold  and  Sheep'cote. 

An  inclosure  for  sheep  (Jer.  xxiii.  3  ;  Ezek. 
xxxiv.  14),  whither  the  flock  was  ordinarily 


Syrian  Sheepfold. 


Sheep  Gate 


671 


Shelumiel 


driven  for  the  night.  Many  were  permanent 
pens,  surrounded  by  a  stone  wall  (ep.  Num. 
xxxii.  IG)  and  entered  by  a  gate  (John  x. 
1).  The  wall  was  often  surmounted  with 
branches  of  thorny  shrubs.  The  sheep  lay 
in  the  yard  under  the  open  sky  ;  but  doubt- 
less there  were  in  former  days,  as  there  are 
now,  low,  flat  buildings  on  the  sheltered  side 
of  the  area,  in  which  the  flocks  were  shut  up 
on  cold  nights.  It  was  common  for  several 
flocks  to  pass  the  night  in  one  fold  under  the 
care  of  an  under-shepherd,  who  guarded  the 
door.  The  shejiherds  came  in  the  morning, 
and  were  admitted  by  the  under-shepherd. 
Each  shepherd  knew  the  sheep  of  his  own 
flock,  and  was  known  by  them  (John  x.  3, 
4).  Less  substantial  inclosures  were  hastily 
formed  of  tangled  thorn  branches  for  tem- 
porary use  on  pastures  remote  from  home, 
and  caves  and  other  natural  shelters  were 
also  taken  advantage  of  for  protecting  the 
sheep  at  night,  the  shepherds  camping  with 
their  flocks.  On  ranges  exposed  to  the  raids 
of  robbers  or  hostile  tribes,  towers  were 
erected,  about  which  the  flocks  and  herds 
were  pastured  and  at  night  folded  (2  Kin. 
xvii.  9;  2  Chron.  xxvi.  10;  Mic.  iv.  8). 

Sheep  Gate.     See  Jerusalem  II.  3. 

Sheep  Mar'ket,  in  R.  V.  Sheep  Gate.  See 
Jerusalem  II.  3. 

She'e-rah,  in  A.  V.  She'rah  [consan- 
guinity, a  female  relative]. 

A  daughter  of  Ephraim,  or  perhaps  of 
Beriah.  She  or  rather  her  descendants  built 
upper  and  nether  Beth-horon  and  Uzzen- 
sheerah  (1  Chron.  vii.  24).  She  may  have 
married  Becher  and  given  rise  to  the  tribal 
family  of  the  Becheritcs. 

She-ha-ri'ah  [Jehovah  hath  broken  forth 
as  the  dawn]. 

A  Benjamite,  son  of  Jeroham  (1  Chron.  viii. 
20). 

Shek'el  [weight]. 

A  weight  used  for  metals  (Gen.  xxiv.  22; 
1  Sam.  xvii.  5,  7) :  see  Weights.  At  an  early 
period  this  quantity  of  silver,  uncoined,  was 
a  recognized  standard  in  financial  transac- 
tions (Gen.  xxiii.  15,  16).  Half  a  shekel  was 
to  be  given  by  each  man  as  a  ransom  for  his 
life  when  a  census  was  taken  (Exod.  xxx.  14, 
1.5).  The  value  of  the  shekel  was  about  65 
cents;  see  Weic;hts.  In  141-140  b.  c.  the 
fourth  year  of  Simon  Maccabseus'  priestly 
rule,  Antiochus  VII.,  not  yet  king  of  Syria, 
but  having  authority,  allowed  him  to  coin 
money  in  his  own  name,  and  silver  shekels 
and  half  shekels  commencing  from  about  that 
period  exist.     See  Money. 

She-ki'nah.    See  Theophany. 

She'lah,  I.,  in  A.  V.  of  Genesis  Salah,  of 
N.  T.  Sala,  in  imitation  of  the  Greek  form 
[a  missile,  a  shoot,  a  sprout]. 

1.  The  son  of  Arphaxad  (Gen.  x.  24  ;  xi. 
12-15;  1  Chron.  i.  18). 

2.  A  pool  at  Jerusalem,   near  the  king's 


garden,  erroneously  translated  in  the  A.  V. 
Siloah  (Neh.  iii.  15).  Probably  the  same  as 
Siloam  ((j.  v.). 

She'lah,  II.  [prayer]. 

The  third  son  of  Judah  by  a  Canaanite 
woman.  He  was  the  founder  of  a  tribal 
family  (Gen.  xxxviii.  2,  5,  11,  14,  26;  Num. 
xxvi.  20). 

Shel- e-mi'ah  [Jehovah  recompenses]. 

1.  A  doorkeeper  of  the  sanctuary  in  David's 
time   (1   Chron.   xxvi.   14).     See    Meshele- 

MIAH. 

2.  Son  of  Cushi  (Jer.  xxxvi.  14). 

3.  Son  of  Abdeel  (Jer.  xxxvi.  26). 

4.  Son  of  Hananiah  (Jer.  xxxvii.  13). 

5.  Father  of  Jucal  (Jer.  xxxviii.  1). 

6.  7.  Two  men,  descendants  of  Baui,  each 
of  whom  was  induced  by  Ezra  to  put  away 
his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  39,  41). 

8.  Father  of  that  Hananiah  who  assisted 
to  rebuild  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  30). 

9.  A  priest  whom  Nehemiah  appointed  one 
of  three  treasurers  of  the  tithes,  which  they 
were  commissioned  to  distribute  among  the 
Levites  (Neh.  xiii.  13). 

She'leph  [extraction]. 

A  Semitic  people  descended  through  Joktan 
(Gen.  X.  26;  1  Chron.  i.  20),  and  doubtless 
dwelling  in  southern  Arabia.  The  name  is  a 
common  one  in  Yemen. 

She'lesh  [triad]. 

An  Asherite,  son  of  Helem  (1  Chron.  vii.  35). 

Shel'o-mi  [peaceful]. 

Father  of  Ahihud,  who  was  prince  of 
Asher  in  the  latter  part  of  the  wilderness 
wanderings  (Num.  xxxiv.  27). 

Shel'o-mith  [peaceful] . 

1.  A  Danite,  a  daughter  of  Dibri.  and 
mother  of  the  Israelite  who  was  put  to  death 
in  the  wilderness  for  blasphemy  (Lev.  xxiv. 
11). 

2.  A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath,  house  of 
Izhar  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  18).  Called  Shelomoth 
in  xxiv.  22. 

3.  A  descendant  of  Moses  through  Eliezer. 
He  and  his  brethren  were  appointed  by  David 
over  the  dedicated  treasures  (1  Chron.  xxvi. 
25,  26,  in  E.  V.,  following  the  Hebrew  text, 
Shelomoth;  cp.  xxiii.  15-17). 

4.  A  Gei-shonite  Levite,  son  of  Shimei 
(1  Cliron.   xxiii.  9,  in  E.  V.  Shelomoth). 

5.  A  son  or  daughter  of  Eehoboam  (2  Chron. 
xi.  20). 

6.  Son  of  Josiphiah  (Ezra  viii.  10).  The 
Hebrew  text  is  faulty.  The  Septuagint  shows 
that  he  was  a  member  of  the  family  of  Bani : 
"  Of  the  sons  of  Bani,  Shelomoth,  the  son  of 
Josiphiah." 

7.  A  daughter  of  Zerubbabel  (1  Chron.  iii. 
19). 

Shel'o-moth.     See  Shelomith. 

She-lu'mi-el  []>acified,  or  a  friend  is  God]. 

The  prince  of  the  tribe  of  Simeon  early  in 
the  wilderness  wanderings  (Num.  i.  6  ;  ii.  12  ; 
vii.  36,  41 ;  x.  19). 


Shem 


672 


Shemaiah 


Shem,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Sem  [name]. 

One  of  the  two  elder  sous  of  Noah  (Gen. 
X.  1,  21  ;  cp.  ix.  24),  and  probably  the  first- 
born (v.  32).  For  explanation  of  xi.  10,  see 
Chronology,  section  relating  to  the  period 
from  the  creation  to  Abraham.  With  his 
descendants,  he  is  mentioned  last  in  tlie  cat- 
alogue of  Gen.  X.  in  accordance  with  the 
author's  custom  of  disposing  of  subordinate 
genealogies  before  presenting  the  main  line 
of  the  people  of  God.  He  was  born  about  the 
five  hundredth  year  of  Noah's  life.  At  the 
time  of  the  deluge  he  was  married,  but  as 
yet  had  no  children  (Gen.  vii.  7 ;  1  Pet.  iii. 
20).  After  that  catastrophe,  he  acted  with 
filial  respect  to  his  father  when  the  latter 
committed  his  great  sin.  Shem,  in  conse- 
quence, received  a  blessing,  the  wording  of 
which  implied  that  God  would  bless  Shem 
and  that  the  worship  of  the  true  God  should 
continue  in  his  family  (Gen.  ix.  23,  27).  He 
was  progenitor  of  the  people  who  inhabited 
or  perhaps  in  some  cases  held  in  subjection 
Elam,  Asshur,  Arphaxad,  Lud,  and  Aram  (x. 
21,  22). 

She'ma  [rumor,  fame]. 

1.  A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  26) :  cp.  Sheba  2. 

2.  A  son  of  Hebron,  belonging  to  the  tribe 
of  Judah  (1  Chron.  ii.  43,  44)  ;  see  Ma- 
BESHAH  2. 

3.  A  Eeubenite,  a  son  of  Joel  (1  Chron. 
V.  8 ;  cp.  4). 

4.  A  Benjamite,  head  of  a  father's  house  in 
Aijalon  (1  Chron.  viii.  13).  Called  in  verse  21 
Shimei,  in  A.  V.  Shimhi. 

5.  One  of  the  men,  probably  priests,  who 
assisted  Ezra  at  the  public  reading  of  the  law 
(Neh.  viii.  4). 

She-ma'ah  [rumor,  fame]. 
A  Benjamite  of  Gibeah,  who  joined  David 
at  Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  3). 

She-ma'iah  [Jehovah  hath  heard]. 

1.  A  Simeonite  (1  Chron.  iv.  37). 

2.  A  Eeubenite,  a  son  of  Joel  (1  Chron. 
V.  4). 

3.  A  Levite,  chief  of  the  sons  of  Elizaphan, 
who  to  the  number  of  two  hundred  took  part 
in  the  ceremonies  attendant  on  the  removal 
of  the  ark  from  the  house  of  Obed-edom  to 
mount  Zion  (1  Chron.  xv.  8-11). 

4.  A  Levite,  a  son  of  Nethanel.  He  was  a 
scribe  in  the  time  of  David,  and  noted  down 
the  twenty-four  divisions  then  made  of  the 
priests  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  6). 

5.  Eldest  son  of  Obed-edom  (1  Chron.  xxvi. 
4).  He  was  the  father  of  various  valiant 
sons  who,  with  him,  were  doorkeepers  of  the 
tabernacle  (6-8). 

6.  A  prophet  in  the  reign  of  Rehoboam,  who 
forbade  the  king  to  attempt  the  conquest  of 
the  revolted  ten  tribes  (1  Kin.  xii.  22-24  ;  2 
Chron.  xi.  2-4).  Five  years  later,  when 
Shishak  invaded  the  land,  he  declared  that 
the  invasion  was  permitted  as  a  punishment 
for  sin.     Thereupon   the  princes    humbled 


themselves,  and  the  affliction  was  made 
lighter  (xii.  5-8).  Shemaiah  wrote  a  history 
of  Rehoboam's  reign  (1,5). 

7.  One  of  the  Levites  sent  by  Jehoshaphat 
to  teach  the  people  (2  Chron.  xvii.  8). 

8.  A  Levite,  descendant  of  Jeduthun.  He 
helped  to  cleanse  the  temple  in  Hezekiah's 
reign  (2  Chron.  xxix.  14,  15).  He  is,  per- 
haps, the  Levite  mentioned  in  1  Chron.  ix. 
16,  and  he  may  be  the  person  called  Sham- 
mua  in  Neh.  xi.  17. 

9.  A  Levite  in  Hezekiah's  reign  who,  with 
others,  had  to  distribute  the  firstlings,  tithes 
and  gifts  to  the  Levites  in  the  cities  (2  Chron. 
xxxi.  15). 

10.  A  chief  Levite  in  Josiah's  i-eign  who, 
with  others,  was  liberal  in  his  donations  of 
animals  for  the  the  passover  services  (2  Chron. 
XXXV.  9). 

11.  Father  of  Urijah,  of  Kirjath-jearim, 
who  was  put  to  death  by  king  Jehoiakim  for 
the  true  prophecies  he  had  uttered  (Jer.  xxvi. 
20-23). 

12.  Father  of  Delaiah,  the  latter  being  a 
prince  in  the  reign  of  Jehoiakim  (Jer.  xxxvi. 
12). 

13.  A  Nehelamite,  a  false  prophet  among 
the  exiles  in  Babylonia,  who  prophesied  a 
speedy  return  from  captivity.  He  wrote  to 
the  people  of  Jerusalem  and  the  priest  who 
had  oversight  of  the  temple,  and  complained 
that  Jeremiah  remained  unpunished,  who 
declared  that  the  exile  would  be  long.  When 
Jeremiah  heard  the  complaint,  he  foretold 
that  Shemaiah  should  leave  no  posterity  and 
not  live  to  see  the  return  (Jer.  xxix.  24-32). 

14.  A  chief  of  the  priests  who  returned 
from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Neh.  xii.  6, 
7).  In  the  next  generation  a  father's  house 
bore  this  name  (ver.  18). 

15.  A  son  of  Adonikam,  and  one  of  the 
chief  men  who  accompanied  Ezra  from  the 
land  of  the  captivity  to  Canaan  (Ezra  viii. 
13). 

16.  A  chief  man  whom  Ezra  sent  with 
others  to  Iddo  to  obtain  Levites  who  were 
lacking  in  the  party  leaving  the  land  of  the 
captivity  for  Canaan  (Ezra  viii.  16). 

17  and  18.  Two  men,  one  descended  from 
the  priest  Harim,  and  the  other  from  the 
layman  Harim,  each  of  whom  was  induced 
by  Ezra  to  put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra 
X.  21,  31). 

19.  A  .son  of  Sheeaniah  (1  Chron.  iii.  22)  ; 
see  Shecaniah  4. 

20.  Keeper  of  the  east  gate,  and  probably 
a  Levite.  He  repaired  part  of  the  wall  of 
Jeru.salem  in  Nehemiah's  time  (Neh.  iii.  29) ; 
see  Shecani.\h  7. 

21.  A  Levite,  descended  from  Bunni.  He 
was  the  head  man  among  those  who  had 
oversight  of  the  busine^ss  of  the  house  of  God 
in  Nehemiah's  time  (Neh.  xi.  15). 

22.  A  false  prophet,  son  of  Delaiah,  son  of 
Mehetabel.  He  was  hired  )iy  Tobiah  and 
Sanballat  to  frighten  Nchemiah  into  going 
with  him  into  the  temple  and  shutting  the 


a 


Shemariah 


673 


Shephelah 


•doors  to  avoid  assassination  (Noh.  vi.  10-13). 
In  carryiiifi  out  his  ]ilan,  lie  shut  himself  iu 
bis  house  and  pretended  to  fear  for  his  life. 

"23.  A  priest  who,  doubtless  in  behalf  of  a 
father's  house,  sealed  the  covenant  iu  the 
days  of  Nehemiah  (Xeh.  x.  8). 

•J4.  A  prince  of  Judali  who  took  part  in 
tlie  ceremonies  at  the  dedication  of  the  wall 
of  Jerusalem  (Neb.  xii.  34). 

25.  A  Levite  of  the  lineage  of  Asaph  (Neb. 
xii.  3.5). 

2(i.  One  of  the  company  of  Levite  musi- 
cians at  the  dedication  of  the  wall  of  Jerusa- 
lem (Nell.  xii.  36). 

27.  A  priest  who  Idew  a  trumpet  on  the 
same  occasion  (Xeb.  xii.  42). 

Sbem-a-ri'ah,  in  A.  V.  once  Shamariah  (2 
Cbron.  xi.  19)  [Jehovah  bath  kept]. 

1.  A  Benjamite  who  joined  David  at  Zik- 
lag  (1  Cbron.  xii.  5). 

2.  A  son  of  Eehoboam  (2  Chron.  si.  19). 

3  and  4.  A  sou  of  Harim  and  a  son  of  Bani, 
each  of  whom  was  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  32,  41). 

Shem-e'ber  [meaning  unknown].  InSep- 
tuagint  the  form  is  Sumobor. 

The  king  of  Zeboiim,  defeated,  with  the 
other  kings  ruling  over  the  cities  of  the  plain, 
bv  Cbedorlaomer  aud  bis  confederates  (Gen. 
x"iv.  2.  s,  10). 

Sbe'med,  in  A.  V.  Shamed,  tbe  pausal 
form  [destruction].  These  forms  of  tbe  name 
are  derived  from  the  Vulgate ;  but  the  pres- 
ent Hebrew  text  and  tbe  Septuagint,  codex 
Vaticanus,  have  Sbamer. 

A  Benjamite,  descended  from  Sbaharaim 
through  Elpaal.  He  was  a  rebuilder  of  Ono 
and  Lod,  with  their  dependent  villages  (1 
Chron.  viii.  12). 

She'mer,  in  A.  V.  of  Chronicles  Shamer, 
tbe  jiausal  form  [the  lees,  or  crust  of  wine]. 

1.  The  man  from  whom  Omri  purchased 
tbe  hill  on  which  to  build  Samaria  (1  Kin. 
xvi.  24). 

2.  A  Merarite  Levite,  tbe  son  of  Mabli  (1 
Cbron.  vi.  46). 

3.  An  Asherite  (1  Cbron.  vii.  34).  Tbe 
same  as  the  Shomer  of  verse  32. 

She-mi'da,  iu  A.  V.  once  Shemidah  (1 
Chron.  vii.  19)  [fame  of  wisdom]. 

A  son  of  Gilead,  and  founder  of  a  tribal 
family  (Num.  xxvi.  32;  Josh.  xvii.  2). 

Shem'i-nith  [eighth]. 

A  musical  term  (1  Chron.  xv.  21 ;  and  Ps. 
vi.  and  xii.,  titles).  Stainer  reviews  three 
opinions  which  have  been  given  regarding 
it:  (1)  The  pitch  of  an  octave;  (2)  tbe  name 
of  a  scale  or  tune  ;  and  (3)  the  number  of 
strings  on  the  instrument  used.  Perhaps,  in 
contrast  with  alamoth,  it  means  an  octave 
below  (Gesenius,  Delitzsch). 

She-mir'a-moth  [lofty  name]. 

1.  A  Levite  and  singer  in  tbe  reign  of 
David  (1  Cbron.  xv.  18,  20). 

2.  A  Levite,  one  of  those  employed  by  Je- 

43 


boshaphat  to  teach   tbe    people   (2    Chron. 
xvii.  8). 

She-mit'ic.    Sec  Semitic. 

Shem'u-el  [name  of  God].  The  same 
Hebrew  name  as  that  commonly  rendered 
Samuel. 

1.  A  son  of  Ammibud.  He  was  appointed 
as  the  representative  for  tbe  tribe  of  Simeon 
on  tbe  commission  to  divide  Canaan  (Num. 
xxxiv.  20). 

2.  A  man  of  Issachar,  family  of  Tola,  and 
bead  of  a  father's  bouse  (1  Chron.  vii.  2). 

3.  Tbe  prophet  Samuel  (1  Cbron.  vi.  33, 
A.  v.). 

Shen  [a  tooth,  a  jagged  rock]. 

A  spot  a  little  on  one  side  of  tbe  place 
where  Samuel  set  up  the  stone  which  be 
called  Ebenezer  (1  Sam.  vii.  12).  Exact  situ- 
ation unknown. 

She-naz'zar,  in  A.  V.  Sbenazar. 

A  son  or  descendant  of  Jeconiab  (1  Chron. 
iii.  18). 

She'nir.    See  Senie. 
She'ol.    See  Hell. 

She'pham. 

A  place  on  the  northeastern  border  of  Ca- 
naan, near  Eiblah  (Num.  xxxiv.  10, 11).  Site 
unknown. 

Sheph-a-ti'ah,  in  A.  V.  once  erroneously 
Shepbathiah  (1  Cbron.  ix.  8)  [Jebovab  bath 
judged]. 

1.  A  Haruphite,  one  of  the  Bcnjamites 
wbo  joined  David  at  Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  5). 

2.  A  sou  born  to  David  at  Hebron  by  one 
of  bis  wives,  Abital  (2  Sam.  iii.  4  ;  1  Cbron. 
iii.  3). 

3.  Son  of  Maacab  and  bead  of  the  Simeon- 
ite  tribe  in  David's  reign  (1  Chron.  xxvii. 
16). 

4.  Tbe  father  of  a  Benjamite  wbo  dwelt  at 
Jerusalem  (1  Chron.  ix.  8). 

5.  A  son  of  king  Jebosbaphat  (2  Cbron. 
xxi.  2). 

6.  A  prince,  son  of  Mattan.  He  was  one 
of  those  who  advised  Zedekiab  to  put  the 
prophet  Jeremiah  to  death,  as  bis  unfavor- 
able prophecies  were  discouraging  the  defend- 
ers of  Jerusalem  during  its  siege  by  Nebu- 
chadnezzar's army  ( Jer.  xxxviii.  1). 

7.  Founder  of  a  family,  372  members  of 
which  returned  from  captivity  with  Zerub- 
babel  (Ezra  ii.  4 ;  Neh.  vii.  9),  and  eighty- 
one  more  with  Ezra  (Ezra  viii.  8). 

8.  A  man  of  Judab,  family  of  Perez.  He 
evidently  lived  before  tbe  exile  (Neh.  xi.  4). 

9.  A  man  whose  descendants,  classified 
with  Solomon's  servants,  came  from  Babylon 
with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii.  57  ;  Neh.  vii.  59). 

Sheph'e-lali  [low  land]. 

A  well  known  name  in  the  geography  of 
Palestine,  used,  however,  in  the  English  ver- 
sions only  in  1  Mac.  xii.  38,  A.  V.,  and  then 
in  the  form  Sephela.    See  Lowland. 


Shepher 


674 


Sherebiah 


She'pher,  in  A.  V.  Shapher  [beauty,  ele- 
gance]. 

A  mountain  constituting  an  encampment 
of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness  (Num. 
xxxiii.  23,  24).     Situation  unknown. 

Shep'herd. 

One  whose  occupation  it  is  to  take  charge 
of  a  Hock  of  sheep.  Abel  was  a  keeper  of 
sheep  (Gen.  iv.  2).  The  occupation  of  the 
patriarchs  from  Abraham  to  Jacob  and  his 
sons  was  pastoral  (xiii.  1-6).  Thei-e  were  no- 
mad shepherds  who  owned  flocks  and  herds, 
dwelt  in  tents,  and  moved  from  place  to  place 
to  find  pasture  for  their  cattle  and  afford 
them  protection,  like  Jabal,  Abraluini,  and  the 
Rechabites  (iv.  20;  xiii.  2,  3,  is  witli  xx.  1  ; 
Jer.  XXXV.  G-IO).  There  were  also  wealthy 
sheep  owners  who  dwelt  in  towns  while  their 
flocks  were  driven  from  pasture  to  pasture 
by  their  servants  (1  Sam.  xxv.  2,  3,  7,  15,  16; 
op.  Gen.  xxxvii.  12-17).  Then  there  was  the 
settled  shepherd,  who  led  the  flock  from  the 
permanent  fold  to  the  pasture  in  the  morn- 
ing, and  in  the  evening  brought  it  home 
again  (John  x.  1-4) ;  see  Sheepfold.  The 
care  of  the  flock  was  often  committed  to  a 
son  (Gen.  xxxvii.  2  ;  1  Sam.  xvi.  11,  19),  or 
a  daughter  (Gen.  xxix.  9;  Ex.  ii.  16,  17),  or 
a  hired  servant  (Gen.  xxx.  32  ;  Zech.  xi.  12 ; 
John  X.  12).  The  shepherd  was  ordinarily 
responsible  to  the  owner  for  any  loss  of  sheep 
(Gen.  xxxi.  39).  The  Mosaic  law  relieved 
him  of  responsibility  if  he  could  prove  that 
the  loss  was  not  due  to  his  neglect  (Ex.  xxii. 
10-13). 

The  shepherd  went  to  the  fold  in  the 
morning,  where  several  flocks  were  lying, 
and  called.  His  own  sheep  knew  his  voice 
and  followed  him.  The  sheep  which  be- 
longed to  other  owners  or  were  under  the 
care  of  other  keepers  paid  no  attention  to 
the  strange  voice  (.Tohn  x.  2-5).  The  shep- 
herd led  his  own  flock  to  pasture,  spent  the 
day  with  them  there,  and  sometimes  the 
night  also  (Gen.  xxxi.  40;  Song  i.  7;  Luke 
ii.  8) ;  defended  them  from  wild  beasts  and 
robbers  (1  Sam.  xvii.  34,  35  ;  Is.  xxxi.  4)  ; 
kept  the  restless  sheep  from  trespassing 
on  cultivated  ground,  searched  for  the 
strayed  sheep,  and  brought  them  back 
(Ezek.  xxxiv.  12 ;  Luke  xv.  4) ;  and  tenderly 
cared  for  the  delicate  and  the  weak  (Is.  xl. 
11 ;  Ezek.  xxxiv.  4,  16 ;  Zech.  xi.  9).  The 
sheep  which  kept  near  the  shepherd  had 
each  a  name  and  answered  to  it,  and  were 
the  recipients  of  many  little  kindnesses. 
Such  is  still  the  case  in  the  Orient.  Where 
the  pastures  are  dried  up  or  covered  with 
snow,  as  in  the  late  autumn  and  winter,  the 
shepherd  must  provide  food  for  the  flock. 
He  cuts  down  branches  from  the  trees  of  the 
forest,  and  the  sheep  and  goats  feed  upon  the 
green  leaves  and  tender  twigs. 

The  shepherd  carried  a  garment  in  which 
to  wrap  himself  in  inclement  weather,  a 
pouch  for  food,  and  some  defensive  weapon 


(1  Sam.  xvii.  40  ;  Jer.  xliii.  12).  A  long  rod, 
doubtless  generally  in  ancient  times  as  now 
with  a  crook  at  the  ujiper  end,  was  used  to 
manage  the  flock,  keep  it  together,  guide  it, 
defend  it,  and  chastise  the  disobedient  (Ps. 
xxiii.  4  ;  Mic.  vii.  14  ;  Zech.  xi.  7).  The  shep- 
herd was  aided  by  dogs  (Job  xxx.  1) ;  not  in- 
telligent, faithful  dogs,  but  lazy,  mean  brutes, 
which  loitered  behind  the  flock,  but  were  of 
service ;  they  gave  warning  of  danger  by  their 
bark. 

Jehovah  was  the  Shepherd  of  Israel,  and 
especially  of  the  faithful  section  of  the  peo- 
ple (Gen.  xlix.  24). 

Christ  is  the  good  Shepherd,  entering  into 
the  sheepfold  by  the  door,  calling  out  his 
own  sheep  by  name,  and  so  possessing  their 
confidence  and  afl'ection  that  they  follow 
him,  while  they  refuse  to  follow  any  other. 
He  satisfactorily  met  the  test  of  supreme  de- 
votion to  his  flock  and  to  his  duty  by  laying 
down  his  life  for  the  sheep  (John  x.  1-18). 

All  who  had  responsible  positions  in  the 
theocracy,  prophets,  priests,  and  kings,  were 
looked  on  as  pastors  of  the  Israelitish  people. 
They  were  under-shepherds,  aiding  Jehovah, 
and  their  unfaithfulness  was  fre(jueutly 
pointed  out  (Is.  Ivi.  11).  And  in  the  Chris- 
tian church,  the  elders  or  bishops  are  pastors 
or  shepherds,  under  Christ,  the  chief  Shep- 
herd, appointed  to  tend  the  flock  of  God  (1 
Pet.  V.  1-4). 

She'pM  and  She'pho  [smoothness]. 

A  son  or  tribe  of  Shobal,  descended  from 
Seir,  the  Horite  (Gen.  xxxvi.  23)  ;  for  the 
two  forms,  cp.  Vau. 

She-phu'pham  and  Shephuphan  [perhaps, 
horned  sand  snake]  ;  see  Adder  1. 

A  son  or  remoter  descendant  of  Benjamin, 
and  founder  of  a  tribal  family  (Num.  xxvi. 
39;  in  A.  V.  Shupham).  In  the  same  verse 
his  name  appears  as  Shupham  (in  Shupham- 
ites).  He  is  also  called  5luppim  (Gen.  xlvi. 
21)  and  Shuppim  (1  Chrou.  vii.  12,  15).  The 
letters  m  and  s  or  sh  were  very  much  alike 
in  ancient  Hebrew.  He  was  perhaps  known 
also  as  Shephuphan  (1  Chron.  viii.  5).  In 
this  passage  Shephuphan  is  probably  listed 
as  a  descendant  of  Bela,  although  it  is  not 
impossible  that  the  enumeration  of  Bela's 
sons  closes  with  Gera  and  that  Shephuphan 
is  registei'ed  as  a  son  of  Benjamin.  In  vii. 
12  Shuppim  is  catalogued  anuiug  the  .sons  of 
Benjamin,  but  it  is  not  clear  whether  he  is 
enrolled  as  a  son  in  the  strict  sense  or  as  de- 
scended from  Benjamin's  son  Bela  through 
Ir  or  Iri  (7).  In  the  latter  case  he  was  born 
after  the  descent  of  Jacob's  family  into 
Egypt,  but  is  enumerated  with  those  who 
went  down  into  Egypt,  because  he  founded 
a  tri))al  family.     See  Egypt  III.  1. 

She'rah.     See  Sheekah. 

Sher-e-bi'ah  [Jehovah  hath  made  to 
tremble]. 

1.  A  Levite,  head  of  a  ftunily,  who  came 
from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Neh.  xii.  8). 


Sheresh 


675 


Shihor 


The  representative  of  the  family  sealed  the 
covenant  (x.  12).  It  was  a  family  of  singers 
(xii.  24). 

2.  Head  of  a  family  of  Levites  who  re- 
turned with  Ezra  from  Babylon  (Ezra  viii. 
18).  He  was  perhaiis  the  rei)n'si'ntativ(^  of  a 
part  of  the  aforcnientioiU'd  family  which  had 
remained  heliind  when  the  exiles  returned 
with  Zerubbabel,  and  as  rejjresentative  he 
officially  bore  the  family  name.  He  is  jirob- 
ably  intended  in  ver.  24,  although  the  present 
text  describes  him  as  a  priest,  and  was  one 
of  the  men  to  whose  custody  during  the 
journey  Ezra  committed  the  gifts  for  the 
temple. 

3.  One  of  the  Levites  who  assisted  Ezra, 
reading  the  law  to  the  people,  and  giving 
the  sense,  so  that  the  listeners  might  under- 
stand what  they  heard  (Neh.  viii.  7).  He 
took  part  in  the  public  confession  of  sin 
after  the  feast  of  tabernacles  (ix.  4). 

She'resh  [perhaps,  i-oot  or  sprout]. 
A  man  of  Manasseh,  family  of  Machir  (1 
Chron.  vii.  16). 

She-re'zer.     See  Sharezer. 

She'shacli. 

According  to  ancient  tradition,  a  cypher 
for  Babel  ( Jer.  xxv.  26,  E.  V.,  margin ;  li.  41), 
constructed  on  the  system  known  as  Ath- 
bash.  The  letters  of  the  al{)habet  were 
numbered  both  in  their  regular  order  of 
sequence  and  in  the  reverse  order :  and  when 
the  cypher  of  a  name  was  desired,  its  con- 
sonants were  replaced  by  those  which  have 
the  same  numbers  in  the  reverse  enumera- 
tion. B  is  the  second  letter  of  the  Hebrew 
alphabet  and  s  or  sh  is  the  second  from  the 
end,  1  is  the  twelfth  letter  from  the  begin- 
ning and  k  is  the  twelfth  from  the  end  ; 
hence  the  cypher  for  Babel  was  Sheshak. 
Possibly,  however,  there  is  no  cypher,  and 
Sheshach  is  the  name  of  a  quarter  of  the  city, 
perhaps  Shish-ku  (Lauth,  Delitzsch). 

She'shai  [whitish]. 

A  son  or  family  of  Anak,  resident  at 
Hebron,  and  driven  thence  by  Caleb  (Num. 
xiii.  32.  cp.  33 ;  Josh.  xv.  14). 

She'sliaii. 

A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Hezron,  house 
of  Jerahmeel  (1  Qiron.  ii.  31).  He  had  no 
sons,  but  only  daughters,  one  of  whom  he 
gave  in  marriage  to  an  Egyptian  slave  (34, 
35).     See  Ahlai. 

Shesh-baz'zar. 

A  prince  of  Judah,  whom  Cyrus  made 
governor,  to  whom  he  restored  the  sacred 
vessels  which  had  been  carried  to  Babylon 
by  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  who  returned  to 
Jerusalem  and  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
temple  (Ezra  i.  8,  11  ;  v.  14,  16).  Sheshbazzar 
is  evidently  the  Babylonian  name  of  Zerub- 
babel, as  Belteshazzar  was  that  of  Daniel. 

Sheth,  I.  [compensation]. 

A  son  of  Adam  (1  Chron.  i.  1).     See  Seth. 


Sheth,  II.  [tumult]. 

A  designation  of  the  Moabites  as  makers 
of  war  and  tumult  (Num.  xxiv.  17,  A.  V.). 

She'thar-boz'e-nal,  in  A.  V.  Shethar- 
boznal. 

A  Persian  official  who  with  others  at- 
tempted to  prevent  the  returned  Jewish 
exiles  from  rebuilding  the  temple  (Ezra  v. 
3,  6;  vi.  6). 

She'va  [vanity]. 

1.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Hezron,  house 
of  Caleb.  He  was  the  ancestor  of  the  in- 
habitants of  Machbena  and  Gibea  (1  Chron. 
ii.  49). 

2.  A  scribe  in  David's  reign  (2  Sam.  xx. 
25).     See  Shav.sha. 

Shew'bread.    See  Showbread. 

Shi 'bah,  in  A.  V.  Shebah  [seven,  an  oath]. 
Feminine  form  of  Sheba. 

A  well  at  Beer-sheba  which  Isaac's  ser- 
vants redigged,  and  which  Isaac  named  Shi- 
bah  on  account  of  the  covenant  he  had  just 
made  with  Abimelech  (Gen.  xxvi.  33). 

Shib'bo-leth  [an  ear  of  grain,  or  a  river  or 
stream] . 

The  local  dialect  of  the  Ephraimites  was 
characterized  by  the  absence  of  the  palatal 
sibilant  sh  at  the  beginning  of  a  word  and 
the  use  of  the  lingual  sibilant  s  in  its  stead. 
When  Jephthah,  at  the  head  of  the  Gilead- 
ites,  had  vanquished  the  Ephraimites  and 
seized  the  fords  of  the  Jordan,  manj'  of  the 
defeated  tribe  came  to  the  river,  desiring  to 
pass.  On  being  asked  if  they  were  Ephraim- 
ites, and  denying  the  fact,  they  were  re- 
quired to  pronounce  the  word  Shibboleth, 
and  if  they  called  it  Sibboleth,  were  slain 
without  further  ceremony  (Judg.  xii.  5,  6). 
The  word  has  entered  the  English  language, 
and  is  used  to  mean  a  test  word  or  the 
watchword  or  pet  phrase  of  a  party  or  sect. 

Shib'tnah     See  Sebmah. 

Shic'ron.     See  Shikkeron. 

Shield.     See  Armor. 

Shig-ga'ion,  and  plural  Shigionoth  [wan- 
dering, irregular]. 

A  musical  term  (Ps.  vii.  title;  Hab.  iii.  1). 
Probably  a  dithyrambic  ode,  erratic,  wild, 
enthusiastic. 

Shi'hon.     See  Shion. 

Shi'hor,  in  A.  V.  Sihor,  except  1  Chron. 
xiii.  5  [to  the  Hebrew  ear,  black,  turbid]. 

The  river  Nile  (Is.  xxiii.  3;  Jer.  ii.  18,  see 
R.  V.  margin).  Its  eastern  or  Pelusiac  branch 
was  on  the  boundary  of  Egypt  toward 
Canaan  (Josh.  xiii.  3;  1  Chron.  xiii.  5);  see 
EivEB  OF  EciYPT  1.  The  K.  Y.,  however, 
and  many  commentators  regard  the  Shihor 
in  the  last  two  passages  as  a  title  of  the  brook 
of  Egypt,  the  wady  el-"Arish  (Josh.  xiii.  3,  R. 
Y.  margin).  According  to  Brugsch,  the  name 
belonged  in  the  first  instance  to  a  canal,  S'hi- 
hur,  on  the  eastern  boundary  of  Egypt,  par- 
allel to  the  course  of  the  Pelusiac  branch. 


Shihor-libnatli 


676 


ShUoh 


SM-hor-lib'nath  [turbid  stream  of  Lib- 
iiath]. 

A  small  river  at  the  southwestern  corner 
of  Asher  (Josh.  xix.  26)  and  apparently  near 
Carmel.  It  is  now  commonly  believed  to  be 
the  Zcrka,  (>  miles  south  of  Dor,  a  town  of 
Asher. 

Shik'ke-ron,  in  A.  V.  SMcron  [drunken- 
ness] . 

A  town  on  the  northern  border  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  11).  Site  un- 
known. 

SMl'hi  [one  armed  witli  a  dart]. 

Father  of  Azubah,  Jehoshaphat's  mother 
(1  Kin.  xxii.  42). 

SMl'Mm  [missile  weapons,  sprouts]. 

A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josli.  XV.  32);  see  Sharuhen. 

Shil'lem  [retribution] . 

A  son  of  Naphtali,  and  founder  of  a  tribal 
family  (Gen.  xlvi.  24  ;  Num.  xxvi.  49).  Called 
Shallum,  a  synonymous  and  more  common 
name,  in  1  Ohron.  vii.   13. 

SM-lo'ah  [a  sending  of  waters,  an  aque- 
duct] ;  see  Siloam. 

SM'loh  [tranquillity,  rest]. 

A  town  north  of  Bethel,  south  of  Lebonah, 
and  on  the  east  side  of  the  highway  connect- 
ing Bethel  with  Shechem  (Judg.  xxi.  19), 
and  hence  within  the  territory  of  Ephraim. 
There  the  Israelites  under  Joshua  set  up  the 
tabernacle  (Josh,  xviii.  1),  and  divided  by 
lot  the,  as  yet,  unappropriated  parts  of  Canaan 
(8-10 ;  xix.  .51 ;  xxii.  9).  When  the  western 
tribes  were  convened  to  call  the  tribes  east  of 
the  Jordan  to  account  for  their  building  of 
an  altar,  it  was  at  Shiloh  that  the  gathering 
took  place  (12).  In  the  times  of  the  judges 
there  was  there  an  annual  feast  of  Jehovah 
(Judg.  xxi.  19  ;  1  Sam.  i.  3),  at  which  the  Ben- 
jamites  on  one  occasion  obtained  wives  by 
capture  (Judg.  xxi.  16-23).  The  tabernacle, 
with  the  ark,  was  .still  there  in  the  time  of  Eli 
and  during  the  early  years  of  Samuel  (Judg. 
xviii.  31 ;  1  Sam.  i!  9,  24 :  ii.  14,  22 ;  iii.  3, 
21 ;  iv.  3,  4 ;  xiv.  3).  The  capture  of  the 
a,rk  was  understood  to  mean  that  God  had 
forsaken  Shiloh  (P.s.  Ixxviii.  60 ;  Jer.  vii.  12, 
14  ;  xxvi.  6,  9).  The  covenant  made  at  Sinai, 
of  which  the  ark  and  the  ritual  were  the 
outward  sign  and  privilege,  was  suspended. 
When  the  ark  was  returned  by  the  Philis- 
tines it  was  not  taken  again  to  Shiloh  (1  Sam. 
vi.  21 ;  vii.  1,  2;  2  Sam.  vi.  2.  11,  17),  but  the 
work  of  reviving  true  religion,  preparatory 
to  the  restoration  of  covenant  privileges,  was 
begun  by  Samuel.  Ahijah  the  prophet,  who 
told  Jeroboam  of  his  approaching  greatness, 
lived  at  Shiloh,  and  it  was  thither  that  the 
king's  consort  repaired  to  inquire  about  the 
issue  of  their  sick  child's  malady  (1  Kin. 
xiv.  2,  4).  It  continued  to  be  inhabited  at 
least  as  late  as  the  time  of  Jeremiah  (Jer. 
xli.  5).  Shiloh  has  been  successfully  identi- 
fied by  Robinson  as  Seilun,  about  10  miles 


north-northeast  of  Bethel.  The  ruins  are  in 
a  valley  surrounded  by  hills.  In  the  sides 
of  the  narrow  valley  are  many  tombs.  A 
fine  spring  of  water  is  in  the  vicinity. 

There  are  three  main  interpretations  of 
Shihjh  in  the  ditticult  jjassage  Gen.  xlix.  10, 
eacli  of  which  receives  recognition  in  K.  V.  : 
1.  Shiloh  is  a  proper  name,  which  designates 
the  Messiah  and  refers  to  the  peacefulnessof 
his  disposition  and  his  reign.  2.  Shiloh, 
place  of  tranquillity,  is  the  town  in  central 
Palestine  where  the  tabernacle  was  jilaced 
immediately  after  the  conquest  of  Canaan  by 
Joshua  (Josh,  xviii.  1).  3.  Shiloh  is  not  a 
proper  name,  nor  is  it  a  simple  word.  It  is  a 
compound,  composed  of  the  relative  pronoun 
she,  the  preposition  I,  and  the  pronominal 
suffix  of  the  third  person  masculine  oh.  The 
same  form  of  the  suffix  occurs  twice  in  the 
following  verse.  This  phrase  has  been  inter- 
preted as  meaning  "that  which  is  his," 
"whose  it  is,"  or  "his  own  one."  The  sec- 
ond of  these  three  meanings  would  happily 
correspond  to  Ezek.  xxi.  27,  but  is  not  gram- 
matically allowable ;  and  the  first  regarded 
as  objective,  "  he  shall  come  to  that  which  is 
his,"  is  grammatically  difficult,  for  an  object- 
ive relative  clause  with  indefinite  antecedent 
is  preceded  by  a  preposition  or  the  sign  of 
the  accusative.  This  conception  of  the  word 
as  a  phrase  is  old,  having  been  entertained 
by  the  translators  of  the  ancient  versions, 
namely,  Septuagint,  Targums  of  Onkelos  and 
Jonathan,  Syriac,  and  Jerome. 

On  the  first  interpretation  and  commonly 
on  the  third  the  Messiah  is  expressly  referred 
to.  In  the  second  the  reference  is  to  the  cov- 
enant blessing,  which  the  prophets  of  a  later 
age  discerned  to  belong  in  its  fullness  to  Mes- 
sianic times.  Eeuben  had  forfeited  his  birth- 
right by  misconduct  (Gen.  xlix.  4 ;  xxxv. 
22),  Simeon  and  Levi  had  incurred  their 
father's  just  censure  (xlix.  5-7;  xxxiv.  30), 
and  Judah  was  consequently  assigned  the 
place  of  the  firstborn,  and  became  the  reju'e- 
sentative  of  the  tribe  and  the  ])eculiar  pos- 
sessor of  the  blessing  covenanted  to  Abra- 
ham and  his  seed  (xlix.  8).  The  promise  of 
victory  to  the  woman's  seed  (iii.  15),  the 
blessing  of  God's  fiwor  centered  in  Shem 
(ix.  26,  27),  the  further  centralization  of  the 
covenant  blessing  in  the  family  of  Abraham 
(xvii.),  belonged  henceforth  preeminently  to 
Judah,  the  possessor  of  the  birthright.  By 
him,  according  to  the  first  and  third  inter- 
pretations, the  prerogative  shall  be  held  until 
one  who  is  his,  one  of  his  tribe,  the  man  of 
peace  comes,  to  whom  shall  be  the  obedience 
of  the  peo])les,  and  in  whom  the  covenant 
blessing  shall  be  still  further  centered.  This 
intcrjirt'tation,  with  many  modifications  of 
detail,  according  as  the  scei)ter  is  thought  of 
restrictedly  as  the  emblem  of  royalty  or  is 
regarded  as  the  symbol  of  leadership  in  gen- 
eral, is  representt'd  in  the  text  of  the  English 
versions.  .\iid  it  is  argued  that  this  essen- 
tially must  be  the  true  interpretation,  be- 


Shiloh 


677 


Shiloni 


cause  the  town  of  Sliiloli  tlots  not  fulfill  the 
historical  conditions,  (or  neither  is  there  any 
reason  \vliy  Jacob,  apart  from  sjiccial  revela- 
tion, should  think  of  Shiloh  as  tl>e  future 
place  of  worship,  nor  did  Judah  occupy  pre- 
eminence anionji  the  tribes  before  the  taber- 
nacle was  i)itched  in  Shiloh,  save  somewhat 
in  numbers  and  in  bein<;  i)erniitted  to  lead 
the  van,  while  the  people  were  marching  to 
Canaan,  and  to  jiitch  their  tents  in  front  of 
the  tabernacle.  The  leadership  was  at  first 
in  the  hands  of  Moses,  of  the  tribe  of  Levi, 
which  excited  the  jealousy  of  the  princes  of 
Reuben,  and  after  Moses'  death,  and  until 
the  tabernacle  was  pitched  at  Shiloh,  the 
authority  was  exercised  by  Joshua,  of  the 
tribe  of  Ephraim. 

But  it  is  more  natural  to  regard  Shiloh  in 
this  passage  as  the  name  of  the  town,  for  it 
is  such  everywhere  else,  and  on  this  iuter- 
jiretation  the  words  of  Jacob  are  at  once  in- 
telligible. This  view  is  commonly  enter- 
tained by  those  who  deny  that  Jacob  uttered 
the  words,  and  who  attirm  that  the  address 
is  a  prophecy  after  the  event.  But  the 
address  is  not  the  utterance  of  a  late  prophet, 
commenting  on  the  past  history  of  the  twelve 
tribes  and  putting  his  reflections  in  the 
mouth  of  their  common  ancestor  Jacob,  for 
the  descriptions  do  not  fit  the  actual  state 
of  things  at  any  period  of  the  national  his- 
tory ;  see,  for  example,  ver.  13  and  Zebulun. 
Believers  in  the  genuineness  of  the  address 
hold  that  the  town  of  Shiloh  is  meant,  and 
they  are  able  fairly  to  explain  how  Jacob 
came  to  use  the  name,  and  how  Moses  the 
Levite  and  Joshua  the  Ephraimite  could  lead 
the  people  while  yet  the  scepter  was  acknowl- 
edged as  belonging  to  Judah.  The  argument 
of  Delitzsch  maybe  amplified.  Shiloh  doubt- 
less existed  in  the  days  of  the  patriarchs; 
and  Jacob,  who  looked  for  the  ultimate  re- 
turn of  his  people  to  Canaan  (Gen.  xv.  13-16  ; 
xlvi.  3,  4  ;  xlviii.  21),  employs  this  name, 
place  of  tranquillity,  as  an  omen  of  the  future, 
jilaying  upon  it  as  Esau  played  upon  the 
name  Jacob  and  Micah  upon  the  names  of 
the  towns  of  Judah.  It  made  no  difference 
that  God  raised  up  men  from  other  tribes  to 
meet  special  emergencies,  the  birthright  and 
its  accompanying  privileges  belonged  to 
Judah.  It  was  accorded  to  him  by  the  posi- 
tion assigned  him  at  the  head  of  the  march- 
ing host  and  in  camp  in  front  of  the  taber- 
nacle. It  was  accredited  to  him  by  God's 
multiplication  of  his  descendants,  so  that  his 
tribe  was  much  larger  than  any  single  tribe 
during  the  forty  years  in  the  wilderness.  It 
was  confirmed  by  the  lot  falling  first  to  his 
tribe  when  the  conquered  laud  was  distribu- 
ted at  Gilgal.  The  actual  coming  to  the 
town  of  Shiloh  was  not  contemplated  as 
necessary  by  Jacob.  The  fulfillment  of  his 
words  was  more  literal  than  his  expectation. 
He  had  merely  the  peaceable  possession  of 
the  promised  land  in  view.  The  erection  of 
the  tabernacle  at  Shiloh,  a  town  which  Joshua 


may  have  been  led  to  choose  by  liaving 
knowledge  of  Jacob's  words,  marked  the 
first  stage  in  the  realization  of  the  jironiise. 
A  new  period  had  been  readied  in  Israel's 
history.  The  conquest  was  comi)leted,  the 
inheritance  was  theirs,  pos.session  had  begun, 
rest  bad  been  won.  Judah,  the  ]io.ssessor  of 
the  birthright,  had  come  to  a  place  of  tran- 
quillity in  Canaan,  having  obtained  the  obedi- 
ence of  the  peoples,  and  being  now  ready  to 
occupy  and  enjoy  his  con<iuered  jiossession 
(xlix.  10-12).  The  words  do  not  mean  that 
when  he  should  come  to  Shiloh  the  scepter 
should  depart.  They  are  to  be  understood  as 
the  similar  language  in  Is.  xlii.  4:  "  He  shall 
not  fail  nor  be  discouraged,  till  lie  have  set 
judgment  in  the  earth."  This  does  not 
mean  that  the  servant  will  then  fail  and 
lose  courage.  So  Jacol)  meant  that  the  priv- 
ilege conferred  by  the  birthright,  which  cen- 
tered in  the  Abrahamic  covenant,  should 
not  be  transferred  until  Judah  had  obtained 
the  promised  blessing,  the  possession  of 
Canaan,  when  he  would  enter  upon  its  en- 
joyment. A  new  period  opens  to  him.  He 
was  still  accorded  by  God  the  first  position 
among  the  tribes,  being  called  to  go  up  first 
against  the  Canaanites  still  in  the  allotted 
land.  He  was  called  to  go  up  first  again.st 
the  Benjamites  in  the  war  against  that  tribe 
to  punish  national  sin.  And  the  first  and 
only  deliverer  of  all  Israel  during  the  period 
of  the  judges  proper  sjirang  from  Judah 
(Judg.  iii.  7-11).  Saul,  a  Benjamite,  was 
raised  up  like  the  judges  to  deliver  Israel 
(1  Sam.  ix.  16  ;  x.  6),  and  might  have  retained 
the  throne  in  his  family  (xiii.  13,  14  ;  xv.  23, 
26,  28),  but  he  lost  the  o])portunity  through 
sin,  as  Reuben  had  lost  the  birthright,  and 
the  permanent  royal  line  was  taken  from 
Judah.  The  obedience  of  the  Canaanites 
was  but  the  foretaste,  and  the  possession  of 
the  land  and  enjoyment  of  its  fertility  were 
but  a  type,  of  the  Messianic  triumphs  and 
peace  involved  in  the  covenanted  mercies. 
As  time  went  on,  the  fullness  of  meaning  was 
revealed.  The  prophets  dwelt  with  delight 
on  the  truth  that  in  the  latter  days  all 
nations  shall  flow'  unto  the  mountain  of  the 
Lord's  house,  the  law  shall  go  forth  from 
Zion  and  the  word  of  the  Lord  from  Jerusa- 
lem, and  he  shall  judge  between  the  nations 
and  reprove  many  peoples ;  and  they  shall 
beat  their  swords  into  plowshares  and  their 
spears  into  pruning  hooks,  nation  shall  not 
lift  up  sword  against  nation,  neither  shall 
they  learn  war  any  more.  But  they  .shall 
sit  every  man  under  his  vine  and  under  his 
fig  tree,  and  none  shall  make  them  afraid  ; 
for  the  mouth  of  the  Lord  of  hosts  hath 
spoken  it  (Is.  ii.  2-4;  Mic.  iv.  1-5;  Joel  iii. 
9-21), 

SM-lo'ni  [a  Shilonite]. 

According  to  the  A.  V.,  a  man  of  the  tribe 
of  Judah  (Neh.  xi.  5).  But  the  word  is  pre- 
ceded by  the  definite  article  in  the  Hebrew 


Shilonite 


678 


SMmri 


text,  and  hence  is  not  a  proper  name.     The 
R.  V.    correctly  translates  it  the  Shilonite, 
and    Shiloni,   as    a    man,    disappears.      See 
Shilonite  2. 
SM'lo-nite. 

1.  A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Shiloh  (1  Kin. 
xi.  29). 

2.  A  member  of  the  tribal  family  of  Shelah 
(Neh.  xi.  5,  in  A.  V.  Shiloni). 

SMl'shah  [triad]. 

An  Asherite,  son  of  Zophah  (1  Chron.  vii. 
37). 

Shim'e-a,  once  SMmeah  (2  Sam.  xiii.  3) : 
the  two  modes  of  spelling  correctly  repre- 
sentiug  the  Hebrew  text,  where,  except  in 
the  case  noted,  the  Aramaic  form  is  employed 
[something  heard,  fame]. 

1.  A  Levite,  family  of  Merari,  house  of 
Mahli  (1  Chron.  vi.  30). 

2.  A  Levite,  family  of  Gershom  (1  Chron. 
vi.  39,  44). 

3.  A  brother  of  king  David  (2  Sam.  xiii.  3; 
1  Chron.  xx.  7).  In  A.  Y.  of  1  Chron.  ii.  13 
he  is  incorrectly  called  Shimma,  the  Hebrew 
having  Shimea.  In  1  Sam.  xvi.  9 ;  xvii.  13 
his  name  appears  as  Shammah.  Has  one 
letter  dropped  out  of  the  Hebrew  text,  or  is 
Shimea,  the  later  and  nobler  name,  changed 
from  "desolation"  to  "fame"  after  the 
nation's  deliverance  from  the  Philistines? 
Especially  is  this  latter  conjecture  probable, 
if  Shammah  was  a  memorial  name,  like 
Ichabod. 

4.  A  son  of  David  ;  see  Shammua  2. 

5.  Another  Shimeah,  whose  name  in  He- 
brew is  spelled  differently  from  the  foregoing 
(1  Chron.  viii.  32) ;  see  Shimeam. 

Shim'e-am. 

A  Benjamite,  a  son  of  Mikloth,  resident  in 
Jeru.salem  (1  Chron.  ix.  38).  In  viii.  32  he  is 
called  Shimeah,  a  synonymous  name.  This 
name  differs  in  its  third  radicle  from  the 
familiar  name  Shimea  or  Shimeah. 

Shim'e-ath  [rumor]. 

An  Ammonitess,  mother  of  one  of  king 
.Toash's  assassins  (2  Kin.  xii.  21). 

Shim'e-ath-ites. 

A  Kenite  family  of  scribes,  descended 
through  a  certain  Sliimeah  from  the  founder 
of  the  house  of  Rechab  and  resident  at  Jabez 
(1  Chron.  ii.  .^5). 

Shim'e-i,  in  A.  V.  once  Shimi  (Ex.  vi.  17), 
once  SMmM  (1  Chron.  viii.  21)  [famous]. 

1.  A  son  of  Gershon,  and  a  grandson  of 
Levi.  He  founded  a  subdivision  of  the 
tribal  family  of  Gershon  (Ex.  vi.  17;  Num. 
iii.  18,  21;  1  Chron.  xxiii.  7,  10;  Zech.  xii. 
13). 

2.  A  Levite,  family  of  Merari,  house  of 
Mahli   (1  Chron.  vi."2»). 

3.  A  Simeonite,  probably  of  the  fiimily  of 
Shaul.  He  had  sixteen  sons  and  six  daugh- 
ters (1  Chron.  iv.  24-27). 

4.  A  Levite,  son  of  Jahath,  of  the  family 
of  Gershom  (1  Chron.  vi.  42). 


5.  A  Benjamite,  liead  of  a  father's  house 
in  Aijalon  (1  Cliron.  viii.  21,  in  A.  V.  Shimhi). 
Called  Shema  in  ver.  13. 

6.  A  Levite,  family  of  Gershon,  and  head 
of  one  of  the  subdivisions  of  Ladan,  which 
latter  was  apparently  a  division  of  the  house 
of  Libni  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  9). 

7.  A  Levite,  head  of  the  tenth  course  of 
singers  in  David's  reign,  and  evidently  a  son 
of  Jeduthun,  for  his  name  is  needed  to  make 
out  the  six  spoken  of  in  ver.  3  (1  Chron.  xxv. 
17). 

8.  A  Ramathite,  who  was  over  David's 
vineyards  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  27). 

9.  A  Biuijamite,  the  son  of  Gera.  He  was 
of  Saul's  family,  which  had  lost  the  throne. 
When  he  saw  David,  with  his  attendants, 
descending  the  eastern  slope  of  the  mount  of 
Olives,  while  Absalom  was  in  possession  of 
Jerusalem,  he  thought  it  safe  to  insult  the 
fallen  potentate,  which  he  did  in  gross  lan- 
guage. He  was  forgiven  by  David,  but  was 
afterwards  put  to  death  by  Solomon  for  dis- 
obeying a  command  of  the  king  (1  Kin.  ii. 
44-46). 

10.  An  adherent  of  David  and  Solomon 
during  Adonijah's  usurpation  (1  Kin.  i.  8). 
He  was  probably  the  son  of  Elah,  who  be- 
came Solomon's  purveyor  in  the  territory  of 
Benjamin  (iv.  18). 

11.  A  Rcubenite  (1  Chron.  v.  4). 

12.  A  Levite,  a  son  of  Heman,  who  helped 
to  purify  the  temple  in  Hezekiah's  reign  (2 
Chron.  xxix.  14-16).  He  may  be  identical 
with  the  following. 

13.  A  Levite,  brother  of  Conaniah,  in 
Hezekiah's  reign.  He  was  one  of  those  who 
looked  after  the  tithes  (2  Chron.  xxxi.  12). 

14.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Kish  and  an  an- 
cestor of  Mordecai  (Esth.  ii.  5). 

15.  A  man  belonging  to  the  royal  family 
of  Judah,  and  a  brother  of  Zerubbabel  (1 
Chron.  iii.  19). 

16.  17,  18.  Three  men,  one  a  Levite,  one  a 
son  of  Hashum,  and  one  a  son  of  Bani,  each 
of  whom  was  induced  bj^  Ezra  to  put  away 
his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  23,  33,  38). 

Shim'e-ites.     See  Shimei  1. 

SMm'e-on  [a  hearkening,  an  answering 
(of  prayer)]. 

A  son  of  Harim,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  31). 

SMm'M.     See  Shimei  5. 

SMm'i.     See  Shimei  1. 

Shim'ma.     See  Shimea  3. 

SM'mon. 

A  man  who  had  his  registrj^  with  the  tribe 
of  Judah  (1  (;hron.  iv.  20). 

SMm'rath  [watching,  guarding]. 

A  Benjamite,  son  of  Shimei  of  Aijalon  (1  • 
Chron.  viii.  21). 

Shim'ri,  in  A.  V.  once  Simri  (1  Chron. 
xxvi.  10)   [watchful]. 

1.  A  Simeonite,  son  of  Shemaiah  (1  Chron. 
iv.  37). 


Shimrith 


679 


Ship 


2.  Father  of  one  of  David's  mighty  men  (1 
Chron.  xi.  45). 

'.i.  A  Merarite  Levite,  a  sou  of  Hosah  (1 
Chron.  xxvi.  10). 

4.  A  Levite,  who  lived  in  the  reign  of 
Ilezekiah.  He  was  a  son  of  Elizaphan  of 
the  family  of  Kohath,  house  of  Uzziel  (2 
Chron.  xxix.  IIJ). 

Shim'rith  [vigilant]. 

A  Moaliitess,  mother  of  oue  of  king  Joash's 
assassins  (2  Chron.  xxiv.  2G).  Called  in  2 
Kin.  xii.  21  Shomer. 

SMm'ron,  in  A.  V.  once  Shimrom  (1  Chron. 
vii.  1 1,  an  error  not  in  the  original  edition  of 
Kill  [watching,  a  guard]. 

1.  A  sou  of  Issachar,  and  founder  of  a  tri- 
bal family  (Geu.  xlvi.  13;  Num.  xxvi.  24). 

2.  A  border  town  of  Zebulun  (Josh.  xi.  1  ; 
xix.  1r>).  Not  identitied.  Semi'uiieh,  .5  miles 
■west  of  Nazareth,  has  been  conjectured  among 
other  iilaces. 

Shim-ron-me'ron. 

A  Canaanite  town,  whose  king  was  van- 
quished and  slain  by  Joshua  (Josh.  xii.  20). 
Probably  the  full  name  of  Shimron. 

Sliim'sliai  [sunny]. 

A  scribe,  one  of  those  who  complained  to 
Artaxcrxes  Longimanus  that  the  Jews  were 
rebuilding  the  temple  (Ezra  iv.  8). 

Shin. 

The  twenty-first  letter  of  the  Hebrew 
alphabet.  English  S  comes  from  the  same 
source,  and  with  sh  represents  it  in  angli- 
cized Hebrew  names;  as  in  Simeon,  Shimea, 
Ishmael.  It  heads  the  twenty-tirst  section 
of  Ps.  cxix.,  in  which  section  each  verse  of 
the  original  begins  with  this  letter. 

SM'nab. 

The  king  of  Admah,  who  was  defeated  by 
Chedorlaomer  (Gen.  xiv.  2,  8,  10). 

Shi'nar. 

A  country  in  wliich  the  cities  of  Babel, 
Erech,  Accad,  and  Calneh  were  situated 
(Gen.  X.  10;  xi.  2;  Dan.  i.  2).  Hence,  in 
Hebrew  usage.  Shinar  comprehended  the  al- 
luvial plain  of  Babylonia.  The  same  region 
was  known  to  Semites  of  Mesopotamia  as 
Shanhar,  as  appears  from  an  inscription  of 
Tell  el-Amarna.  In  the  days  of  Abraham, 
Amraphel  was  king  of  the  whole  or  a  large 
part  of  it  (Gen.  xiv.  1, 9).  Some  of  the  Jews 
■were  to  be  carried  thither  as  captives  (Is.  xi. 
11:  Zech.  v.  11). 

Shi'on,  in  A.  V.  Sliihon  [destruction, 
ruin]. 

A  town  of  Lssachar  (Josh.  xix.  19).  The 
site  is  perhaps  at  'Ayun  esh-Sha'in,  ?>  miles 
west-northwest  of  mount  Tabor. 

Ship. 

Little  boats  were  used  by  dwellers  on  the 
upjicr  Euphrates  for  descending  the  river  to 
Babylon  (Herod,  i.  194).  They  w'ere  circular 
in  form.  The  ribs  were  made  of  willow, 
over  which  hides  were  stretched  as  a  cover- 
ing.    They  were  steered  by  two  men  who 


stood  upright,  each  with  a  spar  which  they 
thrust  alternately.  The  largest  vessels  were 
capable,  according  to  Herodotus,  of  carrying 
5000  talents. 

Boats  were  doubtless  used  on  the  sea  of 
Galilee  in  O.  T.  times,  but  they  are  not  men- 
tioned. In  the  Eoman  period  the  sea  was 
alive  with  small  fishing  vessels  (Luke  v.  2 ; 
John  vi.  22,  23;  War  ii.  21,  8;  iii.  10,  9; 
Life  33).  They  were  propelled  by  oars;  but 
some,  at  least,  had  both  oars  and  sails  (Mark 
iv.  .38  with  Luke  viii.  23) ;  they  carried  an 
anchor  and  a  pilot  (Life  33). 

The  Israelites  were  not  a  seafaring  people  ; 
although  shipbuilding  was  far  advanced 
among  the  Egyptians  and  douljtless  among 
the  Phoenicians  before  the  exodus,  and  the 
Hebrews  had  the  spectacle  of  ships  on  the 
Mediterranean  before  their  eyes  during  the 
whole  period  of  their  national  history.  Solo- 
mon conducted  commercial  enterprises,  and 
Jehoshaphat  attempted  to  imitate  him  ;  but 
these  were  transient  efforts  and  were  more 
or  less  dependent  uxwn  Phcenician  sailors. 
The  rafts  of  cedar  and  fir  destined  for  Solo- 
mon's temple  were  floated  to  Joppa  by  Tyr- 
ians  (1  Kin.  v.  9 ;  2  Chron.  ii.  16),  and  the 
timber  for  the  second  temple  was  likewise 
brought  by  sea  to  Joppa  by  Phcenicians 
(Ezra  iii.  7).  The  crew  of  the  vessel  in 
which  Jonah  sailed  from  Joppa  was  also  com- 
posed of  foreigners  (Jonah  i.  5).  In  the  Eoman 
period,  piratical  expeditions  by  Jews  are  re- 
ported (Antiq.  xiv.  3,  2  ;  War  iii.  9,  2  and  3). 

Both  merchant  vessels  and  war  ships  were 
used  on  the  Mediterranean  (Num.  xxiv.  24; 
Dan.  xi.  30;  Jonah  i.  3;  1  Mac.  xi.  1).  In 
war,  vessels  were  employed  for  transporting 
troops  (xv.  3,  4;  2  Mac.  xiv.  1)  and  for  fight- 
ing at  sea  (1  Mac.  viii.  2.3,  32 ;  Antiq.  ix.  14, 
2;  cp.  War  iii.  10,  1).  Some  of  these  sea- 
going vessels  were  propelled  by  sails  alone ; 
others  by  both  sails  and  oars.  A  gallant 
merchantman  of  Tyre  was  built  of  ]ilanks 
and  calked  (Ezek.  xxvii.  5,  9) ;  had  masts, 
linen  sails,  and  tackling  (7;  Is.  xxxiii.  23), 
benches  of  boxwood,  and  oaken  oars  (Ezek. 
xxvii.  6,  R.  v.).  It  was  manned  by  sailors  and 
guided  by  a  pilot  (8,  27).  When  luxuriously 
furnished,  the  sails  were  embroidered  and  a 
rich  awning  was  spread  (7).  Such  vessels 
made  the  voyage  to  Tarshish  (Jonah  i.  3,  5, 
6, 13),  and  even  navigated  the  Atlantic  Ocean 
from  Spain  to  England ;  see  Tix.  The  ship 
of  Alexandria,  in  which  Paul  was  conveyed 
from  Myra  to  jNIalta,  was  large  enough  to 
accommodate  a  crew  and  passengers  number- 
ing 276  persons,  besides  a  cargo  of  wheat 
(Acts  xxvii.  37,  38).  The  vessel  in  which 
Josephus  was  wrecked  had  600  persons  on 
board  (Life  3).  The  Alexandrian  wheat  ship, 
described  by  Lucian  as  driven  into  the  port 
of  Athens  by  rough  weather,  was  120  cubits, 
or  180  feet,  in  length,  doubtless  including  the 
projection  at  each  end,  and  45  feet  in  breadth. 
Its  size  attracted  attention.  Its  measure- 
ment is  sui)posed  to  have  been  about  1200  or 


Shiphi 


680 


Shittah  Tree 


1300  tons.  The  exceptionally  large  war  gal- 
ley of  Ptolemy  Philopator  measured,  accord- 
ing to  Athenieiis,  4'JO  feet  in  length  and  57 
feet  in  breadth.  Paul's  ship  was  in  charge 
of  a  master  and  the  owner  (Acts  xxvii.  11), 
and  was  managed  by  a  crew  (30).  It  was 
built  of  planks  (44),  carried  a  foresail,  which 
could  be  raised  and  lowered  (40,  R.  V.),  and 
by  implication  a  foremast  and  a  mainmast, 
and  was  steered  by  rudders,  doubtless  two 
(40).  Four  anchors  were  stowed  at  the  stern 
and  several  forward  (29,  30),  and  a  small 
boat  was  towed  behind,  which  could  be  raised 
by  ropes  to  the  deck  or  davits  (16,  17,  30,  32). 
Soundings  were  taken  (28).  It  was  custom- 
ary for  ships  to  have  an  eye  painted  or 
carved  ou  each  side  of  the  stem.  Paul's 
vessel  was  unable  to  face  the  gale,  literally  to 
keep  the  eye  to  the  wind  (15). 


A  .ship  of  Paul's  Time. 
Delineated  at  Pompeii. 

A  ship  of  Paul's  time,  depicted  at  Pompeii, 
shows  a  foremast  inclined  like  a  bowsprit, 
but  intended  to  carry  a  square  sail,  and  one 
large  mast  with  one  square  sail  fitted  to  a 
yard  of  great  length.  The  yard  was  com- 
posed of  two  spars  spliced  together,  and  was 
placed  with  its  center  against  the  mast.  The 
sail  was  strengthened  by  ropes  sewed  across 
it  vertically  and  horizontally ;  and  if  torn, 
the  rent  was  confined  to  the  square  in  which 
it  occurred.  The  sail  was  furled  by  being 
drawn  up  to  the  yard.  The  deck  was  pro- 
tected by  a  rail.  The  stern  post,  and  in  many 
vessels  the  stem  post  also,  rose  in  a  curve.  It 
was  customary,  as  in  this  ship,  for  the  stern 
post  at  least  to  terminate  in  the  head  of  a 
water  fowl.  The  sign  of  the  ship  (Acts  xxviii. 
11)  was  painted  or  carved  on  each  side  of  the 
prow.  The  vessel  was  steered  by  two  broad 
oars  or  paddles,  one  on  each  quarter  and  act- 
ing through  a  port  hole.  The  anchors  were 
similar  to  those  in  modern  use,  except  that 
they  had  no  flukes.  To  prevent  the  starting 
of  the  planks  in  a  storm,  cables  or  chains, 
called  helps  or  undergirders  (xxvii.  17),  were 
passed  around  the  vessel  at  right  angles  to 
its  length  and  made  tight. 

SM'phi  [abounding,  abundant]. 

A  Simeonite,  son  of  AUon  (1  Chron.  iv.  37). 


Shlpli'mite. 

A  native  or  inhabitant  of  probably  Siph- 
moth  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  27). 

Shiph'rali  [splendor,  beauty]. 

One  of  the  Hebrew  midwives  in  Egypt 
who  declined  to  kill  the  male  babes  (Ex.  i. 
15). 

Shiph'tan  [judicial]. 

An  Ei)hraimite,  father  of  Kemuel  (Num. 
xxxiv.  24). 

Shi'sha.     See  Shavsha. 

Shi'shak.     See  Pharaoh  3. 

Shit'rai. 

A  Sharonite,  who  looked  after  David's 
herds  on  the  plain  of  Sharon  (1  Chron.  xxvii. 
29). 

Shit'tah  Tree  and  Shittim  Wood. 

A  tree  (Is.  xli.  19).  The  K.  V.  renders  the 
word  by  acacia  tree  or  wood.  It  was  largely 
used  in  the  tabernacle,  for  the  woodwork  of 
the  ark,  the  altars  and  their  staves,  the  table, 
the  boards,  bars,  and  pillars  i  Ex.  xxv.  5, 
10,  13,  23;  xxvi.  15,  26,  32;  xxvii.  1,  6;  xxx. 
1,  5).  The  Arabic  name  sa»t  is  the  same 
word  as  the  Hebrew  shittah,  and  denotes  the 
acacia.  There  are  several  species.  Acacia 
seyal  and  tortilis  are  found  in  the  valleys. 


Shittah  {Acacia  scyal). 


about  the  Dead  Sea  and  southward,  and 
Acacia  nilotica  grows  in  the  southern  part  of 
the  peninsula  of  Sinai  and  in  Egypt.  The 
genuine  acacias  are  generally  small  trees, 
growing  from  15  to  25  feet  high,  thorny,  with 


Shittim 


681 


Shobi 


bipiunate  leaves,  aud  pods  with  several  seeds. 
The  wood  is  hard  and  close-fjrained.  Certain 
species  yield  the  gum  Arabic  of  coniinerce. 
The  wood  was  used  in  Egypt  for  boat  build- 
ing (Herod,  ii.  9(i).  and  Josephus  speaks  of 
its  strength  and  durability  (Antiq.  iii.  (i,  5). 

SMt'tim  [acacias]. 

1.  An  important  encampment  of  the  Israel- 
ites in  the  plains  of  Moab,  east  of  Jordan, 
opposite  Jericho  (Num.  xxii.  1  with  xxv.  1). 
The  camp  had  been  removed  from  Pisgah  on 
the  mountains  of  Abarim  and  pitched  at 
Shittim  after  the  conquest  of  Sihon  and  Og 
(xxi.  20;  xxii.  1;  xxxiii.  47,  48).  It  was 
located  on  a  table-land,  the  topmost  of  the 
three  terraces  which  at  this  point  form  the 
valley  of  the  Jordan,  aud  among  the  long 
groves  of  acacia  trees.  It  extended  from 
Beth-jeshimoth  even  unto  Abel-shittim 
(xxxiii.  49  ;  cp.  xxiii.  28),  a  distance  of  3 
miles  and  more.  It  was  arranged  in  an  or- 
derly manner,  the  Israelites  dwelling  accord- 
ing to  their  tribes  (xxiv.  2,  5,  6) ;  see  Camp. 
The  sojourn  at  Shittim  was  eventful.  While 
the  Israelites  were  encamped  there,  Balaam 
attempted  to  curse  them  ( xxii. -xxiv. ),  the* 
people  committed  sin  with  the  daughters  of 
Moab  and  Midian  at  Baal-peor,  and  were 
plagued  in  consequence  (xxv.),  the  second 
census  was  taken  (xxvi.),  occasion  arose  for 
enacting  laws  regarding  the  inheritance  of 
daughters  (xxvii.  1-11),  Joshua  was  publicly 
proclaimed  the  successor  to  Moses  (12-23), 
daily  oflerings  and  vows  were  further  regu- 
lated (xxviii.-xxx.),  war  was  waged  with 
the  tive  Midianite  tribes  of  the  neighborhood 
on  account  of  the  deliberate  attempt  which 
they  had  recently  made  to  seduce  the  Israel- 
ites into  licentious  idolatry  at  Baal-peor 
(xxxi.),  Eeuben  and  Gad,  at  their  own  re- 
quest, received  inheritance  east  of  the  Jor- 
dan (xxxii. ),  an  itinerary  of  the  journey 
from  Egypt  to  the  Jordan  was  drawn  up  bj' 
Moses  (xxxiii.).  Measures  were  also  taken 
for  the  occupation  of  Canaan :  in  view  of  re- 
cent events,  the  expulsion  of  the  Canaanites 
and  the  destruction  of  their  altars  and  idols 
were  urgently  commanded  anew  ;  the  bound- 
aries of  the  land  were  defined,  and  a  com- 
mission was  appointed  to  superintend  the 
allotment  of  territory  to  the  tribes ;  and  it 
was  ordered  that  cities  be  assigned  to  the 
Levites,  and  that  six  cities  of  refuge  be  des- 
ignated for  the  unintentional  murderer 
(xxxiii.  50-xxxv.).  The  matter  of  the  in- 
heritance of  daughters  was  further  regulated 
(xxxvi.j.  Then  Moses  delivered  his  farewell 
address  (see  Deuteronomy  ),  Joshua  received 
a  solemn  charge,  and  Moses  ascended  Xebo 
and  died.  After  the  death  of  Moses,  Joshua 
sent  forth  two  sjiies  from  Shittim  to  examine 
and  report  on  the  defenses  of  Jericho  (Josh. 
ii.).  Then  camp  was  broken  at  Shittim,  and 
the  people  crossed  the  Jordan  (iii.). 

2.  A  valley,  dry  and  comparatively  un- 
fruitful, where   only  the  acacia  or  shittah 


tree  grows  (Joel  iii.  18).  If  a  particular 
valley  is  in  the  prophet's  mind,  it  is  the 
Arabah  about  the  Dead  Sea  (cp.  Ezek.  xlvii. 
1-12).  The  prophet  names  it  from  the  en- 
campment of  the  Israelites  at  Shittim,  and 
he  selects  it  as  a  tyjie  liecause  the  waters  of 
its  .sea  were  i>ractically  lifeless,  aud  its  south- 
ern portion  consisted  of  Itarren  rocks  and 
clilts  of  salt.  After  Jehovah  has  judged  all 
nations,  the  kingdom  of  God  shall  llourish 
and  the  kingdoms  of  the  world  become  waste 
(Joel  iii.  9-21).  The  mountains  of  Judah 
shall  drop  down  new  wine,  its  hills  flow  with 
milk,  its  wadies  be  brooks  of  water,  and  from 
the  house  of  the  Lord  shall  go  forth  waters 
that  shall  make  glad  the  valley  of  acacias. 
In  other  words,  the  desert  shall  blossom  as 
the  rose;  spiritual  life  shall  proceed  from  the 
Lord  God  and  shall  supply  the  needs  of  his 
kingdom  (cp.  Eev.  xxii.  1,  2). 

Shi'za  [vehement  love]. 

A  Eeulienite,  father  of  one  of  David's 
heroes  (1  Chron.  xi.  42). 

Sho'a. 

A  country  and  its  inhabitants,  mentioned 
in  connection  with  the  Babj-lonians,  Chal- 
deans, and  Assyrians  (Ezek.  xxiii.  23) ;  and 
doubtless  the  Shutu  who  are  mentioned  by 
the  Babylonians  and  Assyrians  as  occupying 
a  hilly  country  with  steppes,  adjacent  to 
Babylonia  on  the  northeast,  and  between  the 
Tigris  river  and  the  mountains  of  Elam  and 
Media  (Delitzsch,  Paradies,  334). 

Sho'bab  [restored,  rescued]. 

1.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Hezron, 
house  of  Caleb.  His  mother  was  Azubah  (1 
Chron.  ii.  18). 

2.  A  son  of  David,  born  to  him  at  Jerusa- 
lem (2  Sam.  V.  14). 

Sho'liach  [one  who  pours  out]. 

Commander-in-chief  under  Hadarezer, 
king  of  Zobah  (2  Sam.  x.  16).  Called  in  1 
Chron.  xix.  16, 18,  Shophach.  The  difference 
is  doubtless  due  to  a  scribe's  confusion  of 
beth  and  pe,  but  even  so  the  names  are 
strictly  synonymous. 

Sho'bai  [one  who  leads  captive]. 

A  Levite,  founder  of  a  family  of  doorkeep- 
ers, members  of  which  returned  with  Zerub- 
babel  from  captivity  (Ezra  ii.  42). 

Sho'bal  [flowing,  a  stream,  a  twig,  a  trav- 
eler] . 

1.  A  tribe  of  Horites  (Gen.  xxxvi.  20), 
consisting  of  several  families  (23),  and  ruled 
by  a  chieftain  (29). 

2.  A  son  of  Hur,  a  man  of  Judah,  family 
of  Hezron,  house  of  Caleb.  He  was  ancestor 
of  the  inhabitants  of  Kirjath-jearim  (1 
Chron.  ii.  50;  iv.  1,  2,  4). 

Sho'bek  [one  who  forsakes]. 

One  of  the  Jewish  chiefs  who  with  Nehe- 
miah  sealed  the  covenant  (Neh.  x.  24). 

Sho'bi  [one  who  leads  captive]. 

Son  of  a  resident  in  Eabbah  of  the  Am- 
monites named   Nahash    (2  Sam.  xvii.  27). 


Shocho 


682 


Shubael 


Whether  Nahash  was  an  Israelite  who  had 
taken  up  his  residence  in  the  conquered  city 
(xii.  26-31),  or  David's  royal  friend,  the  Am- 
monite king  (x.  2),  is  uncertain.  His  son 
Shobi  hrougiit  food  and  other  necessaries  to 
David  at  Mahanaim. 

Sho'cho,  Shocholi,  Shoco.     See  Soco. 

Sho'ham  [a  beryl  or  onyx]. 

A  Ijcvite,  son  of  Jaaziah  (1  Chrou.  xxiv.  27). 

Shoe. 

Hebrew  shoes  were,  as  a  rule,  simply  san- 
dals affixed  to  the  foot  by  straps  known  as 
latchets ;  see  Clothing.  Shoes  were  not 
worn  in  the  sitting  room  or  at  the  table  (cp. 
Luke  vii.  38) ;  and  in  well-appointed  houses 
a  servant  stood  ready  to  unloose  the  latchet 
and  remove  the  shoe  of  the  guest  (cp.  Mark 
i.  7).  Shoes  were  also  removed  when  one 
was  about  to  tread  holy  ground  (Ex.  iii.  5 ; 
Josh.  v.  15)  ;  and  the  absence  of  shoes  in  the 
description  of  the  priest's  garments  is  sup- 
]iosed  to  indicate  that  the  priests  performed 
their  duties  in  the  temple  barefoot.     In  the 


Sandals. 

olden  time  in  Israel,  in  matters  of  redemp- 
tion and  exchange,  a  man  drew  off  his  shoe 
and  gave  it  to  him  with  whom  he  had  con- 
cluded the  agreement,  as  confirmation  of  the 
transaction  (Ruth  iv.  7,  8)  ;  and  the  shoe  of 
the  man  who  refused  to  take  his  deceased 
brother's  wife  was  loosed,  with  other  insult 
(Deut.  XXV.  9,  10). 
Sho'mer  [keeper,  watchman]. 

1.  An  Asherite,  son  of  Heber  (1  Chron.  vii. 
32).     See  Shemer. 

2.  A  Moabitess,  mother  of  one  of  king 
Joash's  assassins  (2  Kin.  xii.  21).     See  Shim- 

RITH. 

Sho'phacli.    See  Shobach. 

Sho'phan.     See  Atroth-shophan. 

Sho-shan'nim  [lilies]. 

A  word  occurring  in  the  titles  of  Psalms 
xlv.  and  Ixix.  Three  opinions  exist  as  to  its 
meaning:  symbolical  of  the  contents  of  the 
psalm,  a  musical  instrument  resembling  a 
lily,  a  ftimiliar  melody.  It  doubtless  indi- 
cates a  i^opular  air.  This  appears  from  the 
combinations  Shoshannim  Eduth,  "  Lilies  a 


testimony"    (Ps.  Ixxx.  title),  and   Shushan 
Eduth,   "Lily  a  testimony"  (Ps.  Ix.  title). 

Sliow'bread. 

Literally  "  bread  of  the  presence."  It 
consisted  of  twelve  loaves  of  bread,  laid  in 
two  rows  and  displayed  on  a  table  in  the 
holy  place  before  the  Lord  continually.  The 
bread  was  changed  every  Sabbath,  and  the 
old  loaves  were  eaten  by  the  priests  in  the 
holy  place  (Ex.  xxv.  30;  Lev.  xxiv.  5-9;  1 
Sam.  xxi.  6  ;  Mat.  xii.  4).  Josephus  saj's  the 
bread  was  unleavened  (Antiq.  iii.  6,  6). 
These  twelve  loaves  set  in  the  presence  of 
Jehovah  probably  signified  the  constant 
communion  of  his  people  with  him  in  tho.se 
things  which  his  bounty  provided  and  they 
enjoyed  in  his  presence  and  used  in  his 
service.  The  Kohathites  had  charge  of  the 
showbread  (1  Chron.  ix.  32). 

The  table  of  showbread  was  made  of  acacia 
wood  overlaid  with  gold.  It  was  bordered 
by  a  golden  crown,  and  had  a  ring  at  each 
corner  for  the  rods  by  which  it  was  carried. 
It  measured  2  cubits  long,  1  broad,  and  1^ 
high  (Ex.  xxv.  23-29;  for  its  transportation, 
^see  Num.  iv.  7,  8).  In  Solomon's  temple 
there  were  ten  tables  for  shoM'bread,  corre- 
sponding to  the  ten  candlesticks,  although 
like  the  candlesticks  apparently  only  one 
was  in  use  at  a  time  (1  Chron.  xxviii.  16 ;  2 
Chron.  iv.  8,  19  ;  xiii.  11 ;  Antiq.  viii.  3,  7)  ; 
hence  only  one  is  mentioned  in  1  Kin.  vii. 
48;  2  Chron.  xxix.  18.  The  table  which 
belonged  to  the  second  temple  was  carried 
oif  by  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  but  a  new  one 
was  provided  by  Judas  Maccabseus  ( 1  Mac.  i. 
22;  iv.  49).  Titus  carried  it  to  Rome  (War 
vii.  5,  5). 

Shu'a,  in  A.  V.  twice  Shuah  (Gen.  xxxviii. 

2,  12)  [wealth]. 

1.  A  Canaanite,  who.se  daughter  became 
Judah's  wife  or  concubine,  and  the  mother 
of  his  sons,  Er,  Onan,  and  Shelah  (Gen. 
xxxviii.  2,  12  ;  1  Chron.  ii.  3). 

2.  An  Asherite,  a  daughter  of  Heber  (1 
Chron.  vii.  32). 

Shu'ah  [depression]. 

A  son  of  Abraham,  by  Keturah  (Gen.  xxv. 
2),  that  is.  an  Arab  tribe  descended  from 
them,  doubtless  the  Shuhites  who  dwelt  near 
the  land  of  Uz  (Job  ii.  11).  Their  land  is 
plausibly  identified  with  a  district  of  the 
same  name,  in  Assyrian  Sului,  on  the  west 
of  the  Euphrates,  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Belich  and  Khabour. 

For  others  whose  name  is  rendered  Shuah 
in  A.  v.,  see  Shua  and  Shuhah. 

Shu'al  [a  fox  or  jackal]. 

1.  An  Asherite,  son  of  Zophah  (1  Chron. 
vii.  36). 

2.  A  district  near  Ophrah,  to  the  north  of 
]\Iiohmash  (1  Sam.  xiii.  17).  Exact  situation 
unknown. 

Shu'ba-el.    See  Shebuel. 


Shuhah 


683 


Shushan 


Showbread  Table  of  Herod's  Temple. 

From  the  Arch  of  Titus. 


Shu'hah,  in  A.  V.  Shuah  [depression,  a 
small  jiit]. 

A  man  of  Jiidah  (1  Chron.  iv.  11). 

Shu'ham  [dejiression  or,  perhaps,  a  pit- 
man]. 

The  son  of  Dan.  and  founder  of  the  tribal 
family  (Num.  xx\i.  42).  Called  in  Gen.  xlvi. 
23  Hushim. 

Shu'Mte.     See  Shuah. 

Shu'lam-mite,  in  A.  V.  Shulamite. 

A  young  woman  mentioned  in  the  Song 
of  Solomon  (vi.  13).  In  all  probability  the 
name  is  derived  from  that  of  the  town  of 
Shunem.  The  Septuagiut  translates  it  by 
Sonnnmiiis,  i.  e.  Shunammite  ;  and  the  town 
of  Shunem  was  known  in  the  time  of  Euse- 
bius  as  Shulem,  and  to-day  bears  the  name 
Solam.  The  form  Shulammite  may  have 
been  preferred  to  Shunammite  becau.se  of  its 
assonance  with  Solomon,  in  Hebrew  F^hHomoh. 

Shu'math-ites  [from  shumnh,  garlic]. 

One  of  the  leading  families  in  Kirjath- 
jearim  (1  Chron.  ii.  53). 

Shu'nam-mite. 

A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Shunem.  Abishag 
was  one  (1  Kin.  i.  3,  15).  So  was  the  woman 
whose  son  Elisha  raised  from  the  dead  (cp.  2 
Kin.  iv.  8). 

Shu'nem  [possibly,  two  resting  places]. 

A  town  of  Issachar  (Josh.  xix.  18),  oppo.site 
mount  Gilboa  (1  Sam.  xxviii.  4).  The  Philis- 
tines encamped  there  before  the  battle  with 


Saul.  The  site  is  at  Solam,  on  the  western 
slope  of  a  hill  3j  miles  north  by  east  of 
Jezreel,  5  north  of  the  western  end  of 
mount  Gilboa,  and  10  or  12  miles  from  Car- 
mel  whither  the  Shunammite  woman  went 
to  find  Elisha  (2  Kin.  iv.  25). 

Shu'ni  [possibly,  calm,  quiet]. 

A  son  of  Gad,  and  founder  of  a  tribal 
family  (Gen.  xlvi.  16;  Num.  xxvi.  15). 

Shu'pham.     See  Shephupham. 

Shup'pim. 

1.  A  Benjamite  (1  Chron.  vii.  12,  15) ;  see 
Shephupham. 

2.  A  Levite,  who  served  as  a  doorkeeper 
at  the  sanctuary  (1  Chron.  xxvi.  16).  The 
Hebrew  text  is  doubtless  corrupt.  Perhaps 
the  name  crept  in  from  the  preceding  verse, 
which  ends  with  a  word  very  like  Shuppim. 

Shur  [wall,  fortification]. 

1.  A  locality  in  the  wilderness,  south  of 
Palestine,  or  more  exactlj'  south  of  Rcer- 
lahai-roi,  and  east  of  Egypt  (Gen.  xvi.  7; 
XXV.  18).  It  has  not  been  identified,  but  was 
doubtless  connected  with  the  frontier  for- 
tresses of  Egypt.  It  gave  name  to  the  wil- 
derness through  which  the  Israelites  marched 
for  three  days  immediately  after  crossing  the 
Red  Sea  (Ex.  xv.  22).  This  waste  was  also 
sometimes  called  the  wilderness  of  Etham 
(Num.  xxxiii.  8). 

Shu'shan  [to  the  Hebrews  the  name  would 
suggest  lily]. 


Shushanchites 


684 


Sidon 


A  city  and  royal  residence  in  the  Persian 
empire  (Neh.  i.  1 ;  Estli.  i.  2),  in  tlie  province 
of  Elam,  on  the  river  Ulai  (Uan.  viii.  2).  It 
was  also  a  royal  treasure  city  (Herod,  v.  49). 
The  place  referred  to  in  these  passages  is 
Susa.  Ashurhauipal  captured  the  city  about 
660  B.  c,  and  later  it  became  subject  to  the 
Babylonian  kings.  The  royal  family  to 
which  Cyrus,  who  conquered  Babylon,  be- 
longed ruled  over  Ansau,  which  appears  to 
have  been  a  district  of  eastern  Elam.  When 
Cyrus,  by  his  military  achievements,  estab- 
lished the  Persian  empire,  Susa  was  elevated 
to  the  rank  of  a  capital  of  the  empire,  shar- 
ing this  distinction  with  Ecbatana  and  Baby- 
lon. When  Alexander  the  Great  entered 
Susa,  in  331  B.  c,  it  had  in  it  immense  treas- 
ures, of  which  he  took  possession.  In  315  B. 
c.  it  was  captured  and  plundered  anew  by 
Antigonus.  After  this  it  began  to  decline, 
but  was  still  defensible  when  the  Saracens 
conquered  Persia.  The  site  of  the  city  is  at 
Sus,  in  latitude  32°  10"  north,  longitude  48° 
26"  east,  between  the  river  Eulseus  (the  Ro- 
man name  for  Daniel's  Ulai)  and  the  Shah- 
pur,  and  about  100  miles  from  the  Persian 
Gulf.  The  chief  ruins  are  found  within  an 
area  of  about  6000  feet  long  by  4500  broad, 
the  circumference  being  about  3  miles;  but 
if  scattered  remains  be  taken  in,  the  3  miles 
may  become  6  or  7.  They  consist  of  a  series 
of  mounds,  in  one  of  which  the  explorers 
laid  bare  the  ruins  of  a  palace,  doubtless  that 
begun  by  Darius,  and-  in  which  Xerxes  held 
his  court.  It  seems  to  have  been  there  that 
Esther's  Ahasuerus  held  his  feasts  and  his 
banquets  (Esth.  i.  2,  3,  9;  ii.  18,  etc.). 

Shu'shan-cMtes,   in  A.   V.    SusancMtes 

[from  Elamite  Snshiak,  Susian]. 

Natives  or  inhabitants  of  the  Persian  Susa, 
the  Shushan  of  the  O.  T.  Shushanchites 
were  brought,  with  others,  to  central  Pales- 
tine to  supply  the  place  of  the  ten  tribes  car- 
ried into  captivity  (Ezra  iv.  9). 

Shu'shan  E'duth.     See  Shoshannim. 
Sbu'the-lah. 

1.  A  son  of  Ephraim,  and  founder  of  a  tri- 
bal family  (Num.  xxvi.  35,  36 ;  1  Chron. 
vii.  20). 

2.  Another  descendant  of  Ephraim  in  the 
same  line  (1  Chron.  vii.  21). 

Si'a-ha  and  Sia  [assembly]. 

A  family  of  Nethinim,  members  of  which 
returned  with  Zerubbabel  from  the  captivity 
(Ezra  ii.  44  ;  -Neh.  vii.  47). 

Sib'be-cai,  in  A.  V.  twice  Sibbechai  (2 
Sam.  xxi.  18;  1  Chron.  xx.  4)  [perhaps,  en- 
tangling]. 

A  Hushathite,  one  of  David's  mighty  men 
(1  Chron.  xi.  29).  He  won  renown  by  slay- 
ing the  Philistine  Saph,  one  of  the  sons  of 
the  giant  (2  Sam.  xxi.  18).  He  commanded 
the  division  of  the  army  for  the  eighth  month 
(1  Chron.  xxvii.  11).  He  is  called  in  2  Sam. 
xxiii.  27  Mebunuai  (q.  v.). 


Sib'bo-leth.     See  Shibboleth. 

Sib'mali,  in  A.  V.  once  SMbmah  (Num. 
xxxii.  38)  [coolness]. 

A  town  assigned  to  Reuben  (Num.  xxxii. 
38 ;  Josh.  xiii.  19),  but  which  afterwards  re- 
verted to  Moab.  It  was  celebrated  for  its 
vines  (Is.  xvi.  8,  9  ;  Jer.  xlviii.  32).  The 
masculine  form  of  the  name  is  Sebam  (Num. 
xxxii.  3;  in  A.  V.  Shebam).  According  to 
Jerome,  it  was  situated  scarcely  half  a  mile 
from  Heshbon.  Not  identified.  Conder  sug- 
gests Sumia,  3  miles  west  by  north  of  Hesh- 
bon. 

Sib'ra-im  [perhaps,  hope]. 

An  unidentified  place  on  Ezekiel's  northern 
boundary  of  Canaan  (Ezek.  xlvii.  16). 

Si'cliem.     See  Shechem. 

Si'cy-on. 

A  Dorian  town  in  the  Peloponnesus 
(Herod,  viii.  43),  on  the  gulf  of  Corinth,  10 
miles  northwest  of  the  city  of  Corinth.  The 
old  town  at  the  harbor  was  abandoned  in  303 
B.  c,  and  the  populace  removed  to  the  new 
town,  about  2  miles  inland,  which  occupied 
a  strong  natural  position.  The  city  became 
a  member  of  the  Achaean  league  in  251  b. 
c.  Half  a  century  later  it  began  to  show 
friendliness  to  the  Romans,  and  continued  to 
do  so  during  the  fifty  years  that  followed  ; 
and  in  146  b.  c,  on  the  destruction  of  Corinth 
by  the  Roman  general,  Mummius,  it  was  re- 
warded with  a  large  portion  of  the  conquered 
territory  and  with  the  management  of  the 
Isthmian  games.  It  held  this  distinction  for 
a  century,  until  Corinth  was  founded  again 
and  made  a  Roman  colony.  The  Roman 
senate  addressed  the  letter  to  Sicyon  men- 
tioned in  1  Mac.  xv.  23,  about  139  B.  c. 

Sid'dim  [plains]. 

The  valley,  full  of  bitumen  pits,  in  which 
the  battle  of  the  four  kings  with  the  five 
took  place.  It  was  afterwards  submerged 
under  the  waters  of  the  Salt  or  Dead  Sea 
(Gen.  xiv.  3,  8,  10). 

Si'de. 

A  maritime  town  of  eastern  Pamphylia  in 
Asia  Minor.  It  maintained  close  commercial 
relations  with  Aradus  in  Phoenicia,  gave  the 
title  Sidetes  to  Antiochus  VII.,  who  was 
brought  up  in  the  town,  and  was  one  of  the 
places  to  which  the  Roman  senate  sent  letters 
in  favor  of  the  Jews  (1  Mac.  xv.  23). 

Si'don  and  Zidon ;  in  A.  V.  usually,  in  E. 
V.  always,  Zidon  in  O.  T. ;  in  A.  V.  and  R. 
V.  always  Sidon  in  N.  T.  [a  fishery]. 

An  ancient  city  of  the  Canaanites  (Gen.  x. 
15),  on  the  seacoast,  about  22  miles  north  of 
Tyre.  A  confirmation  of  its  antiquity  and 
its  importance  comes  from  Homer,  who  re- 
peatedly mentions  Sidon,  but  never  Tyre, 
and  who  uses  Sidon  and  Sidonian  as  syn- 
onymous with  Phcenicia  and  Phoenician.  It 
was  the  northern  limit  of  the  Canaanites,  in 
the  narrow  sense  (Gen.  x.  19).     It  was  the 


Sidon 


685 


Siege 


hiirder  also  of  Zebuhin  (slix.  13)  and  of 
AsIrt  (.hi.sli.  xix.  2S,  wlnTc  and  in  xi.  8  it  is 
called  (ircut  Zidou).  The  tribe  of  Aslier, 
liowever,  failed  to  expel  the  Canaanite  in- 
hal)itants  (Judg.  i.  31).  In  the  j)eriod  of  the 
judges  tile  Zidonians  ()])i)ressed  llu;  Israelites 
(x.  12),  and  the  latter  people  an^  accused  of 
worshiping  the  gods  of  Zidon  (G).  Of  these 
gods,  Baal,  symbolizing  the  sun,  was  doubt- 
less the  chief  (1  Kin.  xvi.  31)  ;  the  principal 
object  of  worship,  however,  was  a  goddess, 
Ashtoreth,  symbolizing  the  moon,  (xi.  5,  33  ; 
2  Kin.  xxiii.  13).  Ethbaal,  a  king  of  Zidon, 
was  the  father  of  Jezebel  (1  Kin.  xvi.  31). 
Isaiah  predicted  that  it  would  be  visited  with 
judgment  which  would  make  its  inhabitants 
pass  to  Kittini,  that  is,  Cyprus  (Is.  xxiii.  12). 
It  was  for  a  time  subject  to  the  neighboring 


B.  c.  it  opened  its  gates  to  Alexander  the 
Great.  From  his  successors  it  passed,  in  64 
B.  c,  to  the  Romans.  I'eojjle  from  Sidon 
came  to  Galilee  to  attend  on  the  preaching 
of  Jesus  and  witness  his  miracles  (Mark  iii. 
8;  Luke  vi.  17,  etc.).  He  once  visited  the 
region,  and  probably  the  city  (Mat.  xv.  21  ; 
Mark  vii.  24,  31).  Herod  Agrippa  II.  was 
highly  displeased  with  the  people  of  Tyre 
and  Sidon,  but  they  made  peace  with  liim 
"  because  their  country  was  fed  from  the 
king's  country  "  (Acts  xii.  20).  Paul  touched 
at  the  port  (xxvii.  3).  Since  N.  T.  times 
Sidon  has  seen  many  vicissitudes.  The  mod- 
ern city,  called  Saida,  lies  ou  the  northwest- 
ern slope  of  a  small  promontory  jutting  out 
into  the  sea.  The  ancient  harbor  was  formed 
by  a  ridge  of  rocks  parallel  to  the  shore.     It 


Northern  Harbor  of  Sidon. 

The  ruins  of  a  castle  of  the  thirteenth  century,  on  a  substructure  of  large  drafted  blocks  of  stone  which  proclaim 

their  antiquity,  stand  ou  an  island  which  is  connected  with  the  mainland  by  an  arched  bridge. 


city  of  Tyre  (Antiq.  ix.  14,  2).  In  701  b.  c, 
it  submitted  to  Sennacherib,  king  of  Assyria. 
In  678  B.  c.  it  was  destroyed  by  Esarhaddon. 
Jeremiah  predicted  its  subjugation  by  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, king  of  Babylon  (Jer.  xxvii.  3, 
fi).  Ezekiel  denounced  judgment  against  it 
because  it  had  been  "a  i)ricking  brier  to  the 
house  of  Israel"  (Ezek.  xxviii.  21,  22).  Joel 
charges  the  Zidonians  and  others  with  hav- 
ing helped  to  plunder  Jerusalem,  carrying 
off  silver  and  gold,  and  .selling  its  inhabit- 
ants for  slaves  (Joel  iii.  4-6).  About  .526  B.  c. 
Zidon  submitted  to  C'ambyses,  son  of  Cyrus, 
king  of  Persia.  The  Zidonians  sold  cedar 
timber  to  the  Jews  for  the  temple  which 
Zerubbabel  was  building  (Ezra  iii.  7).  It  re- 
volted against  Artaxerxes  Ochus,  king  of 
Persia,  in  3.51  B.  c,  but  was  retaken  and  de- 
stroj-ed.     To  get  rid  of  the  Persians,  in  333 


M'as  partly  filled  up  with  stones  and  earth 
by  Fakhr  ed-Din,  the  ruler  of  the  Druses,  in 
the  seventeenth  century.  There  is  a  wall 
protecting  the  land  side  of  the  city.  The 
highest  ground,  which  is  crowned  by  the 
citadel,  is  on  the  southern  .side.  The  city  is 
enveloped  in  gardens  and  orchards,  but  has 
not  much  commerce ;  that  having  been 
largely  diverted  from  it  to  Beirut.  Its 
population  has  been  estimated  at  5000  to 
10,000.  It  has  in  and  around  it  a  few  broken 
granite  columns;  and  various  sarcophagi, 
including  the  celebrated  one  of  Esmunazar, 
were  brought  from  tombs  in  its  vicinity. 

Si-do'ni-ans,  in  A.  V.  frequently  Zidoni- 
ans, in  R.  V.  always  so  except  once  (Deut. 
iii.  9). 

Siege.     See  War. 


Sihon 


Siloam 


Si'hon  [sweeping  out,  a  brush]. 

A  kiuK  of  the  Amorites,  whose  capital  was 
Heshbou.  He  drove  the  Moabites  from  the 
country  between  Heshbon  and  the  Arnon  and 
took  possession  of  it  (Num.  xxi.  26-30).  P^ive 
Midianite  tribes  were  his  vassals  (Josh.  xiii. 
21).  When  the  Israelites  arrived  in  the  wil- 
derness on  the  southeast  of  the  Arnon,  Moses 
sent  messengers  to  him  to  ask  permission  to 
cro.ss  his  territory  (Num.  xxi.  21,  22 ;  Deut. 
ii.26).  He  refused.  Thereupon  the  Israelites 
entered  his  domains  under  the  necessity  of 
lighting  their  way  to  the  Jordan.  Sihon 
gathered  his  army  together  at  Jaliaz  and  op- 
posed the  invaders,  but  he  was  defeated  and 
his  kingdom  was  taken  possession  of  by  the 
Israelites  (Num.  xxi.  21-32;  Ps.  cxxxv.  11). 
The  country  thus  seized  was  included  be- 
tween the  Jordan,  the  Jabbok,  and  the 
Arnon  (Num.  xxi.  24,  32  ;  Deut.  ii.  36  ;  Judg. 
xi.  22).  The  camp  of  Israel  was  pitched  at 
Pisgah,  a  secure  position  on  the  mountains 
of  Abarim,  nearly  in  the  center  of  the  con- 
quered district,  preparatory  to  the  campaign 
against  Bashau  (Num.  xxi.  20;  cp.  xxii.  1; 
xxxiii.  47).  Sihon's  kingdom  was  afterwards 
assigned  to  the  tribes  of  Eeuben  and  Gad, 
who  desired  it  because  it  afforded  good  pas- 
turage (Num.  xxxii.  1-4,  33-38). 

Sig'net.     See  Seal  2. 

Si'lior.     See  Shihok. 

Si'las,  or  uncontracted  Silvanus  [sylvan]. 

A  distinguished  member  of  the  apostolic 
church  at  Jerusalem.  He  was  sent  with 
Paul  to  communicate  the  deci.sion  of  the 
council  held  at  that  city  to  the  Christians  at 
Antioch  (Acts  xv.  22,  27,  32).  When  Paul 
declined  to  take  John  Mark  with  him  on  the 
second  missionax-y  journey,  and  parted  with 
Barnabas,  he  chose  Silas  as  his  companion 
(40),  and  the  two  were  imprisoned  together 
at  Philip])i  (xvi.  19,  25,  29).  Silas  was  with 
Paul  during  the  riot  at  Thessalonica  (xvii.  ' 
4),  and  was  sent  away  with  him  to  Bercea, 
remaining  there  with  Timothy  after  the 
apostle  had  been  obliged  to  depart  (14).  The 
two  were,  however,  soon  directed  to  follow 
Paul  to  Athens  (15).  They  started  to  join 
him,  but  do  not  seem  to  have  come  up  with 
him  till  after  his  arrival  at  Corinth  (xviii.  5). 
In  this  city  Silas  was  an  esteemed  coworker 
of  Paul's  (2  Cor.  i.  19).  The  same  individual 
who  in  The  Acts  is  familiarly  named  Silas  is 
unvaryingly  called  by  his  full  name  Silvanus 
in  the  epistles.  He  was  associated  with  Paul 
and  TiiiU)thv  in  sending  the  two  letters  to  the 
Thessaloniaiis  (1  Thes.  i.  1 ;  2  Thes.  i.  1).  He 
is  probably  the  Silvanus  who  carried  to  its 
destination  the  First  Epistle  of  Peter  (1  Pet. 
V.  12). 

SUk. 

A  fine,  soft  thread  produced  by  various 
species  of  caterpillars,  and  a  fabric  woven 
from  the  thread.  Silk  reached  the  markets 
of  the  west  shortly  after  the  conquest  of 
Alexander  the  Great.     It  was  known  to  the 


Greeks  as  serikon,  pertaining  to  the  Sers,  a 
people  of  India  from  whom  it  was  obtained. 
It  was  a  choice  article  of  merchandise  (Eev. 
xviii.  12),  fit  for  the  clothing  of  Eoman  em- 
perors (War  vii.  5,  4).  As  late  as  the  reign  of 
the  emperor  Aurelian,  A.  D.  270-275,  unmixed 
silk  goods  were  sold  for  their  weight  in  gold. 
The  fine  raiment  referred  to  in  Ezek.  xvi. 
10,  13  by  the  term  meshi  was  probably  silk, 
as  the  rabbinical  interpreters  understood 
and  as  it  is  rendered  in  the  E.  V.  Ezekiel 
doubtless  saw  the  stufl'in  Babylonia.  A  rich 
cloth  is  meant  by  d'meshek  (Amos  iii.  12), 
which  is  commonly  regarded  as  damask 
(in  E.  V.  rendered  silken  cushions). 

Sil'la  [twig,  basket].  The  meaning  "  way, 
street,"  as.signed  by  Theuius,  is  obtained  by 
altering  the  Hebrew  text. 

An  unknown  place  near  Millo  (2  Kin.  xii. 

20). 

Si-lo'ah,  an  erroneous  transliteration  of 
Shelah  in  A.  V.  of  Neh.  iii.  15.    See  Siloam. 

Si-lo'am  [sent ;  specially,  a  sending  of 
water  through  an  aqueduct]. 

A  pool  at  Jerusalem  (John  ix.  7) ;  proliably 
identical  with  Shiloah,  the  waters  of  which 
go  softly  (Is.  viii.  6),  and  the  pool  of  Shelah, 
which  was  by  the  king's  garden  (Neh.  iii.  15). 
Josephus  says  that  it  was  situated  at  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  valley  of  cheesemongers,  near 
a  bend  of  the  old  wall  beneath  Ophlas,  i.  e. 
Ophel  (War  v.  4,  1  and  2).  The  name  is  pre- 
served in  the  Birket  Silwan,  which  occupies 
the  general  site  of  the  ancient  pool.  It  is  a 
rectangular  reservoir,  58  feet  long,  18  broad, 
and  19  deep,  built  of  masonry,  the  western 
side  of  which  has  considerably  broken  down. 
The  fountain  is  a  small  upper  basin  ex- 
cavated in  the  rock.  It  is  really  the  ter- 
mination of  the  tunnel  which  was  cut  to 
conduct  the  water  from  the  fountain  of  the 
Virgin.  From  the  lower  reservoir,  the  water 
flows  in  a  small  rill  across  the  road  and 
irrigates  gardens  in  the  Kidron  valley. 

In  1880  an  inscription  of  .six  lines  was  dis- 
covered on  the  walls  of  this  tunnel  by  a 
youth  who  had  entered  from  the  Siloam  end. 
It  proved  to  be  written  in  pure  Hebrew,  and 
is  supposed  to  date  from  the  time  of  Ahaz  or 
Hezekiah.  A  portion  of  the  first  three  lines 
has  been  destroyed  by  the  wearing  away 
of  the  rock,  and  occasionally  a  letter  cannot 
be  made  out  with  certainty.  Still  the  sense 
is  plain.  It  describes  how  the  workmen, 
who  had  excavated  toward  eacli  other  from 
the  two  ends  of  the  tunnel,  met.  It  is  as 
follows,  as  nearly  as  possible.  "  [Behold]  the 
piercing  through  !  And  this  was  the  manner 
of  the  piercing  through.  While  yet  [the 
miners  were  lifting  up]  the  i)ick  one  toward 
another,  and  while  there  were  yet  three 
cubits  to  be  [cut  through,  there  was  heard] 
the  voice  of  each  calling  to  the  other;  for 
there  was  a  fissure  (?)  in  the  rock  on  the 
right  hand  ....  And  on  the  daj'  of  the 
piercing  through,  the  miners  smote  the  one 


Silvanus 


687 


Simeon 


so  as  to  meet  the  other,  pick  against  pick. 
And  the  water  flowed  from  the  source  to  the 
pool,  1"J00  cubits  ;  and  100  cubits  was  the 
height  of  the  rock  over  the  head  of  the 
miners." 

Tlie  tower  in  Siloara  which  fell  (Luke  xiii. 
4)  was  probably  one  on  the  Ophel  ridge,  near 
Siloam.  It  was  not  in  the  neighboring  vil- 
lage of  .silwau,  for  this  place  dates  from  the 
Middle  Ages. 

Sil-va'nus.     See  Silas. 

Sil'ver. 

A  precious  metal.  Its  ore  was  mined  from 
the  earth  (Job  xxviii.  1)  and  melted  in  a  fur- 
nace, by  which  process  the  dross  was  sepa- 
rated from  the  richer  metal  (Ps.  xii.  6  ;  Prov. 
xvii.  3  ;  xxv.  4  ;  Ezek.  xxii.  "i'ii.  It  was  ob- 
tained in  Arabia  [2  Chron.  ix.  14 ;  cp.  1  Kin. 
X.  22,  27)  and  Tarshish  ( Jer.  x.  9 ;  Ezek. 
xxvii.  12),  Spain  being  a  large  producer  (1 
Mac.  viii.  3).  It  was  used  as  a  medium  of 
exchange  from  remotest  antiquity  (Gen.  xxiii. 
16  ;  xxxvii.  28).  The  amount  required  was 
weighed  out  (Job  xxviii.  15 ;  Is.  xlvi.  6),  for 
silver  was  not  coined  until  late,  among  the 
Jews  not  until  long  after  the  exile  (1  Mac. 
XV.  6) :  see  Moxey.  Personal  ornaments 
(Gen.  xxiv.  53;  Ex.  iii.  22;  Song  i.  11), 
crowns  (Zech.  vi.  11),  musical  instruments, 
as  trumpets  (Num.  x.  2),  and  household 
utensils  of  the  wealthy,  like  Joseph's  drink- 
ing cup  (Gen.  xliv.  2)  were  made  of  silver. 
Large  quantities  of  the  metal  were  used  in 
the  tabernacle  and  temple  for  sockets  (Ex. 
xxvi.  19),  hooks,  chapiters  and  fillets  of  the 
pillars  (xxvii.  10;  xxxviii.  19),  platters  and 
bowls  (Xum.  vii.  13:  1  Chron.  xxviii.  17; 
Ezra  i.  9,  10),  cups  (2  Kin.  xii.  13),  candle- 
sticks, and  tables  (1  Chron.  xxviii.  15,  16). 
Idols  and  models  of  idol  shrines  were  con- 
structed of  silver  (Ps.  cxv.  4;  Acts  xix.  24). 

Sil'ver-ling. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Keseph, 
silver,  in  Is.  vii.  23.  which  is  elsewhere 
translated  by  shekel  or  piece  of  silver. 

Si-mal-cu'e,  in  E.  V.  Imalcue. 

An  Arabian  who  brought  up  the  young 
Antiochus.  son  of  Alexander  Balas  (1  Mac. 
xi.  39) ;  in  Antiq.  xiii.  5,  1  called  Malchus. 
The  name  doubtless  contains  the  Arabic  word 
malik,  king. 

Sim'e-on,  in  R.  V.  of  X.  T.  Symeon,  in 
imitation  of  a  Greek  form,  when  the  persons 
are  n<it  mentioned  in  O.  T.  (Luke  iii.  30; 
Acts  xiii.  1 ;  xv.  14)  [hearing]. 

1.  The  second-born  son  of  Jacob  by  Leah 
(Gen.  xxix.  33).  In  conjunction  with  his 
brother  Levi,  he  massacred  the  Hivite  in- 
habitants of  Shechem  on  account  of  the  in- 
jury done  by  one  of  their  number  to  Dinah 
(Gen.  xxxiv.  24-31) ;  see  Dinah.  When  one 
of  Jacob's  sons  was  to  be  kept  a  prisoner  in 
Egypt  as  security  for  return  of  the  rest, 
Joseph  took  Simeon  and  bound  him  (xiii.  24). 
The  prediction  of  Simeon's   future   by  the 


dying  Jacob  returns  to  the  subject  of  the 
mas.sacre,  and  threatens  Simeon  as  well  as 
Levi  that  they  will  be  scattered  in  Israel 
(xlix.  5-7). 

2.  The  tribe  of  which  Simeon,  the  son  of 
Jacob,  was  the  progenitor.  He  had  six  sons  : 
Jemuel  or  Nemuel,  Jamin,  Ohad,  Jachin  or 
Jarib,  Zohar  or  Zerah.  and  Shaul.  With  the 
exception  of  Ohad,  all  these  founded  tribal 
families  (Gen.  xlvi.  10;  Num.  xxvi.  12-11; 
1  Chron.  iv.  24).  The  prince  of  the  tribi'  in 
the  early  times  of  the  wilderness  wanderings 
was  Shelumiel,  son  of  Zurishaddai  (Num. 
i.  6  ;  ii.  12  ;  vii.  36,  41 ;  x.  19),  and  at  a  later 
period  Shemuel,  son  of  Ammihud  (xxxiv. 
20).  At  the  first  census  in  the  wilderness  the 
tribe  numbered  59,300  fighting  men  (i.  23  :  ii. 
13),  at  the  second  22,200  (xxvi.  12-14).  Slia- 
phat,  son  of  Hori,  was  the  spy  from  the  tribe 
(xiii.  5).  Moses,  before  his  departure,  blessed 
the  tribes,  but  omitted  to  mention  Simeon 
explicitly  (Deut.  xxxiii.).  This  omission  is 
probably  due  to  the  artificial  construction  of 
the  poem.  Moses  wanted  twelve  for  the 
number  of  the  tribes.  He  formed  two  groups, 
departing  from  the  order  of  birth,  and  plac- 
ing the  children  of  Jacob's  two  wives  in  the 
first  group  and  those  of  the  two  maids  in  the 
second. 


Leah  3 

Leah's  maid  1 

Rachel  3 

Rachel's  maid  2 

Leah  2 

Leah's  maid  1 

The  first  group  contains  eight,  Simeon  being 
omitted,  and  the  second  group  contains  just 
half  as  many.  The  first  group  is  subdivided 
into  three  minor  groups,  beginning  with 
three  of  the  elder  children  of  Leah  and 
closing  with  Leah's  youngest  two,  and  having 
Rachel's  three  in  the  center.  The  second 
group  is  made  to  correspond  to  this  arrange- 
ment. It  begins  with  Leah's  firstborn  by 
her  maid  and  closes  with  her  second  son  by 
the  same  maid,  and  the  two  sous  of  Rachel 
by  her  maid  are  placed  between.  The  bless- 
ings pronounced  upon  tlie.se  tribes  arc  framed 
within  a  benediction  upon  all  Israel  (2-5,  25- 
291.  The  tribe  of  Simeon  could  best  be  omitted 
from  the  particular  enumeration,  because  it 
was  to  be  scattered  in  Israel  (Gen.  xlix.  .5-7). 
The  same  punishment  also  awaited  Levi,  but 
recent  deeds  had  partly  atoned  for  the  past 
and  given  the  tribe  of  Levi  a  position  of 
honor  among  the  people  of  God.  After 
Moses'  death  the  tribe  of  Simeon  was  not 
assigned  a  self-contained  territory,  but  was 
granted  possession  in  the  midst  of  Judah. 
The  Simeonites,  however,  although  not  ex- 
plicitly mentioned,  were  not  excluded  from 
the  blessing  invoked  on  the  tribes.  They 
were  included  in  the  general  benediction 
upon  Israel  as  a  whole,  with  which  the  poem 
opens  and  closes.  The  tribe  of  Simeon  was 
one  of  those  who  stood  at  the  foot  of  mount 
Gerizim  to  pronounce  blessings  (Deut.  xxvii. 
12). 

When  the  land  of  Canaan  was  distributed 


Simon 


Simon 


by  lot,  the  second  lot  taken  at  Shiloli  came 
forth  for  the  tribe  of  Simeon,  and  land  was 
assigned  them  in  the  extreme  south  of 
Canaan,  in  the  midst  of  the  inheritance  of 
the  children  of  Judah  (Josh.  xix.  1,  2,  9), 
and  the  two  tribes  made  common  cause 
against  the  Canaanites  (Judg.  i.  1,  3,  17). 
Among  the  Simeonite  cities  were  Beer-sheba, 
Ziklag.  and  Hormah  (Josh.  xix.  2-9),  in  the 
southern  part  of  Judah.  In  the  reign  of 
Hezekiah  the  Simeonites  smote  the  people  of 
Ham  and  the  Meunim  who  dwelt  in  the 
valley  of  Gedor,  500  of  them  also  slaughtered 
the  Amalekites  of  mount  Seir  ;  in  both  cases 
occupying  the  territory  of  the  vanquished 
tribes  (1  Chron.  iv.  24-43).  It  is  believed 
that  ultimately  a  great  part  of  the  tribe  dis- 
appeared, but  it  was  recognized  by  Ezekiel 
in  his  prophecies  of  the  future  Canaan  (Ezek. 
xlviii.  24,  2.5,  33),  and  in  the  apocalyptic 
vision  there  were  sealed  12,000  Simeonites 
(Rev.  vii.  7). 

3.  An  ancestor  of  Christ,  who  lived  after 
David  but  before  Zerubbabel  (Luke  iii.  30). 

4.  A  priest  of  the  family  of  Joarib,  and  an 
ancestor  of  the  Maccabees  (1  Mac.  ii.  1). 

5.  A  righteous  and  devout  man,  to  whom 
it  had  been  revealed  by  the  Holy  Spirit  that 
he  should  not  see  death  till  he  had  seen  the 
Lord's  Christ.  Coming  into  the  temj)le  when 
Joseph  and  Mary  had  just  brought  in  the 
infant  Jesus,  Simeon  recognized  him  as  the 
promised  Messiah,  expressed  his  willingness 
now  to  depart  in  peace,  and  made  a  prophetic 
address  to  Mary  with  respect  both  to  her  and 
her  child  (Luke  ii.  25-35). 

6.  Simon  Peter  (Acts  xv.  14)  ;  see  Peter. 

7.  A  Christian  prophet  or  teacher  at  Anti- 
och.  He  was  surnamed  Niger,  black,  and 
may  perhaps  have  been  of  African  race  (Acts 
xiii.  1). 

Sl'mon  [hearing].  Simon  and  Symeon  imi- 
tate Greek  modes  of  representing  the  He- 
brew name  Hhim'on,  Simeon. 

1.  Second  son  of  the  priest  Mattathias.  He 
was  called  Thassi,  which  may  perhaps  mean 
director  or  guide  (1  Mac.  ii.  3,  in  Syriac 
Tharsi).  With  his  brothers  he  sympathized 
with  his  father  in  the  revolt  against  the  re- 
ligious intolerance  of  the  Syrians  (14).  Re- 
garding him  as  the  wisest  of  the  sons,  his 
father,  when  about  to  die,  appointed  him  the 
adviser  of  the  family,  but  gave  the  military 
authority  to  Judas,  a  younger  brother  (65, 
fif)).  He  held  a  military  command  under 
Judas,  and  led  a  detachment  of  troops  to  the 
aid  of  the  Jews  in  Galilee  (v.  17,  20-23). 
After  the  death  of  Judas  Jonathan  was  chosen 
leader.  He  made  Simon  commandant  of  the 
entire  coast  (xi.  59 ;  xii.  33,  34).  When  Jona- 
than was  seized  and  held  prisoner  by  Try- 
phon,  the  conduct  of  the  war  devolved  on 
Simon,  as  the  last  remaining  brother  of  the 
Maccabee  family  (xiii.  1-9).  He  at  once 
completed  the  fortifications  of  Jerusalem, 
and   secured   possession   of   Joppa    (10,    11). 


When  Tryphon  invaded  Judaea,  Simon  dogged 
his  army  (20),  and  when  Tryphon  withdrew 
from  the  country,  Simon  rebuilt  and  pro- 
visioned the  strongholds  of  Judaea  (33).  He 
also  allied  himself  with  Tryphon 's  rival, 
Demetrius  II.,  and  obtained  from  him  the 
recognition  of  the  independence  of  Judaea, 
142  B.  c.  (34-42).  Thereupon  he  besieged 
and  captured  Gezer  (43-48,  in  A.  V.  Gaza). 
In  the  spring  of  141  he  reduced  the  Syrian 
citadel  at  Jerusalem  (49-52).  A  season  of 
peace  followed,  during  which  Simon  devoted 
his  energies  to  internal  administration  and 
the  encouragement  of  commerce  and  agri- 
culture (xiv.  4-15).  He  embellished  the 
family  tomb  at  Modin,  in  which  he  had 
placed  the  remains  of  his  brother  Jonathan 
(xiii.  25-30).  The  Spartans  and  Romans  re- 
newed the  league  with  him  (xiv.  16-24  ;  xv. 
15-24).  He  was  acknowledged  by  the  Jews 
as  high  priest  and  captain  and  leader  (xiii. 
42  ;  xiv.  41,  42,  47;  xv.  1,  2),  and  in  140  B.  C. 
authorized  to  wear  the  purple  (xiv.  43,  44). 
Antiochus  Sidetes,  when  on  the  eve  of  coming 
to  Syria  to  help  defend  the  cause  of  the  absent 
Demetrius  against  Tryphon,  made  concessions 
to  Simon,  and  gave  him  authority  to  coin 
money  (xv.  6),  but  afterwards  became  es- 
tranged from  him,  and  demanded  the  surren- 
der of  Joppa,  Gezer,  and  the  citadel  at  Jeru- 
salem (26-31).  Simon  refused,  and  war  en- 
sued, 138-7  B.  c,  but  the  Syrians  were  worsted. 
In  the  early  spring  of  135  B.  c,  while  on  a 
tour  of  visitation  to  the  cities  of  his  domin- 
ion, he  was  treacherously  murdered  in  the 
castle  of  Dok,  near  Jericho,  by  his  son-in- 
law  (xvi.  14-16). 

2.  Father  of  Judas  Iscariot  (John  vi.  71). 
He  too  bore  the  designation  Iscariot  (ibid, 
and  xiii.  26,  R.  V.). 

3.  Simon  Peter  (Mat.  x.  2)  ;  see  Peter. 

4.  Simon  the  Zealot,  one  of  the  twelve 
apostles  (Luke  vi.  15 ;  Acts  i.  13) ;  see 
Canan^an. 

5.  One  of  the  Lord's  brethren  (Mat.  xiii. 
55 ;  Mark  vi.  3)  ;  see  Brethren  of  the  Lord. 

6.  A  Pharisee,  at  whose  house  our  Lord 
once  ate,  on  which  occasion  a  woman,  who 
was  a  sinner,  anointed  his  feet  (Luke  vii. 
36-50). 

7.  A  householder  in  Bethany.  He  had 
been  a  leper,  and  not  improbablj'  had  been 
cured  by  Christ.  When  our  Lord  was  at 
meat  in  his  house  Mary,  the  sister  of  Lazarus, 
anointed  his  feet  with  precious  ointment 
(Mat.  XX vi.  6-13;  Mark  xiv.  3-9;  John  xii. 
1-8).  Martha  served,  and  Lazarus  was  one 
of  those  who  ate.  The  presence  of  the 
brother  and  two  sisters,  and  the  active  part 
taken  by  the  sisters,  as  well  as  the  fact  that 
Simon's  hou.se  was  in  the  town  of  Lazarus 
and  his  sisters,  makes  it  evident  that  Simon 
was  a  relative  or  intimate  friend  of  theirs. 
But  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  he  was 
their  father  or  the  husband  of  Mary.  He 
may  have  been  the  husband  of  Martha ;  see 
Martha. 


I 


Simri 


689 


Sinai 


8.  The  Cyrenian  who  was  compelled  to 
bear  the  cross  of  Christ.  He  was  the  father 
of  Alexander  aud  Kufus  (Mat.  xxvii.  32). 

9.  A  sorcerer  (uow  poi)ularly  called  Simon 
Magus.  I.  e.,  Simon  the  magician)  who  so 
amazed  the  people  of  Samaria  with  his  arts 
that  they  said  :  "This  man  is  that  power  of 
God  which  is  called  Great."  He  was  appar- 
ently converted  through  the  instrumentality 
of  Philip  the  evangelist,  by  whom  he  was 
l)a])tized.  Having  subsequently  oflered  to 
buy  with  money  the  privilege  of  conferring 
the  Holy  Ghost  on  anyone  he  wished  by  the 
im])osition  of  hands,  he  was  sternly  rebuked 
by  Peter,  who  declared  that  his  heart  w'as 
not  right  with  God,  and  that  he  was  still  in 
the  gall  of  bitterness  and  in  tlie  bond  of 
iniquity.  He  took  the  reproof  meekly,  and 
begged  the  apostle  to  pray  for  him  that  none 
of  the  evils  threatened  might  be  allowed  to 
befall  him  (Acts  viii.  9-24).  He  was  afraid, 
but  there  is  no  evidence  that  he  was  peni- 
tent. Ecclesiastical  tradition  makes  Simon 
recommence  his  sorceries,  and  become  the 
persistent  antagonist  of  the  apostle  Peter, 
following  him  about  from  place  to  place  and 
seeking  encounters  with  him,  but  only  to  be 
signally  defeated.  He  is  said  to  have  helped 
to  originate  gnosticism.  Contradictory  ac- 
counts are  given  as  to  the  manner  of  his 
death. 

10.  A  tanner  at  Joppa,  in  whose  house 
Peter  lodged  (Acts  ix.  43 ;  x.  6,  17,  32). 

Sim'ri.     See  Shimri. 

Sin,  I. 

"Any  want  of  conformity  unto,  or  trans- 
gression of  any  law  of  God,  given  as  a  rule 
to  the  reasonaljle  creature  "  (Kom.  iii.  23  ;  1 
John  iii.  4  ;  Gal.  iii.  10-12).  A  sin  of  omis- 
sion is  the  neglect  to  do  what  the  law  of 
God  commands ;  a  sin  of  commission  is  the 
•doing  of  anything  which  it  forbids.  See 
Evil. 

Sin,  II. 

1.  A  wilderness  through  which  the  Israel- 
ites passed  on  their  way  from  Elim  and  the 
Eed  Sea  to  Rephidim  and  mount  Sinai  (Ex. 
xvi.  1  ;  xvii.  1  ;  Num.  xxxiii.  11,  12).  The 
identification  is  disputed.  The  choice  lies 
between  Debbet  er-Ramleh  or  plain  of  sand, 
in  the  interior  of  the  peninsula  at  the  foot 
of  Jel)el  et-Tih,  and  the  desert  plain  el- 
Markhah  on  the  coast.  If  the  latter,  the  Is- 
raelites on  leaving  it  probably  continued  to 
journey  along  the  coast  and  turned  inland 
through  the  wady  Feiran. 

2.  A  city  and  stronghold  of  Egypt  (Ezek.  xxx. 
1.'),  1(3).  The  Septuagint  read  Sais,  which,  how- 
i'ver,  was  never  an  important  fortress.  The 
Vulgate  renders  it  Pelusium,  which  was  "the 
key  of  Egypt,"  strongly  fortified,  and  neces- 
sary to  be  captured  before  an  army  could  en- 
ter Egypt  from  the  northeast.  The  name 
Sin  suggests  Sun,  the  Greek  Syene  and  mod- 
em Assuan,  at  the  first  cataract;  and  the  or- 
44 


der  of  enumeration  of  Egyptian  cities,  from 
south  to  north  1(5-18)  lends  confirmation  to 
this  identification. 

Si'nai,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  twice  Sina  (Acts 
vii.  30,  3b)  [perhaps,  pertaining  to  Sin,  the 
moon-god]. 

A  mountain,  called  also  Horeb,  at  which 
the  Israelites,  traveling  by  way  of  Marah, 
Elim,  and  the  Eed  Sea,  arrived  in  the  third 
mouth  after  their  departure  from  Egypt  (Ex. 
xix.  1).  It  was  distant  from  Kadesh-barnea 
eleven  days'  journey  by  way  of  mount  Seir 
(Deut.  i.  2).  A  wilderness,  sufficiently  large 
for  the  camp  of  Israel,  lay  at  its  foot  (Ex. 
xix.  2)  ;  so  close  that  the  mountain  could  be 
touched  (12),  and  yet  its  upper  part  was  visi- 
ble from  the  camp  (Ki,  18,  20).  From  this 
mountain  the  law  of  the  ten  commandments 
was  given,  and  at  its  base  the  covenant  was 
ratified  which  made  the  Israelites  a  nation 
W'ith  Jehovah  as  king  (xx.  1-xxiv.  8).  All 
the  legislation  contained  in  Ex.  xx.  to  Num. 
X.  was  enacted  on  or  at  the  foot  of  mount 
Sinai,  according  to  repeated  statement  (Ex. 
xxiv.  12  ;  xxxi.  18;  xxxiv.  2  ;  Lev.  i.  1  ;  xvi. 
1 ;  XXV.  1  ;  xxvi.  46  ;  xxvii.  34;  Num.  i.  1  ; 
ix.  1).  The  only  later  visit  to  the  mount  re- 
corded in  Scripture  is  that  of  Elijah  when 
he  was  threatened  by  Jezebel  (1  Kin.  xix.  8). 

Prof.  Sayce  would  locate  mount  Sinai  on  the 
frontiers  of  mount  Seir,  but  it  is  almost  uni- 
versally agreed  that  Sinai  is  to  be  looked  for 
in  the  mountains  in  the  interior  of  the 
Sinaitic  peninsula.  Tradition  in  favor  of 
mount  Serbal,  on  the  wady  Feiran,  is  trace^ 
able  as  far  back  as  the  time  of  Eusebius,  fo? 
Jebel  Miasa  only  to  that  of  Justinian.  But 
neither  tradition  is  regarded  as  weighty. 
Serbal  is  the  more  imposing  of  the  two.  It 
is  a  solitary,  majestic  mountain,  6712  feet 
high,  visible  from  a  great  distance.  But  at 
its  foot  is  no  wilderness  which  could  be  called 
the  wilderness  of  Sinai.  Jebel  Mfisa  is  part 
of  a  short  ridge  of  granite  formation,  ex- 
tending about  2  miles  from  nortlnvest  to 
southeast.  The  ridge  has  two  peaks  :  Eas  es- 
Sufsafeh,  or  peak  of  willows,  at  the  northern 
end  with  an  altitude  of  6.540  feet ;  and  Jebel 
Musa,  the  traditional  Sinai,  at  the  southern 
end  rising  to  a  height  of  about  7363  feet.  A 
plateau  at  the  head  of  the  wady  es-Sadad 
and  almost  due  east  of  Jebel  Musa  has 
l)een  regarded  by  some  scholars,  including 
Tischendorf,  as  the  site  of  the  encampment 
of  the  Israelites,  but  its  area  is  too  limited 
to  accommodate  any  considerable  host.  The 
base  of  Eas  es-Sufsafeh  toward  the  northwest 
consists  of  a  precipitous  cliff.  At  the  bottom 
of  the  clifl"  lies  the  plain  of  er-Eahah,  about 
one  square  mile  in  extent,  and,  with  the  adja- 
cent wadies  esh-Sheikh  and  ed-Deir,  entirely 
suitable  for  a  camping  ground.  The  biblical 
description  makes  it  scarcely  necessary,  if 
not  idle,  to  inquire  whether  the  law  was 
given  from  Jebel  Jlfisa  or  Eas  es-Sufsafeh, 
and   whether   one   peak    or   the    other    was 


Sinai 


690 


Sinai 


known  as  the  mount  of  God  in  distinction 
from  the  rest  of  the  clump. 

Tlie  mouastery  of  St.  Catharine,  a  convent 
of  Greek  monks,  is  situated  on  the  eastern 
slope  of  the  mountain,  at  the  foot  of  Jebel 
Musa,  in  the  wady  ed-Deir,  5014  feet  above 
sea  level.  Surrounded  by  massive  granite 
walls,  it  is  as  it  were  a  fortress.     Its  fouuda- 


of  Jebel  Katherin,  2\  miles  southwest  of 
Jebel  Musa.  Her  head  and  one  hand  are 
said  to  be  contained  in  a  marble  sarcophagus 
in  the  chapel  of  the  monastery.  The  mon- 
astery has  often  been  destroyed  and  rebuilt. 
The  church  of  the  Transfiguration  is  an  early 
Christian  basilica  with  mosaics  of  the  sev- 
enth or  eighth  century.     The  oldest  part  of 


J  Kf  • 


/  iF 


'^iiidsehZcLl- 


VeheJ  el-Sskuf 


,_l^  w=i./. 


,,-i*«»f  ■    ,,,■,.■■"     ''■   •    -J 


esrSufsafeh 


f'iope:L(H'l'tjL*ii 


i/ebeUllJcL/nr  _ 


s'''k'%a^fcSr:.;-«a5..«^g»-.5-j-.^.'-.^_j|L: 


^  of  Mites. 


Map  of  Mount  Sinai. 


tion  is  ascribed  to  the  emperor  Justinian  in 
A.  D.  527,  who  is  said  to  have  built  it  around 
a  tower  erected  long  before  by  Helena, 
mother  of  Constantine  :  but  this  ascription 
is  probably  due  to  confusion  with  the  fact, 
attested  by  his  private  secretary,  that  Jus- 
tinian built  a  castle  in  530  for  the  protection 
of  the  monks  who  dwelt  in  the  region.  The 
monastery  is  named  after  St.  Catharine,  who 
was  tortured  on  the  wheel  and  beheaded  in 
Alexandria  in  A.  d.  307,  and  whose  body  is 
said  by  the  monks  to  have  been  carried  by 
angels  from  Alexandria  to  the  lofty  summit 


it  is  probably  the  chapel  of  the  Burning 
Bush,  at  the  back  of  the  apse  and  on  the 
reputed  site  of  the  event  it  commemorates. 
Formerly  between  300  and  400  monks  lived 
within  the  convent  walls ;  but  the  number 
at  present  does  not  exceed  40.  In  the  gar- 
den are  fig,  orange,  olive,  almond,  apple,  and 
apricot  trees,  grape  vines,  and  a  few  lofty 
cypresses.  The  library  is  esccednigly  valu- 
able. It  contains  many  manuscripts,  pre- 
dominantly Greek  and  Arabic,  but  also  many 
others,  including  some  written  in  Syriac  and 
Ethiopia.     Here,  in  1844  and  1859,  Tischen- 


Sinim,  Land  of 


691 


Sinim,  Land  of 


Plain  of  er-Kahah. 


dorf  found  the  codex  Sinaiticus,  which  dates 
from  about  A.  D.  400 ;  see  New  Testamext. 
Here  also,  in  1892,  Mrs.  Lewis  discovered  a 
manuscript  which  contains  the  text  of  the 
Old  Syriac  Gospels,  and  was  probably  written 
in  the  fifth  century ;  see  Versions. 


that  gentile  converts  or  the  scattered  Israel- 
ites shall  be  gathered  from  the  remotest  re- 
gions of  theearth.  '■  Lo.  these  shall  come  from 
far  :  and.  lo.  these  from  the  north  and  from 
the  west ;  and  these  from  the  land  of  Sinim  " 
(Is.  xlix.    12).      Since   the   west  and  north 


Monastery  of  .-^t.  Catherine. 


Si'mm,  Land  of. 

A  country  cited  to  illustrate  the  promise 


have  been  mentioned ;  the  land  of  Sinim  is 
not  to  be  sought  there,  but  in  the  south  or 


Sinim,  Land  of 


692 


Sithri 


east.  Wherever  the  prophet  was  when  he 
uttered  these  words,  liis  words  exclude  the 
Siuim  of  Phoenicia  (Gen.  x.  17),  for  they  were 
not  a  remote  people.  Besides  this,  they  were 
an  iinini])ortant  tribe.  For  the  same  reason, 
the  people  of  Syene  or  Pelusium,  or  other 
Egyptian  town  (however  the  name  Sin  in 
Ezek.  XXX.  1.5, 16  is  understood)  are  excluded. 
'They  were  almost  in  the  heart  of  the  inhab- 
ited world,  separated  from  the  remote  bounds 
of  the  earth  by  Ethiopia  and  Libya  at  least. 
Moreover,  the  inhabitants  of  none  of  these 
towns  constituted  a  distinct  nation  ;  nor 
could  the  land  of  Sinim  on  the  Nile  be 
spoken  of,  as  it  is  by  Isaiah,  unless  it  meant 
Egypt,  and  none  of  these  towns  was  impor- 
tant enough  to  be  employed  in  a  designation 
for  all  Egypt.  The  chief  theories  are :  1. 
The  expression  was  clujsen  as  a  designation 
of  the  lands  south  of  Palestine,  because  in 
that  direction  lay  the  town  of  Sin  (Pelusium), 
the  wilderness  of  Sin  (Ex.  xvi.  1),  and  mount 
Sinai.  But  this  region  was  too  near  at  hand 
to  denote  the  remotest  countries.  Sheba  and 
Cush,  which  are  used  to  denote  the  utmost 
parts  of  the  earth  toward  the  south,  lay  far 
beyond.  2.  The  Sinim  were  the  Shiuas,  who 
have  dwelt  from  ancient  times  at  the  foot  of 
the  Hindu  Kush  mountains.  3.  The  most 
prevalent  view  is  that  the  Chinese  are  meant. 
The  prophet  does  not  assert  that  Israelites 
were  already  living  in  China  (if  liis  words  be 
restricted  to  a  return  of  the  exiles).  They 
may  have  been ;  tot  the  presence  of  Israelites 
in  China  is  attested  as  early  as  the  third  cen- 
tury B.  C,  and  it  is  not  known  how  much 
earlier  they  emigrated.  But  the  people  were 
scattered  far  and  wide,  and  yet  wider  disjjcr- 
sion  was  in  prospect  (Is.  xi.  11).  They  should 
be  recovered  from  the  farthest  bounds  of 
earth  where  they  are  found.  Does  it  seem 
strange  that  the  name  of  the  Chinese  should 
be  known  in  western  Asia?  It  is  historically 
certain  from  the  Chinese  records  that  Chinese 
merchants  visited  foreign  lands  as  early  as 
the  twelfth  century  b.  c,  and  that  foreign 
merchants  entered  China  as  early  as  the  tenth 
century.  It  is  probable  that  direct  commer- 
cial relations  existed  between  China  and  In- 
dia, and  hence  indirectly  at  least  with  the 
countries  farther  west.  Porcelain  ware  with 
Chinese  characters  written  upon  it  has  been 
discovered  at  Thebes  in  Egypt.  M.  Pauthier 
reports  the  Chinese  tradition  to  the  effect  that 
in  235.3  B.  c.  an  envoy  arrived  from  a  far 
country  bringing  as  a  present  a  divine  tor- 
toise one  thousand  years  old,  hearing  on  its 
back  an  inscription,  written  in  strange  char- 
acters like  tadpoles,  briefly  recounting  the 
world's  history  since  creation.  A  second  em- 
bassy of  the  people  of  the  long-trailing  rol>es 
arrived  in  1110  b.  c,  and  it  took  them  a 
whole  year  to  return  to  their  own  country 
from  Siam  by  the  seacoast.  The  characters 
resembling  tadpoles  suggest  the  Assyrian  and 
Babylonian  cuneiform  script ;  and  long-trail- 
ing robes,  which  were  not  worn  in  the  hot 


countries  south  of  China,  would  agree  with 
the  theory  that  the  embassadors  were  Baby- 
lonians or  Assyrians. 

Si'nite. 

A  Canaanite  tribe,  mentioned  between  the 
Arkite  and  the  Arvadite  (Gen.  x.  17).  A 
place  named  Sin  not  far  from  Arka  was 
known  to  Jerome,  and  Strabo  mentions  a 
fortress  called  Sinna  on  mount  Lebanon. 

Sin  Of  fer-ing.     See  Offerings. 

Si'on  [elevated]. 

A  name  for  mount  Hermon  (Dent.  iv.  48). 

For  nuiunt  Sion  at  Jerusalem,  a  different 
word  in  Hebrew,  see  Zion. 

Siph'moth. 

A  place  visited  by  David  during  his  wan- 
derings, to  which  he  sent  part  of  the  spoils 
of  Ziklag  (1  Sam.  xxx.  28  ;  cp.  1  Chron. 
xxvii.  27).  Site  unknown.  A  variant  He- 
brew pronunciation,  preferred  by  Baer,  is 
Shiphmoth. 

Sip'pai.     See  Saph. 

Si'rah  [recession  or  effervescence]. 

A  well  or  cistern  from  which  Abner  was 
recalled  to  Hebron  by  Joab  that  he  might  be 
murdered  (2  Sam.  iii.  26).  According  to  Jo- 
sephus,  it  was  distant  20  stades  from  Hebron 
(Antiq.  vii.  1.  5).  It  is  probably  'Ain  Sarah, 
IJ  miles  northwest  of  Hebron. 

Sir'i-on  [cuirass,  coat  of  mail]. 

The  name  given  by  the  Sidonians  to  mount 
Hermon  (Deut.  iii.  9  ;  Ps.  xxix.  6). 

Sis'a-mai.     See  Sismai. 

Sis'e-ra  [battle  array]. 

The  commander  of  the  army  belonging  to 
Jabin,  king  of  the  Canaanites,  who  reigned 
at  Hazor,  while  the  residence  of  Sisera  was 
at  Harosheth  of  the  gentiles.  At  the  in- 
stance of  Deborah,  Barak  headed  a  revolt 
against  Jabin's  tyrannical  sway,  and  en- 
countering the  Canaanite  army,  led  by  Sis- 
era,  defeated  it  on  the  bank  of  the  Kishon. 
Sisera  fled,  and  sought  the  hospitality  of  Heber 
the  Kenite,  between  whom  and  Jal)in  there 
was  peace.  Heber's  wife  met  him  and  invited 
him  in,  l)ut  afterwards  murdered  him  with  a 
tent  pin  while  he  .slept  (Judg.  iv.,  v. ;  Ps. 
Ixxxiil.  9)  ;  see  Jael.  It  is  probable  that 
those  Nethinim  who  were  known  as  the  chil- 
dren of  Sisera  were  descended  from  captives 
taken  at  this  time  (Ezra  ii.  53;  Neh.  vii.  55) ; 
see  Nkthinim. 

Sis'mai,  in  A.  V.  Sisamai. 

A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Hezron,  house 
of  Jerahmcel  (1  Chron.  ii.  40). 

Sis'trum. 

A  musical  instrument  (2  Sam.  vi.  5,  R.  V. 
margin),  consisting  of  several  metallic  rods 
in  an  oval  metallic  frame.  The  rods  were  ' 
either  loosely  inserted  or  loose  rings  were 
hung  on  them,  so  that  the  insti-ument  would 
jingle  when  shaken. 

Sith'ri,  in  A.  V.  Zithri  [a  hiding  place  is 
(Jehovah)]. 


Sitnah 


693 


Sling 


A  Levile,  family  of  Kohath,  house  of 
Uzziel  (Ex.  vi.  22).  Zithri  in  A.  V.  of  ver.  21 
is  a  modern  misprint  of  Zichri  (q.  v.).  The 
error  has  been  corrected  in  some  recent  edi- 
tions. 

Sit'nah  [accusation,  enmity  (cp.  Satan)]. 

A  well  dug  by  Isaac  in  the  Philistine 
country,  not  far  from  Gcrar ;  but  the  in- 
habitants of  the  district  disputed  his  right  to 
it  (txen.  xxvi.  21).  Palmer  and  Drake  in 
1870  found  a  small  valley  called  wady  Shut- 
net  er-Ruheibeh.  The  first  portion  of  the 
name  corresponds  to  Sitnah,  and  Ruheibeh 
to  Eehoboth,  which  was  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  Sitnah  (22). 

Si'van. 

The  third  month  of  the  Babylonian  and 
Jewish  year  (Esth.  viii.  9),  extending  from 
the  new  moon  of  May  to  that  of  June.  See 
Year. 

Slave. 

Slavery  existed  in  remote  antiquity.  Slaves 
were  acquired :  1.  By  capture,  especially  in 
war  (Num.  xxxi.  9 ;  2  Kin.  v.  2 ;  War  iii.  4, 
1 ;  vi.  9,  2).  2.  By  purchase  from  slave 
owners  (Gen.  xvii.  27 ;  xxxvii.  28,  36 ;  Ezek. 
xxvii.  13;  Joel  iii.  6,  8).  3.  By  birth  from 
slaves  ow'ned  (Gen.  xvii.  12).  4.  In  payment 
of  debt ;  thieves  unable  to  make  restitution 
and,  though  contrary  to  the  spirit  of  the 
Mosaic  law,  a  debtor  or  his  children  being 
sold  as  slaves  (Ex.  xxii.  3 ;  2  Kin.  iv.  1 ; 
Neh.  V.  5,  8;  Amos  ii.  6:  Mat.  xviii.  25). 
5.  Among  the  Hebrews  there  was  also  the 
voluntary  sale  of  one's  self  or  one's  daughter 
on  account  of  poverty  (Ex.  xxi.  2,  7;  Lev. 
XXV.  39,  47),  and  reduction  to  slavery  on  ac- 
count of  theft,  as  already  mentioned. 

The  price  of  a  slave  varied  of  course  ac- 
cording to  circumstances.  It  was  reckoned 
in  Hebrew  judicial  cases  as  averaging  30 
shekels  (Ex.  xxi.  32).  The  Jewish  slaves  in 
Alexandria  in  the  third  century  B.C.  brought 
about  the  same,  120  drachmas  (Antiq.  xii.  2, 
3).  Joseph  at  seventeen  years  of  age  was 
purchased  for  20  shekels  (Gen.  xxxvii.  28). 

Among  the  Hebrews  the  legal  status  of  a 
Hebrew  slave  was  very  different  from  that 
of  the  slave  who  was  not  an  Israelite.  The 
Hebrew  slave  had  manumission  after  six 
years  of  service,  if  he  chose  ;  might  not  be 
harshly  treated,  nor  sent  away  empty  on  his 
release  ;  and,  if  owned  by  a  foreign  sojourner 
in  Israel,  had  the  privilege  of  redemption  at 
a  price  legally  regulated,  the  moment  ho 
could  secure  the  necessary  money  (Ex.  xxi. 
2-6 ;  Lev.  xxv.  43,  47-5.5 ;  Jer.  xxxiv.  8-16). 
The  rights  of  the  Hebrew  maid  were  the 
subject  of  further  special  legislation  (Ex. 
xxi.  7-11).  All  Hebrew  slaves,  both  those 
who  had  elected  to  remain  with  their  mas- 
ters when  the  seventh  year  had  come  and 
those  who  had  not  served  six  years,  were  re- 
leased at  the  year  of  jubile  (Lev.  xxv.  40). 
This  provision  was  necessitated  when  the 
law  regarding  the  restoration  of  every  man's 


inheritance  at  the  jubile  was  enacted.  The 
return  of  the  slave  to  his  inheritance  was 
involved,  whether  he  chose  to  go  back  to  his 
master's  family  afterwards  or  not.  The  slave 
also  who  was  not  an  Israelite  fared  well 
among  the  Hebrews.  The  Mosaic  law  recog- 
nized that  he  possessed  rights.  He  might  be 
whipped  or  beaten,  but  not  maimed  or  killed 
(Ex.  xxi.  20,  21,  26,  27  ;  Lev.  xxiv.  17,  22). 
In  case  a  captive  slave  girl  was  taken  to 
wife,  she  acquired  new  rights  (Deut.  xxi. 
10-14).  All  these  non-Hebrew  slaves  were 
regarded  as  members  of  the  commonwealth 
of  Israel  (Gen.  xvii.  10-14) ;  and  they  Mere 
equal  before  God,  participating  in  the  re- 
ligious festivals  and  sacrifices  (Ex.  xii.  44; 
Lev.  xxii.  11;  Deut.  xii.  12,  18;  xvi.  11,  14), 
and  enjoying  the  rest  of  the  Sabbath  day 
(Ex.  XX.  10;  xxiii.  12).  Another  humane 
feature  of  the  Mosaic  law  made  Canaan  an 
asylum  for  slaves  who  escaped  to  it  from  a 
foreign  country.  They  were  not  to  be  sur- 
rendered, but  were  allowed  to  dwell  in  the 
laud  wherever  they  chose  (Deut.  xxiii.  15,  16). 
It  also  forbade,  on  pain  of  death,  the  steal- 
ing of  men  and  the  selling  or  holding  of 
them  (Ex.  xxi.  16;  Deut.  xxiv.  7)  ;  and  there 
is  no  evidence  that  slave  markets  ever  ex- 
isted in  Israel.  The  Mosaic  law  contrasts 
most  favorably  with  the  laws  of  contem- 
porary heathen  nations  in  its  humanity  to- 
w-ard  slaves.  The  intercourse  between  master 
and  slave  was  often  ctirdial  (Gen.  xxiv. ; 
Euth  ii.  4).  The  slave  was  regarded  as  enti- 
tled to  justice  (Job  xxxi.  13-15)  ;  he  some- 
times inherited  the  property  of  his  master 
(Gen.  XV.  2,  3),  and  was  sometimes  admitted 
into  the  family  as  son-in-law  (1  Chron.  ii.  34, 
35). 

Christianity  avoided  a  sudden  reversal  of 
established  usages  (1  Cor.  vii.  21),  urged  tlie 
slave  to  obev  his  master  (Eph.  vi.  5-8:  Col. 
iii.  22-25;  I'Tim.  vi.  1,  2;  1  Pet.  ii.  18-21), 
and  sent  the  runawaj^  slave  voluntarily  back 
to  his  Christian  master  (Philem.  10-16).  But 
it  also  promulgated  principles  wiiich  im- 
proved the  condition  of  slaves  in  the  Roman 
empire.  It  recognized  the  equality  of  slave 
and  master  in  God's  sight  (1  Cor.  vii.  21,  22  ; 
Gal.  iii.  28;  Col.  iii.  11).  It  exhorted  the 
master  to  treat  his  slaves  considerately,  re- 
minding him  that  they  had  rights  which 
God  Avill  maintain  (Eph.  vi.  9;  Col.  iv.  1). 

Slime.     See  Bitumen. 

Sling. 

A  simple  weapon  usually  consisting  of  a 
piece  of  leather,  with  two  strings  attached  to 
its  opposite  .sides  and  a  stone  inserted.  It 
w'as  whirled  once  or  twice  round  the  head 
and  one  string  let  go,  whereby  the  stone  was 
projected  with  great  force.  On  the  field  of 
battle  the  stones  were  either  carried  in  a  bag 
by  the  slinger,  or  piled  at  his  feet  (1  Sam. 
xvii.  40). 

It  seems  to  have  been  used  in  warfare  by 
practically  all  the  peoples  of  antiquity;  by 


Smith 


694 


Smyrna 


the  Egyptians,  Syrians  (1  Mac.  vi.  51  ;  ix. 
11),  Assyrians,  Persians  (Anab.  iii.  '.i,  IH),  and 
in  the  far  west  by  Sicilians  (Herod,  vii.  loH) 
and  mercenaries  in  the  Roman  army,  .\mong 
the  Hebrews  the  Benjamites  in  the  times  of 


A.ssyrian  Slinger. 

the  judges  and  in  the  reign  of  Saul  were 
noted  for  their  skill  in  its  use,  being  able  to 
sling  stones  with  the  left  hand  (Judg.  xx. 
16 ;   1   Chron.  xii.  2).     David   slew   Goliath 


tools  and  weapons,  a  blacksmith  (1  Sam.  xiii. 
19;  Is.  xliv.  12;  liv.  l(i),  like  Tiibal-cain 
(den.  iv.  22)  ;  or  one  who  refines  and  shapes 
the  precious  metals,  a  goldsmith  (Is.  xl.  19). 


Egyptian  Smith  at  his  Furnace. 

The  blacksmith  used  a  charcoal  furnace,  bel- 
lows, tongs,  anvil,  and  hammer  (Ecclus. 
xxxviii.  28).    See  Bellows. 

Smyr'na  [myrrh]. 

A  city  of  great  antiquity  on  the  western 
coast  of  Asia  Minor.  It  was  possessed  by 
the  ^olian  Greeks,  and  finally  the  Ionian 
Greeks  admitted  it  into  their  confederacy. 
The  Lydian  king,  Alyattes,  destroyed  it.  and 
it  lay  waste  for  some  200  years,  till  the  plan 
of  rebuilding  it  was  formed  by  Alexander 


^At 


^-vll 


Smj  rna 


with  a  stone  from  a. sling  (1  Sam.  xvii.  48-50). 
Slingers  served  in  the  armies  of  Jehoram, 
Jehoshaphat,  and  Uzziah  (2  Kin.  iii.  25;  2 
Chron.  xxvi.  14),  and  were  etfective  as  late 
as  the  war  with  the  Romans  (War  ii.  17,  5 ; 
iv.  1,  .3). 

Smith. 

An  artificer  who  forges  iron  and  brass  into 


the  Great,  and  executed  by  his  immediate 
successors,  on  a  new  site  near  by.  It  then 
became  a  large  and  flourishing  commercial 
center,  retaining  its  importance  under  the 
Romans.  In  1.33  B.  c.  it  became  part  of 
the  newly  formed  province  of  Asia.  Its 
church  was  the  second  of  the  seven  ad- 
dressed by  John  in  the  book  of  Revela- 
tion.    It  escapes  all   censure,  but  it  is  ex- 


Snail 


695 


Sodom 


horted  to  remain  constant  in  the  midst  of 
l)evseiiitiiiii  (Rev.  i.  11;  ii.  8-11).  Its  bishop 
I'olycar])  siiHered  martyrdom  under  Marcus 
Aureliub  in  A.  D.  169.  In  a.  d.  178  Smyrna 
was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  but  was 
speedily  rebuilt.  Lying  as  it  does  at  the  ex- 
tremity of  a  line  bay,  that  of  Smyrna,  in 
the  track  of  trade,  it  is  admirably  adapted 
for  commerce,  and  even  under  Turkish  rule 
remains  a  liighly  flourishing  city,  the  largest 
and  most  important  in  Asia  !Miuor. 
Snail. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Hornet, 
one  prostrate  on  the  ground  (Lev.  xi.  30 ;  in 
K.  V.  sand  lizard). 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Shahh'lnl, 
moist,  slimy  one  (Ps.  Iviii.  8),  a  genuine 
snail,  especially  of  the  shell-less  family  {Lim- 
aci(ht'). 

Snow. 

Snow  occurs  in  the  hilly  country  of  Pales- 
tiue.  as  at  Sepphoris  in  Galilee,  Xaaireth, 
Jerusalem,  Hel)i'ou  (1  Mac.  xiii.  22  ;  War  i. 
Iti,  2;  iv.  8,  3).  It  may  be  expected  in 
Jauuary  or  February,  although  the  winter 
often  passes  without  it.  It  sometimes  falls 
to  the  dei)th  of  a  foot,  but  seldom  lies  longer 
than  a  day.  On  mount  Lebanon  it  is  found 
lingering  on  the  heights  and  in  the  ravines 
late  in  the  summer,  and  it  crowns  the  sum- 
mit of  Hermon  the  year  round.  It  is  fre- 
quently referred  to  in  Scripture  as  the 
standard  of  whiteness  and  the  emblem  of 
purity  (Ps.  li.  7;  Is.  i.  18;  Lam.  iv.  7;  Mat. 
xxviii.  3).  It  is  poetically  described  as  stored 
by  God  in  his  treasury  (Job  xxxviii.  22), 
commanded  by  him  to  fall  (xxxvii.  6  ;  Ps. 
cxlvii.  16),  and  descending  like  wool  or  birds 
or  a  swarm  of  locusts  (ibid. ;  Ecclus.  xliii.  17). 
Its  value  as  a  source  of  moisture  to  the 
ground  was  recognized  (Is.  Iv.  10).  Men  took 
advantage  of  it  in  summer  to  cool  their  bev- 
erages (cp.  Prov.  XXV.  13).  Oean  snow  would 
yield  pure  water  for  washing  purposes  (Job 
IX.  30). 

So. 

King  of  Egypt,  whose  aid  against  Assyria 
Hoshea  king  of  Israel  endeavored  to  secure 
about  724  B.  c.  (2  Kin.  xvii.  4).  As  the  He- 
brew consonants  may  be  pronounced  Seve', 
he  is  commonly  identified,  and  doubtless 
correctly,  with  Sib'e,  tartan  of  Egypt,  who 
in  720  B.  c.  in  alliance  with  Hauun  king  of 
Gaza,  met  Sargon  king  of  Assyria  in  battle 
at  Eaphia  on  the  Mediterranean,  about  20 
miles  south  of  Gaza.  The  allies  were  routed, 
Sib'e  fled.  Hanun  was  captured,  and  pres- 
ently Pharaoh  paid  tribute  to  Assyria.  It  is 
doubtful  whether  Sib'e  was  Shabako,  king 
of  Egypt.  Etymology  is  against  the  identi- 
fication. At  this  time  at  least  he  was  tartan 
rather  than  Pharaoh. 

Soap. 

Not  the  composition  familiar  in  modern 
domestic  use.  The  Hebrew  words  bor  and 
boritli,  that  which  cleanses,  denote  an  alkali. 


It  was  used  for  washing  the  person  (Job  ix. 
30,  E.  V.  margin,  lye),  for  washing  clotlies 
(Jer.  ii.  22  ;  Mai.  iii.  2),  and  as  a  flux  in  .smelt- 
ing ores  (Is.  i.  25,  E.  V.  margin,  lye).  The 
Greek  translators  regarded  it  as  a  jilant  or  ob- 
tained frfim  a  plant,  for  they  represented  it  by 
the  Greek  word  poa,  gras.s,  grass-like  plant. 
The  root  of  the  soupwort  {Saponaria  officinalis) 
is  largely  used  in  Palestine  for  washing  lin- 
ens, because  it  does  not  cause  them  to  shrink. 
The  employment  of  the  alkali  for  smelting 
purposes  indicates  that  it  was  in  the  form  of 
ashes.  It  was  doubtless  obtained  from  such 
plants  as  the  glasswort  {Sulicornia  fruticosu) 
and  the  saltwort  {Salsola  kali),  which  are  to 
this  day  reduced  to  ashes  for  the  soda  which 
they  yield. 

So'co  and  Socoh,  according  to  the  alternate 
Hebrew  orthograjihy ;  in  A.  "\'.  variously 
spelled  Socoh,  Socho,  Sochoh,  Shocho,  Sho- 
choh,  Shoco  [thorn,  hedge  of  thorns]. 

1.  A  town  in  the  Shephelah  or  lowland  of 
Judah  (Josh.  xv.  3.5).  It  stood  on  the  hilly 
border  of  the  valley  of  Elah,  in  a  strong 
position  isolated  from  the  rest  of  the  ridge. 
The  Philistines  pitched  between  it  and 
Azekah  just  before  Goliath  stood  forth  as 
their  champion  (1  Sam.  xvii.  1).  It  was  re- 
built or  refortified  by  Rehoboam  (2  Chron. 
xi.  7).  It  was  captured,  with  the  dependent 
villages,  in  the  reign  of  Ahaz  (xxviii.  18). 
Eobiuson  successfully  identified  it  with  the 
ruins  of  Shuweikeh,  13  miles  west  by  south 
of  Bethlehem.  The  modern  name  perpetuates 
the  ancient  one. 

2.  A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  48).  Its  site  is  found  at  another 
Shuweikeh,  10  miles  south-southwest  of 
Hebron. 

It  is  doubtful  which  of  the  two  towns  is 
referred  to  in  1  Kin.  iv.  10  and  1  Chron.  iv.  18. 

So'di  [a  familiar  acquaintance]. 

Father  of  the  spy  from  the  tribe  of  Zebu- 
lun  (Num.  xiii.  10). 

Sod'om,  in  A.  Y.  of  X.  T.  once  Sodoma 
(Eom.  ix.  29). 

One  of  the  five  cities  in  the  plain  of  the 
Jordan  (Gen.  xiii.  10).  When  Lot  separated 
from  Abraham,  he  chose  it  for  his  residence, 
though  even  then  the  place  was  notorious  for 
its  wickedness  (11,  12).  It  was  plundered 
byChedorlaomer  (xiv.  11),  but  the  goods  and 
captives  were  recovered  by  Abraham  and 
restored  (21-24).  Subsequently  it  and  at 
least  three  other  cities  of  the  plain  were  de- 
stroyed by  God  on  account  of  their  wicked- 
ness. God  probably  effected  his  purpose  by 
causing  an  eruption  of  burning  asphalt  and 
sulphur.  Lot  and  his  two  daughters  were 
spared  (xix.  1-29;  Deut.  xxix.  23;  Is.  i.  9, 
10  ;  iii.  9  ;  xiii.  19  ;  Jer.  xlix.  18  ;  1.  40  ;  Lam. 
iv.  6  ;  Ezek.  xvi.  46-56  ;  Amos  iv.  11  ;  Zeph. 
ii.  9  ;  Mat.  x.  15  ;  xi.  24  ;  Luke  s.  12  ;  xvii. 
29;  Eom.  ix.  29;  2  Pet.  ii.  6 ;  Jude  7).  In 
the  Apocalypse  the  great  city  of  sin  is  spir- 
itually called  Sodom  and  Egypt  (Eev.  xi.  8). 


Sodomite 


696 


Solomon 


The  exact  site  of  Sodom  is  unknown.  Two 
substantial  arguments  are  advanced  for  tlie 
northern  end.  1.  From  a  point  near  Bethel, 
Abraham  and  Lot  could  see  all  the  plain  of 
Jordan  (Gen.  xiii.  3  with  10).  Care  must  be 
exercised,  however,  in  interjireting  the  word 
all.  2.  Chedorlaoraer,  coming  from  the  south, 
had  smitten  the  Amorites  of  Hazezon-tamar, 
i.  e.,  Eu-gedi,  before  he  was  opposed  by  the 
king  of  Sodom  and  his  allies  (xiv.  7,  8),  a  fact 
which  seems  to  indicate  that  the  meeting 
took  jilace  between  En-gedi  and  the  northern 
end  of  the  sea.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are 
three  weighty  arguments  for  the  southern 
end.  1.  Asphalt  is  found  in  large  quantities 
at  the  southern  end  of  the  sea  only  (cp.  Gen. 
xiv.  10).  2.  Assuming  that  the  sea  covers 
the  site  (cp.  xiv.  3),  the  cities  might  have 
been  situated  at  the  southern  end,  where  the 
water  of  the  bay  has  a  depth  of  from  2  to 
20  feet,  but  could  not  have  been  in  the  north- 
ern part,  where  the  sea  is  from  600  to  1000 
feet  deep.  And  geologically  considered,  only 
the  southern  end  of  the  sea  can  be  of  origin 
at  all  recent.  3.  Zoar,  one  of  the  cities  (xiii. 
10),  lav  at  the  southern  end  of  the  sea  (War 
iv.  8,  4). 

Sod'om-ite. 

A  person  guilty  of  the  unnatural  vice  of 
Sodom.  The  vice  itself  has  come  to  be  known 
as  sodomy.  The  word  is  employed  in  the  E. 
V.  to  render  the  Hebrew  Kadesh,  one  conse- 
crated, a  man  dedicated  to  impure  heathen 
worship  (Deut.  xxiii.'lT;  in  Job  xxxvi.  14, 
unclean).  A  woman  thus  dedicated  prac- 
ticed uncleanness  as  a  priestess  in  the  service 
of  Ashtoreth  or  Ashevah  in  Canaan,  of  Ish- 
tar  in  Babylonia  (Gen.  xxxviii.  21,  22  ;  Deut. 
xxiii.  17  ;  Hos.  iv.  14  ;  in  every  case  rendered 
harlot).  The  sin  of  sodomy  was  forbidden 
by  the  Mosaic  law  (Deut.  xxiii.  17)  ;  but 
sodomites  of  Hebrew  descent  were  found  in 
Judah  during  the  reign  of  Rehoboam  (1  Kin. 
xiv.  24) ;  Asa  and  Jehoshaphat  cut  them  off 
(xv.  12 ;  xxii.  46)  ;  but  others  arose  iu  their 
room,  and  Josiah,  to  rid  himself  of  them, 
broke  down  their  houses  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  7). 

Sol'o-mon  [peaceable] . 

David's  youngest  son,  at  least  by  Bath- 
sheba  (2  Sam.  xii.  24 ;  1  Chron.  iii.  5  ;  and  cp. 
Antiq.  vii.  14,  2).  He  was  born  at  Jerusalem. 
David  named  him  Solomon,  peaceable,  in  an- 
ticipation of  the  peace  and  quietness  of  his 
reign  in  contrast  with  liis  own  stormy  life 
(1  Chron.  xxii.  9)  ;  but  through  the  prophet 
Nathan  he  was  divinely  honored  with  the 
name  Jedidiah,  beloved  of  Jehovah  (2  Sam. 
xii.  25).  When  David  was  on  his  deathbed, 
Adonijah,  one  of  his  sons  born  at  Hebron, 
and  next  to  the  eldest  now  that  Amnon  and 
Absalom  were  dead,  set  up  as  king  without 
his  father's  sanction.  On  this,  Bath-sheba, 
at  the  instigation  of  the  prophet  Nathan, 
went  to  David  and  reminded  him  of  an  oath 
which  he  had  sworn  to  lier  that  Solomon 
should  be  his  successor.  David  acknowledged 


his  obligation,  and  by  his  order  Zadok  the 
priest,  Nathan  the  proi)het,  and  Benaiah  the 
military  commander,  supported  by  David's 
bodyguard,  lost  no  time  in  i)roclaiming  Sol- 
omon king  (1  Kin.  i.  5-40),  and  the  party  of 
Adonijah  at  once  collap.sed.  David  soon 
afterwards  died,  and  Solomon  began  his  sole 
reign  about  the  year  970  B.  c,  being  at  the 
time  probably  about  twenty  years  old. 
Obedient  to  the  dying  charge  of  his  father, 
he  dealt  out  justice  to  Abiathar  and  Shimei ; 
and  when  Adonijah  began  anew  to  i)lot 
against  the  king,  he  put  him  to  death  and 
ordered  the  execution  of  Joab  likewise,  who 
was  implicated  in  the  conspiracy  (ii.  1-46). 
The  young  king  soon  brought  as  a  bride  to 
Jerusalem  Pharaoh's  daughter  (iii.  1).  At 
that  time  the  worship  at  the  sanctuary, 
which  had  been  broken  up  when  the  Lord  for- 
sook Shiloh,  was  still  interrupted.  The  taber- 
nacle was  at  Gibeon,  and  the  ark  at  Jerusa- 
lem. The  people  worshiped  at  high  places. 
Solomon  went  to  Gibeon  to  sacrifice.  There 
God  appeared  to  him,  and  invited  him  to  ask 
for  whatever  he  deemed  most  desirable.  He 
asked  for  an  understsmding  heart,  that  he 
might  be  able  justly  to  judge  the  people  of 
God,  for  it  was  part  of  a  king's  duty  in  those 
days  to  administer  justice.  His  request  was 
granted,  as  he  soon  afterwards  showed  by  the 
skillful  manner  in  which  he  disentangled 
truth  from  falsehood  when  he  decided  be- 
tween the  two  women,  each  of  whom  claimed 
the  living  babe  as  her  own  (1  Kin.  iii.  2-2.S  ;  2 
Chron.  i.  3-12).  Twenty  or  more  years  later 
the  Lord  appeared  to  him  again,  and  made 
him  further  promises  and  gave  him  solemn 
warning  (1  Kin.  ix.  1-10  ;  2  Chron.  vii.  12-22). 

His  father,  with  military  ability  and  cour- 
age, had  subdued  the  neighboring  nations  ; 
and  only  one  expedition  is  recorded  as  neces- 
sary for  Solomon  to  undertake,  and  that  one 
was  against  Hamath,  w'hich  he  was  obliged 
to  control  in  order  to  secure  the  northeastern 
portion  of  his  dominions.  He  also  fortified 
Hazor  at  the  crossing  of  the  upper  Jordan, 
and  built  a  tower  in  Lebanon,  in  order  to 
hold  Damascus  in  check.  Hadad  the  Edom- 
ite  was  an  adversary  unto  Solomon,  but  the 
Hebrew  monarch  probably  gave  himself  but 
little  concern  about  this  opponent,  and  al- 
lowed him  to  reoccupy  the  throne  of  his 
fathers  and  rule  a  part  of  the  ancestral  realm  ; 
but  Solomon  saw  to  it  that  the  road  by  Edom 
to  Ezion-geber  was  open  and  safe.  Other- 
wise Solomon's  relations  with  neighboring 
kings  were  friendly,  and  he  was  able  to  de- 
vote himself  to  the  organization  of  his  king- 
dom and  to  the  arts  of  peace. 

David  had  amassed  a  great  store  of  precious 
metals  for  tlie  construction  of  a  magnificent 
temple  to  Jehovah.  Solomon  took  uji  the 
work,  and  with  Tyriau  help  finished  it  in 
seven  years  (1  Kin.  v.,  vi. ;  2  Chron.  ii.). 
Then,  after  furniture  had  been  made  for  it, 
it  was  dedicated  (1  Kin.  vii.  13-viii.  64  ;  2 
Chron.  ii.-vii.).     Next,  the  monarch  erected 


Solomon 


697 


Son 


a  palace  for  liimself,  which  took  thirteen 
years  in  buildiug  (1  Kin.  vii.  1-12)  ;  sec 
Palack.  He  also  laid  out  f;ardensand  vine- 
yards in  various  parts  of  the  country,  as  at 
Etam,  perhaps,  and  at  Baal-hanion  (ix.  19, 
E.  V.  ;  2  t'hron.  viii.  G,  li.  \.  ;  Kcc.  ii.  5,  G  ; 
Song  viii.  11). 

Solomon  showed  sagacity  in  government. 
He  surrounded  himself  with  eminent  officials, 
among  whom  the  son  of  the  high  priest 
held  the  first  place,  and  another  counselor 
also  was  a  priest  (1  Kin.  iv.  2-tJ).  F'or  ad- 
ministrative purposes,  he  divided  the  king- 
dom into  twelve  districts,  entirely  independ- 
ent of  the  old  tribal  lines  (7-19).  Nor  did 
he  fail  to  take  a  prominent  part  in  the  reli- 
gion of  the  state.  He  led  the  nation  in  prayer 
at  the  dedication  of  the  temple,  and  in- 
voked the  divine  blessing  upon  the  assem- 
bled multitude. 

Commerce  flourished  in  his  kingdom,  and 
brought  wealth  (1  Kin.  x.  14-21 ;  2  Chron. 
ix.  13,  14,  21,  27) ;  and  voyages  were  success- 
fully made  to  Ophir,  and  traflic  was  con- 
ducted with  India  (1  Kin.  x.  22,  23  ;  2  Chron. 
ix.  10-22).  For  the  protection  and  fostering 
of  trade,  he  built  store  cities,  among  others 
Palmyra,  in  the  desert  midway  between 
Damascus  and  the  Euphrates  (1  Kin.  ix,  18, 
19). 

Solomon  was  interested  in  literary  pursuits  : 
he  was  a  naturalist,  and  wrote  treatises  on 
plants,  from  the  cedar  that  groweth  on  Leb- 
anon to  the  hyssop  that  springeth  out  of  the 
wall.  He  spoke  also  of  beasts,  and  of  fowls, 
and  of  creeping  things,  and  of  fishes  (1  Kin. 
iv.  33).  He  collected  and  composed  many 
proverbs,  some  of  which  constitute  part  of 
the  O.  T. ;  see  Proverbs.  Two  psalms  (Ixxii. 
and  cxxvii.)  are  attributed  to  him  by  their 
titles.  See  also  Ecclesiastes  and  Song  of 
Songs. 

The  splendor  of  his  court,  the  magnificence 
of  his  table,  and  his  pomp  when  on  excur- 
sions corresponded  to  his  wealth  and  political 
power  (1  Kin.  x.  4,  5,  21 ;  Song  iii.  7-11). 
People  came  from  all  parts  to  hear  his  wisdom 
(1  Kin.  iv.  34  ;  x.  23-25).  The  report  of  his 
wisdom  was  carried  even  to  southern  Arabia, 
and  the  queen  of  Sheba  journeyed  to  Jeru- 
salem to  test  it  and  to  see  his  magnificence 
(1-13). 

Notwithstanding  all  his  gifts  and  graces, 
he  erred  in  two  respects.  He  established  a 
harem  on  the  .same  scale  of  greatness  as  his 
other  works.  It  included  from  first  to  last 
about  one  thousand  members,  some  of  whom 
probably  were  princesses  given  him  as  pledges 
of  political  amity.  Many  were  foreigners  by 
birth  and  idolatrous  in  their  religion,  and  he 
allowed  himself  to  be  persuaded  by  them  to 
erect  idol  shrines,  including  one  for  Molech, 
"  horrid  king  "  (1  Kin.  xi.  1-8).  For  thisapos- 
tasy  Solomon  was  punished.  The  kingdom 
in  its  great  extent  and  power  was  taken 
from  the  dynasty,  and  only  a  fragment  of  it 
left  to  the  family  (9-13).     The  example  of 


Solomon's  disloyalty  to  Jehovah  had  direct 
influence  in  producing  this  penal  result.  The 
announcement  by  the  prophet  Aliijah  to  Jero- 
boam was  al.so  influential  to  this  end.  pre- 
dicting to  the  young  Ephrainiite  that  (iod 
would  rend  ten  tribes  from  Solomon  and 
give  them  to  him  (28-39).  Jeroboam  became 
a  recognized  opponent  of  the  king;  but  not 
until  Solomon's  son  Eehoboam  ascended  the 
throne  did  Jeroboam  .secure  a  kingdom.  A 
less  obvious,  but  yet  an  important  error  was 
that  his  luxury  imposed  a  burden  on  his 
overtaxed  subjects,  which  shook  their  loyalty 
to  the  throne  and  sowed  the  seeds  of  future 
rebellion.     See  Eehoboam. 

Solomon  reigned  forty  years  (1  Kin.  xi.  42; 
2  Chron.  ix.  30,  31),  dying  about  931  B.  c. 
The  events  of  his  life  and  reign  were  re- 
corded in  the  Book  of  the  Acts  of  Solomon 
(1  Kin.  xi.  41),  the  History  of  Nathan  the 
Prophet,  the  Prophecy  of  Ahijah  the  Shilo- 
nite,  the  Visions  of  Iddo  the  Seer  (2  Chron. 
ix.  29). 

Sol'o-mon's  Porch. 

A  sjilendid  colonnade,  reputed  to  have  been 
built  by  Solomon,  on  the  east  side  of  the 
temple  area,  on  an  artificial  embankment 
built  up  from  the  valley  of  the  Kidron 
(Antiq.  xx.  9,  7;  War  v.  .5,  1).  It  is  once 
mentioned  that  Christ  walked  in  it  (John  x. 
23) ;  and  the  apostles  were  not  infrequently 
there  (Acts  iii.  11 ;  v.  12). 

Sol'o-mon's  Serv'ants. 

Certain  persons  whose  descendants  were 
associated  with  the  Nethinim,  390  or  392  of 
the  two  classes  combined  returning  with 
Zerubbabel  from  the  captivity  (Ezra  ii.  .^5- 
58;  Neh.  vii.  57-60).  Some  of  their  names 
have  a  foreign  aspect.  They  seem  to  have 
been  the  descendants  of  those  Canaanites  of 
various  tribes  from  whom  Solomon  exacted 
bond  service  for  the  sake  of  the  temple  and 
other  magnificent  buildings  (1  Kin.  v.  13-18; 
ix.  21).     See  Nethinim. 

Sol'o-mon's  Song.    See  Song  of  Solomon. 

Sol'o-mon,  Wis'dom  of.     See  Apocrypha. 

Son. 

1.  A  male  child ;  an  immediate  male  de- 
scendant {Gen.  xxvii.  1).  Other  prominent 
significations  are : 

2.  A  remoter  male  descendant.  For  in- 
stance, Jehu,  son  of  Nimshi,  was  really 
Nimshi's  grandson,  for  he  was  the  son  of 
Jehoshaphat,  the  son  of  Nmishi  (cp.  2  Kin. 
ix.  20  with  2).  The  Israelites  were  known 
as  sons  or  children  of  Israel  or  Jacob  cen- 
turies after  the  death  of  the  patriarch  (Mai. 
iii.  6;  Luke  i.  16). 

3.  A  follower,  adherent,  or  pupil,  as  the 
sons  of  the  prophets  (1  Kin.  xx.  35).  Mem- 
ber of  a  guild  or  profession,  as  son  of  the 
apothecaries  (Neh.  iii.  8.  in  E.  V.  one),  sous 
of  the  singers  (xii.  28).  Worshiper  of  a  god, 
as  the  sons  of  Chemosh  (Num.  xxi.  29). 

4.  Inhabitant  of  a  city  or  country,  as  sons 


Son  of  God 


698 


Song 


of  Zion  (Lam.  iv.  2),  sons  of  Bethlehem 
(Ezra  ii.  21,  in  E.  V.  children),  sous  of  the 
province  (1,  in  E.  V.  children),  sous  of  Javan 
(Gen.  X.  4). 

5.  Possessor  of  a  quality,  as  son  of  Belial 
or  worthlessuess  (1  Sam.  xxv.  17),  son  of 
strength,  i.  e.,  a  valiant  man  (xiv.  52),  son  of 
peace  (Luke  x.  (J). 

Son  of  God. 

A  term  expressive  of  the  mysterious  rela- 
tion between  the  eternal  Father  and  the 
eternal  Sou.  In  the  N.  T.  (R.  V.)  Son  of  God 
occurs  about  forty-five  times,  in  about  forty- 
four  unequivocally  pointing  to  our  Lord 
(Mat.  iv.  3,  6  ;  xxvi.  63  ;  xxvii.  43  ;  Mark  i. 
1,  text,  etc.),  and  in  the  remaining  one  char- 
acterizing Adam  (Luke  iii.  38).  In  John  iii.  18 
Christ  is  called  the  only  begotten  Son  of  God. 
Two  reasons  are  suggested  for  the  appella- 
tion :  his  eternal  generation  (Heb.  vii.  3),  aud 
his  miraculous  birth  by  the  operation  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  (Luke  i.  3.5).  As  son  of  God, 
Christ  is  God  with  all  the  infinite  perfections 
of  the  divine  essence  (John  i.  1-14 ;  x.  30- 
38;  Phil.  ii.  6),  aud  is  equal  with  God  (John 
v.  17-25).  He  is  subordinate  in  mode  of 
subsistence  aud  operation  ;  that  is,  he  is  of 
the  Father,  is  sent  by  the  Father,  and  the 
Father  operates  through  him  (John  iii.  16, 
17;  viii.  42;  Gal.  iv.  4;  Heb.  i.  2).  Accord- 
ingly, the  word  son  is  not  a  term  of  office, 
but  of  nature.  He  has  the  same  nature,  a 
fact  which  includes  equality  with  God. 

The  claim  was  put  forth  by  our  Lord 
(Luke  xxii.  70;  John  x.  36;  xi.  4;  xix.  7), 
and  urged  by  the  apostles  (Acts  ix.  20 ;  Gal. 
ii.  20,  etc. ;  1  John  iii.  8 ;  v.  5,  10,  13,  20), 
and  it  was  for  maintaining  it  that  he  was 
condemned  l)y  the  sanhedrin  on  a  charge  of 
blasphemy  (Mat.  xxvi.  63-66 ;  Mark  xiv. 
61-64) ;  but  the  justice  of  his  claim  had  been 
acknowledged  on  the  occasion  of  his  baptism 
by  the  descent  upon  him  of  the  Holy  Gho.st, 
accompanied  by  an  audible  utterance  from 
his  heavenly  Father  (Mat.  iii.  16,  17 ;  Mark 
i.  10,  11;  Luke  iii.  22;  John  i.  32-34).  It 
was  similarly  acknowledged  at  the  transfig- 
uration (Mat.  xvii.  5;  Mark  ix.  7;  Luke  ix. 
35 ;  2  Pet.  i.  17).  It  was  sustained  by  his 
character  and  by  his  works  (John  i.  14 ;  x. 
36-38;  Heb.  i.  3).  And  he  was  declared  to 
be  the  Son  of  God  with  power,  according  to 
the  spirit  of  holiness,  by  the  resurrection  of 
the  dead  (Rom.  i.  4),  and  by  his  ascension 
(Heb.  i.  3).  There  is  a  passage  in  the  O.  T. 
(Dan.  iii.  25,  A.  V.)  where  the  expression 
Son  of  God  appears,  but  the  R.  V.  alters  this 
to  a  son  of  the  gods.  The  speaker  was  a 
Babylonian  heathen. 

For  the  title  sons  of  God  applied  to  men 
see  Sons  op  God. 

Son  of  Man. 

A  ])crson  possessed  of  humanity  in  distinc- 
tion from  divinity  ;  a  human  being,  witli  the 
emphasis  on  human  (Num.  xxiii.  19;  Job 
xxv.  6;  Ps.  viii.  4;  Is.  Ii.   12);  see  Son  5. 


When  Daniel  fell  aff"rightcd  on  his  face  before 
the  heavenly  messenger,  Gabriel  addressed 
him  as  son  of  man  (Dan.  viii.  17).  When 
Ezekiel  had  seen  the  vision  of  Jehovah  and 
fallen  njion  his  face,  a  voice  said :  "  Sou  of 
man,  stand  upon  thy  feet"  (Ezek.  ii.  1),  and 
thenceforth  the  prophet  is  constantly  ad- 
dres.sed  as  son  of  man.  It  was  foretold  ( Dan. 
vii.  13,  14,  K.  V.)  that  the  lu)stile  worldly 
power  shall  succumb  before  the  Ancient  of 
days,  and  one  like  to  a  son  of  man,  coming 
with  the  clouds  of  heaven,  shall  receive  do- 
minion and  a  kingdom,  that  all  the  peoples, 
nations,  and  languages  shall  serve  him ;  his 
dominion  is  an  everlasting  dominion  which 
shall  not  ])ass  away,  and  his  kingdom  that 
which  shall  not  be  destroyed. 

The  title  was  adopted  by  our  Lord.  He  is 
recorded  in  the  gospels  as  having  applied  it 
to  himself  seventy-eight  times.  It  is  also 
used  of  him  by  Stephen  (Acts  vii.  56) ;  see 
also  Heb.  ii.  6  ;  and  Rev.  i.  13  ;  xiv.  14,  R.  V. 
margin.  Chi'ist  did  not  choose  the  title  to 
assert  that  he  had  a  fellow-feeling  for  man 
and  was  a  brother  to  all  men ;  nor  did  he 
employ  it  to  denote  that  he  was  a  mere  man 
and  not  divine,  for  he  constantly  claimed 
divine  attributes  (Luke  v.  24).  But  1.  He 
proclaimed  thereby,  but  in  such  a  way  that 
the  proclamation  should  not  be  understood 
at  first,  that  he  was  the  predicted  ruler  of 
the  kingdom  of  heaven,  with  an  everlasting 
dominion  (Ps.  \aii.  4-6;  Dan.  vii.  13,  14).  2. 
The  emphasis  laid  on  his  humanity  shows 
some  peculiarity.  There  would  be  no  occasion 
for  asserting  the  humanity  of  a  man.  3.  The 
use  of  the  article  separates  him  from  other 
human  beings.  He  is  the  Son  of  man.  4. 
Son  of  man  and  Son  of  God  are  united  in 
the  same  person.  "  Who  do  men  say  that  the 
Son  of  man  is  ?  .  .  .  .  Simon  Peter  answered 
and  said.  Thou  art  the  Christ,  the  Son  of  the 
living  God.  And  Jesus  answered  and  said  unto 
him,  Blessed  art  thou,  Simon  Bar-Jonah  : 
for  flesh  and  blood  hath  not  revealed  it  unto 
thee,  but  my  Father  which  is  in  heaven  " 
(Mat.  xvi.  13,  16,  17).  "  The  high  i)riest 
said  unto  him,  I  adjure  thee  by  the  living 
God,  that  thou  tell  us  whether  thou  be  the 
Christ,  the  Son  of  God.  Jesus  saith  unto  him, 
Thou  hast  said :  nevertheless  I  say  unto  you. 
Henceforth  ye  shall  see  the  Son  of  man  sitting 
at  the  right  hand  of  power,  and  coming  on 
the  clouds  of  heaven"  (xxvi.  63,  64). 

Song. 

A  poetical  composition,  generally  brief, 
capable  of  being  set  to  music  and  sung, 
whether  or  not  it  was  intended  for  singing  or 
was  ever  actually  sung  (Ex.  xv.  1-18  ;  Dent, 
xxxi.  30-xxxii.  44).  It  was  often  sung  to 
the  accompaniment  of  music  (Ex.  xv.  20,  21 ; 
Is.  xxxviii.  20).  It  might  be  secular  or  re- 
ligious (Gen.  xxxi.  27  ;  Num.  xxi.  17, 18  ;  and 
Ps.  xcii..  title ;  cxxxvii.  3,  4) ;  in  praise  of 
men  or  of  God  (1  Sam.  xviii.  6,  7  ;  Ps.  xxviii. 
7)  ;  the  expression   of    light-heartedness    or 


I 


Song  of  Songs,  The 


699 


Song  of  Songs,  The 


dec])  emotion  ;  tbe  utterance  of  innocent 
mirth  or  tlie  outcome  of  a  bacchanalian  revel 
(Ps.  Ixix.  12). 

Song  of  Songs,  The. 

Tile  last  of  the  live  poetical  books  of  the 
O.  T.  in  ouriiresent  English  Bil)lc.  This  ar- 
rangement is  derived  from  the  Septuagint. 
In  the  Helirew  Scrijitures  the  Song  stands 
between  Job  and  Euth,  in  the  third  section 
of  the  canon,  and  is  one  of  the  five  smaller 
rolls  which  formed  a  group  ))y  themselves 
because  they  had  come  to  be  read  on  the  five 
great  anniversaries.  The  Song  was  read  on 
the  eighth  day  of  the  passover  festival,  the 
book  l)eiug  allegorically  interpreted  with  ref- 
erence to  the  history  of  the  exodus.  The 
Song  of  Solomon  is  more  fully  called  The 
Song  of  Songs,  which  is  Solomon's  (i.  1). 
The  reduplication  of  the  word  song  was  not 
intended  to  denote  that  it  is  a  collecti(m  of 
many  songs,  nor  that  it  is  the  chief  one  of  the 
many  songs  of  Solomon  ;  but  it  has  super- 
lative force,  like  servant  of  .servants,  holy  of 
holies,  Lord  of  lords,  heaven  of  heavens, 
vanity  of  vanities  (Gen.  ix.  25 ;  Ex.  xxvi. 
33  ;  Deut.  x.  17 ;  1  Kin.  viii.  27 ;  Ecc.  1.  2), 
and  intimates  that  the  production  is  a  song 
of  the  highest  character.  In  the  Vulgate  the 
title  is  literally  translated  ('aiiticinn  Cioiticor- 
um,  from  which  the  name  Canticles  is  de- 
rived. 

Several  speakers  take  part  in  the  dialogue. 
The  distinction  between  them  is  quite  clear 
in  the  Hebrew  original,  because  the  gram- 
matical forms  indicate  gender.  The  E.  V. 
marks  change  of  speaker  by  space  between 
the  verses  or  sections.  How  many  prominent 
personages  are  there  in  the  poem  ?  Are  there 
two,  besides  the  daughters  of  Jerusalem,  who 
resemble  the  chorus  in  a  Greek  play  ;  or  are 
there  three,  either  actually  speaking  or  in- 
troduced in  the  remarks  of  the  Shulammite 
maid  ?  According  to  the  latter  view  in  its 
general  form,  the  three  chief  speakers  are  a 
country  maid,  her  rustic  lover,  and  Solomon. 
The  maid  is  betrothed  to  her  country  swain  ; 
but  she  is  noticed  by  Solomon  and  his  compan- 
ions during  some  journey  to  the  north  (vi. 
10-13),  brought  to  Jerusalem,  and  there,  sur- 
rounded by  the  women  of  the  palace,  wooed 
by  the  king  in  the  hope  of  gaining  her  affec- 
tions. But  the  maid  resi-sts  all  enticements. 
When  Solomon  praises  her,  she  responds  by 
praising  her  rustic  lover.  She  longs  for  him 
by  day,  and  dreams  of  him  by  night.  She 
sustains  her  devotion  to  him  by  recalling  his 
speeches.  She  is  true  to  him  and  to  her 
vows.  At  length  the  parted  lovers  are  re- 
united (viii.  5-7),  and  she  is  praised  by  her 
brothers  for  resisting  all  allurements. 
Throughout  .Solomon  appears  in  an  unfavor- 
able light.  He  attempts  to  persuade  the  maid 
to  forsake  her  proper  allegiance  (vii.  1-9),  and 
he  commits  greater  sin.  The  poem,  accord- 
ing to  this  view,  celebrates  a  pure  afiection, 
which  holds  out  against  the  temiitations  of  a 


court,  and  is  strong  enough  to  resist  the  se» 
ductive  arts  of  a  king. 

This  interpretation,  which  is  known  as  the 
shepherd  hypothesis,  seeks  support  in  ex- 
pressions of  the  Shulanmiite,  which  are  cited 
as  jiassionate  exclamations  to  her  distant 
lover  (i.  4,  7  ;  ii.  l(j).  But  everything  is 
much  simpler  in  these  pa.ssages  themselves 
and  throughout  the  jioem,  if  the  ShuJaui- 
mite's  avowals  of  love  are  in  all  cases  re- 
ferred to  king  Solomon  himself.  The  simple 
country  maid  has  no  adequate  conception  of 
royal  life  and  occupations.  She  thinks  of  the 
king,  the  shepherd  of  the  people  (cp.  Jer. 
xxiii.  4),  under  the  figure  of  a  rustic  shep- 
herd of  her  native  hills,  and  she  addresses 
him  in  language  borrowed  from  the  shepherd 
life  familiar  to  her.  And  everywhere  she 
naturally  draws  imagery  from  the  pastoral 
and  horticultural  mountain  life  to  which  she 
was  accvistomed. 

Instead  of  regarding  the  Shulammite  as  a 
country  girl,  some  interpreters,  especially  in 
England,  see  in  her  the  daughter  of  Pharaoh 
whom  Solomon  married.  She  is  a  stranger, 
dark  of  complexion,  and  a  prince's  daughter 
(1.  5;  vii.  1).  The  blackness  of  skin,  how- 
ever, was  due  to  sunburn  (i.  G).  and  the  title 
of  jirince's  daughter  probably  does  not  indi- 
cate her  birth,  which  was  a])parently  lowly 
(ibid.  ;  ii.  9),  but  her  present  high  rank  to 
which  she  has  been  raised  (cp.  vi.  12  ;  1  Sam. 
ii.  8),  daughter  meaning  female  or  woman  in 
general  (cji.  Song  vi.  9  ;  1  Sam.  i.  KJ),  and  the 
jibrase  signifying  ''  O  noble  woman." 

The  Song  has  been  regarded  as  a  drama. 
Few,  however,  have  imagined  that  it  was  de- 
signed for  presentation  on  the  stage.  It  has 
been  thought  to  consist  of  four  acts  (Ewald 
at  first,  Fricdrich),  or  of  five  acts  containing 
from  thirteen  to  fifteen  scenes  (Ewald,  Bott- 
cher,  and  others),  or  of  six  acts  with  two 
scenes  each  (Delitzsch,  Halin).  Bossuet  dis- 
covered seven  acts,  each  filling  a  day,  con- 
cluding with  the  Sabbath,  inasmuch  as  the 
bridegroom  on  this  day  does  not,  as  usual,  go 
forth  to  his  rural  employments.  His  several 
days  are:  i.  1-ii.  G;  ii.  7-17  ;  iii.  1-v.  1  ;  v. 
2-vi.  9;  vi.  10-vii.  11;  vii.  12-viii.  3;  viii. 
4-14.  Delitzsch's  scheme  is  as  follows  :  Act  1. 
Mutual  passion  of  the  lovers  (i.  2-ii.  7),  con- 
cluding with,  "I  adjure  you,  O  daughters  of 
Jerusalem."  The  scene  is  laid  in  the  palace 
of  Solomon.  Scene  1.  Dialogue  between  the 
Shulammite  maid  and  the  court  ladies, 
daughters  of  Jerusalem,  at  a  meal  (i.  2-8). 
Scene  2.  Enter  Solomon  :  dialogue  between 
him  and  the  maiden,  who  is  not  yet  his  bride 
(9-ii.  7).  Act  2.  Mutual  seeking  and  finding 
(ii.  8-iii.  5),  concluding  with  "I  adjure  you." 
The  scene  is  the  Shulammite's  country  home. 
Scene  1.  She  relates  a  rapturous  meeting  with 
Solomon  (ii.  8-17).  Scene  2.  She  relates  a 
dream,  in  which  she  thought  she  had  lost  her 
beloved,  but  found  him  again  (iii.  1-5).  Act  3. 
Bringing  the  betrothed  to  the  capital  and  the 
marriage  (iii.  6-v.  1),  with  the  introduction, 


Song  of  Songs,  The 


700 


Song  of  Songs,  The 


"  Who  is  this?"  and  the  conclusion,  "Eat,  O 
friends ;  drink,  yea,  drink  abundantly,  O  be- 
loved." Scene  1.  Procession  to  the  palace 
(iii.  6-11).  Scene  2.  Dialogue  between  Solo- 
mon and  his  betrothed  in  the  wedding  cham- 
ber (iv.  1-16).  The  wedding  must  be  sup- 
posed to  follow ;  and  then  v.  1,  Solomon's 
morning  greeting  to  his  bride,  and  afterwards 
his  exhortation  to  the  guests.  Act  4.  Love  dis- 
dained, but  regained  (v.  2-vi.  9).  Scene  1. 
Shadows  fall  on  the  married  life.  The  Shu- 
lammite  dreams  of  seeking  her  beloved,  but 
finding  him  not  (v.  2-vi.  3).  Scene  2.  She  has 
found  her  Ijchived  again  (vi.  4-9).  Act  5.  The 
Shulanimite  the  beautiful,  but  humble  prin- 
cess (vi.  10-viii.  4),  with  the  introduction, 
"  Who  is  she?"  and  the  conclusion.  "  I  adjure 
you."  Scene  1.  In  the  royal  gardens;  dia- 
logue between  the  Shulammite  and  the 
daughters  of  Jerusalem  (vi.  10-vii.  6).  Scene 
2.  In  the  palace ;  Stdomon  and  the  Shulam- 
mite alone  (vii.  7-viii.4).  Act  6.  The  confirma- 
tion of  love's  bond  in  the  Shulammite's  old 
home  (viii.  5-14),  beginning  "  Who  is  this?" 
Scene  1.  Solomon  and  his  bride  appear  in 
the  presence  of  her  kinsfolk  (5-7).  Scene  2. 
The  Shulammite  in  her  paternal  home  ;  dia- 
logue between  her  and  her  brothers  and  the 
king  (8-14). 

But  the  opinion  that  the  Song  is  a  drama, 
although  widely  entertained  in  modern  times 
and  unobjectionable  in  itself,  has  not  failed 
to  meet  with  decided  and  well-founded  op- 
position. The  Song  does  not  naturally  con- 
form to  the  rules  of  dramatic  unity.  A  reg- 
ular plot  is  not  yielded  by  the  poem  itself.  A 
consecutive  narrative  can  only  be  made  out 
by  supplying  connecting  links  of  which  the 
poem  knows  nothing.  Indeed,  the  several 
parts  have  been  made  to  tell  very  different 
continuous  tales,  according  as  interpreters 
have  sujiplied  this  or  that  connecting  link. 
The  Song  as  it  stands  is  a  continuous  compo- 
sition, with  the  love  of  Solomon  and  his  bride 
for  its  one  theme  ;  but  the  several  scenes  are 
grouped  rather  than  linked,  and  the  tran- 
sitions are  abrupt.  The  arrangement  is  not 
pleasing  to  the  occidental  mind,  which  loves 
order  and  logical  sequence,  but  the  structure 
of  the  poem  is  in  entire  harmony  with  orien- 
tal methods  of  literary  composition. 

Three  leading  methods  of  interpretation 
have  been  adopted,  and  all  still  find  advo- 
cates :  the  allegorical,  the  literal,  and  the 
typical  methods.  The  Jews,  wlio  have  al- 
ways greatly  prized  the  Song  of  Songs,  have 
generally  regarded  it  as  a  .spiritual  allegory. 
Its  sole  intention  was  to  teach  God's  love  for 
ancient  Israel.  He  is  the  Lover,  and  it  the 
being  beloved.  The  allegorical  interpreta- 
tion was  introduced  into  the  Christian 
church  by  Origen,  a  great  allegorizer,  early 
in  the  third  century,  but  it  underwent  a 
modification.  Christ  became  the  Lover,  and 
his  church  or  the  individual  soul  the  be- 
loved one.  The  details  of  this  scheme  may  be 
learned   from  the  headings  of  the  several 


chapters  in  the  A.  V.  On  the  literal  inter- 
pretation the  poem  is  an  historical  tale,  a 
true  story  of  Solomon's  love  for  the  Shulam- 
mite. The  typical  interjjretation,  to  a  cer- 
tain extent,  harmonizes  the  other  two.  The 
pure,  spontaneous,  mutual  love  of  a  great 
king  and  an  humble  maid  was  seen  to  exem- 
plify the  mutual  affection  between  Jehovah 
and  his  peojile,  and  the  story  was  told,  not 
merely  because  it  was  beautiful,  but  chiefly 
because  it  was  typical  of  this  great  religious 
truth.  The  Song  of  Songs  is  thus  analogous 
to  Messianic  p.salms,  which  are  based  on  the 
personal  experiences  or  official  position  of 
David  or  Solomon,  and  exhibit  truths  re- 
garding the  great  king.  The  comparison  of 
the  mutual  love  between  the  church  and  its 
divine  head  to  that  of  a  bride  and  a  bride- 
groom frequently  occurs  in  the  N.  T.  (Eph. 
v.  25-33;  Eev.  xix.  7-9;  xxi.,9,  etc.). 

llegarding  the  date  and  authorship  of  the 
Song,  it  will  be  perceived  at  once  that  the 
shepherd  theory  disposes  of  the  possibility 
that  the  poem  proceeded  from  the  pen  of 
Solomon.  The  king  had  his  faults,  but  there 
is  no  reason  to  believe  that  he  was  a  monster 
of  iniquity  such  as  the  poem,  when  inter- 
preted on  the  shepherd  hyiJothesis,  depicts 
him.  Tlie  shepherd  hypothesis  requires 
the  assumption  of  another  and  a  later  author 
than  Solomon.  Turning  to  the  marks  of 
authorship  and  date  found  in  the  poem,  the 
title  first  engages  attention:  "The  Song  of 
songs,  which  is  Solomon's"  (i.  1).  The  words 
are  ambiguous,  according  to  the  Hebrew 
idiom  ;  they  may  mean  either  that  Solomon 
was  the  author  of  the  Song  (cp.  Hab.  iii.  1, 
Hebrew),  or  that  the  Song  is  about  Solomon 
(cp.  Is.  V.  1,  Hebrew).  The  ambiguity  is  ad- 
mitted, but  the  probabilities  unquestionably 
favor  the  belief  that  the  title  attri))utes  the 
poem  to  Solomon.  The  mind  of  the  author 
as  revealed  in  the  Song  admirably  comports 
with  all  that  is  known  of  Solomon.  Tlie 
figurative  language  in  the  speeches  of  the 
king  not  merely  I'eflects  nature,  but  mirrors 
the  gardens  of  exotics  of  which  Solomon  was 
fond.  Extensive  knowledge  of  all  realms  of 
nature,  such  as  he  possessed  who  spake  of 
trees,  from  the  cedar  even  unto  the  hyssop, 
and  of  beasts,  fowl,  creeping  things,  and 
fishes,  is  exhibited  throughout  the  poem. 
And  a  minute  and  accurate  picture  of  the 
time  of  Solomon  is  presented.  Aramai.sms 
are  urged  as  indicating  a  later  date  than 
Solomon.  But  the  orthography,  apart  from 
three  words,  is  not  Aramaic ;  and  the  syn- 
tactic peculiarity  of  the  poem  is  confined  to 
the  use  of  a  relative  pronoun  which  occurs 
among  other  places  in  the  song  of  Deliorah 
and  the  history  of  Elisha,  both  of  which  are 
confessedly  ancient  Hebrew  compositions,  the 
former  antedating  the  reign  of  Solomon  by 
several  centuries.  Ewald  and  Hitzig  believed 
that  the  poem  was  produced  in  the  best  period 
of  the  Hebrew  language,  and  at  a  time  of 
great  national  prosperity.   They  attributed  it 


Sons  of  God 


701 


Sons  of  God 


t<)  a  poet  wlio  lived  iu  the  fjeneratiou  after 
Solomon.  The  three  Aramaic  forms,  n'tar, 
keep  (i.  (> ;  viii.  11,  VZ),  b'ruth,  ttr  (i.  17), 
s'thav,  wiuter  (ii.  11),  are  regarded  by  these 
critics  as  au  idiom  in  the  dialect  of  northern 
Palestine,  and  tliey  accordingly  attribute  the 
song  to  a  poet  of  the  nortliern  kingdom. 
But,  assuming  that  these  words  were  charac- 
teristic of  the  north,  Solomon  himself  in  ad- 
dressing the  Shulammite  maid,  wlio  was 
probably  from  Shunem,  and  iu  quoting  her 
speeches,  may  have  adopted  these  words  in 
order  to  give  to  his  poem  the  northern  flavor. 
It  is  affirmed  that  pardes,  orchard,  i)ark  (iv. 
13),  and  'appirijo)i,  palanquin  (iii.  9,  R.  V  ;  in 
Sanscrit  paryunu  :  others,  Greek  phoreion)  are 
of  Aryan  origin,  and  accordingly  betray  the 
post-exilic  date  of  the  poem.  But  even  if 
they  are  of  Aryan  origin,  why  should  it  be 
thought  strange  that  a  king  who  sent  his 
ships  to  distant  Ojihir,  traded  with  India,  and 
brought  to  Palestine  Indian  goods  and  ob- 
jects with  Aryan  names,  such  as  apes,  pea- 
cocks, algum  wood,  should  also  import  the 
palanquin  and  retain  its  native  name,  and 
give  the  oriental  designation  to  the  gardens 
which  he  filled  with  oriental  plants? 

Sons  of  God. 

Worshipers  and  beneficiaries  of  God ;  see 
Son  3.  Such  was  its  common  Semitic  meaning 
in  early  times.  There  is  abundant  reason  to 
believe  that  this  is  its  signification  in  the 
celebrated  passage  where  it  first  appears  iu 
the  Bible.  "  It  came  to  pass,  when  men 
began  to  multiply  on  the  face  of  the  ground, 
and  daughters  were  born  unto  them,  that 
the  sons  of  God  saw  the  daughters  of  men 
that  they  were  fair;  and  they  took  them 
wives  of  all  that  they  chose"  (Gen.  vi.  1,  2). 
Three  interpretations  have  been  proposed. 
The  sons  of  God  are  :  1.  The  great  and  noble 
of  the  earth,  and  the  daughters  of  men  are 
women  of  inferior  rank  (Samaritan  version; 
Greek  translation  of  Symmachus;  Targums 
of  Onkelos  and  Jonathan).  2.  Angels,  who 
left  their  first  estate  and  took  wives  from 
among  the  children  of  men  (Book  of  Enoch, 
Philo.  Josephus,  Justin  Martyr,  Clement  of 
Alexandria.  Tertullian).  3.  Pious  men,  wor- 
shipers of  God,  who  were  especially  repre- 
sented by  the  descendants  of  Seth.  They 
were  attracted  by  the  beauty  of  women  who 
did  not  belong  to  the  godly  line,  married  with 
them,  and  became  secularized  (Julius  Afri- 
canus,  Chrysostom,  Cyril  of  Alexandria, 
Augustine,  Jerome).  The  first  interpretation 
has  no  longer  any  advocates.  In  favor  of 
the  second,  it  is  asserted  that  the  term  de- 
notes angels  everywhere  else  in  the  O.  T. 
(Job  i.  6;  ii.  1;  xxxviii.  7;  cp.  a  similar 
expression  Ps.  xxix.  1;  Ixxxix.  6;  R.  V. 
margin :  but  not  Dan.  iii.  25)  ;  that  the 
designation  describes  angels  according  to 
their  nature,  whereas  the  ordinary  word  for 
angels,  marakint.  messengers,  refers  to  their 
official  employment;  and  that  this  interpre- 


tation is  confirmed  l)y  Jude  6  and  2  Pet.  ii. 
4.  But  tliat  the  term  relates  to  the  nature 
of  angels  lacks  proof;  it  is  quite  as  natural 
that  it  should  describe  angels  as  worshipers 
of  God.  As  to  the  passages  in  Jude  and 
Peter,  to  cite  them  is  begging  the  question, 
since  exegetes  point  out  other  references,  as 
Is.  xxiv.  21-23.  And  unless  the  title  be  re- 
stricted to  the  special  form  which  it  has  in 
the  pa.ssage  under  discussion,  it  is  not  true 
that  the  term  denotes  angels  in  all  other 
places  where  it  occurs  in  the  O.  T.  The 
worshipers  of  the  heathen  deity  Chemosh 
are  called  the  people  of  Chemosh,  and  his 
sons  and  daughters  (Num.  xxi.  29 ;  Jer. 
xlviii.  4G).  When  the  men  of  Judah,  pro- 
fessed worshipers  of  Jehovah,  took  heathen 
women  to  wife,  Judah  was  .said  to  have  mar- 
ried the  daughter  of  a  strange  god  (Mai.  ii. 
11).     Moses  was  directed  to  say  to  Pharaoh  : 

"  Thus  saith  the  Lord,  Israel  is  my  son 

Let  my  son  go  "  (Ex.  iv.  22,  23).  "Ye  are  the 
children  [or  sons]  of  the  Lord  your  God  " 
(Deut.  xiv.  1).  "They  have  dealt  corruptly 
with  him,  they  are  not  his  children."  "Is 
not  he  [the  Lord]  thy  father?"  "The  Lord 
saw  it.  and  abhorred  them,  because  of  the 
provocation  of  his  sons  and  his  daughters" 
(xxxii.5,  6, 19).  "  Yeare  thesonsof  the  living 
God  "  (Hos.  i.  10).  "  When  Israel  was  a  child 
....  I  .  .  .  .  called  my  son  out  of  Egyjit " 
(xi.  1).  "Bring  my  sons  from  far,  and  my 
daughters  from  the  end  of  the  earth  ;  every 
one  that  is  called  by  my  name,  and  whom  I 
have  created  for  my  glory  "  (Is.  xliii.6, 7).  The 
pious  are  the  generation  of  God's  children 
(Ps.  Ixxiii.  15),  and  Ephraim  is  his  dear  sou 
(Jer.  xxxi.  20).  Taking  a  broader  survey, 
and  examining  Semitic  literature  other  than 
Hebrew,  one  observ^es  the  same  fact.  Many 
a  Babylonian  styled  himself  the  son  of  the 
god  whom  he  worshiped  and  upon  whom  he 
relied  for  protection  and  care. 

Furthermore,  the  opinion  that  the  title  in 
Gen.  vi.  2  means  angels  is  not  the  earliest 
view,  so  far  as  the  records  go.  The  earliest 
attested  interpretation,  that  of  the  Samaritan 
version,  regarded  the  sons  of  God  as  men  ; 
and  later  when  the  angelic  theory  arose,  it 
was  the  opinion  of  a  particular  .school  among 
the  Jews,  while  the  more  influential  party 
in  religious  matters  still  taught  that  the  sous 
of  God  were  men. 

The  interpretation  that  the  sons  of  God  in 
Gen.  vi.  2  were  pious  people,  the  worshipers 
of  the  true  God,  more  especially  that  they 
were  the  godly  descendants  of  Adam  through 
Seth,  whose  genealogy  is  given  in  Gen.  v.,  is 
not  only  in  accordance  with  Semitic,  and 
particularly  biblical,  usage  of  the  designa- 
tion, as  already  shown,  but  it  is  consistent 
with  the  context.  The  sons  of  God  are  con- 
trasted with  the  daughters  of  men,  that  is, 
of  other  men.  So  Jeremiah  says,  "God  did 
set  signs  in  Israel  and  among  men  ;  "  and 
the  English  version  supplies  the  word  other 
before  men,  in  order  to  bring  out  the  sense 


Sons  of  God 


702 


Sorek 


(Jer.  xxxii.  20).  Likewise  tlie  psalmist  says 
that  tlie  wicked  "arc  not  iu  trouble  as  men ; 
neither  are  they  plagued  like  men  ; "  and 
again  the  English  version  su])])lies  tlie  word 
other  (I's.  Ixxiii.  5).  After  the  same  manner 
Gen.  vi.  1,  2  may  be  read  :  "  Wlien  mankind 
began  to  multiply  on  the  face  of  tlie  ground, 
and  daughters  \vei"e  born  unto  them,  the  sons 
of  God  saw  the  daughters  of  other  men  that 
they  were  fair;  and  they  took  them  wives 
of  all  that  they  chose."  The  meaning  of  the 
writer  is  that  when  men  began  to  increase  in 
number,  the  worshipers  of  God  so  far  degen- 
erated that  in  choosing  wives  for  themselves 
they  neglected  character,  and  esteemed  beauty 
of  face  and  form  above  piety.  The  oflfspriug 
of  these  marriages  were  perhaps  stalwart 
and  violent  (4).  Mixture  of  race  in  marriage 
often  produces  physical  strength  in  the  de- 
scendants, and  lack  of  religion  in  the  parents 
is  apt  to  be  reproduced  in  the  children.  The 
intermarriage  of  the  sons  of  God  and  the 
daughters  of  men  was  otfensive  in  the  sight 
of  God.  Sentence  was  pronounced  against 
the  wrongdoers  (3).  The  penalty  is  not  de- 
nounced on  angels,  who  were  not  only  im- 
plicated, but  were  the  chief  sinners,  if  the 
sons  of  God  were  angels.  The  punishment 
is  pronounced  against  man  only.  Man,  not 
angels,  had  offended. 

Sons  of  God  everywhere  in  Scripture,  from 
the  earliest  to  the  latest  times,  means  the 
worshipers  and  beneficiaries  of  God,  both 
among  mortal  and  immortal  beings.  But  the 
content  of  this  idea  did  not  remain  the  .same 
through  the  ages.  It  became  larger  with  in- 
creasing knowledge  of  the  riches  of  God. 
It  enlarged,  for  example,  at  the  time  when 
the  Israelites  were  delivered  from  Egyjit. 
God  said  :  "'  I  have  seen  the  affliction  of  my 
people"  (Ex.  iii.  7);  and  again:  "Say  unto 
Pharaoh,  Israel  is  my  son,  my  firstborn; 
who  is  as  dear  to  me,"  so  the  following  words 
imply,  "  as  Pharaoh's  firstborn  is  to  him  "  (iv. 
22  with  23) ;  and  again  :  "  I  will  take  you  to 
me  for  a  people,  and  I  will  be  to  you  a  God  " 
(vi.  7).  Heretofore  the  title  had  emphasized 
a  filial  relation  of  men  to  God,  their  de- 
pendence upon  him  for  protection  and  care, 
and  their  duty  of  reverence  and  obedience. 
Now  God  formally  accepts  the  obligations 
which  implicitly  devolve  on  him.  The  con- 
tent of  the  title  was  further  enlarged  through 
the  teaching  of  Jesus  Christ.  He  took  truths 
already  known,  shed  light  on  them,  and 
connected  them  with  this  designation.  He 
exhibited  the  fact  that  God  is  an  actual 
father  and  that  his  people  are  actual  chil- 
dren of  God.  Tliey  are  such  bv  the  new 
birth  (John  iii.  3.  5,  (i,  8;  cp.  Eev.  xi.  11), 
begotten  of  God  (John  i.  12,  13;  v.  21 ;  and 
so  Eph.  ii.  r-,;  .las.  i.  18;  1  Pet.  i.  23),  made 
partakers  of  the  divine  nature  through  the 
mediaticm  of  the  indwelling  Spirit  (John  vi. 
48-51  ;  XV.  4,  5  ;  and  so  1  John  iii.  9),  and 
possessing  a  like  character  with  God,  re- 
sembling him  in  holiness,  love,  and  eleva- 


tion above  the  illusions  of  earth  (1  John  iii. 
9  ;  i,v.  7;  v.  4),  although  falling  far  short  of 
the  divine  character  iu  this  life  (i.  8,  10). 
They  have  been  adopted  as  sons  (Gal.  iv.  5), 
are  taught  by  the  Spirit  to  say  Abba,  Father 
(6 ;  Rom.  viii.  1.")^,  and  are  led  bj-  the  Spirit  (14). 

Sooth'say-er  [sayer  of  truth]. 

A  diviner  (Josh.  xiii.  22,  with  Num.  xxii. 
7),  one  who  prognosticates  future  events  (Jer. 
xxvii.  9,  Iv.  v.,  in  Hebrew  ^on'iiim).  As  ren- 
dering of  the  Aramaic  Gastrin,  it  denotes  one 
who  professed  to  he  able  to  interpret  dreams 
(Dan.  iv.  7)  and  explain  dark  sentences  (9; 
v.  11,  12),  and  to  whom  men  in  desperation 
resorted  to  obtain,  if  possible,  the  revelation 
of  secrets  (ii.  27). 

Sop'a-ter  [of  good  jia rentage]. 

A  Christian  from  Bercea  who,  with  other 
converts,  accompanied  the  apostle  Paul  from 
Greece  as  far  as  the  province  of  Asia,  when 
the  apostle  was  returning  from  his  third 
missionary  journey  (Acts  xx.  4).  He  was 
son  of  Pyrrhus  (K.  V.). 

Soph'e-reth,  in  K.  V.Hassopliereth,with  the 
Hebrew  article  [secretariat,  secretaryship]. 

One  of  the  class  known  as  Solomon's  ser- 
vants. He  founded  a  family,  members  of 
which  returned  from  captivity  with  Zerub- 
babel  (Ezra  ii.  55  ;  Neh.  vii.  57). 

Sor'cer-er. 

One  who  practices  sorcery,  uses  potions 
that  derive  a  supposed  efficacy  from  mag- 
ical spells,  and  professes  to  possess  super- 
natural power  or  knowledge,  gained  in  any 
manner,  especially  through  the  connivance 
of  evil  spirits  (Ex.  vii.  11  ;  Antiq.  xvii.  4.  1 ; 
Life  31).  Sorcerers  were  found  in  Egypt 
(Ex.  vii.  11),  Assj'ria  (Nah.  iii.  4),  Babylonia 
(Is.  xlvii.  9  ;  Dan.  ii.  2),  and  other  heathen 
lands  (Deut.  xviii.  10)  ;  but  were  strictly  for- 
bidden in  Israel  (Ex.  xxii.  18;  Deut.  xviii. 
10),  and  warning  was  uttered  against  their 
deception  (Jer.  xxvii.  9),  and  their  punish- 
ment was  foretold  (Mic.  v.  12  ;  Mai.  iii.  5  ; 
Eev.  xxi.  8).  The  Hebrew  and  Greek  words 
for  sorcerer  and  sorcery  are  sometimes  ren- 
dered witch  and  witchcraft  in  the  English 
versions.  Simon,  called  Magus  or  magician, 
and  Bar-jesus  were  prominent  sorcerers  in 
apostolic  history  (Acts  viii.  9,  11 :  xiii.  6,  8). 
A  sorceress,  and  likewise  the  sorcerer  and  the 
practicer  of  other  forms  of  the  black  art, 
were  not  to  be  permitted  to  live  (Ex.  xxii.  18  : 
Lev.  XX.  27;  Deut.  xviii.  10-12).  God's  own 
attitude  toward  such  per.sons  and  tho.sc  who 
consulted  them  was  also  one  of  destruction 
(Lev.  XX.  G,  23  ;  Deut.  xviii.  12  ;  Wisd.  xii.  4-6). 

So'rek  [a  choice  vine]. 

A  valley  in  which  Delilah,  lived  (Judg. 
xvi.  4).  It  is  doubtless  the  wady  es-Surar, 
which  commences  about  13  miles  west, 
slightl,v  south,  of  .Terusalem,  and  pursues  a 
tortuous  course  in  a  northwesterly  direction 
toward  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  It  is  ti^avei'sed 
by  a  stream  which  falls  into  the  sea  about  8i 


1 


Sosipater 


ro3 


Soiil 


miles  south  of  Joppa.  The  name  Surik  is 
still  borne  by  a  ruin  north  of  the  valley,  2 
miles  from    Zorah,   Samson's  birtbjilaee. 

So-sip'a-ter  [saviour  of  a  father]. 

A  Christian  who  joined  with  Paul  in  send- 
ing; salutations  (Eom.  xvi.  21). 

Sos'the-nes  [of  sound  strength]. 

A  ruler  of  the  Jewish  synagogue  at  Corinth 
when  Paul  was  there.  In  the  outbreak  which 
Paul's  preaching  excited,  the  riotous  Jews 
seized  Sosthenes  and  beat  him  before  the 
judgment  seat  of  Gallio  (Acts  xviii.  17). 
Sosthenes  was  associated  with  Paul  as  a 
brother  Christian  in  the  address  to  the  Corin- 
thians (1  Cor.  i.  1). 

So'tai  [deviator]. 

One  of  the  class  known  as  Solomon's  serv- 
ants. He  founded  a  family,  members  of 
which  returned  with  Zerubbabel  from  cap- 
tivity (Ezra  ii.  55  ;  Neh.  vii.  57). 

Soul. 

In  ordinary  English  usage,  a  spirit  is  an 
immaterial,  incorporeal  being,  which  may  or 
may  not  be  associated  with  a  body,  as  "  God  is 
a  Spirit,"  "My .spirit  hath  rejoiced  in  God  my 
Saviour"  (John  iv.  24  ;  Luke  i.  47)  ;  a  soul  is 
a  spirit  that  is  or  at  least  has  been  embodied, 
as  the  souls  of  them  that  had  been  slain 
(Kev.  vi.  9);  and  a  ghost  is  a  disembodied 
spirit. 

Theologians  entertain  two  main  views  as 
to  the  soul,  and  consequently  as  to  the  nature 
of  man  and  irrational  animals.  One  is  em- 
braced under  the  doctrine  of  trichotomy. 
Trichotomists  diflTer  considerably  among 
themselves  :  but  according  to  the  doctrine, 
in  its  general  outlines,  man  consists  of  three 
parts  or  essential  elements,  body,  soul,  and 
spirit  (1  Thes.  v.  23).  The  body 'is  the  ma- 
terial part  of  man's  constitution.  The  soul, 
in  Hebrew  nephesh,  in  Greek  jisnrhe,  is  the 
principle  of  animal  life  :  man  possesses  it  in 
common  with  the  brutes  ;  to  it  belong  under- 
standing, emotion,  and  sensibility,  and  it 
ceases  to  exist  at  death.  The  spirit,  in  He- 
brew nw?!,  in  Greek  jjHp;(m«,  is  the  mind,  the 
principle  of  man's  rational  and  immortal  life, 
the  pcssessor  of  reason,  will,  and  conscience. 
God  created  man  by  enlivening  inorganic 
matter  formed  into  a  body,  and  then  creating 
a  rational  .spirit  and  infusing  it  (Gen.  ii.  7), 
and  at  death  the  dust  or  body  returns  to  the 
earth  as  it  was,  and  the  spirit  returns  unto 
God  who  gave  it  (Ecc.  xii.  7).  The  soul  of 
life,  in  Hebrew  nephesh  hayyah,  in  the  in- 
stance of  the  animal  (Gen.  i.  21.  24)  is  only 
the  animal  soul,  which  is  physical  and  ma- 
terial in  its  nature,  and  perishes  with  the 
body  of  which  it  is  the  vital  principle :  but 
the  sfiul  of  life  in  the  instance  of  man  (ii.  7) 
is  a  higher  principle,  the  rational  soul,  which 
was  inbreathed  by  the  Creator  and  made  in 
his  image.  Usually  the  biblical  writers  do 
not  distinguish  the  pfvche  or  animal  soul, 
which  is  the  lower  side  of  the  human  soul, 
from  the  pneuma  or  rational  soul,  the  higher 


side,  since  they  constitute  one  soul,  pmch'c,  in 
distinction  from  the  body,  and  they  are  some- 
times designated  in  their  unity  by  jmeumn, 
and  sometimes  by  psuchc.  Commonly  the 
sacred  writers  speak  of  man  as  constituted 
of  body  and  soul,  or  body  and  spirit,  and 
not  of  body,  soul,  and  spirit ;  ])Ut  in  1  Cor. 
XV.  44,  as  in  1  Thes.  v.  23  and  Hcb.  iv.  12, 
Paul  requires  the  distinction  between  the 
animal  and  the  rational  soul  for  the  purjjoses 
of  his  discussion,  and  he  accordingly  makes 
it. 

According  to  dichotomy,  on  the  other  hand, 
there  are  only  two  essential  elements  in  the 
constitution  of  man  :  the  body  formed  from 
the  dust  of  the  earth,  and  the  soul  or  prin- 
ciple of  life  (Gen.  ii.  7).  The  soul  is  the 
principle  of  the  whole  life  of  whatever  sub- 
ject is  spoken  of,  whether  man  or  beast.  It 
is  the  princijile  of  all  life,  physical,  intel- 
lectual, moral,  religious.  There  is  not  one 
substance,  the  soul,  which  feels  and  remem- 
bers, and  another  substance,  the  spirit,  that 
has  conscience  and  the  knowledge  of  God. 
The  soul  of  the  brute  is  the  living  principle 
in  the  brute :  it  is  conscious  of  the  impres- 
sions which  are  made  by  external  objects  on 
the  organs  of  sense  belonging  to  the  body ;  it 
is  endowed  with  that  measure  of  intelligence 
which  experience  shows  the  lower  animals 
to  possess,  but  it  is  irrational  and  mortal. 
Brutes  perish  because  God  does  not  will  that 
the  living  principle  in  them  should  contiinie. 
The  soul  of  man  is  the  same  in  kind  with 
that  of  the  brute,  but  it  differs  in  being  of  a 
higher  order :  in  addition  to  the  attributes 
of  sensibility,  memory,  and  instinct,  it  has 
the  higher  powers  which  pertain  to  the  in- 
tellectual, moral,  and  religious  life,  and  it 
has  continued  existence  after  the  death  of 
the  body,  not  because  of  its  inherent  nature, 
but  because  God  wills  to  preserve  it.  It  is 
argued  from  the  usage  of  words  in  Scripture 
in  defense  of  this  dualism  that  1.  Soul  of 
life,  vephenh  hnyyah,  means  sim])ly  animate 
existence,  a  being  in  which  there  is  a  living 
soul,  and  there  is  no  authority  to  make  it 
mean  one  thing  in  the  case  of  a  brute  and 
(|uite  another  thing  in  the  case  of  a  man.  2. 
The  Bible  does  not  ascribe  to  beasts  a  psvche 
only,  and  both  a  psnchc  and  pneuma  to  man. 
The  living  principle  in  brutes  is  called  spirit, 
»•»«//,  as  well  as  soul.  H<>/^/(e.s7(,  psnche.  '"WhO' 
knoweth  the  spirit  of  man  whether  it  goeth 
upward,  and  the  spirit  of  the  beast  whether 
it  goeth  downward  to  the  earth?"  (Ecc.  iii. 
21 ;  cp.  19,  R.  V.  margin  ;  Gen.  vii.  15).  3. 
No  distinction  is  observed  in  the  use  of  the 
words  soul  and  spirit.  The  souls  of  them 
that  were  slain  for  the  word  of  God  are  in 
heaven  (Rev.  vi.  9  ;  xx.  4),  and  likewise  the 
spirits  of  just  men  made  perfect  (Heb.  xii. 
23). 

Trichotomists  quote  1  Thes.  v.  23 :  "The  God 
of  peace  himself  sanctify  you  wholly  :  and  may 
your  spirit  and  soul  and  body  be  preserved 
entire,  without  blame  at  the  coming  of  our 


Soul 


704 


Sparrow 


1 


Lord  Jesus  Christ"  (cp.  Heb.  iv.  12),  as  evi- 
dence that  Paul  distinguishes  the  animal 
soul  from  the  rational  spirit.  But  dichoto- 
mists  reply  that  Paul's  language  is  quite 
analogous  to  that  emploj'ed  in  the  command, 
"Thou  shalt  love  the  Lord  thy  God  with  all 
thy  heart,  and  with  all  thy  soul,  and  with 
all  thy  mind,  and  with  all  thy  strength " 
(Mark  xii.  30  ;  cp.  Luke  i.  46,  47).  The  in- 
tention in  the  demand  for  love,  and  in  the 
prayer  for  preservation,  is  simply  to  lay 
stress  on  the  whole  man,  and  the  description 
is  accordingly  plethoric.  As  heart,  soul, 
strength,  and  mind  are  not  so  many  essential 
elements  in  man's  constitution,  so  there  is 
no  proof  that  body,  soul,  and  spirit  are.  The 
main  passage  relied  upon  to  sujjport  the  tri- 
chotomist  position  is  1  Cor.  xv.  44 :  "  It  is 
sown  a  natural  body ;  it  is  raised  a  spiritual 
body.  If  there  is  a  natural  body,  there  is 
also  a  spiritual  body."  Trichotomists  inter- 
pret the  soma  pmchihon  or  natural  body  as 
one  marked  by  the  qualities  of  the  psuche  or 
animal  soul ;  namely,  by  physical  appetites 
and  passions,  such  as  hunger,  thirst,  and 
sexual  appetite.  These  are  founded  in  "flesh 
and  blood,"  or  that  material  substance  of 
which  the  present  human  body  is  composed. 
The  resurrection,  or  spiritual  body,  on  the 
other  hand,  will  be  marked  by  the  qualities 
of  the  pneuma  or  rational  soul.  It  will  not 
be  composed  of  flesh  and  blood,  but  of  a  sub- 
stance which  is  more  like  the  rational  than 
the  animal  soul.  There  is,  however,  another 
interpretation,  not  only  in  harmony  with 
the  doctrine  of  the  dual  constitution  of  man, 
but  in  accord  with  the  general  usage  of  the 
words  psuchihos  and  pneximatikos,  natural  and 
spiritual.  The  resurrection  body  of  the  re- 
deemed will  not  be  marked  by  the  qualities 
of  ordinary  animal  life,  right  and  proper 
though  that  life  is,  but  the  resurrection  body 
will  be  opposed  to  everything  carnal,  and 
will  be  characterized  by  the  qualities  which 
belong  to  the  Spirit-led  man.  This  appears 
from  a  study  of  the  words.  In  establi-shed 
usage  among  the  Greeks  psuche  was  the  com- 
mon word  for  the  vital  principle ;  which, 
however,  might  be  thought  of  as  a  disem- 
bodied soul,  the  immortal  part  of  man,  and 
the  organ  of  thought  and  judgment  (Herod, 
ii.  123;  v.  124;  Plato,  Tim.  x.,  i.  e.,  p.  30''), 
hence  2i^f^<^h'kos  referred  primarily  to  the 
ordinary  animal  life,  and  is  so  used  by 
Paul,  James,  and  Jude  (1  Cor.  ii.  14 ;  Jas. 
iii.  15  ;  Jude  19).  Pneumatikos,  on  the 
other  hand,  almost  exclusively  has  refer- 
ence in  Scripture  to  the  Pneuma  'agion,  the 
Holy  Spirit.  It  is  opposed  to  carnal  and 
fleshly,  to  human  nature  deprived  of  the 
Spirit  of  God;  it  refers  to  possession  and 
control  by  the  Holy  Spirit  as  contrasted  with 
the  domination  of  the  flesh  (1  Cor.  iii.  1)  ;  it 
denotes  what  is  eff'ected  by  the  Spirit  and 
pertains  to  the  Spirit  (Eom.  i.  11  ;  1  Cor.  ii. 
13 :  xii.  1).  Hence  a  spiritual  body,  con- 
trasted with  a  natural  body,  is  a  body  not 


only  free  from  fleshly  lusts,  but  elevated 
above  the  physical  passions  and  appetites 
which  are  natural  to  man  (Mat.  xxii.  30),  in 
vital  union  with  the  Spirit  of  God,  and 
marked  by  the  qualities  which  characterize 
the  Spirit-led  man. 

South  Ra'moth.     See  Eamah  6. 

Sow.     See  Swine. 

Sow'er  and  Sow'ing. 

Sowing  began  with  the  rain  of  October; 
see  Year.  The  seed  was  required  to  be 
ceremonially  clean  (Lev.  xi.  37,  38).  The 
sower  held  the  vessel  containing  the  seed  in 
the  left  hand,  and  scattered  the  seed  with 
his  right ;  see  illustration,  article  Plow. 
When  the  soil  was  favorable,  he  seems  some- 
times to  have  cast  in  front  of  the  plow,  which 
then  served  the  purpose  of  a  harrow  to  cover 
the  seed.  Wheat  was  best  sown,  it  was 
thought,  in  rows  (Is.  xxviii.  25,  E.  V.).  The 
sowing  of  mixed  seed  was  forbidden  (Lev. 
xix.  19  ;  Deut.  xxii.  9),  as  being  contrary  to 
nature  as  established  by  the  Creator ;  but  the 
planting  of  several  kinds  of  seeds  in  difierent 
sections  of  the  same  field  was  permitted. 

Spain. 

The  well-known  country  in  the  south- 
western portion  of  Europe.  Its  mines  yielded 
gold  and  silver  (1  Mac.  viii.  3).  Paul  desired 
to  visit  it  (Eom.  xv.  24, 28),  but  it  is  unknown 
whether  or  not  he  was  able  to  carry  out  his 
intention.     See  Takshish. 

Spar'row. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Sippor, 
chirper,  in  Ps.  Ixxxiv.  3;  cii.  7;  and  E.  Y. 
of  Prov.  xxvi.  2.  The  word  is  more  fre- 
quently translated  bird  ;  in  fact,  it  is  often 
employed  as  a  general  term  for  bird  or  fowl 
(Ps.  viii.  8;  cxlviii.  10;  Ezek.  xvii.  23).  It 
may  be  a  bird  of  prey  (Jer.  xii.  9;  Ezek. 
xxxix.  17),  such  as  the  raven  and  crow, 
which  are  passerine  birds,  although  they 
feed  on  carrion ;  or  it  may  be  a  bird  cere- 
monially clean,  and  large  enough  to  be  eaten 
as  food  (Lev.  xiv.  4;  Neh.  v.  18).  It  may 
live  in  the  mountains  or  in  the  town  (Ps.  xi. 
1 ;  Ixxxiv.  3),  and  may  build  its  nest  in  trees 
or  on  the  ground  or  about  human  habita- 
tions (Deut.  xxii.  6;  Ps.  Ixxxiv.  3).  The 
term  includes  doves  and  pigeons  (Gen.  xv.  9, 
10),  and  the  etymology  indicates  that  in  the 
first  instance  it  designates  chirping  birds, 
like  the  sparrow  and  the  finch. 

In  the  N.  T.  sparrow  is  the  rendering  of 
the  Greek  Strouthioii,  which  denotes  any 
small  bird,  especially  one  of  the  sparrow 
kind.  It  was  sold  and  eaten  (Mat.  x.  29 ; 
Luke  xii.  6,  7). 

The  house  sparrow  (Passer  domesticus), 
familiarly  known  as  the  English  sparrow,  is 
found  through  Europe,  northern  Africa,  and 
western  Asia,  and  is  common  in  the  coast 
towns  of  Palestine.  Two  .species  of  southern 
Europe,  closely  allied  to  it,  the  Italian  spar- 
row  (Passer  italix)  and  the  marsh  sparrow 


Spartans 


ro5 


Spikenard 


(Passer  hispaniolens-is),  also  occur,  the  latter 
cliicfly  iu  the  Jordan  valley,  where  it  breeds 
in  vast  numbers  in  the  thorn  trees.  The 
tree  sparrow  (Passer  montanits)  is  a  near  rela- 
tive of  the  house  sparrow,  and  perhaps  in 
Palestine  should  not  be  separated  from  it; 
but  the  sparrows  which  frequent  the  sacred 
precincts  on  the  temple  hill  and  arc  common 
on  the  mount  of  Olives  have  sometimes  been 
spoken  of  by  writers  of  authority  as  tree 
sparrows.  Another  sparrow  {Passer  moabit- 
icKs)  is  found  iu  the  vicinity  of  the  Dead 
Sea,  but  is  rare.  The  rock  or  foolish  sparrow 
{Petroiiia  stuUa)  is  common  on  the  central 
ridge  of  Palestine.  It  never  resorts  to  in- 
habited dwellings.  Thomson  says  that  a 
sparrow  which  has  lost  its  mate  is  often  seen 
sitting  alone  on  the  housetop,  lamenting  its 
ftite  (cp.  Ps.  cii.  7).  Tristram  is  inclined  to 
see  in  this  passage  a  reference  to  the  blue 
thrush  {Monticola  cyanus),  a  solitary  bird 
which  perches  on  the  housetop,  uttering 
meanwhile  a  monotonous  and  plaintive  note. 

Spar 'tans. 

Inhabitants  of  the  celebrated  city  of 
Sparta  in  Greece.  It  was  known  also  as 
Lacedaemon.  Jonathan  Maccabaeus  refers  to 
an  ancient  friendship  which  existed  between 
the  Spartans  and  the  Jews  in  the  days  of 
king  Arius  and  the  high  priest  Onias,  about 
300  B.  c.  (1  Mac.  xii.  7,  19-23  ;  in  A.  V.  Lace- 
demonians) ;  and  he  sent  letters  to  them, 
when  he  sent  an  embassy  to  Eome,  to  renew 
the  friendship  with  them  (2,  5).  Jonathan 
did  not  live  to  hear  their  answer,  but  Simon 
received  cordial  letters  from  them  (xiv.  16, 
20-23). 

Spear. 

The  spear,  called  in  Hebrew  k'nith,  con- 
sisted of  a  metallic  head  on  a  shaft  (1  Sam. 
xiii.  19;  xvii.  7;  Is.  ii.  4).  It  could  be  car- 
ried in  the  hand  ;  stuck  in  the  ground  when 
not  wanted  ;  and  though  used  for  thrusting, 
could  be  hurled  (1  Sam.  xviii.  10,  in  A.  V. 
javelin;  xxvi.  7,  8;  2  Sam.  ii.  23;  John  xix. 
34). 

A  long  spear,  the  Arab  rumh,  was  used 
{Judg.  V.  8;  1  Chron.  xii.  8,  24  ;  Neh.  iv.  13; 
.ler.  xlvi.  4).  It  was  called  romah  by  the 
Hebrews,  and  was  used  for  thrusting  (Num. 
XXV.  7.  8,  E.  v.),  not  for  throwing.  In  E.  V., 
it  is  once  rendered  lance  (1  Kin.  xviii.  28), 
in  A.  V.  of  1611  lancer,  later  corrupted  into 
lancet. 

Spear'men. 

The  rendering  of  the  Greek  Dexiolabos  or, 
as  in  the  Alexandrian  manuscript,  Deiioholos 
in  Acts  xxiii.  23,  a  body  of  troops  distin- 
guished from  the  legionary  soldiers  and  the 
cavalry.  In  the  only  other  passage  where 
the  word  occurs,  which  is  late,  they  are 
distinguished  from  archers  and  targeteers. 
Evidently  they  were  light-armed  soldiers 
who  carried  a  weapon  in  the  right  hand. 

Spelt. 

The  revised  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Kiia- 
45 


semeth  (Ex.  ix.  32  and  Is.  xxviii.  25,  in  A.  V. 
rje  ;  Ezek.  iv.  9,  in  A.  V.  fitches).  Spelt  is 
an  inferior  kind  of  wheat,  the  chaft"  of 
which  slightly  adheres  to  the  grain.  It  was 
sown  in  Egyi)t,  springing  up  after  the  barley 
(Ex.  ix.  .32).  The  Egy])tians  made  their 
bread  of  it  (Herod,  ii.  36,  77).  Eye  is  a 
northern  plant,  and  is  not  grown  in  Egypt 
and  Palestine. 
Spice. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Bnsem  and 
its  plural  B'sanvim,  which  are  used  generically 
for  fragrant  stufl',  spice,  spicery  (Ex.  xxv.  6 
with  XXX.  23,  24;  1  Kin.  x.  10;  Song  iv.  10, 
14).  Spice  is  a  vegetable  substance  possess- 
ing aromatic  and  pungent  qualities  (Song  iv. 
16).  The  chief  spices  were  myrrh,  cinna- 
mon, calamus,  and  cassia  or  costus  (Ex.  xxx. 
23,  24).  Southern  Arabia  was  the  great,  but 
not  exclusive,  producer  of  them  (1  Kin.  x.  2 ; 
Ezek.  xxvii.  22).  Bosem  in  Song  v.  13  ;  vi. 
2,  and  hasam  in  v.  1,  are  probably  applied 
specifically  to  balsam  or  balm  of  Gilead  (E. 
V.  margin). 

2.  N'ko'th  (Gen.  xxxvii.  25;  xliii.  11)  is 
probably  a  specific  term  for  tragacanth  or 
storax  (E.  Y.  margin).  A  form  of  this  word 
is  perhaps  used  in  2  Kin.  xx.  13 ;  Is.  xxxix. 
2  for  spices  in  general. 

3.  Sammim,  fragrant  odors,  were  aromatic 
substances  used  in  the  preparation  of  incense 
(Ex.  xxx.  7).  Three  are  specified  :  stacte  or 
opobalsamum,  ouycha,  and  galbanum  (34). 

4.  The  rendering  of  the  Greek  Aroma,  a 
generic  term  (Mark  xvi.  1),  including  myrrh 
and  aloes  (John  xix.  40). 

Spice  Mer'chant. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Eol-el  in  1 
Kin.  X.  15.  It  means  simply,  as  the  E.  V. 
makes  it,  a  merchant ;  and  A.  V.  renders  it 
so  elsewhere,  e.  g.  Ezek.  xxvii.  13. 

Spi'der. 

An  animal  of  the  class  Arachnida,  called 
in  Hebrew  'ahkabish.  It  weaves  a  web  (Job 
viii.  14  ;  Is.  lix.  5).  The  number  of  species 
in  Palestine  amounts  to  600  or  700.  In 
A.  V.  spider  is  the  rendering  of  the  Hebrew 
S'viamifh,  poisonous  thing  (Prov.  xxx.  28,  in 
E.  V.  lizard). 

Spike'nard. 

A  fragrant  jdant,  in  Hebrew  nerd  (Song  iv. 
13,  14),  from  which  an  aromatic  ointment 
was  made,  called  nardos  in  Greek  (Mark  xiv. 
3).  It  is  believed  to  be  Nardostachys  jnta- 
mansi.  a  plant  with  very  fragrant  roots, 
growing  in  the  Himalava  Jlountains.  at  an 
elevation  of  11.000  to  17,000  feet.  It  was 
u.sed  by  the  Hindus  as  a  medicine  and  per- 
fume from  remote  antiquity,  and  was  early 
an  article  of  commerce.  The  long  distance 
which  it  had  to  be  brought  to  Palestine  ren- 
dered it  on  its  arrival  very  precious.  The 
alabaster  cruse  of  it,  which  was  poured  over 
the  head  of  Jesus,  was  worth  .300  denarii 
(Mark  xiv.  3, 5).  According  to  Pliny,  the  oint- 
ment varied  in  price  from  25  to  300  and  even 


Spinning 


706 


Star 


400  denarii  a  pound,  according  to  the  quality 
(Hist.  Nat.  xii.  26;  xiii.  2,  4).  In  Mark  xiv. 
3 ;  John  xii.  3  (see  E.  V.  margin),  the  spike- 
nard  is  described   by  the   Greek   adjective 


the  gum  of  the  storax  tree,  or  else  opobal- 
samum  (R.  V.  margin). 

The  storax  (Styrax  officinalis)  is  a  resinous 
shrub  or  small  tree,  from  10  to  20  feet  high, 


'^^-f^m 


Spilcenard  {Xardastachys  Jatamansi). 


pistilcos,  a  variant  of  pistos,  genuine,  or  of 
pistos,  liquid.  Some  interpreters,  however, 
think  that  the  adjective  denotes  the  place 
where  this  variety  was  obtained. 

Spin'ning. 

Spinning  was  the  work  of  the  women  (Ex. 
XXXV.  25).  The  wheel  was  unknown,  and 
spinning  was  done  by  hand.  Distaff  and 
spindle  were  used  (Prov.  xxxi.  19).  The 
flax  or  wool  was  wound  on  the  distaff,  which 
was  held  under  the  arm  or  stuck  upright  in 
the  ground,  and  the  thread  was  drawn  out 
by  hand.  To  the  end  of  this  thread  the 
spindle,  with  a  circular  rim  to  .steady  it 
when  revolving,  was  attached  and  by  rotating 
it  the  spinner  twisted  the  thread.  See  illus- 
tration, article  Weaving. 

Spir'it.     See  Soul  and  Holy  Ghost. 

Spring.     See  Fountain. 

Sta'chys  [an  ear  of  grain]. 

A  Christian  at  Rome  to  whom  the  apostle 
Paul  sent  a  salutation  (Rom.  xvi.  9). 

Stac'te. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Kaiaph,  a 
drop.  It  denotes  a  sweet  spice,  which  was 
u.sed  for  incense  (Ex.  xxx.  34;  cp.  Ecclus. 
xxiv.  15).  The  Septuagint  interprets  nataph 
by  stakte,  which  likewise  signifies  a  drop  or 
exudation,  and  was  emjdoyed  for  the  oil 
which  trickles  from  fresh  myrrh  or  cinna- 
mon.    It  is  believed,  however,  that  iiataph  is 


Stacte  (Slyrax  officinalis). 

with  flowers  resembling  those  of  the  orange 
in  color,  size,  and  fragrance,  and  mostly 
growing  in  spikes  of  four  or  five.  The  tree 
is  very  showy  when  in  bloom.  It  is  native 
in  Asia  Minor  and  Syria,  and  abounds  in 
Galilee.  The  officinal  storax  is  the  inspis- 
sated juice  of  the  bark  ;  it  is  used  medici- 
nally as  an  expectorant,  and  also  in  per- 
fumery. The  liquid  storax  of  commerce  is 
the  product  of  an  entirely  difierent  plant. 

Opobalsamum  (R.  V.  margin)  is  a  resinous 
juice,  also  called  balm  and  balm  of  Gilead 
(q.  v.). 

Star. 

The  number  of  the  stars  and  their  grouping 
in  constellations  early  attracted  man's  atten- 
tion (Gen.  xxii.  17;  Is.  xiii.  10).  Orion, 
Pleiades,  the  Bear,  the  zodiac  were  pointed 
out  (Job  is.  9;  xxxviii.  31,  32),  planets  were 
known  and  named  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  5 ;  see 
Babylonia,  Chiun,  Lucifkr),  perhaps 
meteors  or  comets  are  referred  to  (Jude  13), 
the  position  of  certain  stars  served  as  dates 
(Antiq.  xiii.  8,  2),  and  in  Egypt  the  succes- 
sive rising  of  thirty-six  constellations  marked 
off  an  equal  number  of  ten-day  periods  in 
the  year  ;  see  Week.  The  stars  were  recog- 
nized in  Israel  as  the  handiwork  of  God 
(Gen.  i.  16  ;  Ps.  viii.  3),  and  as  under  his 
control  (Is.  xiii.  10;  Jer.  xxxi.  35). 


star 


707 


Stephen 


But  among  tlie  lieathen  and  the  degenerate 
Israelites  the  stars  became  objects  of  wor- 
ship (Dent.  iv.  lit;  2  Kin.  xvii.  16);  altars 
were  reared,  and  incense  was  burnt  to  them 
(xxi.  5;  xxiii.  5).  They  were  believed  to 
exercise  influence,  not  only  in  the  ordinary 
economy  of  nature  (cp.  Job  xxxviii.  81,  A. 
v.),  but  also  over  the  affairs  of  men.  This 
belief  was  widespread  among  the  heathen. 
Deborah  may  perha])s  be  subsidizing  a  phrase 
of  current  speech,  in  which  a  reminiscence 
of  heathen  notions  lingers,  when  she  poeti- 
cally describes  the  stars  from  their  courses 
fighting  against  Sisera  (Judg.  v.  20)  ;  but 
Bertheau  is  probably  correct  in  understand- 
ing her  to  speak  poetically  of  divine  assist- 
ance (iv.  15),  as  if  heaven  or,  to  use  her  own 
words,  as  if  the  stars,  forsaking  their  usual 
orbits,  had  fought  against  Sisera  (cp.  Ps. 
xviii.  9).  A  reference  has  also  been  seen  in 
her  words  to  a  providential  storm  which  dis- 
comfited the  Canaanites;  and  ver.  21  and 
.Tosephus  (Anti(i.  v.  5,  4)  are  cited  in  con- 
firmation: but  Josephus  probably  deduces 
this  storm  from  the  analogy  of  Josh.  x.  10, 
11  and  1  Sam.  vii.  10.  The  stars  were  also 
supposed  by  the  heathen  to  portend  coming 
events,  and  they  were  observed  with  a  view 
to  prognostication  (Is.  xlvii.  13).  See  As- 
trologers. J.  D.  D. 

Several  stars  mentioned  in  the  N.  T.  re- 
quire particular  notice  : 

1.  The  day-star  (2  Pet.  i.  19)  is  probably  a 
figurative  description  of  the  signs  immedi- 
ately preceding  the  second  advent.  Others 
understand  it  as  the  Spirit's  illumination  of 
the  believer's  heart. 

2.  The  morning  star  (Eev.  ii.  28)  :  the 
bright,  the  morning  star  (xxii.  16.  K.  Y.). 
Both  these  phrases  are  probably  designations 
of  Christ  as  the  herald  to  his  people  of  the 
eternal  day.     See  Lucifer. 

3.  The  star  of  the  wise  men  ;  see  Magi. 
The  usual  view  has  been  that  this  was  a 
purely  supernatural  phenomenon,  a  starlike 
object  which  appeared  to  the  Magi  in  their 
eastern  sky,  and  suggested  to  them,  perhaps 
through  their  acquaintance  with  the  proph- 
ecy of  Balaam  (Num.  xxiv.  17)  or  other  pre- 
dictions, that  the  king  of  the  Jews  was  born, 
and  which  afterwards  reai»peared,  as  they 
journeyed  from  Jerusalem  to  Bethlehem,  and 
guided  them  on  their  way  until  it  rested  over 
the  house  in  which  Jesus  was.  Others,  how- 
ever, consider  it  a  natural  phenomenon  provi- 
dentially used  to  direct  the  Magi.  In  Dec, 
1603,  the  astronomer  Kepler  noted  a  con- 
junction of  Jupiter  and  Saturn,  joined  in 
March,  1604,  by  Mars,  and  in  Oct.,  1604,  by 
a  brilliant  new  star,  which  gradually  faded 
and  vanished  in  Feb.,  1606.  Kepler  calcu- 
lated that  the  planets  were  in  coiij unction  in 
7  and  6  b.  c,  and,  supposing  that  the  new 
or  variable  star  had  followed  the  conjunction 
then  as  it  did  in  1604,  believed  it  to  be  the 
star  of  the  Magi.  Otliers  have  identified  the 
Magi's  star  with  the  planetary  conjunction 


itself,  and  the  calculations  of  Kepler  have 
been  corrected  by  Ideler,  Pritchard,  and 
Encke,  with  the  result  that  we  know  that  in 
7  B.  c.  there  were  three  conjunctions  of 
Jupiter  and  Saturn,  in  May,  September,  and 
December.  Hence,  it  has  been  supposed  that 
the  Magi  saw  the  heavenly  spectacle  in  May  ; 
connected  it,  through  their  astrology  and 
knowledge  of  Hebrew  projihecy  and  expecta- 
tion, with  the  birth  of  a  Jewish  king;  and, 
when  going  from  Jerusalem  to  Bethlehem  in 
December,  saw  again  the  conjunction  over- 
head. Butthe  word  star  can  hardly  mean  a  con- 
junction, and  this  view  would  i)lace  Christ's 
birth  earlier  than  other  considerations  war- 
rant. If  we  can  believe  that  Kepler's  variable 
star  followed  the  conjunction,  as  he  supposed, 
it  would  answer  the  conditions  better  than 
the  conjunction  itself.  It  is  on  some  accounts 
more  probable  that  the  event  was  a  natural 
rather  than  a  supernatural  phenomenon.  The 
Magi  were  doubtless  astrologers,  and  would 
attach  special  ideas  to  the  positions  and  vari- 
ations of  the  stars.  The  star  did  not  go  be- 
fore them  to  Judsea,  but  only,  after  its  reap- 
pearance, did  it  seem  to  lead  them  from  Je- 
rusalem to  Bethlehem.  On  the  other  hand, 
many  think  that  Mat.  ii.  9  cannot  fairly  be 
understood  (>{  anything  but  a  supernatural 
phenomenon  ;  nor  can  the  astronomical  cal- 
culations above  described  safely  be  held  to 
have  identified  the  star,  even  if  it  be  regarded 
as  a  natural  object.  g.  t.  p. 

Sta'ter.     See  Money. 

Steel. 

A  modified  form  of  iron,  resulting  in  elas- 
ticity and  hardness.  The  earliest  known  and 
simplest  method  of  reducing  iron  from  its 
ore  was  capable  of  yielding  steel.  The  Cha- 
lybes  in  Poutus  were  celebrated  for  hardening 
iron,  and  their  name  was  used  by  the  Greeks 
for  steel.  Steel  seems  to  have  been  u.sed  in 
ancient  Egypt.  Comparison  with  Syriac 
pal'da\  as  well  as  the  context,  suggests  that 
the  Hebrew  word  ]}  aid  ah  in  Nah.  ii.  3  means 
steel  (E.  v.,  in  A.  V.  torches). 

Where  steel  occurs  in  A.  V.,  brass  is  cor- 
rectly substituted  in  R.  V. 

Steph'a-nas  [crowned]. 

A  Christian  convert  at  Corinth.  Hishouse- 
hold  was  the  first  fruit  of  Paul's  labors  in  the 
province  of  Achaia.  The  apo.stle  himself 
baptized  its  members,  and  they  set  themselves 
to  minister  unto  the  saints.  Stephanas  also 
visited  the  apostle,  bringing  him  aid,  and 
was  with  him  when  the  First  Epistle  to  the 
Corinthians  was  penned  (1  Cor.  i.  16  ;  xvi. 
1.5,  17). 

Ste'phen  [a  wreath  or  crown]. 

The  first  Christian  martyr.  He  is  first 
mentioned  as  first  in  the  list  of  the  seven 
men  chosen  by  the  Jerusalem  Christians,  at 
the  suggestion  of  the  apostles,  to  superintend 
the  distribution  of  the  church's  alms  (Acts  vi. 
.5).  Since  the  ajjpointment  of  these  .seven 
men,  usually  regarded  as  the  first  deacons, 


Stephen 


708 


Stoics 


arose  from  the  complaints  made  by  the 
(Ireek-speakiiig  or  Hellenistic  Jewish  Chris- 
tians that  their  widows  were  neglected  in 
the  daily  ministration,  and  since  Stephen  is 
itself  a  Greek  name,  and  since  the  subsequent 
persecution  of  Stephen  arose  among  the 
Greek-speaking  Jews  of  Jerusalem,  it  is 
probable  that  Stephen  himself  was  a  Hellen- 
ist, and  perhaps  had  come  from  abroad.  He 
was  a  notable  man  ;  full  of  faith  and  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  (5),  who,  after  his  appointment, 
became  more  than  ever  conspicuous  as  a 
preacher  and  worker  of  miracles  (8).  His 
activity  occasioned  for  the  first  time  opx)o- 
sition  to  the  church  among  the  foreign 
Jews,  who  had  synagogues  in  Jerusalem. 
The  trouble  originated  particularly  in  the 
synagogue  of  the  Libertines  (or  freedmen) 
and  Oyrenians  and  Alexandrians,  with 
whom  united  certain  Jews  from  Cilicia 
and  Asia  (9).  These  charged  Stephen  with 
blaspheming  Moses  and  God,  and,  more  es- 
pecially, with  declaring  that  Jesus  would 
destroy  the  temple  and  change  the  customs 
derived  from  Mo.ses  (11-14).  Luke  states 
that  the  witnesses  produced  against  Stephen 
were  suborned  and  false,  as  those  against 
Christ  had  been ;  but  Stephen  must  have 
said  .something  which  could  be  thus  perverted. 
He  was  brought  before  the  sanhedrin,  and 
from  his  defense,  reported  in  Acts  vii.  2-53, 
we  can  understand  his  position.  He  first  re- 
cited God's  early  choice  and  guidance  of  the 
patriarchs  (2-22),  apparently  to  bring  out  the 
fact  that  God  from  the  beginning  had  been 
leading  Israel  to  a  definite  goal;  then,  con- 
tinuing the  history,  he  showed  that  the  He- 
brews had  repeatedly  resisted  God's  purpose 
with  them,  both  in  the  days  of  Moses  and 
sub.sequently  (23-43),  and  had  failed  to  see 
the  temporary  and  typical  character  of  both 
tabernacle  and  temple  (44-50).  Then,  sud- 
denly stopping  his  argument,  he  bitterly 
charged  them  with  resisting,  as  their  fathers 
had  done,  the  Holy  Ghost,  with  having 
slain  the  Christ  as  their  fathers  had  slain 
the  prophets,  and  with  failing  to  keep  in 
reality  their  own  law  (51-53).  At  this 
point  the  listeners  gnashed  upon  him  with 
their  teeth  and  prepared  to  rush  upon  him. 
A  vision  was  given  him  of  the  Son  of  man 
standing  (as  though  to  receive  him)  at  the 
right  hand  of  God ;  and,  when  he  declared 
it,  they  seized  him,  cast  him  out  of  the  city, 
and  stoned  him.  It  was  not  lawful  for  them 
to  put  anyone  to  death  without  permission 
from  the  Romans,  but  the  martyrdom  was 
evidently  the  result  of  an  uncontrollable  out- 
break. The  speech  and  death  of  Stephen 
mark  the  transition  of  Christianity  from  its 
earliest  Jewish  form  to  its  extension  among 
the  gentiles.  Peter  ]ircached  Christianity  as 
the  fulfillment  of  pr()i)hecv  ;  Stephen  preached 
it  as  the  goal  of  Hebrew  history.  Yet  while 
Stephen  declared  that  Christianity  could  not 
be  limited  by  Judai.sm,  he  did  not  set  forth, 
like  Paul  afterwards,  its  gentile  mission  or 


its  deliverance,  by  the  doctrine  of  salvation 
by  faith  alone,  from  its  Jewish  environment. 
He  marks,  therefore,  the  transition  from 
Jewish  to  gentile  Christianity.  Moreover, 
the  persecution  which  followed  his  martyr- 
dom led  to  the  di.spersion  of  the  disciples, 
and  so  in  fact  to  the  carrying  of  the  gospel 
to  the  Saniaritans  and  then  to  the  gentiles. 
Stephen's  personal  character  also  was  very 
beautiful.  A.s  a  man  he  was  "  full  of  faith 
and  of  the  Holy  Ghost "  { vi.  5) ;  as  a  preacher, 
"full  of  faith  and  power"  (8);  before  the 
council,  his  enemies  "  saw  his  face  as  it  had 
been  the  face  of  an  angel  "  (15)  ;  and  his  last 
words  were:  "  Lord,  lay  not  this  sin  to  their 
charge  "  (vii.  60). 

The  inspiration  of  Stephen,  so  far  as  his 
recorded  speech  is  concerned,  is  a  disputed 
question.  He  is  said  (vii.  55)  to  have  been 
"full  of  the  Holy  Ghost,"  but  some  of  his 
historical  statements  are  thought  by  many 
not  to  harmonize  with  the  O.  T.  Others  hold 
that  they  can  be  harmonized,  or  at  least 
might  be,  if  we  knew  all  the  facts.  Either 
view,  however,  can  be  adjusted  to  the  doc- 
trine of  the  inspiration  of  the  Bible,  since 
the  phrase  "full  of  the  Holy  Ghost"  need 
not  mean  "  inspired  "  in  the  technical  sense, 
and  since  the  inspiration  of  Luke  merely 
guarantees  the  correctness  of  his  report  of 
what  Stephen  said,  not  the  correctness  of 
Stephen's  utterances  themselves.      G.  t.  p. 

Stocks. 

An  instrument  of  punishment,  called  in 
Hebrew  sad,  consisting  of  a  wooden  frame, 
hence  called  xulon  in  Greek,  in  which  the 
feet  were  put  and  firmly  held  (Job  xiii.  27  ; 
xxxiii.  11;  Acts  xvi.  24).  The  prisoner  sat 
meanwhile.  A  special  form  of  the  apparatus, 
apparently,  was  called  in  Hebrew  mahpeketh, 
turning,  torsion,  because  the  body  was  forced 
into  an  unnatural  position  (2  Chron.  xvi.  10, 
R.  V.  margin ;  Jer.  xx.  2).  It  included 
shackles  or  rather  a  collar ;  at  least  these  could 
be  used  on  the  prisoner  at  the  same  time 
(xxix.  26,  R.  v.),  so  that  his  neck,  arms,  and 
legs  could  all  be  held  fast  together. 

Sto'ica  [Greek  stoikos,  i)ertaining  to  the 
porch] . 

A  sect  of  philosophers,  one  of  two  which 
Paul  encountered  at  Athens  (Acts  xvii.  18). 
Their  founder  was  Zeno  of  Citium  in  Cyprus, 
who  must  not  be  confounded  with  an  earlier 
philosopher,  Zeno  of  Elea,  in  Italy.  The 
Cyprian  Zeno  was  born,  it  is  believed,  be- 
tween 357  and  352  B.  c,  and  died  between 
263  and  259,  having  lived  little  short  of  a 
century.  Removing  from  his  native  place  to 
Athens,  he  taught  for  about  fifty-eight  years 
in  a  stoa,  or  porch,  on  the  public  market 
place.  His  doctrine  was  essentially  panthe- 
istic. The  Stoics  distinguished  matter  and 
force  as  the  ultimate  principles  in  the  uni- 
verse ;  and  the  force  working  everywhere 
they  called  reason,  providence,  God,  and  re- 
garded it  as  conscious  and  thinking,  yet  de- 


4 


stomacher 


ro9 


stone 


pendent  and  imjHTsonal,  a  breath  or  a  fire 
which  forms,  permeates,  and  vivifies  all 
things,  and  whieli  in  aeeordanee  with  inex- 
orable necessity  calls  beings  and  worlds  into 
existence  and  destroys  them  again,  so  that 
at  the  end  of  a  cosmical  jieriod  the  universe 
is  resolved  into  fire  in  a  general  cdnllagration, 
and  the  evolution  of  the  world  begins  again, 
and  so  on  without  end.  The  human  soul  is 
a  spark  or  emanation  of  this  conscious  but 
impersonal  deity.  It  survives  the  body,  but 
lives  only  for  a  cosmical  period,  and  is  reab- 
sorbed at  last  into  the  source  from  which  it 
came.  The  Stoics  classed  themselves  among 
the  followers  of  Socrates,  and  resembled  him 
in  their  theory  of  life.  They  rigidly  severed 
the  morally  good  from  the  agreeable.  They 
declared  that  an  act  is  good  or  evil  in  itself, 
and  that  pleasure  should  never  be  made  the 
end  of  an  action.  The  highest  good  is  virtue. 
Virtue  is  a  life  confoi-med  to  nature,  or  the 
agreement  of  human  conduct  with  the  law  of 
the  universe,  and  of  the  human  with  the  di- 
vine will ;  it  is  especially  resignation  in  respect 
to  fate.  The  cardinal  virtues  are  practical 
wisdom  as  to  what  is  good  and  evil,  courage, 
prudence  or  self-restraint,  and  justice.  Zeno 
encouraged  his  followers  to  hold  their  feel- 
ings in  rigid  control,  so  as  to  be  as  much  as 
possible  independent  of  all  disturbing  influ- 
ences, whatever  occurrences  might  take  place. 
Stoicism  made  noble  characters.  It  contin- 
ued as  a  power  for  about  400  years,  its  most 
eminent  professors  being  the  slave  Epictetus, 
the  philosopher  Seneca,  and  the  emperor  Mar- 
cus Aurelius. 

Stom'a-cher. 

A  part  of  dress,  once  worn  by  women, 
covering  the  pit  of  the  stomach  and  the 
breast,  and  often  highly  ornamented.  It  is 
the  rendering  adopted  in  Is.  iii.  24  of  the 
Hebrew  P'thigil,  applied  to  an  article  of 
female  attire.  The  meaning  of  the  Hebrew 
word  is  not  definitely  known. 

Stone. 

Palestine  is  a  stony  country,  and  it  was 
often  necessary  to  clear  a  field  of  stones 
preparatory  to  its  cultivation  {Is.  v.  2).  An 
enemy's  fields  were  marred  by  throwing 
stones  on  them,  and  his  wells  were  choked 
with  stones  (2  Kin.  iii.  19,  25).  Stones  were 
put  to  various  uses:  1.  For  the  foundations, 
walls,  pillars,  and  pavements  of  the  statelier 
class  of  buildings ;  see  Corner  Stone,  Mar- 
ble, Pal.\ce.  For  these  purposes  the  stone 
was  hewn  and  sawn.  The  Phoenicians  were 
famed  for  their  skill  in  this  work  (2  Sam.  v. 
11).  Stones  of  very  large  size  were  often 
employed  (Mark  xiii.  1) ;  see  Jerusalem. 
The  walls  of  cities  were  often  built  of  stone 
(1  Kin.  XV.  22),  and  in  Herodian  times  at 
least  streets  were  paved  with  stone ;  see 
Street.  Aqueducts,  reservoirs,  bridges,  and 
piers  were  constructed  of  stone.  2.  For 
altars,   unhewn   stones   being   employed   by 


the  Hebrews  (Ex.  xx.  2.");  Josh.  viii.  31),  for 
walls  or  dikes  around  (iehls  and  vineyards 
(Prov.  xxiv.  .'iO,  ;;i),  boundary  marks  (Deut. 
xix.  14),  pillars  commemorative  of  persons 
and  events  (see  I'illar;  cp.  Herod,  ii.  106), 
and  probably  as  way  marks  (Jer.  xxxi.  21). 
In  Koman  times  mile  stones  were  erected 
along  the  chief  public  highways.  They  are 
still  to  be  seen  on  the  road  between  Tyre 
and  Sidon,  and  between  Pella  and  (lerasa. 
Stones,  both  in  their  natural  state  and 
graven,  served  as  idols  (Deut.  xxix.  17;  2 
Kin.  xix.  18;  cp.  Is.  Ivii.  (j) ;  and  certain 
stones,  called  in  Greek  hnUidoi  and  bailidia, 
which  were  often,  if  not  always,  meteorites 
and  held  sacred  because  they  fell  from  heaven, 
have  been  worshiped  in  various  places 
throughout  western  Asia.  An  etymological 
connection  between  these  Greek  words  and 
beth  'el  has  not  been  established,  and  is  very 
questionable.  3.  For  clo.sing  the  mouth  of 
cisterns  and  wells,  and  the  entrance  of  tombs 
(Gen.  xxix.  2  ;  Mat.  xxvii.  60),  as  tablets  for 
written  documents  (Ex.  xxiv.  12  ;  Deut.  xxvii. 
4,   8),  in  mills  for  grinding  grain  (xxiv.  6). 

4.  In  slings  and  catapults  (1  Sam.  xvii.  40;  2 
Chron.  xxvi.  15;  Wisd.  v.  22;  1  Mac.  vi.  51), 
and  for  the  execution  of  criminals,  being 
hurled  by  the  witnesses  and  bystanders. 
Flints  were  used  for  striking  fire  (2  Mac.  x. 
3),  and  were  shaped  into  rude  form  to  serve 
as  knives  (Josh.  v.  2).  Weights  for  scales 
were  often  cut  out  of  stone  (Deut.  xxv.  13) ; 
see  Weights.  Heaps  of  stones  were  made 
to  commemorate  an  event  (Gen.  xxxi.  46)  or 
to  mark  the  grave  of  a  notorious  offender 
(Josh.  vii.  26;  viii.  29;  2  Sam.  xviii.  17).  a 
custom  still  in  v'ogue  in  Sj-ria  and  Arabia, 
but  not  restricted  to  the  graves  of  evildoers. 

5.  Limestone  was  crushed  and  burned  to 
secure  the  lime  (Is.  xxxiii.  12). 

The  white  stone  mentioned  in  Kev.  ii.  17 
has  been  variously  interpreted.  1.  One  of 
the  stone  tablets,  written  with  the  name  of  a 
person,  which  were  used  in  some  methods  of 
casting  the  lot.  2.  The  stone  or  bean,  bear- 
ing the  name  of  a  candidate,  which  was  cast 
at  elections  in  Greece.  3.  The  pebble  of 
acquittal  used  in  Greek  courts.  4.  The 
ticket  presented  to  the  victor  at  the  Olympic 
games.  5.  The  instructions  which  the  Roman 
emperors  caused  to  be  thrown  to  victorious 
contestants  in  the  arena.  And  best — 6.  A 
small  stone,  a  common  writing  material, 
white  to  symbolize  the  heavenly  character 
of  the  victorious  believer,  and  marked  with 
the  name  bestowed  as  .sign  and  seal  of  his 
future  glory. 

Figuratively  stone  denotes  hardness  or  in- 
sensibility (1  Sam.  xxv.  37  ;  Ezek.  xxxvi.  26), 
firmness  or  strength  (Job  vi.  12;  xli.  24).  A 
living  stone  is  a  stone  in  its  natural  condi- 
tion, sound  and  not  disintegrating.  The  fol- 
lowers of  Christ  are  living  stones  built  into 
the  spiritual  temple,  of  which  Christ  himself 
is  the  chief  cornerstone  (Eph.  ii.  20-22;  1 
Pet.  ii.  4-8). 


stones,  Precious 


710 


Stranger 


stones,  Pre'cious. 

All  tli(i  precious  stones  referred  to  in  tlie 
canonical  Scriptures,  except  three,  are  enu- 
merated in  R.  V.  of  Ex.  xxviii.  17-20  and 
Rev.  xxi.  11,  19-21,  text  and  margin.  The 
three  remaining  ones  are  adamant  (Ezek.  iii. 
9),  and  ligure  and  sardine  (Ex.  xxviii.  19; 
Rev.  iv.  3,  both  A.  V.),  and  of  these  at  least 
two  are  merely  other  names  for  two  of  those 
already  mentioned.  The  precious  stones  are 
adamant,  agate,  amber,  amethyst,  beryl,  car- 
buncle, chalcedony,  chrysolite,  chrysoprase 
or  chrysoprasus,  crystal,  diamond,  emerald, 
jacinth  or  hyacinth,  Jasper,  lapis  lazuli, 
ligure,  onyx,  pearl,  ruby,  sapphire,  sardius 
or  sardine,  sardonyx,  and  topaz.  Ornaments 
were  made  from  them ;  as  seal  rings.  See 
the  several  articles. 

Ston'ing. 

The  ordinary  mode  of  capital  punishment 
prescribed  by  Hebrew  law  (Lev.  xx.  2) ;  see 
Punishment.  It  was  an  ancient  method; 
and  it  was  not  confined  to  the  Hebrews,  but 
was  practiced  by  the  Macedonians  and  Per- 
sians as  well.  The  execution  took  place  out- 
side the  city  (Lev.  xxiv.  14 ;  1  Kin.  xxi.  10, 
1.3;  Acts  vii.  58).  The  witnesses  placed  their 
hands  on  the  head  of  the  criminal  in  token 
that  the  guilt  rested  on  him  (Lev.  xxiv.  14). 
They  laid  aside  any  clothing  that  might  im- 
pede them  in  their  solemn  duty  (Acts  vii'. 
58).  In  cases  of  idolatry,  and  apparently  in 
other  cases  also,  the  witne.sses  hurled  the 
first  stones  (Deut.'  xiii.  9 ;  xvii.  7 ;  cp.  John 
viii.  7  ;  Acts  vii.  58).  The  rabbins  state  that 
the  culprit  was  stripped  of  all  clothing  ex- 
cept a  cloth  about  the  loins,  and  was  thrown 
to  the  ground  from  a  scaflFold  about  10  feet 
high  by  the  first  witness,  the  first  stone  was 
cast  by  the  second  witness,  on  the  chest  over 
the  heart  of  the  criminal,  and  if  it  failed  to 
cause  death,  the  bystanders  completed  the 
execution.  Sometimes  the  body  was  after- 
wards suspended  until  sundown  or  burnt 
(Deut.  xxi.  23;  Josh.  vii.  25;  Antiq.  iv.  8, 
24),  and  according  to  late  Jewish  law  was 
not  buried  in  the  family  grave. 

Stool,  in  R.  V.  Birth'stool. 

A  chair  of  peculiar  form,  upon  which  the 
patient  sat  during  parturition.  It  was  de- 
nominated 'obnayim,  double  stones,  by  the 
Hebrews  (Ex.  i.  16),  on  account  of  its  like- 
ness to  the  potter's  wheel.  It  is  called  kursee 
el-wiladeh  by  the  modern  Egyptians. 

Stork. 

A  bird  called  in  Hebrew  Jfsidah,  affection- 
ate, on  account  of  its  love  for  its  young.  It 
was  ceremonially  unclean  (Lev.  xi.  19;  Deut. 
xiv.  18).  It  dwelt  in  fir  trees  (Ps.  civ.  17), 
but  was  a  migratory  bird  (Jer.  viii.  7).  It  is 
the  Ciconia  alba,  a  white  heron-like  bird, 
which  s]>ends  its  winter  in  central  and  south- 
ern Africa,  but  in  spring  visits  continen- 
tal Europe,  Palestine,  and  northern  Syria  in 
large  numbers.  It  is  about  4  feet  high,  with 
bright  red  bill  and  legs,  white  plumage,  and 


glossy  black  wings.  It  feeds  on  frogs  and 
small  reptiles  ;  but  failing  to  get  these  it  eats 
offal,  and  hence  was  ceremonially  unclean. 
It  is  regarded  as  a  sacred  bird,  and  in  most 


places  is  unmolested,  so  that  it  has  no  .scrujjle 
in  visiting  the  haunts  of  man.  Another 
species  found  in  Palestine,  is  Ciconia  nigra, 
the  black  stork,  named  so  from  the  color  of 
its  back  and  neck.  It  breeds  in  trees.  It  is 
common  in  the  valley  of  the  Dead  Sea. 

Stran'ger. 

A  stranger  in  the  Mosaic  law,  and  in  the 
O.  T.  generally,  means  one  not  of  Israelitish 
descent  dwelling  with  the  Hebrews,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  a  foreigner  temporai-ily  visit- 
ing the  land  (Ex.  xx.  10;  Lev.  xvi.  29;  xvii. 
8;  2  Sam.  i.  13;  Ezek.  xiv.  7).  The  stranger 
was  not  a  full  citizen,  yet  he  had  recognized 
rights  and  duties.  He  was  under  tlie  pro- 
tection of  God,  and  the  Israelites  were 
charged  to  treat  him  kindly  (Lev.  xix.  3.3, 
34  ;  Deut.  x.  18,  19).  His  rights  were  guarded 
by  injunctions  in  the  law  (Ex.  xxii.  21 ; 
xxiii.  9).  When  poor,  he  enjoyed  the  same 
privileges  as  the  Hebrew  jioor  (Deut.  xxiv. 
19,  20).  The  prohibitions  that  rested  on  an 
Israelite  rested  on  him  (Ex.  xii.  19;  xx.  10; 
Lev.  xvi.  29 ;  xvii.  10 ;  xviii.  26 ;  xx.  2 ; 
xxiv.  16 ;  and  xvii.  15,  which  was  modified 
later  by  Deut.  xiv.  21) ;  but  he  was  not 
obligated  to  all  positive  religious  duties 
which  devolved  on  the  Israelite.  He  was  ex- 
empt, if  he  chose  to  be  and  if  he  was  a  free 
man,  from  circumcision  and  participation  in 
the  passover  (Ex.  xii.  4.3-46).  The  Israelites 
were  encouraged  to  invite  him  to  the  sacri- 
ficial meals  (Deut.  xvi.  11,  14).  He  was  al- 
lowed to  sacrifice  to  the  Lord,  he  shared  in  the 
atonement  made  for  the  sin  of  the  congrega- 
tion on  account  of  sin  unwittingly  committed, 
he  had  the  privilege  of  a  sin  offering  for  aught 
done  unwittingly  by  himself,  and  the  city  ' 
of  refuge  offered  him  asylum  in  case  of  need 
(Lev.  xvii.  8;  Num.  xv.  14,  26,  29;  xxxv. 
15).  In  case  he  contracted  uncle.Tuness  he 
was  required  to  employ  the  riglits  of  jiurifi- 
cation  (Lev.  xvii.  15;  Num.  xix.  10).     If  he 


straw 


711 


Succoth 


accepted  cirounicision  for  his  household,  he 
■was  admitted  to  the  passover  (Ex.  xii.  48,  49). 
The  chief  disability  under  Mhich  he  labored 
was  that  in  case  he  became  a  bondman,  the 
year  of  jubile  did  not  bring  him  release,  he 
fould  be  bought  and  made  an  inheritance  for 
the  purchaser's  children  ( liev.  xxv.  45,  46). 

Ammonites  and  Moabites  formed  an  ex- 
cejitional  class  among  the  strangers.  They 
could  not  be  admitted  to  membership  in 
Israel  even  by  circumci.sion  (Deut.  xxiii.  3). 
With  the  idolatrous  Canaanites  who  were  in 
the  land  at  the  time  of  the  conquest  inter- 
marriage was  strictly  forbidden  (vii.  3),  but 
the  remnant  which  was  left  after  the  conquest 
eventually  became  to  a  large  extent  prose- 
lytes. In  Solomon's  reign  the  census  re- 
vealed 153,000  strangers  in  the  realm  (2 
Chron.  11.  17). 

In  the  N.  T.  the  word  stranger  does  not 
have  this  technical  signification,  but  denotes 
one  who  is  unknown  (John  x.  5),  an  alien 
(Luke  xvii.  Itj,  18),  a  sojourner  away  from 
home  (xxiv.  18,  A.  V.;  Acts  ii.  10,  A.  V.),  an 
Israelite  dwelling  in  the  Dispersipn  (1  Pet.  i. 
1.  A.  v.). 

Straw. 

Wheat  and  barley  straw,  ground  and  cut 
to  small  pieces  in  the  process  of  threshing, 
and  doubtless  often  mixed  with  beans  or 
barley,  w^as  used  by  the  ancient  Hebrews  as 
fodder  for  their  cattle,  camels,  asses,  and 
horses  (Gen.  xxiv.  25,  32;  Judg.  xix.  19;  1 
Kin.  iv.  28 ;  Is.  xi.  7).  The  Egyptians,  in 
making  bricks,  mixed  it  with  clay  to  render 
them  more  compact  and  prevent  their  crack- 
ing. When  Pharaoh  withheld  the  chopped 
straw,  the  Hebrew  slaves  were  compelled  to 
go  forth  into  the  field  and  gather  stubble,  or 
rather  stalks,  for  themselves,  and  chop  their 
own  straw  (Ex.  v.  7,  12,  16).  Straw  was 
probably  not  used  by  the  ancient  Hebrews  as 
a  litter  in  the  stall.  The  people  of  Palestine 
in  the  present  day  are  accustomed  to  use 
dried  dung  for  the  purpose. 

Stream.     See  River. 

Street. 

The  streets  of  an  oriental  town  were  doubt- 
less in  ancient  times,  as  they  are  to-day, 
narrow,  tortuous,  and  dirty.  They  are  seldom 
wide  enough  to  permit  two  laden  camels  to 
pass  each  other ;  and  Josephus  incidentally 
attests  the  narrowness  of  the  streets  of  Jeru- 
salem in  his  day  (Antiq.  xx.  5,  3  ;  War  ii.  14, 
■9 ;  15,  5) ;  but  some  were  suflSciently  broad 
for  chariots  to  be  driven  through  them  (Jer. 
xvii.  25:  Nah.  ii.  4).  The  street  in  Damascus 
called  Straight  was  an  exception.  It  was  a 
magnificent  thoroughfare,  100  feet  broad 
and  divided  into  three  avenues  by  rows  of 
columns.  Many  streets  were  flanked  by 
blank  walls,  seldom  pierced  except  by  doors, 
the  windows  of  the  houses  opening  on  interior  '• 
courts.  The  streets  devoted  to  stores  were  ' 
lined  by  salesrooms  with  open  fronts,  and  pre-  ! 
sented  a  lively  appearance.    The  character-   I 


istic  bazaar  streets,  each  surrendered  to  one 
kind  of  business,  were  features  of  the  ancient 
city  (Jer.  xxxvii.  21  ;  War  v.  8,  1).  The  in- 
tersections of  the  streets,  since  they  afforded 
more  room,  were  centers  of  concourse  and  dis- 
play (Prov.  i.  21  ;  Mat.  vi.  5  ;  Luke  xiii.  26). 
At  the  gates  were  broad,  open  places  where 
business  was  transacted.  There  is  no  evidence 
that  the  streets  were  paved  in  ancient  times, 
although  Josephus aflirms that  Solomon  paved 
the  roads  leading  to  Jerus;ilem  with  l)lack 
stones  (Antiq.  viii.  7.  4).  At  the  time  of  the 
Herods,  however,  pavements  were  laid  (xvi. 
5,  3 ;  XX.  9,  7),  and  efforts  were  in  some  in- 
stances made  toward  keei)iug  the  streets 
clean  (xv.  9,  6). 

Stripes.    See  Scourge. 

Strong  Drink. 

Intoxicating  liquor,  in  Hebrew  shekar  (1 
Sam.  i.  13-15;  Prov.  xx.  1;  Is.  xxix.  9). 
Wine  and  strong  drink  were  forbidden  to 
the  priest,  when  about  to  enter  the  sanctuary 
(Lev.  X.  9;  cp.  Ezek.  xliv.  21),  and  kings 
and  princes  were  warned  against  its  use,  lest 
it  lead  to  perversion  of  judgment  (Prov. 
xxxi.  4,  5)  ;  yet  Isaiah  was  compelled  to 
point  to  the  sad  spectacle  of  priests  and 
prophets,  even  in  .ludah,  scandalously  failing 
in  duty  through  wine  and  strong  drink  (Is. 
xxviii.  7).  Wine,  strong  drink,  vinegar,  any 
liquor  of  grapes,  and  even  fresh  grapes  were 
forbidden  the  Nazirite  (Num.  vi.  3;  cp.  Judg. 
xiii.  4 ;  Luke  i.  15) ;  see  Nazirite.  Both 
wine  and  strong  drink  were  allowed  at  the 
feast  spread  by  the  bringer  of  tithes  (Deut. 
xiv.  26).  On  the  basis  of  the  exhortation, 
"  Give  strong  drink  unto  him  that  is  ready 
to  perish"  (Prov.  xxxi.  6),  kind-hearted 
women  of  Jerusalem  provided  stupefying 
draughts  for  criminals  condemned  to  death 
(Mishna  ;  cp.  Mark  xv.  23). 

Stub'ble.     See  Straw. 

Su'ah  [sweepings]. 

An  Asherite,  a  son  of  Zophah  (1  Chron. 
vii.  36). 

Su'cath-ite,  in  A.  V.  SuchatMte. 
A  native  or  an  inhabitant  of  an  unknown 
place  called  Sucah  (1  Chron.  ii.  55). 

Suc'coth  [booths  or  huts]. 

1.  A  place  east  of  the  Jordan  (Judg.  viii. 
4,  5;  and  Jerome  on  Gen.  xxxiii.  17),  at 
which  Jacob,  on  his  return  from  Mesopota- 
mia, after  crossing  the  Jabbok  (Gen.  xxxii. 
22),  built  himself  a  house,  with  booths  for 
his  cattle,  giving  the  spot  from  the  latter 
circumstance  the  name  of  Succoth  (Gen. 
xxxiii.  17).  He  journeyed  thence  to  Shechem 
(18).  It  was  in  the  valley  of  the  Jordan, 
near  Zarethan  (1  Kin.  vii.  46;  Ps.  Ix.  6; 
cviii.  7),  and  was  assigned  to  the  Gadites 
(Josh.  xiii.  27).  In  the  time  of  Gideon  it  was 
an  important  town,  ruled  by  seventy-seven 
elders.  They  refused  him  assistance  when 
he  was  pursuing  Zebah  and  Zalmunna,  and 
were  in  consequence  punished  by  him  when 


Succoth-benoth 


712 


Suphah 


he  returned  a  victor  (Judg.  viii.  5-16).  The 
site  must  be  sought  neai*  the  ford  of  Daiuieh, 
on  the  road  between  es-Salt  and  Nablus. 
Tell  Deir  'Alia  scarcely  marks  the  i>lace, 
although  the  Talmud  states  that  the  latter 
name  of  Succoth  was  Dar'alah ;  for  the  tell 
is  on  the  northern  side  of  the  Jabbok,  and 
the  narrative  almost  certainly  indicates  that 
Succoth  was  on  tlie  southern  side. 

2.  The  first  camping  ground  of  the  Israel- 
ites after  leaving  Rameses  (Ex.  xii.  37;  xiii. 
20;  Num.  xxxiii.  5,  6).  Succoth  is  probably 
the  Hebrew  modification  of  Thuku,  the 
Egyptian  name  of  the  civil  city  surrounding 
the  sacred  buildings  of  Pithom  (q.  v.). 

Suc-coth-be'noth. 

An  idol  which  the  Babylonian  colonists  set 
up  in  Samaria  (2  Kin.  xvii.  30).  The  tute- 
lary deity  of  Babylon  was  Marduk,  and  bis 
consort  was  Zarpanitum,  although  numerous 
other  deities  were  worshiped  in  the  city. 
The  historian  Eawlinson,  followed  by  Schra- 
der,  proposed  to  identify  Succoth-benoth  with 
Zarpanitum,  the  latter  part  of  the  two  names 
being  essentially  the  same.  Friedrich  De- 
litzsch  has  a  more  plausible  theory.  He  re- 
gards Succoth-benoth  as  a  Hebraization  of 
the  Assyrian  words  sakkut  binnti,  supreme 
judge  of  the  universe,  and  he  considers  it  to 
have  been  in  this  instance  a  title  of  Marduk. 

Su'chath-ite.     See  Sucathitb. 

Suk'ki-im,  in  A.  Y.  Sukkiims  [to  the  He- 
brew ear,  people  living  in  huts,  nomads]. 

One  of  the  peoples  furnishing  soldiers  to 
the  army  of  Shishak,  king  of  Egypt,  when 
he  invaded  Palestine.  They  were  evidently 
an  African  race  (2  Chron.  xii.  3). 

Sun. 

The  luminary  of  the  day,  created  by  God 
(Gen.  i.  16;  Ps.  Ixxiv.  16;  cxxxvi.  8),  pre- 
served by  God  (Jer.  xxxi.  35;  Mat.  v.  45), 
and  subject  to  God  (Ps.  civ.  19)  ;  influential 
in  promoting  vegetation  (Deut.  xxxiii.  14  ;  2 
Sam.  xxiii.  4),  and  also  burning  it  with  its 
lieat  (Jon.  iv.  8).  It  is  spoken  of  as  rising 
and  setting,  and  is  poetically  described  as 
occupying  a  tent  iu  the  heavens,  yet  under 
the  earth,  whence  it  issues  in  the  morning 
and  whither  it  returns  at  night  (Ps  xix. 
4-6).  Death  when  in  the  meridian  of  one's 
days,  and  the  sudden  loss  of  prosperity,  are 
likened  to  the  setting  of  the  sun  at  mid- 
daj'  (Jer.  xv.  9;  Amos  viii.  9;  Mic.  iii.  6). 
The  sun  was  worshiped  by  the  nations  con- 
temporary with  the  Hebrews,  notably  by  the 
Phoenicians  under  the  name  of  Baal,  by  the 
Assyrians  under  that  of  Shamash,  and  by  the 
Egyptians  under  that  of  Ra ;  .see  Assyria, 
Ba.\.l,  Egypt  II.  6,  Ox.  The  Hebrews  were 
warned  against  all  such  heathenism,  but  sun 
worship  nevertheless  found  entrance  among 
them.  Altars  were  erected  to  all  the  host  of 
heaven  (2  Kin.  xxi.  5),  incense  was  burned 
to  the  sun  and  horses  were  dedicated  to  it 
(xxiii.  5,  11  ;  cp.  the  Persian  worship,  Herod. 


i.  189  ;  vii.  54),  and  kisses  were  thrown  to  it 
with  the  hand  (Job  xxxi.  26,  27). 

Joshua  commanded  the  sun  to  stand  still. 
The  older  commentators  referred  the  words 
of  Hab.  iii.  11  to  this  event,  but  the  Hebrew 
construction  and  the  context  are  against  it. 
Sun  and  moon  withdraw  into  their  habita- 
tion. Dread  before  the  presence  of  the  Lord 
seizes  all  nature,  and  reveals  itself  in  the 
trembling  of  the  mountains,  in  the  raging  of 
the  sea,  and  in  the  withdrawal  of  their  light 
by  sun  and  moon  (10,  11).  The  first  refer- 
ence to  the  astronomical  lengthening  of  the 
day  at  Beth-boron  is  found  in  Ecclesiasticus, 
and  its  author  evidently  believed  that  the 
sun  and  moon  were  checked  in  their  courses. 
"  Did  not  the  sun  go  back  by  his  hand  ?  And 
did  not  one  day  become  as  two"  (Ecclus. 
xlvi.  4).  Josephus  also  understood  that  the 
day  was  lengthened  (Antiq.  v.  1,  17).  Un- 
questionably God  could  work  this  wonder, 
with  all  that  it  involved.  The  circumstances, 
however,  scarcely  aflbrded  an  adequate  occa- 
sion for  so  stupendous  a  miracle.  Another 
interpretation  has  much  in  its  favor.  It  is 
certain  that  Josh.  x.  12''  and  1.3"  are  poetry. 
Verses  12-15  in  all  probability  form  a  para- 
graph by  themselves  (cp.  the  repetition,  15 
and  43),  and  are  quoted  from  the  Book  of 
Jashar,  a  collection  of  poems  with  introduc- 
tory and  perhaps  concluding  remarks  in 
prose  (see  Jashar  ;  cp.  Job  with  its  prose 
introduction  and  conclusion ;  cp.  the  position 
of  the  quoting  clause  in  Josh.  x.  13  and  2 
Sam.  i.  18).  Joshua's  words  are  the  impas- 
sioned utterance  of  a  general  inspiring  his 
army  on  the  field  of  battle.  Desirous  that 
Israel  may  have  time  com])letely  to  over- 
throw the  foe,  he  apostroj)hizes  sun  and 
moon.  In  fervent,  imperious  words,  he  de- 
mands time.  "  Sun,  stand  thou  still  upon 
Gibeon  ;  and  thou,  Moon,  in  the  valley  of 
Aijalon."  God  granted  the  prayer.  A  hail- 
storm as.sisted  the  Israelites,  they  drove  the 
enemy  to  Azekah  and  Makkedah,  and  made 
a  great  slaughter.  This  event,  it  seems,  was 
worked  up  poetically  in  the  Book  of  Jashar, 
and  must  be  interpreted  as  poetry,  as  one 
interprets  the  psalmist  when  telling  of  the 
gift  of  manna,  he  says:  "He  commanded 
the  skies  above,  and  opened  the  doors  of 
heaven  ;  and  he  rained  down  manna  upon 
them  to  eat,  and  gave  them  of  the  corn  of 
heaven"  (Ps.  Ixxviii.  23,  24) ;  or  as  one  un- 
derstands the  poet  who,  after  relating  the 
passage  of  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Jordan,  adds : 
"  The  mountains  skipped  like  rams,  and  the 
little  hills  like  lambs"  (cxiv.  6);  or  as  one 
understands  the  i)rophet  Habakkuk  when  he 
pictures  Jehovah  as  a  warrior  and  .says : 
"  Thou  didst  ride  upon  thine  horses,  ujion 
thy  chariots  of  salvation "   (Hab.  iii.  8). 

Su'phah  [a  rotatory  storm,  cultivable  soil 
in  the  midst  of  dry  land]. 

Probably  a  i)ro])er  name,  denoting  the  re- 
gion in  which  Vaheb  was  situated  (Num.  xxi. 


Surety 


•13 


Swine 


14,  R.  v.).  Tristram  couuects  it  with  what  is 
now  called  hy  the  Arabs  the  Sufieh  or  Ghor  : 
t.  e.,  the  great  depression  in  which  the  Jordan 
runs  and  the  Dead  Sea  lies,  continued  south- 
ward to  the  Hue  of  cliffs  10  miles  south  of 
that  sea. 

Sure'ty. 

A  person  who  makes  himself  liable  for  the 
obligations  of  another  (Prov.  xxii.  26,  27). 
A  surety  was  sometimes  offered  for  a  service 
to  be  rendered  (Gen.  xliv.  32) ;  and,  when 
commercial  transactions  were  common,  a 
surety  was  often  required  to  be  found  before 
credit  was  given.  The  formalities  consisted 
in  giving  the  hand,  in  the  presence  of  wit- 
nesses, to  the  person  to  whom  the  debt  was 
due,  and  promising  to  discharge  the  obliga- 
tion in  case  the  debtor  defaulted  (Prov.  vi. 
1,  2 ;  xvii.  18).  The  folly  of  becoming  surety, 
especially  in  behalf  of  a  stranger,  was  pro- 
verbial (xi.  15  ;  xvii.  18;  xx.  16) ;  but  it  was 
regarded  as  proper  under  circumstances  and 
for  a  moderate  amount,  and  as  a  neighborly 
act  (Ecclus.  viii.  13;  xxix.  14,  20),  yet  its 
grave  dangers  and  its  liability  to  abuse  by 
a  dishonest  client  were  recognized  (xxix. 
16-18). 

Su'san-chite.    See  Shushanchite. 

Su-san'na  [a  lily]. 

One  of  the  women  who  ministered  to  Jesus 
of  their  substance  (Luke  viii.  3). 

Su'si  [horseman]. 

Father  of  Gaddi,  the  spy  from  the  tribe  of 
Manasseh  (Num.  xiii.  11). 

Swal'low. 

1.  A  bird,  in  biblical  and  talmudic  Hebrew 
d'lor.  shooting  straight  out  or  freedom.     It 


--^: 


Swallow. 

frequented  the  sanctuary  at  Jerusalem,  and 
nested  there  (Ps.  Ixxxiv.  3),  and  it  was  found 
in  company  with  other  small  birds,  like  the 
.sparrow  (ibid.  ;  Prov.  xxvi.  2.  R.  V.).  The  barn 
swallow  of  Great  Britain  {Hirundo  rufitica}  is 
abundant  in  Palestine  from  March  to  the 
approach  of  winter.  Several  other  species 
also  occur,  but  are  less  common. 

2.  The  rendering  in  the  R.  V.  of  the  He- 
brew Sus  or  !<is.  a  bird  with  a  chattering  note 
(Is.  xxxviii.  14),  and  migratory  (.Jer.  viii.  7). 
Swallow  is  the  rendering  adopted  by  the 
Septuagint,  Vulgate,  and  Syriac  versions,  but 


the  A.  v.,  following  the  rabbins,  translates  it 
crane.  Tristram  believes  that  the  swift  is 
intended.  He  says  that  the  common  swift 
(Cypffelus  apus)  is  called  sis  in  the  vernacular 
Arabic.  It  visits  Palestine  in  immense  num- 
bers in  its  migrations,  remaining  from  April 
to  November,  and  building  in  tlie  interval. 
Two  other  species  of  the  genus  occur  in  Pal- 
estine, the  white-bellied  sv/h't  {Cypselus  melba) 
and  the  white-rumped  swift  (Cy2)selusaffinis). 

3.  The  rendering  in  A.  V.  of  the  Hebrew 
'Agar  (Is.  xxxviii.  14;  Jer.  viii.  7).  The 
R.  V.  in  both  passages  renders  it  crane 
(q.  v.). 

Swan. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Tinshemeth, 
breathing,  inflation,  a  name  applied  to  an 
unclean  bird  (Lev.  xi.  18;  Deut.  xiv.  16; 
text  of  A.  v.,  margin  of  R.  Y.).  The  R.  V. 
text  makes  it  the  horned  owl.  The  same 
name  belonged  to  a  reptile  classed  with  the 
lizards  (Lev.  xi.  30,  in  R.  V.  chameleon,  in 
A.  V.  mole).  Tristram  thinks  that  the  bird 
was  probably  either  the  purple  gallinule 
(Porphyrio  csendeus)  or  the  glossy  ibis  {Ibis 
fidciuellus). 

Swear'ing.     See  Oath. 

Sweat. 

It  is  a  common  occurrence  for  perspiration 
to  break  out  suddenly  over  the  body  when 
the  individual  is  under  the  influence  of 
strong  mental  excitement.  V»'ell-autbenti- 
cated  cases  have  been  recorded  in  which  this 
perspiration  has  been  colored  with  blood. 
The  phenomenon  is  recognized  in  medical 
science,  and  is  called  diapedesis,  or  the  oozing 
of  the  blood  corpuscles  through  the  walls  of 
the  blood  vessels  without  rupture.  During 
Christ's  agony  in  Gethsemane  his  sweat  be- 
came as  it  were  great  drops  of  blood  falling 
down  upon  the  ground  (Luke  xxii.  44). 

Swine. 

The  swine  was  a  ceremonially  unclean 
animal  (Lev.  xi.  7  ;  Deut.  xiv.  8).  It  is  dirty, 
does  not  refuse  to  eat  offal  and  carrion ,  and  the 
use  of  its  flesh  for  food  in  hot  countries  is  sup- 
posed to  produce  cutaneous  diseases.  It  was  not 
raised  by  the  Arabs  (Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  viii.  78), 
and  was  regarded  as  unclean  by  Phoenicians, 
Ethiopians,  and  Egyptians.  In  Egypt,  how- 
ever, a  pig  was  sacrificed  and  eaten  on  the  an- 
nual festival  of  the  moon-god  and  Osiris  (Bac- 
chus) ;  nevertheless,  a  man  who  accidentally 
touched  a  pig  at  once  washed,  a  swineherd  was 
not  allowed  to  enter  a  temple,  and  was  com- 
pelled to  find  a  wife  among  the  people  of  his 
own  occupation,  as  no  other  man  would  give  a 
daughter  to  him  in  marriage  (Herod,  ii.  47 ; 
con.  Apion.  ii.  14).  To  the  Jews  swine's  flesh 
was  abominable  (Is.  Ixv.  4),  the  pig  was  the 
emblem  of  filth  and  coarseness  (Prov.  xi.  22  ; 
Mat.  vii.  6;  2  Pet.  ii.  22),  and  to  feed  swine 
was  the  lowest  and  most  despicable  occupa- 
tion to  which  a  Jew  could  be  reduced  (Luke 
XV.  15).  Yet  pork  found  entrance  to  the 
idolatrous  feasts  of  degenerate  Hebrews  (Is. 


Sword 


714 


Ssmagogue 


Ixv.  4 ;  Ixvi.  17).  In  the  reign  of  Antiochus 
Epiphaues  the  command  to  a  Jew  to  offer  or 
to  taste  swine's  flesh  was  used  as  a  means  of 
determining  whether  he  was  loyal  to  the  re- 
ligion of  his  fathers  or  was  willing  to  accept 
the  worship  favored  by  his  conquerors  (1  Mac. 
i.47,  50;  2Mac.  vi.  18,  21 ;  vii.  1,  7).  But  many 
Jews  affected  Grecian  manners,  and  John 
Hyrcanus  some  years  later  found  it  advisable 
to  issue  an  edict  that  no  one  should  keep 
swine.  In  the  time  of  Christ  one  large  herd 
of  swine  at  least  was  pastured  in  the  Decapo- 
lis  (Mark  v.  11-13),  a  region  colonized  by 
Greeks,  among  whom  the  swine  was  highly 
esteemed  as  an  article  of  food.  There  is  no 
reason  to  suppose  that  Jews  owned  either 
these  swine  or  those  in  the  far  country  fed  by 
the  prodigal  son  (Luke  xv.  13).  See  Boar. 
Sword. 

A  weapon  with  which  an  adversary  was 
cut  by  being  struck  or  was  thrust  through  (1 
Sam.  xvii.  51 ;  xxxi.  4  ;  2  Sam.  ii.  16 ;  Mat. 
xxvi.  51).  It  had  hilt  and 
blade  (Judg.  iii.  22),  was  car- 
ried in  a  sheath  (1  Sam. 
xvii.  51 ;  Jer.  xlvii.  6),  and 
girded  on  the  loins  (Ex. 
xxxii.  27 ;  2  Sam.  xx.  8), 
usually  at  the  left  side 
(Judg.  iii.  16  with  15,  21). 
The  hilt  was  often  highly 
ornamented,  at  least  among 
the  Egyptians  and  Assyr- 
ians. The  blade  was  com- 
monly made  of  iron  (Is.  ii. 
4),  perhaps  also  of  bronze, 
as  not  seldom  in  Egypt. 
It  was  straight  or  slightly 
curved,  long  or  short  (Judg. 
iii.  16,  a  cuJait  long),  single 
or  double  edged  (ibid. ;  Ps. 
cxlix.  6). 

In  the  Roman  period  a 
short,  slightly  curved  dag- 
ger was  worn  under  the 
clothing  by  the  Jewish 
sicarii,  or  assassins  (Antiq. 
XX.  8,  10;  War  ii.  13,  3). 
Roman  infantry  wore  the 
sword  on  the  left  side  and 
the  dagger  on  the  right,  but  the  cavalry  wore 
the  sword  on  the  right  (iii.  5,  5).  This,  how- 
ever, was  not  an  invariable  rule. 

Syc'a-mine  Tree. 

The  mulberry  tree,  called  in  Greek  sulca- 
mino.i  (Luke  xvii.  6).  The  reference  is  to  the 
black  mulberry  (Morus  nigra),  a  tree  20  or 
30  feet  high,  which  is  the  species  commonly 
cultivated  for  its  fruit,  as  well  as  for  its 
leaves,  on  which  the  silkworm  feeds.  The 
fruit  is  dark  red  or  black,  with  an  uneven 
surface.  The  tree  has  been  planted  exten- 
sively in  Palestine. 

Sy'char. 

A  town  of  Samaria,  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
land  given  by  Jacob  to  his  son  Joseph,  near 


Jacob's  well  (John  iv.  5  ;  cp.  Gen.  xlviii.  22). 
Formerly  it  was  supposed  to  be  a  Greek  cor- 
ruption of  Shechem,  or  a  nickname  for  the 
city  after  it  became  the  abode  of  the  Samari- 
tans, either  from  Hebrew  sheker,  falsehood, 
or  shikkor,  drunkard  ;  but  it  is  now  believed 
by  many  to  be  the  village  of  'Askar,  on  the 
eastern  declivity  of  mount  Ebal,  a  little  north 
of  Jacob's  well. 

Sy'chem.    See  Shechem. 

Syc'o-more. 

A  fig  tree,  called  in  Hebrew  shikmah,  in 
Greek  sukoinoren.  It  was  abundant  in  the 
lowland  of  Judah  (1  Kin.  x.  27 ;  1  Chron. 
xxvii.  28  ;  2  Chron.  i.  15 ;  ix.  27) ;  and  it 
grew  in  the  Jordan  valley.  Zacchseus  climbed 
one  in  order  to  see  Jesus  as  he  i)assed  (Luke 
xix.  4).  Amos  was  a  dresser  of  sycomore 
trees  (Amos  vii.  14,  R.  V.).  It  was,  and  still 
is,  cultivated  also  in  Egypt  (Ps.  Ixxviii.  47). 
As  a  building  material,  sycomore  timber  is 
contrasted   with  cedar,   as  bricks  are  with 


^it.^ 


Branch  and  Fruit  of  the  Sycomore. 

stone,  the  less  durable  with  the  more  valua- 
ble (Is.  ix.  10).  The  tree  is  the  Ficus  syco- 
morus,  a  fig  tree,  25  to  50  feet  high  and  60 
feet  broad,  with'  persistent,  heart-shaped 
leaves  downy  beneath,  and  eatable  fruit.  It 
affords  grateful  shade  the  year  round.  The 
fruit  grows  in  clusters  on  twigs  which  spring 
directly  from  the  trunk  and  larger  branches. 
The  tree  is  quite  common. 

The  sycomore  must  not  be  confounded  with 
our  sycamore  {Acer  j's^eiido-platauus) ,  which  is 
not  mentioned  in  the  Bible. 

Sy-e'ne.     See  Seveneh. 

Sym'e-on.     See  Simeon. 

Syn'a-gogue  [in  Greek  an  assembly,  a  syn- 
agogue]. 


Synagogue 


ri5 


Synagogue 


A  Jewish  place  of  worship.  The  building 
served  also  for  local  law  court  and  school. 
Previous  to  the  captivity,  worship  of  the 
highest  kind  could  be  performed  only  at  the 
t-emple  at  Jerusalem.  Of  course,  the  Scrip- 
tures could  be  publicly  read  elsewhere  (Jer. 
xxxvi.  6,  10,  12-15),  aud  the  people  could  re- 
sort to  the  prophets  anywhere  for  religious 
instruction  (2  Kin.  iv.  38).  Worship  at  Je- 
rusalem was  impossible  when  the  peoj)le  were 
in  captivity  in  Babylon,  and  it  seems  to  have 
been  then  and  there  that  synagogues  first 
arose.  They  were  designed  to  be  places,  not 
of  sacrifice,  but  of  scriptural  instruction  and 
prayer.  The  English  word  synagogue  occurs 
only  once  in  the  O.  T.  (Ps.  Ixxiv.  8).  The 
margin  of  E.  V.  has  "places  of  assembly  " 
instead  of  synagogues,  and  the  Septuagint 
renders  by  a  word  which  means  a  feast,  a 
festival,  a  holiday.  It  is  not,  therefore,  cer- 
tain that  there  is  any  reference  to  a  synagogue 
in  the  O.  T.  lu  the  first  century  they  were 
found  wherever  Jews  dwelt.  Even  small 
communities  of  Jews  in  the  lesser  cities 
outside  of  Palestine  had  their  synagogues ; 
as  in  Salamis  in  Cyprus  (Acts  xiii.  5),  Antioch 
of  Pisidia  (14),  Iconium  (xiv.  1),  Bercea  (xvii. 
10).  In  large  cities  synagogues  were  often 
numerous ;  as  in  Jerusalem  (vi.  9)  and  Alex- 
andria. These  religious  communities  main- 
tained an  existence  separate  from  the  state, 
and  managed  their  own  religious  and  civil 
aflairs.  subordinate,  of  course,  to  the  law  of 
the  land  (Antiq.  xix.  5,  3).  A  board  of  elders 
managed  the  affairs  of  the  synagogue  and  of 
the  religious  community  which  it  repre- 
sented (Luke  vii.  3-5).  The  special  ofli- 
cers,  who  directed  the  worship,  maintained 
order  and  looked  after  the  temporalities, 
were :  1.  The  ruler  of  the  synagogue  (Acts 
xviii.  8).  In  some  synagogues  several  rulers 
were  in  office  (xiii.  15  ;  Mark  v.  22).  The  ruler 
presided  at  the  service ;  appointed  or  per- 
mitted suitable  members  to  pray,  read  the 
Scriptures,  and  exhort  (Acts  xiii.  15) ;  and 
was  responsible  for  the  proprieties  (Luke 
xiii.  14).  The  services  were  not  conducted 
by  permanent  officers  set  apart  for  the  duty, 
but  by  private  members  who  had  shown 
qualifications  for  it.  Thus  Jesus  read  the 
Scriptures  in  the  synagogue  at  Nazareth  (iv. 
16),  and  he  often  taught  in  the  synagogues 
(Mat.  iv.  23).  Paul  aud  Barnabas  were  called 
on  by  the  rulers  of  the  synagogue  at  Antioch 
of  Pisidia  for  words  of  exhortation  (Acts 
xiii.  15).  2.  One  or  more  attendants  for  the 
humbler  and  menial  duties.  They  brought 
the  Scriptures  to  the  reader  and  replaced  the 
roll  in  its  depository  (Luke  iv.  20),  and  they 
inflicted  the  corporal  punishment  to  which 
the  authorities  sentenced  a  member.  3.  Dis- 
pensers of  alms  (cp.  Mat.  vi.  2).  4.  Wealthy 
men  of  leisure,  if  possible  ten  or  more,  who 
represented  the  congregation  at  every  serv- 
ice. The  congregation  assembled  every  Sab- 
bath for  worship  (Acts  xv.  21),  and  on  the 
second  and  fifth  daj's  of  the  week  to  hear  a 


portion  of  the  law  read.  The  men  and  the 
women  sat  apart.  At  the  Sabbath  service 
prayer  was  offered  by  a  member  of  the  con- 
gregation. It  consisted  chiefly  in  reading 
Dent.  vi.  4-9;  xi.  13-21;  Num.  xv.  37-41 ; 
and  offering  some  or  all  of  the  eighteen  pray- 
ers and  benedictions.  The  people  were  ac- 
customed to  stand  during  this  prayer  (Mat. 
vi.  5  ;  Mark  xi.  25),  and  united  in  saying 
Amen  at  its  close.  A  lesson  from  the  law 
was  read  (Acts  xv.  21)  by  several  members, 
each  taking  a  short  paragraph  in  turn.  This 
reading  was  prefaced  and  concluded  bj' 
thanksgiving.  Then  came  a  lesson  from  the 
prophets,  read  by  the  person  who  had  opened 
the  service  with  prayer.  The  reading  was 
followed  by  an  exi)osition  aud  an  exhortation 
given  by  the  reader  or  some  other  person 
(Luke  iv.  16-22  ;  Acts  xiii.  15).  The  service 
was  concluded  by  a  benediction,  which  was 
pronounced  by  a  priest,  if  one  were  present, 
and  the  congregation  said,  Amen.  The  .syna- 
gogue was  called  by  the  Jews  in  their  own 
language  assembly  house.  Euins  of  these 
buildings  still  exist  in  Galilee  at  Tell  Hum, 
which  is  perhaps  the  site  of  Capernaum, 
at  Irbid,  Kefr  Bir'im,  Nebartein,  and  some 


1  I   nt  of  ruined  Synagogue  at  Kefr  Bir'im 

other  places.  They  were  rectangular  struc- 
tures. All  lay  north  and  south,  and  had 
a  large  middle  portal  and  two  smaller  side 
doors  on  the  southern  side.  The  interior 
was  divided  into  five  aisles  by  four  rows  of 
columns,  and  the  two  northern  cornei-s  were 
formed  by  double-engaged  columns.  At  Tell 
Hum  there  are  Corinthian  capitals ;  at  Irbid 
a  mixture  of  Corinthian  and  Ionic.  The 
faces  of  the  lintels  over  the  gateways  have 
as  a  frequent  ornament  the  representation  of 
a  scroll  of  vine  leaves  with  bunches  of  grapes. 
At  Nebartein  there  is  a  figure  of  the  seven- 
branched  caudlestick,   with  an  inscription ; 


Syntyche 


716 


Taanach 


at  Kefr  Bir'im  what  is  intended  apparently 
for  the  paschal  lamb;  while  at  Tell  Hum, 
there  are  both  the  lamb  and  the  jtot  of  mauua. 
The  assembly  room  was  provided  with  a 
reading  desk,  a  chest  or  closet  for  the  Scrip- 
tures, and  seats  for  at  least  the  elders  and 
richer  members  (Mat.  xxiii.  (J :  Jas.  ii.  2,  3). 
The  more  honorable  seats  were  near  the  place 
where  the  Scriptures  were  kept.  The  con- 
gregation was  divided  ;  the  men  on  one  side, 
the  women  on  the  other.  Punishment  or- 
dered by  the  authorities  of  the  synagogue 
was  inflicted  in  the  building,  possibly  in  some 
chamber  (Mat.  x.  17;  Acts  xxii.  19). 

The  great  synagogue  denotes  a  council, 
said  to  have  been  organized  by  Nehemiah 
about  410  B.  c.  It  consisted  of  120  members 
(Megilloth,  17,  18),  Ezra  was  its  president. 
To  this  body  the  prophets  transmitted  the 
law  of  Moses  (Pirke  aboth  i.  1).  Simon  the 
Just,  who  died  about  275  B.  c,  was  one  of 
the  last  of  its  members  (ibid.).  It  was  suc- 
ceeded by  the  sanhedriu  (x.  1).  Its  special 
work  was  to  reorganize  religious  worship 
among  the  returned  captives  and  gather  to- 
gether the  canonical  books.  Such  is  the 
Jewish  tradition.  The  existence  of  the  great 
synagogue  has  been  doubted,  since  there  is 
no  mention  of  any  such  body  in  the  Apocry- 
pha, in  Josephus,  or  in  Philo.  Nor  does  the 
name  appear  anywhere  iu  Scripture.  But 
the  tradition  is  not  to  be  wholly  rejected. 
The  great  synagogue  was  probably  a  council 
of  scribes  for  the, decision  of  theological 
questions ;  contained  from  first  to  last,  dur- 
ing an  existence  of  a  little  more  than  a  cen- 
tury and  a  half,  about  120  prominent  mem- 
bers ;  and  numbered  among  them  all  the 
leading  scribes  from  Ezra  to  Simon  the  Just. 

Syn'ty-che  [fortunate]. 

A  female  in  the  Pliilippian  church  whom 
Paul  exhorted  to  make  up  her  quarrel  with 
another  female,  Euodia  (Phil.  iv.  2). 

Syr'a-cuse. 

A  celebrated  city  on  the  east  coast  of 
Sicily.  It  was  founded  about  735  b.  c.  by 
Archias  of  Corinth,  who  led  thither  a  colony 
of  Corinthians  and  Dorians.  It  greatly  flour- 
ished, and  in  414  its  inhabitants  defeated 
and  destroyed  an  Athenian  fleet  of  200  ves- 
sels. In  212  B.  c.  it  was  taken  by  the  Ro- 
mans. Paul  visited  it  on  his  voyage  to  Rome 
(Acts  xxviii.  12).  It  was  taken  by  the  Sara- 
cens in  A.  D.  878.  It  is  still  called  Siracusa, 
but  is  now  much  reduced  in  size  and  popu- 
lation. 

Syr'i-a. 

A  country  along  the  eastern  coast  of  the 
Mediterranean  and  extending  far  inland.  It 
comprehended  most  of  the  regions  known  in 
O.  T.  times  as  Canaan  and  Aram.  The  wis- 
dom of  introducing  the  name  into  the  E.  V. 
of  the  O.  T.  is  questionable,  for  the  country 
referred  to  in  the  O.  T.  is  Aram,  an  inland  re- 
gion. The  name  Syria  is  an  abbreviated  form 
of  Assyria,  and  became  current  after  the  con- 


quests of  Alexander  the  Great.  Syria  formed 
the  most  important  province,  both  commer- 
cially and  from  a  military  point  of  view,  of 
the  kingdom  of  tlie  Seleucida?,  whose  cajjital 
was  at  Babylon.  It  soon  became  apparent 
that  western  Asia  required  a  government  of 
its  own,  more  in  the  Greek  spirit  than  was 
the  system  suitable  for  the  far  east.  For  this 
purpose  Antioch  was  founded  as  a  royal  city 
about  300  B.  c.  (cp.  1  Mac.  iii.  37  and  31,  32). 
The  kingdom  of  the  Seleucidse  was  gradually 
reduced  by  the  encroachment  of  its  foes,  un- 
til at  the  close  of  the  second  century  b.  c. 
only  Syria  was  left.  With  the  Roman  con- 
quest in  64  B.  c,  the  kingdom  was  erected 
into  the  province  of  Syria,  with  a  Roman 
governor  resident  in  Antioch.  The  name 
Syria  was  limited  to  this  province,  which  in- 
cluded the  country  west  of  the  Euphrates 
from  the  Taurus  mountains  to  the  borders 
of  Egypt.  From  the  time  of  Augustus  it 
was  governed  by  a  consular  legate  of  the  em- 
peror. In  A.  D.  70  Judffia  was  separated  from 
Syria  and  made  a  distinct  province  under  an 
imperial  legate. 

Syr'i-ac  Ver'sion.     See  Versions. 

Syr'i-an. 

One  of  the  Syrian  race,  or  an  inhabitant  of 
Syria.  In  O.  T.  times  the  word  Syria  was  not 
in  use  ;  and  where  Syrian  occurs  in  the  E.  V. 
of  the  O.  T.  it  denotes  a  native  of  Aram, 
properly  called  an  Aramtean  (Gen.  xxviii.  5)  ; 
see  Aram,  Damascus,  and  for  the  period 
after  the  conquests  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
Syria. 

Sy-ro-phoe-ni'ci-an,  in  A.  V.  Syropheni- 
cian. 

A  Phoenician  of  Syria  in  distinction  from 
the  Libypha?nicians  of  north  Africa  (Mark 
vii.  26;  cp.  Mat.  xv.  22).  A  new  distinction 
arose  toward  the  end  of  the  second  century 
of  the  Christian  era,  when  the  province  of 
Syria  was  divided  into  Syria  Magna  and 
Syria-Phoenice. 

Syr'tis.     See  Quicksand. 


T. 


Ta'a-nach,  in  A.  V.  once  Tanach  (Josh, 
xxi.  25). 

A  Canaanite  city,  the  king  of  which  was 
defeated  and  slain  by  Joshua  (Josh.  xii.  21). 
It  lay  within  the  limits  of  Issachar  or  Asher, 
probably  the  former,  but  was  nominally  pos- 
sessed by  the  Manassites  (Josh.  xvii.  11;  1 
Chron.  vii.  20).  It  was  assigned,  with  its 
suburbs,  to  the  Kohathite  Levites  (Josh.  xxi. 
25).  The  Manassites  could  not  expel  the 
Canaanite  inhabitants,  though  when  strong 
they  rendered  them  tributary  (Judg.  i.  27). 
The  great  battle  between  Barak  and  Sisera 
was  fought  near  Taanach  (v.  19).  The  place 
was  important  in  Solomon's  reign  (1  Kin.  iv. 
12).     The  name  remains,  as  Ta'annuk,   on 


Copijriyht,  is-j<:,by  Trustees  of  the  Pi-esbyteiian  Board  of  Publiculion  and  Sabbath  School  Iforfc 


I 


Taanath-shiloh 


717 


Tabernacle 


the  southeast  side  of  a  h)W  mound  among 
the  hills  hounding  the  soutliern  side  of  the 
plain  of  Jezreel,  about  7  miles  west-south- 
west of  the  city  of  that  name.  There  are 
rock-cut  tombs  in  the  vicinity.  Taanak  is 
one  of  the  places  mentioned  in  an  inscriiition 
at  Karnak,  in  Egypt,  in  connection  with  the 
conquests  of  Thothnies  III.,  about  1600  B.  C. 

Ta-a-natli-sM'loh  [approach  to  Shiloh]. 

A  town  on  the  boundary  line  between 
Ephraim  and  Mauasseh  (Josli.  xvi.  6).  It  is 
the  ruin  Ta'na,  7  miles  southeast  by  east  of 
Shechem. 

Tab'ba-oth  [rings]. 

A  family  of  Nethinim,  members  of  which 
returned  with  Zerubbabel  from  captivity 
(Ezra  ii.  43  ;  Neb.  vii.  46). 

Tafbath. 

A  place  near  Abel-meholah  (Judg.  vii.  22). 
Site  unknown. 

Ta'be-al,  in  R.  V.  Tabeel  [probably,  good- 
uot ;  a  scornful  modification  of  Tabeel 
(q-  V.)]. 

A  man  whose  son  was  to  have  been  set  up 
as  puppet  king  in  Jerusalem  by  Rezin,  king 
of  Damascus,  and  Pekah,  king  of  Israel,  if 
tliev  bad  succeeded  in  capturing  the  city  (Is. 
vii. '6). 

Ta'be-el  [Aramaic,  God  is  good]. 

1.  Probably  the  original  pronunciation  of 
Tabeal  (q.  v.). 

2.  A  Persian  petty  governor,  probably  of 
Syrian  descent,  one  of  those  who  complained 
to  Artaxerxes  Longimanus  that  the  wall  of 
Jerusalem  was  being  rebuilt  (Ezra  iv.  7). 

Tab'e-rah  [burning]. 

A  place  where  the  Israelites  murmured, 
and  the  fire  of  the  Lord  burnt  among  them 
in  the  uttermost  part  of  the  camp  (Num.  xi. 
1-3;  Deut.  ix.  22).  The  burning  abated  at 
the  intercession  of  Moses.  The  event  per- 
haps occurred  at  no  formal  encampment,  or 
only  in  the  uttermost  part  of  the  camp  at 
Kibroth-hattaavah  (Num.  xi.  1,  35). 

Ta'ber-ing. 

Striking  frequently,  as  on  a  tabor,  tabret, 
tamborine,  or  timbrel  (Nab.  ii.  7). 
Tab'er-na-cle  [a  tent]. 

1.  A  provisional  tent  where  the  Lord  met 
his  people  (Ex.  xxxiii.  7-10) ;  see  Tent  of 
Meeting. 

2.  The  movable  sanctuary  in  the  form 
of  a  tent  which  God  directed  Moses  at 
Sinai  to  make,  that  God  might  dwell  asking 
among  his  people  (Ex.  xxv.  8,  9).  Hence 
it  was  called  "the  dwelling"  (9;  xxvi.  1, 
margin  of  E.  V.),  and,  as  the  place  where 
.Tehovah  met  his  jicople,  "the  tent  of  meet- 
ing" (xl.  34,  .35,  in  E.  V.),  and  as  the 
<lepository  of  the  tables  of  the  law  or  tes- 
timony, "the  tent  of  the  testimony" 
(xxxviii.  21;  cp.  xxv.  21,  22;  Num.  ix.  15). 
The  materials  for  its  construction  were  largely 
obtained  in  the  vicinity  :  the  acacia  wood  of 
the  wilderness,  hair  and  skins  of  the  flocks, 


skin  of  the  tachash,  a  porpoise  or  similar  brute, 
from  the  Red  Sea.  Gold,  silver,  brass,  and 
linen,  or  perhaps  muslin,  were  liberally  fur- 
nished by  the  people,  who  gave  their  orna- 
ments for  the  work  (Ex.  xxxv.  21-29).  The 
tabernacle  liad  the  form  of  a  parallelogram, 


/fttifWfCIDrar. 


Oi^va 


□ 


Ground  Plan  of  the  Taljcrnaclc. 

30  cubits  long  by  10  broad,  with  the  entrance 
at  the  eastern  end.  The  rear  end  and  the 
two  sides  were  made  of  boards,  48  in  number, 
20  on  each  side  and  8  in  the  rear,  of  which  2 
formed  the  posts  at  the  angles.  Each  plank 
was  10  cubits  long  by  Ii  cubits  broad,  and 
was  overlaid  with  gold.  They  were  scarcely 
cut  from  the  log  in  a  single  piece,  but  were 
probably  framed  of  several  pieces.  They 
were  set  on  end,  and  were  held  in  place  at 
the  bottom  by  tenons  sunk  in  sockets  of 
silver,  two  to  each  plank,  and  they  were 
bound  together  laterally  by  transverse  bars 
of  acacia  wood,  which  were  arranged  five 
on  a  side  externally  and  thrust  through 
rings  attached  to  each  plank  (xxvi.  1.5-30). 
The  entire  front  was  left  as  an  entrance. 
This  portal  consisted  of  a  row  of  five  pillars 
overlaid  with  gold,  resting  in  sockets  of 
brass,  and  supporting  a  curtain.  The  in- 
terior was  divided  into  two  apartments 
by  four  similar  pillars  sunk  in  sockets  of 
silver  and  hung  with  a  curtain  (32,  37). 
These  rooms  were  respectively  the  western, 


Tabernacle 


718 


Tabernacles,  Feast  of 


called  the  holy  of  holies,  measuring  10 
cubits  in  every  direction,  and  the  sanctuary 
or  holy  place,  which  was  20  cubits  long  by 
10  cubits  in  breadth  and  height.  The  hang- 
ings were  four:  1.  The  ceiling  and  appar- 
ently the  walls  were  hung  with  a  curtain  of 
white  twined  linen,  blue,  purple,  and  scarlet, 
and  figured  with  cherubim.  This  curtain 
was  made  in  ten  pieces,  each  28  cubits  by  4, 
sewed  together  in  two  sheets.  These  sheets 
were  then  looped  together.  One  formed  the 
ceiling  and  three  sides  of  the  holy  of  holies, 
and  the  other  the  ceiling  and  two  sides 
of  the  sanctuary  (1-6).  2.  The  main  ex- 
ternal covering  was  of  goats'  hair,  and 
consisted  of  eleven  narrow  curtains,  each  30 
cubits  by  4 ;  that  is,  2  cubits  longer  than 
the  under  curtain  of  linen  (cp.  13)..  These 
strips  were  united  into  two  great  curtains, 
which  were  looped  together.  The  smaller 
one,  which  was  made  of  five  strips,  covered 
the  top  and  three  sides  of  the  holy  of  holies ; 
the  larger  one  covered  the  top  and  sides  of 
the  sanctuary,  and  had  one  breadth  depend- 
ing over  the  portal  in  front  (7-13).  3.  Over 
this  covering  of  goats'  hair  a  double  roof  of 
red-dyed  rams'  skins  and  tachash  (perhaps 
porpoise)  skins  was  thrown  (14).  4.  Two 
veils  were  hung,  one  at  the  entrance  to  the 
sanctuary  and  the  other  in  front  of  the  holy 
of  holies.  Each  was  wrought  of  blue,  purple, 
scarlet,  and  fine  twisted  linen ;  but  on  the 
inner  veil,  which  separated  the  holy  of  holies, 
were  figures  of  cheriibim,  in  token  of  the 
presence  and  unapproachableness  of  Jehovah, 
while  the  outer  veil,  which  was  passed  by 
the  priests  when  they  entered  the  sanctuary 
to  minister,  lacked  symbols  to  prevent  man's 
ingress  (31-37). 

The  tabernacle  stood  in  a  courtyard,  like 
itself  rectangular  in  form,  its  longer  sides, 
running  east  and  west,  being  100  cubits,  and 
the  shorter  two,  running  north  and  south,  50. 
The  court  was  inclosed  by  a  fence,  5  cubits 
high,  formed  of  pillars  filleted  with  silver, 
resting  in  sockets  of  brass,  placed  5  cubits 
apart,  and  hung  with  fine  twisted  linen. 
The  entrance  was  at  the  east.  It  was  20 
cubits  wide  and  was  closed  by  a  curtain  of 
blue,  purple,  scarlet,  and  fine  twisted  linen, 
hung  on  four  pillars  (Ex.  xxvii.  9-18).  The 
tabernacle  was  pitched  in  the  western  half 
of  this  area,  the  laver  and  the  altar  of  burnt 
offering  being  erected  in  the  open  eastern  half. 
The  ark  was  the  central  feature.  The  de- 
scription given  in  the  Bible  starts  from  this 
essential  object.  The  ark  stood  in  the  holy 
of  holies.  In  the  sanctuary  were  the  altar 
of  incense,  which  however  belonged  to  the 
oracle  (1  Kin.  vi.  22,  R.  V. ;  Heb.  ix.  3,  4), 
the  table  of  showbread,  and  the  golden  can- 
dlestick. In  the  court  .stood  the  laver  and 
tlie  altar  of  burnt  ottering.  For  the  descrip- 
tion of  these  objects  and  their  symbolism, 
see  the  several  articles.  The  tabernacle 
was  dedicated  on  the  first  day  of  the  sec- 
ond year  after  the  departure  of  the  Israel- 


ites from  Egypt.  A  cloud  rested  on  it  by 
day  and  a  pillar  of  fire  by  night  during  all 
the  period  of  the  wandering.  When  the 
people  broke  camp,  the  Levites  took  the 
structure  to  pieces  and  put  it  together  again 
at  the  new  camping  ground  ( Ex.  xxvi. ;  xxvii. 
9-19  ;  XXXV.  4-xxxvi.  38  ;  xl.  1-38).  During 
the  conquest  of  Canaan,  the  ark  remained  in 
the  camp  at  Gilgal.  After  the  settlement  of 
the  Israelites,  Joshua  set  up  the  tabernacle 
at  Shiloh,  where  it  remained  during  the 
period  of  the  judges  (Josh,  xviii.  1).  By 
the  capture  of  the  ark  by  the  Philistines, 
the  tabernacle  lost  its  glory  and  its  value  (I*s. 
Ixxviii.  60).  In  the  reign  of  Saul  it  was  at 
Nob  (cp.  1  Sam.  xxi.  1  with  Mark  ii.  26). 
During  the  greater  part  of  David's  reign, 
and  in  that  of  Solomon  to  the  building  of 
the  temple,  the  tabernacle  was  at  the  high 
place  of  Gibeon  (1  Chron.  xxi.  29).  After- 
wards Solomon  laid  it  up  in  the  temple 
(1  Kin.  viii.  4  ;  2  Chron.  v.  5),  which  was 
constructed  on  the  same  model,  but  in  every 
part  was  of  dimensions  twice  as  great. 

Tab'er-na-cles,  Feast  of. 

The  last  of  the  three  great  annual  festi- 
vals at  which  every  man  of  Israel  was  re- 
quired to  appear  before  the  Lord  at  the 
sanctuary,  and  the  second  of  the  harvest 
festivals "(Deut.  xvi.  16;  2  Chron.  viii.  12,  13  ; 
cp.  1  Kin.  ix.  25  ;  xii.  32,  33  ;  Zech.  xiv.  16). 
It  took  its  name  from  the  custom  of  dwelling 
in  booths  during  its  celebration  (Lev.  xxiii. 
40-42),  which,  after  the  establishment  of  the 
sanctuary  at  Jerusalem,  were  erected  in  the 
open  places  of  the  city,  on  the  roofs  and  in 
the  courts  of  the  houses,  in  the  precincts  of 
the  temple  (Neh.  viii.  16),  and  in  the  open 
country  outside  the  walls.  It  was  the  cul- 
minating festival  of  the  year ;  and  while 
preeminently  and  essentially  agricultural,  it 
combined  an  historical  association,  the  re- 
verse in  this  respect  of  the  passover  (Lev. 
xxiii.  39,  43).  It  was  kept  in  the  seventh 
month,  which  by  reason  of  the  number  was 
sacred,  at  the  close  of  the  agricultural  season, 
when  all  the  products  of  the  year  from  grain- 
field,  oliveyard,  and  vineyard  were  gar- 
nered. Hence  the  name  feast  of  ingather- 
ing, under  which  it  was  instituted  (Ex.  xxiii. 
16;  xxxiv.  22;  Lev.  xxiii.  39;  Deut.  xvi.  13, 
15).  It  was  celebrated  during  seven  days. 
The  special  burnt  offering  amounted  to  sev- 
enty bullocks,  distributed  on  a  decreasing 
scale  over  the  week,  together  witli  two  rams 
and  fourteen  lambs  daily ;  and  as  a  sin  offer- 
ing a  he  goat  was  daily  sacrificed  (Num.  xxix. 
12-34;  cp.  Lev.  xxiii.'  36;  Ezra  iii.  4).  The 
booths  made  of  the  boughs  of  trees  suggested 
the  vintage  life ;  but  they  were  also  made  a 
reminder  of  the  march  from  Egypt  through 
the  wilderness  (Lev.  xxiii.  43;  cp.  Hos.  xii. 
9).  Every  seven  years  the  law  of  Moses  was 
publicly  read,  the  year  of  reading  coinciding 
with  the  year  of  release,  when  there  was  ho 
occasion  to  celebrate  an  ingathered  harvest 


• 


Tabernacles,  Feast  of 


■19 


Tabor 


(Deut.  xxxi.  9-13).  The  festival  occurred 
almost  immediately  after  the  day  of  atone- 
ment. The  people,  purged  ceremonially 
from  their  sinfulness,  could  keep  the  feast 
with  a  glad  sense  of  their  fitness  to  com- 
mune with  the  hountiful  tiod.  The  needy 
were  rememhered  (Deut.  xvi,  14).  An  eighth 
day  of  solemn  assembly  was  added  to  the 
festival.  It  was  distinct  from  the  festival ; 
the  requirement  to  dwell  in  booths  did  not 
extend  to  it,  and  its  offerings  stood  in  no  re- 
lation to  those  of  the  festival  proper  (Lev. 
xxiii.  3(j,  39;  Num.  xxix.  35-3S ;  Antiq.  iii. 
10,  4).  It  was  not  intended  to  conclude  the 
feast  of  tabernacles,  but  only  to  bring  the 
annual  cycle  of  festivals  to  a  fitting  close. 
Later,  however,  the  festival  was  spoken  of 
as  continuing  for  eight  days  (2  Mac.  x.  fi  ; 
Antiq.  iii.  10,  4).  It  is  disputed  whether  the 
seventh  or  the  eighth  day  was  the  great  day 
referred  to  in  John  vii.  37.  Splendid  cere- 
monies were  subsequently  added  to  those  pre- 
scribed in  the  law  for  the  festival.  At  the 
time  of  the  morning  sacrifice  the  people  took 
branches  of  palm,  myrtle,  and  willow  inter- 
twined and  fruit  in  their  hands,  repaired  to 
the  temple,  and  marched  around  the  altar  of 
burnt  offering  once  daily  and  seven  times  on 
the  seventh  day,  after  the  manner  of  com- 
passing Jericho  (Antiq,  iii.  10,  4  ;  xiii.  13,  5 ; 
cp.  2  Mac.  X.  6,  7).  Another  custom,  possibly 
also  in  vogue  in  Christ's  day,  was  that  daily 


ceived  with  trumpet  blast  and  the  words  of 
Is.  xii.  3  :  "  With  joy  shall  ye  draw  water  out 
of  the  wells  of  Siilvation,"  It  was  mixed  with 
the  wine  of  the  sacrifices  and,  while  priests 
blew  trumpets  and  Levites  played  on  instru- 
ments and  sang  psalms,  was  poured  out  be- 
side the  altar,  whence  it  was  conducted  by  a 
sewer  into  the  Kidrou  valley.  It  was  also 
customary  in  the  evening  following  the  first 
day  of  the  festival,  and  perhaps  on  the  sub- 
sequent evenings,  to  illuminate  the  court  of 
the  women  from  two  lofty  stands,  each  sup- 
porting four  immense  lamps,  which  threw 
their  light  not  only  into  the  courts  of  the 
temple,  but  far  and  wide  over  the  city.  The 
wicks  were  made  of  the  cast-off  linen  of  the 
priests.  Levites,  stationed  on  the  steps  of 
the  court,  rendered  instrumental  music  and 
sang  psalms  :  and  a  dance  was  performed  by 
prominent  laymen  and  priests. 

Jews  who  were  unable  to  attend  the  cele- 
bration at  Jerusalem  on  account  of  the  dis- 
tance of  the  city  from  their  home,  especially 
Jews  dwelling  in  foreign  countries,  kept  the 
festival  at  the  synagogue  of  the  town  where 
they  lived,  but  of  course  without  the  offering 
of  sacrifices. 

Tab'i-tha.    See  Doecas. 

Ta'bor. 

1.  A  mountain  on  the  boundary  of  the 
territory  of  Issachar  (Antiq.  v.  1,  22 ;  perhaps 


Mount  Tabor,  as  seen  from  Nain. 


during  the  festival,  at  the  time  of  the  morn- 
ing and  evening  oblation,  a  priest  filled  a 
golden  vessel  with  water  at  the  pool  of  Siloam 
and  carried  it  to  the  temple,  where  it  was  re- 


Josh,  xix.  22).  Barak  assembled  there  the 
forces  of  Issachar  and  Zebulun  with  which  it 
was  designed  to  fight  with  Sisera  (Judg.  iv.  6, 
12, 14).    Tabor  is  vastly  inferior  in  size  to  Her- 


Tabret 


720 


Tahpanhes 


mou,  yet  as  a  notable  mountain  is  coupled  with 
it  in  Ps.  Ixxxix.  12.  Tabor  was  situated  inland 
among  the  mountains,  and  not,  like  Carmel, 
by  the  sea  (Jer.  xlvi.  18).  Josephus  fortified 
its  summit,  inclosing  it  with  a  wall  (Life  37; 
War  iv.  1,  8).  Tabor,  now  called  Jebel  et- 
Tor,  is  a  detached  hill  1843  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  Mediterranean,  in  the  north- 
eastern part  of  the  plain  of  Jezreel,  about  1'2 
miles  north  of  mount  (lilboa,  5J  east  by 
south  of  Nazareth,  and  12  west  by  south 
of  the  southern  curve  of  the  lake  of  Gen- 
nesaret.  Fi-om  the  west-northwest  it  looks 
like  a  truncated  cone,  and  from  the  south- 
west the  segment  of  a  sphere.  The  sides, 
which  are  not  particularly  steep,  have  oak 
thickets,  inhabited  by  wild  swine.  The  top 
is  flat  and  elliptical.  In  the  fourth  century 
the  opinion  sprang  up  that  Tabor  was  the 
scene  of  the  transfiguration,  but  Robinson 
has  shown  the  high  improbability  of  this 
being  correct,  as  in  the  days  of  Christ  there 
was  a  fortified  city  on  the  hilltop.  The 
effect  of  the  tradition,  however,  was  that 
ecclesiastical  buildings  in  memory  of  the 
transfiguration  were  erected  to  a  larger  and 
larger  extent.     Their  ruins  remain. 

2.  A  town  of  Zebulun,  given  to  the  Me- 
rarite  Levites  (1  Chron.  vi.  77).  It  may  be 
the  place  on  the  border  of  Issachar  (Josh, 
xix.  22).  The  latter  is  scarcely  identical 
with  the  border  town  Chisloth-tabor  (12), 
which  rather  corresponds  with  ChesuUoth 
(18). 

3.  An  oak  or  terebinth  (1  Sam.  x.  3  ;  not 
plain,  as  in  A.  V.),  which  seems  to  have 
grown  within  the  territory  of  Benjamin,  but 
the  exact  spot  is  unknown. 

Tab'ret. 

A  musical  instrument  (1  Sam.  x.  5),  a  tim- 
brel (q.  v.). 

Tab-rim'mon,  in  A.  V.  Tab'rim-on  [Ara- 
maic, Rimmon  is  good]. 

A  son  of  Hezion,  and  father  of  Beuhadad 
I.,  king  of  Syria  (1  Kin.  xv.  18). 

Tache. 

A  catch  for  taking  hold  or  holding  together. 
It  was  used  about  the  tabernacle  for  coupling 
curtains  together  (Ex.  xxvi.  6,  11,  in  R.  V. 
clasp). 

Tach'mo-nite,  in  R.  V.  Tahchemonite. 

A  word  found  in  2  Sam.  xxiii.  8.  It  is 
doubtless  a  corruption,  in  the  Hebrew  text 
itself,  of  "the  Hachmonite,"  a  copyist  hav- 
ing mistaken  He})rew  h  for  t.  See  Hach- 
aroNi. 

Tad'mor  [formed  from  tn war,  a,  palm  tree]. 

A  town  in  the  desert  (2  Chron.  viii.  4).  It 
was  fortified  by  Solomon,  doubtless  to  control 
the  caravan  route  across  it.  In  the  parallel 
passage  (1  Kin.  ix.  18,  R.  V.)  it  is  called 
Tamar  in  the  wilderness,  and  described  as 
l)eing  not  only  in  the  desert,  but  also  in  the 
land.  Tliis  latter  phrase  is  probably  broad 
enough  to  denote  the  extensive  kingdom  of 


Solomon  (19;  iv.  21,  24).  The  suggestion 
has  been  made  that  the  town  may  be  identi- 
cal with  Tamar  at  the  southeastern  corner 
of  the  promi.sed  boundaries  of  the  land 
(Ezek.  xlvii.  19  ;  xlviii.  28),  probablj-  on  the 
road  from  Hebron  to  Elath  ;  see  Tamak  5. 
This  identification  is  in  itself  suitable,  and 
may  include  or  correct  Tadmor  in  2  Chron. 
viii.  4,  which  has  been  proposed  in  explana- 
tion of  1  Kin.  ix.  18.  But  the  text  of  Kings 
is  suspicious :  for  the  phrase  "in  the  land" 
is  superfluous,  since  all  the  towns  mentioned 
were  in  the  land,  and  the  text  departs  from 
the  parallel  enumeration  in  Chronicles  in 
failing  to  locate  in  Hamath  the  store  cities 
of  Solomon.  Perhaps  the  original  text  was 
"Tamar  in  the  wilderness,  in  the  land  of 
Hamath  all  the  store  cities."  Tadmor  eventu- 
ally became  subject  to  the  Romans,  who 
Latinized  the  name  into  Palmyra  (Autiq. 
viii.  6,  1).  Between  A.  d.  251  and  273  it  was 
at  first  partially,  and  then  for  a  time  totally, 
independent.  The  place  still  retains  the 
name  of  Tadmur.  It  is  in  an  oasis  about  140 
miles  east-northeast  of  Damascus,  and  about 
120  from  the  Euphrates.  It  is  now  a  ruin, 
stretching  more  than  a  mile  and  a  half.  It 
has  long  rows  of  Corinthian  columns  and  a 
few  of  the  Ionic  order,  with  a  number  of 
tower-like  tombs.  The  inscriptions  found 
in  the  place  have  been  chiefly  Greek  and 
Semitic. 

Ta'han  [perhaps,  inclination]. 
A  descendant  of  Ephraim,  and  founder  of 
a  tribal  family  (Num.  xxvi.  35).    His  descent 
was  probably  through   Telah,   Rephah,  and 
Beriah  to  Ephraim  (1  Chron.  vii.  25). 
Ta-hap'a-nes.     See  Tahpanhes. 
Ta'hash,  in  A.V.  Thahash  [porpoise  or  sim- 
ilar fishlike  animal]. 

A  son  of  Nahor  by  his  concubine  Reumah 
(Gen.  xxii.  24). 

Ta'hath  [that  which  is  beneath] . 

1.  A  station  of  the  Israelites  in  the  wil- 
derness (Num.  xxxiii.  26,  27).  Situation  un- 
known. 

2.  A  Levite,  fomily  of  Kohath,  house  of 
Izhar,  and  of  the  line  of  Korah  and  Abiasaph 
(1  Chron.  vi.  24,  37).  From  him  two  families 
branched.  Uriel  and  Zephaniah. 

3.  An  Ephraimite,  son  of  Bered,  family  of 
Shuthelah  (1  Chron.  vii.  20). 

4.  A  son  of  Eleadah,  and  a  descendant  of 
Tahath,  son  of  Bered  (1  Chron.  vii.  20). 

Tah-che'mo-nite.     See  Tachmonite. 

Tah'pan-hes,  and  once  Tehaphnehes 
(Ezek.  XXX.  18) ;  in  A.  V.  once  also  Tahapa- 
nes  (Jer.  ii.  16). 

An  Egyptian  city  (Ezek.  xxx.  18),  to  which 
Jews  fled  to  escape  Babylonian  vengeance 
after  the  murder  of  Gedaliah  (Jer.  xliii.  7-9). 
Jews  seem  to  have  become  permanent  resi- 
dents there  (xliv.  1  ;  xlvi.  14).  The  Septu- 
agint  translators  render  the  name  Taphne  or 
Taphnai,  obviously  the  same  as  Daphne,  a 


Tahpenes 


r2i 


Tamarisk  Tree 


fortified  city  on  the  Pelusiac  channel  of  tlie 
Kih-  (Heroci.  ii.  ;5(),  107).  The  site  is  helieved 
to  have  lu'cn  at  a  mound  still  called  Defenneh, 
ajijiarently  a  moditicatiou  of  the  old  name. 

Tah'pe-nes. 

A  queen  of  Egypt,  wife  of  that  Pharaoh 
who  received  Hadad  when  he  was  a  fugitive 
from  Solomon  (1  Kin.  xi.  19,  20). 

Tali're-a  and  Tarea  [perhaps,  adroitness 
or  cunning]. 

A  descendant  of  king  Saul  through  Jona- 
tlian  (1  Chron.  viii.  35;  ix.  41). 

Tah-tim-hod'shi. 

A  region  visited  by  David's  census  takers 
in  connection  with  Gilead,  before  they  came 
to  l)an-jaan  and  roundabout  to  Zidou  (2  Sam. 
xxiv.  6).  The  name  is  elsewhere  unknown, 
and  perhaps  stands  for  "the  Hittites  toward 
Kadesh  ;  "  see  Kadesh  2. 

Tal'ent. 

A  weight  u.sed  both  for  ordinary  commod- 
ities and  for  the  precious  metals,  but  of  dif- 
ferent standard  in  the  respective  cases  ;  see 
Weights.  The  value  of  the  talent  of  gold 
was  about  $29,374.50;  and  that  of  silver 
about  §1300 ;  but  the  margin  of  Mat.  xviii. 
24,  E.  v.,  makes  it  somewhat  less,  about 
/.'240.  From  the  parable  of  the  talents,  in 
Avhich  a  master  distributes  talents  among  his 
servants,  according  to  their  several  ability, 
to  be  put  to  profitable  use 
(Mat.  XXV.  14-30),  the  Eng- 
lish figurative  use  of  the 
word  talents  is  probably 
derived  in  such  expressions 
as  that  one  uses  his  talents 
well. 

Tal'i-tha  cu'mi  [Ara- 
maic, maiden  arise]  (Mark 
V.  41). 

Tal'mai  [pertaining  to 
furrows]. 

1.  A  son  of  Auak,  and 
probably  founder  of  a  fam- 
ily of  Anakim  (Num.  xiii. 
22),  driven  from  Hebron 
bv  Caleb  (Josh.  xv.  14 ; 
Jiidg.  i.  10). 

2.  A  king  of  Geshur, 
whose  daughter  Maacah 
was  one  of  David's  wives, 
and  Absalom's  mother  (2 
Sam.  iii.  3;  xiii.  37;  1 
•C'liroii.  iii.  2). 

Tal'mon  [oppressed]. 

A  porter,  and  the  family 
which  he  founded  (1  Chron. 
ix.  17 ;  Neb.  xi.  19  ;  xii.  25).    Some  of  them  re- 
turned from  captivity  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra 
ii.  42 ;  Neh.  vii.  45),  and  performed  the  same 
service  at  the  new  temple. 

Ta'mah.     See  Tem.a^h. 

Ta'mar,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Ttamar  [a  palm 
tree,  sjjecially  a  date  palm] . 
46 


1.  The  wife  of  Er,  son  of  Judah.  When 
left  a  widow,  she  became  the  mother  of  Perez 
and  Zerah  by  Judah  (Gen.  xxxviii.  6-2G), 
and  thus  the  ancestress  of  several  tribal  fam- 
ilies (Num.  xxvi.  20,  21). 

2.  The  beautiful  sister  of  Absalom,  who  liad 
his  ))rother  Anunon  assassinati'd  for  ill-using 
her  (2  Sam.  xiii.  1-39  ;  1  Chron.  iii.  9). 

3.  A  daughter  of  Absalom,  named  doubt- 
less after  his  sister  (2  Sam.  xiv.  27). 

4.  A  town  in  the  desert  (1  Kin.  ix.  18). 
The  Hebrew  K'ri,  or  ])referrcd  reading,  the 
A.  v.,  the  margin  of  the  R.  V.,  and  2  Chron. 
viii.  4  have  Tadmor;  see  Tadmor. 

5.  A  place  at  the  eastern  end  of  the 
promised  southern  frontier  of  Palestine 
(Ezek.  xlvii.  19  ;  xlviii.  28).  It  would  lie 
south  of  the  Dead  Sea ;  and  perhaps  is  iden- 
tical with  the  village  Tamara,  located  by 
Eusebius  on  the  road  between  Hebron  and 
Elalh. 

Tam'a-risk  Tree. 

The  tamarisk  {Tnmarix  articidata)  is  called 
'athl  in  Arabic,  'aihla'  in  Aramaic ;  and  accord- 
ingly the  cognate  Hebrew  word  'eshel  doubt- 
less likewise  denotes  the  tamarisk.  Abraham 
planted  one  in  Beer-sheba  (Gen.  xxi.  .33  ;  in 
A.  Y.  grove),  Saul  dwelt  beneath  one  in 
Eamah  (1  Sam.  xxii.  (5 ;  in  A.  V.  a  tree),  and 
the  bones  of  Saul  and  his  sons  were  buried 
beneath  one  in  Jabesb-gilead  (xxxi.   13 ;  in 


Tamarisk  Tree. 

A.  V.  a  tree).  The  chronicler  states  that  the 
bones  of  the  king  and  his  .sous  were  interred 
beneath  the  'elah  in  Jabesh  (1  Chron.  x.  12; 
in  E.  y.  oak,  R.  V.  margin  terebinth).  He  may, 
however,  use  the  term  'elah  in  its  broad  signifi- 
cation of  strong  tree  :  see  Oak.  The  tamarisk 
is  a  small  tree,  growing  fnmi  10  to  20,  25,  or 
30  feet  higli,  with  durable  wood,  deciduous 


Tammuz 


722 


Tarpelites 


branches,  and  iniimte,  scale-like,  evergreen 
leaves.  Nine  species  occur  in  Palestine.  The 
most  widely  distributed  is  Tamarix  pallasii, 
which  attains  a  height  of  from  10  to  20  feet. 
The  largest  species  is  Tamarix  articulata,  from 
15  to  30  feet.  It  is  found  along  the  western 
border  of  the  desert  of  the  wandering. 
Tamarix  mannifera,  from  10  to  15  feet  in 
height,  growing  in  ancient  Moab,  Edom,  and 
the  peninsula  of  Sinai,  yields  the  substance 
popularly  known  as  manna;  see  Manna. 

Tam'muz. 

A  deity  of  the  Babylonians,  called  by  them 
Dnmu-zi  or  Du-zi,  jirobably  meaning  sou  of 
life,  from  which  the  name  Tammuz  is  de- 
rived. He  was  worshiped  throughout  Baby- 
lonia, and  in  Assyria.  Phoenicia,  and  Pales- 
tine ;  and  he  gave  name  to  the  fourth  month 
of  the  Semitic  year;  see  Year.  He  was  the 
husband  of  the  goddess  Ishtar,  and  king  of 
the  nether  world.  He  was  also  god  of  the 
pasture,  the  patron  of  flocks  and  their  keep- 
ers, and  hence  was  himself  entitled  shep- 
herd. He  was  represented  as  dying  annually 
and  returning  to  life  with  each  recurring 
year.  It  was  understood,  by  some  at  least, 
that  he  was  slain  by  the  sun-god  Shamash. 
The  story  is  confessedly  a  nature  myth. 
However  its  details  may  be  explained,  it 
symbolizes  more  or  less  inclusively  the  an- 
nual withdrawal  and  invariable  return  of 
the  sun,  and  the  death  and  revival  of  vegeta- 
tion. Ezekiel  in  vision  saw  the  worship  of 
Tammuz  in  favor  among  the  Jews,  and 
women  sitting  at  the  northern  gate  of  the 
temple  weeping  for  the  god  (Ezek.  viii.  14). 
Cyril  of  Alexandria  and  Jerome  identified 
him  with  the  Phcenician  Adonis.  Though 
not  proven,  their  conjecture  has  found  much 
favor.  Jerome  says  that  the  Syrians  cele- 
brated an  annual  solemnity  to  Adonis  in 
June,  when  he  was  lamented  by  the  women  as 
dead,  and  afterwards  his  coming  to  life  again 
was  celebrated  with  songs.  From  other  sources 
it  appears  that  Byblos  in  Phoenicia  was  the 
headquarters  of  the  Adonis  worship.  The 
annual  feast  in  his  honor  was  held  at  the 
neighboring  temple  of  Aphrodite  in  mount 
Lebanon,  and  lasted  seven  days.  It  began 
with  a  commemoration  of  the  disappearance 
of  the  god.  Vessels  filled  with  mold  and 
containing  stalks  of  wheat,  barley,  lettuce, 
and  fennel,  and  called  gardens  of  Adonis, 
were  exposed  to  the  heat  of  the  sun.  The 
withering  of  the  plants  symbolized  the 
.slaughter  of  the  youth  by  the  fire-god  Mars. 
Then  followed  a  search  for  Adonis  by  the 
women.  At  length  his  image  was  found  in 
one  of  the  gardens.  The  finding  was  cele- 
brated by  lewdness  and  song.  The  image 
was  then  coffined,  and  the  wound  made  by 
the  symbolical  boar  which  slew  the  young 
god  was  shown  on  his  body.  The  people  sat 
on  the  ground  around  the  bier  with  their 
clothes  rent,  and  the  women  raised  loud 
lamentation.  Sacrifice  was  offered  for  the 
dead  god,  and  the  image  was  buried. 


Ta'nach.     See  Taanach. 

Tan'hu-meth  [con.sohition]. 

A  Netophathite  (2  Kin.  xxv.  23  ;  Jer.  xl.  8). 

Ta'phath  [a  drop]. 

A  daughter  of  Solomon,  and  wife  of  Abin- 
adab  (1  Kin.  iv.  11). 

Ta'phon.     See  Tephon. 

Tap'pu-ah  [apple  or,  perhaps,  quince  or 
apricot] . 

1.  A  town  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  34).     Site  unknown. 

2.  A  town  of  Manasseh  west  of  Shechem 
and  on  the  boundary  of  Ephraim  (Josh.  xvi. 
8  ;  xvii.  7,  8). 

3.  A  son  of  Hebron  (1  Chron.  ii.  43). 

Ta'rah.     See  Terah. 

Tar'a-lah  [staggering,  reeling]. 
A  city  of  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii.  27).     Site 
unknown. 
Ta're-a.    See  Tahrea. 

Tares. 

The  rendering  of  the  Greek  Zizanion  in 
Mat.  xiii.  25-27,  29, 30 ;  on  K.  V.  margin  dar- 
nel. The  tare  {Vicia  saiiva),  a  vetch,  with 
pinnate  leaves  and  purple-blue  or  red  papil- 
ionaceous flowers,  would  be  easily  distin- 
guished from  the  wheat.     The  Greek  word 


Bearded  Darnel. 

zizanion  corresponds  to  the  Arabic  suwdn^ 
which  denotes  Lolium,  and  to  the  talmudic 
zonin.  The  bearded  darnel  {Loliian  temulen- 
tum)  is  a  poisonous  grass,  almost  undistin- 
guishable  from  wheat  while  the  two  are  only, 
in  blade,  but  which  can  be  separated  without 
difficulty  when  they  come  into  ear  (cp.  ver. 
29,  30). 

Tar'get.     See  Armor. 

Tar'gum.    See  Versions. 

Tar'pel-ites. 

The  inhabitants  of  an  unknown  place, 
presumably  called  Tarpel,  and  situated  near 
Babylonia  or  Elam.  They  were  brought  by 
Asnapper  to  Samaria  after  the  deportation  of 
the  ten  tribes  (Ezra  iv.  9). 


4 


Tarshish 


723 


Tatnai 


Tar'sMsh,  in  A.  V.  four  times  TliarsMsh 
(1  Kin.  x.  'J-J;  xxii.  48;  1  Clirou.  vii.  10). 

].  A  people  deseeiided  from  Javan  ((Ten. 
X.  4)  aiul  their  country.  As  Jonah  entered 
a  sliip  at  .Toppa  in  order  to  tiee  thither,  the 
route  to  it  was  evidently  across  the  waters 
of  the  Mediterranean.  It  was  a  distant  land 
(Is.  Ixvi.  1!)).  Tyre  was  the  "daughter"  of 
Tarshish  (xxiii.  10),  perhaps  in  the  sense 
that  the  commerce  with  Tarsliish  was  the 
making  of  Tyre.  The  imports  from  Tarshish 
were  silver  beaten  into  plates  (Jer.  x.  9),  also 
iron,  tin,  and  lead  (Ezek.  xxvii.  12).  It  is 
believed  that  Tarshish  was  Tartes.sus,  in  the 
south  of  Spain,  near  Gibraltar  (Herod,  iv. 
152),  and  the  countrj'  of  the  Turti  or  Turdi- 
taui,  to  which  tlie  town  belonged.  The 
mineral  wealth  of  the  region  attracted  the 
Phoenicians,  who  established  a  colony  there 
and  Semitized  the  name.  Spain  lias  long 
been  noted  for  its  mineral  wealth. 


Tar'sus  [not  from  Greek  larsos,  a  crate  of 
witkerwork,  any  broad,  flat  surface].  The 
name  was  pronounced  Tarzi  by  the  Assyri- 
ans, and  appears  written  on  coins  in  Aramaic 
character  as  Trz. 

The  chief  city  of  Cilicia,  in  the  eastern 
7)art  of  Asia  Minor.  It  was  situated  on  both 
banks  of  the  river  Cydnus,  about  12  miles 
from  the  sea.  About  8'SS  b.  c.  it  is  men- 
tioned by  Shalmaneser,  king  of  Assyria. 
When  the  Romans  formed  the  province  of 
Cilicia  in  (54  B.  c,  they  made  Tarsus  the 
residence  of  the  governor.  To  comiiensate 
it  for  the  sufferings  it  endured  in  its  alle- 
giance to  the  ])arty  of  Cajsar,  Marc  Antony 
granted  it  freedom  and  excnii)tion  from  taxa- 
tion. It  was  particularly  celebrated  for  its 
schools,  which  almost  rivaled  those  of  Athens 
and  Alexandria.  It  was  the  birthplace  of 
the  apostle  Paul,  and  he  revisited  it  at  least 
once  after  his  conversion  (Acts  ix.  11.  30 ;  xi. 


Tarsus. 


Ships  of  Tarshish  were  originally  ships 
trading  to  and  from  Tarshish.  but  ultimately 
ships  of  first-rate  magnitude  to  whatever 
place  their  voyages  may  have  been  made 
(Ps.  xlviii.  7;  Is.  ii.  16;  xxiii.  1,  14;  Ix.  9  ; 
Ezek.  xxvii.  25).  Such  vessels,  built  by  Je- 
hoshaphat  to  go  to  Ophir,  lay  in  the  harbor 
at  Ezion-geber  on  the  Ked  Sea  (1  Kin.  xxii. 
48).  The  term  Tarshish  ship  is  paraphrased 
as  "ship  going  to  Tarshish"  (2  Chron.  ix. 
21,  Hebrew  text ;  cp.  1  Kin.  x.  22)  and  "ship 
to  go  to  Tarshish"  (2  Chron.  xx.  36). 

2.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Bilhan  (1  Chron. 
vii.  10). 

3.  One  of  the  seven  highest  princes  of 
Persia  (Esth.  i.  14). 


25;  xxi.  39;  xxii.  3).  Though  much  de- 
cayed from  its  former  grandeur,  it  still  exists 
as  a  considerable  town.  There  are  few  rem- 
nants of  antiquity  at  the  old  .site. 

Tar'tak. 

An  idol  set  up  by  the  Avvites  in  Samaria 
(2  Kin.  xvii.  31). 

Tar'tan. 

The  title  of  the  commander-in-chief  of 
the  Assyrian  army  (2  Kin.  xviii.  17;  Is.  xx. 
1).  The  name  was  pronounced  by  the  As- 
syrians both  tartanu  and  iitrtanu. 

Tat'nai. 

A  Persian  governor  west  of  the  river  Eu- 
phrates.    He    opposed    the   building   of   the 


Tau 


724 


Tebah 


temple  by  the  returned    exiles  (Ezra  v.   3; 
vi.  6). 

Tau. 

The  twenty-second  and  last  letter  of  the 
Hebrew  alphabet,  pronounced  t  or  th  ac- 
cording to  position.  English  T  comes  from 
the  same  source,  and  with  th  represents  it 
in  anglicized  Hebrew  names;  as  Tamar, 
Nathan.  It  heads  the  twenty-second  section 
of  Ps.  cxix.,  in  which  section  each  verse  of 
the  original  begins  with  this  letter. 

Scribes  occasionally  confused  tau  and  he 
(q.  v.). 

Tax'es. 

Under  the  judges  the  regular  payments 
obligatory  on  the  Israelites  were  for  the 
worship  of  Jehovah.  There  was  as  yet  no 
army  and  no  royal  court  to  support.  But 
there  was  a  tabernacle  and  a  priesthood,  and 
these  were  maintained  by  the  tithes  and 
other  offerings,  and  by  the  land  which  was 
permanently  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the 
Levites. 

After  the  establishment  of  the  kingdom, 
revenue  for  its  support  was  obtained  from 
various  sources:  1.  Taxes  in  kind  were 
levied  by  Solomon  on  the  produce  of  the 
field  and  the  flock  {1  Kin.  iv.  7-28;  cp. 
Amos  vii.  1).  2.  Special  gifts  were  brought 
to  the  king  at  the  commencement  of  his 
reign  (1  Sam.  x.  27)  or  in  time  of  war  (xvi. 
20;  xvii.  18).  3.  Tribute  was  rendered  by 
subject  peoples  (2  Sam.  viii.  6,  14 ;  1  Kin.  x. 
15 ;  2  Kin.  iii.  4),  and  service  was  exacted 
of  the  Canaanites  who  dwelt  in  the  midst 
of  Israel  (Judg.  i.  28,  .30;  1  Kin.  ix.  20,  21). 
When  the  Hebrews  were  subject  to  a  foreign 
prince,  they  had  to  pay  tribute  to  him  in 
addition  to  taxes  for  the  support  of  their 
own  government.  4.  Duties  were  paid  by 
tradesmen  and  merchants  (1  Kin.  x.  1.5). 
Without  levying  taxes  in  money  or  produce, 
and  with  little  expense  to  himself,  David  at- 
tained the  object  of  a  standing  army  by  divid- 
ing the  men  of  military  age  into  brigades  of 
24,000  men,  and  requiring  each  brigade  in 
turn  to  hold  itself  in  readiness  during  one 
month  for  instant  service  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  1). 
Under  Solomon  the  people  were  oppressed  by 
taxation,  and  this  grievous  burden  was  an 
immediate  cause  of  the  disruption  of  the 
kingdom  (1  Kin.  xii.  4).  Exemption  from 
taxation  was  a  reward  for  service  (1  Sam. 
xvii.  2.5 ;  Antiq.   xvii.  2,  1). 

Under  the  Persian  empire,  by  decree  of 
Darius  Hystaspis  the  satraps  of  each  prov- 
ince paid  a  fixed  sum  into  the  royal  treasury 
(Herod,  iii.  89).  The  inhabitants  had  to 
provide  for  the  maintenance  of  the  govern- 
or's household  also.  This  provision  was 
called  the  bread  of  the  governor,  and  so  far 
as  .Tudah  was  concerned  included  food  and 
forty  shekels  daily  in  money  (Neh.  v.  14,  15). 
The  revenue  was  derived  from  tribute,  cus- 
toms, and  toll  (Ezra  iv.  13,  20).  Priests, 
Levites,  and  Nethinim  were  exempted  from 


the.se  taxes  in  Judah  (vii.  24) ;  but  the  bur- 
dens pressed  heavily  on  the  great  body  of 
the  people,  who  had  the  sanctuary  likewise 
to  support,  and  many  were  forced  to  mort- 
gage their  fields  and  vineyards  to  raise  money 
for  the  tribute  (Neh.  v.  4 ;  ix.  37). 

Under  the  Egyptian  and  Syrian  kings,  in- 
stead of  a  fixed  amount  being  levied  by  the 
crown  on  the  people,  the  i)rivilege  of  collect- 
ing the  taxes  of  a  district  was  put  up  at 
auction  and  sold  to  the  highest  responsible 
bidder.  The  party  who  promised  the  most 
revenue  from  a  province  was  authorized  to 
collect  it  and  was  furnished  with  military 
power  sufficient  to  enable  him  to  enforce  his 
demands  (Antiq.  xii.  4,  1-5).  The  Syrian 
kings  imposed  a  poll  tax  and  a  duty  on  .salt, 
exacted  a  sum  of  money  in  lieu  of  the  an- 
nual present  of  a  crown  of  gold,  which  it 
had  become  customary  to  demand,  took  one- 
third  of  the  grain  and  one-half  of  the  fruit, 
and  in  addition  levied  on  the  tithes  and  tolls 
paid  into  the  temple  at  Jerusalem  (1  Mac. 
X.  29-31  ;  xi.  34,  35 ;  xiii.  37,  39 ;  Antiq.  xii. 
3,  3). 

When  the  Romans  under  Pompey  took 
Jerusalem  in  63  B.  c,  tribute  was  imposed 
on  the  Jews  which  in  a  short  time  amounted 
to  more  than  10,000  talents  (Antiq.  xiv.  4,  4, 
and  5).  Julius  Caesar  decreed  that  the  tribute 
should  not  be  farmed,  that  it  should  not  be 
levied  in  a  Sabbatic  year,  and  that  in  the 
year  following  a  Sabbatic  year  only  one- 
fourth  of  the  usual  amount  should  be  col- 
lected (10,  5  and  6).  Herod  the  Great  taxed 
the  produce  of  the  field  (xv.  9,  1),  and  levied 
duties  on  commodities  bought  and  sold  (xvii. 
8,  4).  When  Judsea  was  placed  under  proc- 
urators, the  financial  system  of  the  empire 
was  introduced.  The  revenues  were  farmed ; 
.see  Publican.  There  were  levied  :  1.  Trib- 
ute of  the  soil,  paid  either  in  kind  or  in 
money.  2.  A  poll  tax  (Mat.  xxii.  17)  and, 
under  the  same  name,  a  tax  on  personal 
property.  3.  Export  and  import  duties,  col- 
lected at  seaports  and  at  the  gates  of  cities. 
In  Jerusalem  a  house  duty  was  paid  by  the 
inhabitants  (Antiq.  xix.  6,  3). 

After  tlie  exile  a  temple  tax  of  half  a 
shekel  was  imposed  on  every  Israelite  who 
had  reached  the  age  of  twenty  years  (Mat. 
xvii.  24).  The  collectors  visited  each  town 
of  Judsea  annually  at  a  fixed  time,  and  in 
foreign  countries  places  were  designated 
where  it  might  be  paid.     See  Tribute  2. 

Tax'ing. 

An  enrollment,  ordered  by  the  Roman  em- 
peror Augustus,  which  in  the  providence  of 
God  brought  Joseph  and  Mary  to  Bethlehem, 
and  led  to  the  fulfillment  of  the  ancient 
prophecy  that  the  Messiah  should  be  born  in 
that  town  (Mic.  v.  2 ;  Mat.  ii.  5,  6 ;  Luke  ii. 
1-20).  A  later  enrollment  led  to  tumults 
among  the  Jews  (Acts  v.  37).     See  Quikinius. 

Te'bali  [slaughter  (specially  of  cattle)]. 
A  son  of  Nahor  by  Reumah,  his  concubine 


Tebaliah 


725 


Temple 


(tien.  xxii.  24),  and  the  tribe  descended  from 
iiim.  The  name  is  found  in  2  8ani.  viii.  8, 
according  to  the  .Sei)tuagint  and  the  Syriac 
version,  and  also  in  1  Chron.  xviii.  8  iu  the 
form  Tihliath,  and  denotes  a  town  of  Araiu- 
zobah. 

Teb-a-li'aL  [Jchovali  luith  immersed,  i.e., 
ceremonially  purified]. 

A  Merarite  Levite,  the  third  son  of  Hosah 
(1  Chron.  xxvi.  11). 

Te'beth. 

The  tenth  mouth  of  the  Semitic  calendar 
(Ksth.  ii.  10).     See  Year. 

Te-haph'ne-hes.     See  Tahpanhes. 

Te-Mn'nah  [grace,  supplications]. 

A  man  of  Judah,  descended  from  Chelub, 
and  ancestor  of  the  inhabitants  of  Ir-nahash 
(1  Chron.  iv.  12). 

Teil  Tree. 

The  linden,  a  tree  of  the  genus  THin.  The 
Hebrew  word  'elah  is  once  translated  thus  in 
A.  V.  (Is.  vi.  13  ;  iu  R.  V.  terebinth)  ;  see 
Oak  1  and  Terebinth.  The  teil  tree  does 
not  grow  in  Palestine. 

Te'kel.     See  Mexe. 

Te-ko'a,  in  A.  V.  thrice  Tekoah  (2  Sam. 
xiv.  2,  4,  9),  and  so  in  E.  V.  of  1  Mac.  ix.  33, 
where  A.  V.  has  Thecoe. 

A  town  in  Judah  (1  Chron.  ii.  24;  iv.  5; 
Septuagint  of  Josh.  xv.  60),  in  the  wilderness 
toward  En-gedi  (2  Chron.  xx.  20;  cp.  2,  16). 
It  was  fortitied  by  Rehoboam  (2  Chron.  xi.  6). 
It  was  the  home  of  the  prophet  Amos  (Amos 
i.  1).  In  Xehemiah's  time  the  common  peo- 
ple of  Tekoa  helped  to  rebuild  the  wall  of 
Jerusalem,  while  the  nobles  of  the  place 
showed  indifference  to  the  work  (Neh.  iii.  5, 
27).  The  name  still  lingers  as  Tekii'a,  a 
ruined  village  5  miles  south  of  Bethlehem. 
It  is  on  a  hill  broad  at  the  top,  where  are 
found  the  remains  of  the  foundations  of 
houses,  often  with  beveled  stones,  the  whole 
occupying  an  area  of  4  or  5  acres.  There  is 
also  a  castle,  but  of  more  modern  date. 

Te-ko'ite. 

A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Tekoa  (2  Sam. 
xxiii.  26). 

Tel-a'bib  [heap,  or  liill  of  ears  of  grain]. 

A  place  in  BabyloTiia,  near  the  river  Che- 
bar.  Jewish  exiles  were  located  there  (Ezek. 
iii.  1.5).     Situation  unknown. 

Te'lah  [fracture]. 

A  descendant  of  Ephraim,  probably  through 
Beriah  (1  Chron.  vii.  25). 

Tel'a-im  [little  lambs]. 

A  place  where  Saul  assembled  his  army  to 
war  against  the  Amalekites  (1  Sam.  xv.  4  ; 
and  xxvii.  8,  Septuagint).  It  may  be  Teleni 
of  Josh.  XV.  24 ;  but  the  two  names,  as  tra- 
ditionally pronounced,  have  a  different  mean- 
ing. 

Te-las'sar,  in  A.  V.  once  Thelasar  (2  Kin. 
xix.  12)  [probably,  hill  of  Asshur,  or  the  As- 
syrians]. 


A  place  inhabited  by  the  children  of  Eden 
(2  Kin.  xix.  12;  Is.  xsxvii.  12),  and  hence 
in  western  Mesopotamia,  near  Haran.  Exact 
situation  unknown. 

Te'lem  [perhaps,  oppression]. 

1.  A  town  iu  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  24).    Site  unknown.    See  Telaim. 

2.  A  porter,  whom  Ezra  induced  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  24). 

Tel-har'sha,  in  A.  V.  Tel-har'sa  and  Tel- 
har'e-sha  [in  Hebrew  and  Assyrian,  mound 
of  the  artificer's  work  or  of  enchantment]. 

A  place  in  Babylonia  whence  certain  people 
who  claimed  to  be  Israelite  exiles  returned 
with  Zerubbabel  to  Jerusalem  ( Ezra  ii.  .59 ; 
Neh.  vii.  61).     Situation  unknown. 

Tel-me'lah  [hill  of  salt]. 

A  place  in  Babylonia,  whence  certain  people 
who  claimed  to  be  Israelite  exiles  came  to 
Jeru.salem  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii.  59  ;  Neh. 
vii.  61).     Situation  unknown. 

Te'ma. 

A  tribe  of  Ishmaelites  and  the  district  they 
inhabited  (Gen.  xxv.  15  ;  Is.  xxi.  14).  Their 
caravans  were  well  known  (Job  vi.  19). 
Tema  is  often  identified  with  Taima  in  the 
Hauran  ;  but  it  rather  denotes  the  important 
people  who  dwelt  in  and  about  Taima,  east 
of  the  yElanitic  gulf  of  the  Eed  Sea  and  mid- 
way between  Damascus  and  Medina. 

Te'mah,   in   A.  Y.   Tamah  and   Thamah 

[perhaps,  laughter]. 

Founder  of  a  family  of  Nethinim,  mem- 
bers of  which  returned  with  Zerubbabel 
from  the  captivity  (Ezra  ii.  53  ;  Neh.  vii.  55). 

Te'man  [southern]. 

A  tribe  descended  from  Esau,  and  the  dis- 
trict they  inhabited  (den.  xxxvi.  11,  15,  34). 
The  territory  was  in  Edom  ( Jer.  xlix.  20  ; 
Amos  i.  12),  apparently  in  the  northern  part 
(Ezek.  xxv.  13).  Its  inhabitants  were  noted 
for  their  wisdom  (Jer.  xlix.  7). 

Te'man-ite,  in  A.  V.  once  Tem'a-ni  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  34). 

A  member  of  the  tribe  of  Teman  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  34),  or  of  Tema.  It  is  not  certain  in 
which  sense  Eliphaz,  Job's  friend,  was  a 
Temanite  (Job  ii.  11). 

Tem'e-ni. 

A  son  of  Ashhur  (1  Chron.  iv.  5,  6). 

Tem'ple  [in  Hebrew,  large  house,  palace, 
as  1  Kin.  i.  21;  2  Kin.  xx.  18;  Dan.  i.  4 ; 
iv.  4]. 

A  building  dedicated  to  the  worship  of  a 
deity  (Joel  iii.  5 ;  Ezra  v.  14  with  i.  7 :  Acts 
xix.  27).  In  three  passages  it  is  applied  to 
the  tabernacle  (1  Sam.  i.  9;  iii.  3;  2  Sam. 
xxii.  7  ;  cp.  Rev.  xv.  5) ;  but  generally  the 
reference  is  to  some  one  of  the  temples  suc- 
cessively erected  to  Jehovah  at  Jerusalem. 

1.  (Solomon's  Temple.  The  erection  of  a 
permanent  house  of  the  Lord,  instead  of  the 
movable  tabernacle,  was  proposed  by  David, 
and   the   necessary   materials    were    largely 


Temple 


726 


amassed  by  him  (2  Sam.  vii. ;  1  Kin.  v.  3-5  ; 
viii.  17;  1  Cbroii.  xxii.  ;  xxviii.  11-xxix.  9). 
He  gathered  100,000  talents  of  gold  and 
1,000,000  talents  of  silver  for  the  prospective 
structure  and  its  furnishings  (1  (Jhron.  xxii. 
14),  and  added  from  his  own  private  for- 
tune 3000  talents  of  gold  and  7000  tal- 
ents of  silver,  and  the  princes  contributed 
5000  talents  of  gold,  10,000  darics  of  gold, 
and  10,000  talents  of  silver  (xxix.  4,  7), 
making  a  total  of  108,000  talents  of  gold, 
10,000  darics  of  gold,  and  1,017,000  talents 
of  silver.  This  sum  is  equivalent  to  nearly 
4900  million  dollars  or,  if  it  may  be  legiti- 
mately reckoned  by  the  lighter  system  of 
weights,  nearly  2450  million  dollars.  Tliis 
latter  amount  is  perhaps  not  incredible,  in 
view  of  the  booty  which  David  brought 
home  from  his  wars  and  received  as  tribute. 
Still  the  sum  is  very  large,  and  it  is  well  to 
admit  the  probability  of  the  text  being  cor- 
rupt. This  store  of  precious  metals  was 
placed  at  the  disposal  of  Solomon  for  the  use 
of  the  temple,  but  it  was  not  all  exi)ended 
(1  Kin.  vii.  51;  2  Chron.  v.  1).  Solomon 
began  the  work  in  the  fourth  year  of  his 
reign,  and  it  was  completed  in  seven  years 
and  six  months  (1  Kin.  vi.  1,  38).  The  alli- 
ance with  Hiram,  king  of  Tyre,  rendered  it 
easy  to  obtain  timber  from  Lebanon,  and 
skilled  Phcenician  artificers.  30,000  Israel- 
ites were  levied,  and  sent  in  detachments  of 
10,000  for  a  month  to  the  Lebanon  mountains 
(1  Kin.  v.  13),  and  the  remnant  of  the  Ca- 
naanites  was  impressed  to  the  number  of 
150,000  to  serve  as  hewers  of  stone  and  car- 
riers (1  Kin.  v.  15 ;  ix.  20,  21  ;  2  Chron.  ii.  2, 
17,  18).  Overseers  were  appointed,  appa- 
rently 550  chiefs  and  3300  subordinates  (1 
Kin.  v.  16;  ix.  23),  of  whom  3600  were  Ca- 
naanites  and  2.50  Israelites  {2  Chron.  ii.  17 ; 
viii.  10).  The  building  was  erected  on  mount 
Moriah,  at  the  spot  where  the  threshing  floor 
of  Oman,  or  Araunah,  the  Jebusite,  had 
stood  (2  Chron.  iii.  1).  Its  general  plan  was 
that  of  the  tabernacle,  but  the  dimensions 
were  double  and  the  ornamentation  was 
richer.  The  interior  of  the  edifice  measured 
60  cubits  in  length,  20  in  breadth,  and  30  in 
height,  in  this  last  particular  deviating  from 
the  proportions  of  the  tabernacle  (1  Kin.  vi. 
2).  The  walls  were  built  of  stone  made 
ready  at  the  quarry  (7).  The  roof  was  con- 
structed of  beams  and  planks  of  cedar  (9), 
the  floor  was  laid  with  cypress,  and  the  walls 
from  the  floor  to  the  ceiling  were  lined  with 
cedar  (15  ;  and  2  Chron.  iii.  5,  where  the 
Greek  translators  read  cedar,  not  fir).  The 
whole  interior  was  overlaid  with  gold  (1 
Kin.  vi.  20,  22,  30  ;  2  Chron.  iii.  7  et  passim), 
and  its  walls  were  carved  not  only  with  cher- 
ubim, but  al.so  with  palm  trees  and  flowers. 

The  holy  of  holies  was  a  cube.  Each  side 
measured  20  cubits  (1  Kin.  vi.  16,  20).  The 
space,  nearly  10  cubits  high,  between  its  ceil- 
ing and  the  roof  was  probably  occupied  by  up- 
per chambers,  gold  lined  (1  Chron.  xxviii.  11 ; 


Temple 

2  Chron.  iii.  9).  In  the  holy  of  holies  itself 
was  placed  the  ark  (1  Kin.  viii.  6),  under  the 
wings  of  two  colossal  cherubim  of  olive  wood 
overlaid  with  gold.  Each  cherub  was  10 
cubits  in  height,  and  had  wings  5  cubits  long. 
With  the  tip  of  one  wing  it  touched  a  side 
wall,  and  with  the  other  wing  it  reached 
forward  to  the  center  of  the  room  and 
touched  the  corresponding  wing  of  its  com- 
panion. The  four  wings  thus  extended  across 
the  width  of  the  house,  while  the  cherubim 
turned  their  faces  toward  the  .sanctuary 
(1  Kin.  vi.  2.3-28;  2  Chron.  iii.  13).  Under 
their  wings  the  ark  was  placed  (1  Kin.  viii. 
6).  The  i)artitiou  between  the  holy  and  the 
most  holy  place  was  of  cedar  boards,  overlaid 
on  both  sides  with  gold,  and  it  had  two  doors 
of  olive  wood,  decorated  with  palm  trees, 
flowers,  and  cherubim,  and  overlaid  with 
gold  ;  see  Le.\f.  This  was  hung,  toward  the 
sanctuary,  with  chains  of  gold  and  a  cur- 
tain patterned  after  that  of  the  tabernacle 
(1  Kin.  vi.  16,  21,  31,  32;  2  Chron.  iii.  14;  cp. 
Antiq.  viii.  3,  3  and  7). 

The  holy  place  or  sanctuary  was  40  cubits 
long,  20  wide,  and  30  high.  Its  walls  were 
pierced  by  latticed  windows;  probably  near 
the  roof,  above  the  top  of  the  exterior  build- 
ing, and  intended  for  ventilation  and  the 
escape  of  smoke  (1  Kin.  vi.  4).  The  altar  of 
incense  was  made  of  cedar,  instead  of  acacia, 
and  overlaid  with  gold  (20,  22 ;  vii.  48). 
It  belonged  to  the  holy  of  holies  (22,  E.  V.  ; 
Heb.  ix.  3,  4),  but  stood  in  the  holy  place, 
doubtless  because  the  priest,  who  might  en- 
ter the  holy  of  holies  but  once  in  the  year, 
had  occasion  to  off'er  incense  daily.  There 
were  ten  golden  candlesticks  instead  of 
one,  and  likewise  ten  tables,  although 
doubtless  the  showbread  was  displayed  on 
but  one  ;  see  Candlestick  and  Showbee.'VD. 
The  entrance  to  the  sanctuary  from  the  court 
had  doors  of  cypress  (vi.  33,  34).  ^ 

Against  the  two  exterior  sides  and  the  rear 
of  the  temple  a  three-story  building  was 
erected,  containing  chambers  for  officials  and 
for  storage  (vi.  5-10).  Before  the  front  en- 
trance a  portico  was  built,  10  cubits  wide,  20 
long,  and  120  or  more  probably  20  high  (3 ; 
2  Chron.  iii.  4;  cp.  Septuagint;  Syriac).  By 
it  stood  the  two  brazen  pillars,  Boaz  and 
Jachin,  each  18  cubits  high,  and  richly  orna- 
mented (1  Kin.  vii.  15-22  ;  2  Chron.  iii.  15-17). 

The  courts  of  the  temple  were  two  ;  the 
inner,  upper  court  of  the  priests,  and  the 
great  court  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  12  ;  2  Chron.  iv.  9; 
Jer.  xxxvi.  10).  They  were  separated  from 
one  another,  both  by  the  diflerence  of  level 
and  by  a  low  wall,  consisting  of  three  courses 
of  hewn  stone  and  one  course  of  cedar  beams 
(1  Kin.  vi.  36  ;  vii.  12).  In  the  court  of  the 
jiriests  were  a  brazen  altar  for  .sacrifice  (viii. 
64  ;  2  Kin.  xvi.  14;  2  Chron.  xv.  8),  in  size 
nearly  four  times  that  used  at  the  tabernacle 
(iv.  1)  ;  and  a  brazen  sea  and  ten  brazen 
layers  (1  Kin.  vii.  23-39).  The  sea  was  for 
the  priests  to  wash  in  ;  the  lavers  were  for 


1 


Temple 


727 


Temple 


-R-asliing  such  things  as  belonged  to  the  burnt 
oflViing  (2  Chron.  iv.  6);  see  Ai.tak,  Sp:a, 
Lavkr.  The  great  outer  court  was  for  Israel 
(cp.  1  Kin.  viii.  14).  It  was  paved  (2  Chron. 
"vii.  3) ;  and  it  was  surrounded  by  a  wall,  for 
gates  are  mentioned  (iv.  9;  cp.  Ezek.  xl.  5). 

This  temple  was  plundered  and  burned  by 
the  Babylonians  when  they  captured  Jerusa- 
lem in  587  B.  C.  (2  Kin.  xxv.  8-17). 

2.  Zeruhhahel's  Temple. — Cyrus  authorized 
the  erection  of  a  temple  (10  cubits  iu  breadth 
and  height  (Ezra  vi.  3  ;  Antiq.  xi.  4,  6).  The 
limits  which  Cyrus  set  may  have  been  at- 
tiiined  by  the  exterior  of  the  new  building  ; 
for  Herod  the  Great,  with  2  Chron.  iii.  4  in 
miud,  assigns  60  cubits  to  the  height  (xv.  11, 
1*.  It  was  begun  iu  the  year  537  B.  c, 
the  second  year  after  the  return  from  cap- 
tivity;  and,  after  much  opposition  from 
the  inhabitants  of  Samaria,  was  completed 
in  the  sixth  year  of  Darius,  515  B.  c. 
(Ezra  iii.  8;  vi.  15;  con.  Ajdon.  i.  21).  The 
dimensions  of  the  several  parts  are  not 
known.  The  plan  of  Solomon's  temple  was, 
however,  followed  ;  though  the  new  building 
was  projected  on  a  scale  of  far  less  magnifi- 
cence. In  the  construction  of  the  house, 
cedar  from  Lebanon  was  used  (Ezra  iii.  7)  ; 
and  precious  metals,  which  were  provided,  as 
in  the  wilderness,  by  the  freewill  ofieriugsof 
the  people  (i.  6  ;  ii.  68,  69).  Many  of  the 
vessels  used  in  the  former  temple  were  re- 
stored (i.  7-11).  The  interior  walls  were 
overlaid  with  gold  ;  and  the  house  was  di- 
vided, as  usual,  into  the  holy  of  holies  and 
the  sanctuary,  apparently  separated  from 
each  other  by  at  least  a  veil  (1  Mac.  i.  21,22  ; 
iv.  48,  51).  The  holy  of  holies  was  empty, 
for  the  ark  of  the  covenant  had  disappeared 
(Cicero,  pro  Flac.  28  ;  Tacitus,  Hist.  v.  0). 
The  sanctuary  was  furnished  with  an  altar 
of  incense,  and,  like  the  tabernacle,  with 
onlv  one  candlestick  and  one  table  for  show- 
bread  (1  Mac.  i.  21,  22:  iv.  49).  Exterior 
chambers  were  attached  to  the  building 
(Xeh.  X.  37-39;  xii.  44;  xiii.  4;  1  Mac.  iv. 
38)  ;  and  the  whole  was  surrounded  with 
courts  (Neh.  viii.  16  ;  xiii.  7  ;  Antiq.  xiv.  16, 
2).  A  brazen  sea  (Ecclus.  1.  3)  and  an  altar 
for  sacrifice  were  used  (Ezra  vii.  17).  The 
altar  was  built  of  stones  (1  Mac.  iv.  44- 
47).  The  court  of  the  priests  was  event- 
ually separated  from  the  outer  court  by 
a  wooden  railing  (Antiq.  xiii.  13,  5).  The 
temple  and  its  precincts  were  closed  by  doors 
and  gates  (Neh.  vi.  10  ;  1  Mac.  iv.  38). 

3.  Herod's  temple  superseded  Zerubbabel's. 
It  is  fully  described  by  Josephus,  who  was 
thoroughly  familiar  with  the  building  (An- 
tiq. XV.  11 ;  War  v.  5),  and  in  the  Mishna 
(Middoth).  The  materials  were  brought  to- 
gether before  the  old  structure  was  taken 
down.  Work  was  commenced  in  the  eight- 
eenth year  of  Herod's  reign,  19  B.  c.  The 
main  edifice  was  built  by  priests  in  a  year 
and  a  half,  and  the  cloisters  were  finished 
in  eight  years,  either  in  11  or  9  B.  c. ;  but  the 


work  on  the  entire  complex  of  courts  and 
buildings  was  not  comj)leted  until  the  proc- 
uratorship  of  Alhinus,  A.  D.  62-64  (Antiq. 
XV.  11,  5  and  6;  xx.  9,  7  ;  cp.  John  ii.  20). 
The  old  area  was  enlarged  to  twice  its  former 
dimensions  (War  i.  21,  1).  The  temple 
proper  stood  upon  the  highest  ground  in  the 
inclosure.  It  was  built  of  great  blocks  of 
white  stone.  Its  interior  had  the  length  and 
breadth  of  Solomon's  temjile  ;  but  a  height 
of  40  cubits,  exclusive  of  an  ujipor  chamber, 
instead  of  30  cubits.  It  was  divided  into  the 
holy  of  holies  and  the  sanctuarj-  on  the  cus- 
tomary lines.  The  holy  of  holies  was  empty. 
It  was  separated  from  the  holy  place  by  a 
veil  (War  v.  5.  5).  The  rending  of  this  veil 
by  an  earthquake  at  the  death  of  Christ  sig- 
nified that  the  way  to  the  mercy  seat  is  no 
longer  closed  to  all  save  the  mediating  high 
priest,  but  is  at  all  times  open  to  the  sincere 
worshiper  (Mat.  xxvii.  51;  Heb.  vi.  19;  x. 
20).  The  holy  place  contained,  as  usual,  a 
golden  altar  for  incense,  a  table  for  show- 
bread,  and  a  candlestick.  It  was  entered 
from  the  east  by  a  great  doorway  clo.sed  by 
goldeu  doors,  each  55  cubits  high  and  16 
broad  ;  hung  with  a  veil  of  blue,  purple, 
scarlet  and  fine  linen  ;  and  encompassed  on 
the  outer  or  court  side  by  a  golden  vine  from 
which  depended  immense  clusters  of  golden 
grapes.  Agaiust  the  two  sides  and  rear  of 
the  temple,  a  three-story  building,  40  cubits 
high,  containing  chambers,  was  constructed 
(cp.  War  vi.  4,  7).  and  in  addition  two  wings, 
one  containing  winding  stairs,  sjirang  from 
the  front  corners.  The  building  meas- 
ured externally  100  cubits  in  leugth  and  54 
or,  including  the  two  wings  at  the  front,  70 
cubits  iu  width.  Over  the  holy  place  and 
the  holy  of  holies  was  an  attic,  which  had 
the  same  dimensions  as  the  sacred  apartments 
beneath.  This  attic,  together  with  its  floor 
and  the  roof,  increased  the  height  of 
the  sacred  edifice  to  over  90  cubits.  A  ves- 
tibule or  porch  ran  along  the  entire  front 
of  the  house,  100  cubits  long  and  high 
and  20  broad.  Its  portal  was  70  cubits  high 
by  25  broad  (or,  according  to  the  Mishna,  40 
and  20),  without  doors,  allowing  the  great 
doorwaj'  of  the  sanctuary  to  be  seen  from 
without.  Above  this  porch  Herod  erected 
the  celebrated  goldeu  eagle  (Antiq.  xvii.  6,  2 
and  3;  War  i.  33,  2  and  3).  Twelve  steps  de- 
scended from  the  vestibule  to  the  court  of 
the  priests.  This  court  surrounded  the  sacred 
edifice.  It  contained  the  altar  for  burnt 
olferiugs,  of  which  the  height  was  15  cubits, 
and  the  base  a  square  measuring  50  cubits  to 
the  side.  According  to  the  Mishna.  it  was 
built  of  unhewn  stones  ;  and  contracted  from 
a  base  32  cubits  .square  to  a  top  24  cubits 
square.  It  was  reached  by  an  inclined  plane. 
A  brazen  sea  or  laver  was  also  in  use  (Mish- 
na). This  court  was  encompassed  by  a  wall 
or  coping,  about  a  cubit  iu  height.  All 
around  the  court  of  the  priests  lay,  as  of  old, 
the  great  court,  now  double.    It  was  inclosed 


Temple 


728 


Temple 


by  a  wall,  whose  top  was  25  cubits  higher 
than  the  pavement.  Against  the  inner  side 
of  this  wall  storage  chambers  were  built 
(War  vi.  5,  2),  and  in  front  of  these,  that  is, 
on  the  temple  side,  ran  a  covered  colonnade. 
This  court  was  divided  into  two  parts  by  a 

CASTLE   OF 

A  N  T  O  N  I  A 


gate  in  the  center  of  the  partition  wall  and 
by  a  descent  of  fifteen  steps.  Only  Israelites 
might  enter  this  court,  and  women  might 
not  advance  farther.  These  three  courts  and 
the  temple  were  embraced  in  the  chel,  or 
sacred  inclosure.     The  inclosing  barrier  was 


> 


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> 


Bridge 


'7L 
O 

CL 

O 

d: 
>- 

\- 


TERRACE 


COURT 

OF    TH  E 

G  E  N  T  I   L  E  S 


Approximate  Plan  of  Herod's  Temple  and  its  Courts. 


o 

cr 


LU 
X 

h- 

Ll 

o 
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LU 
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-J 

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> 


wall.  The  western  portion,  that  encompass- 
ing the  court  of  the  priests,  was  the  court  of 
Israel.  Only  the  men  of  Israel  were  allowed 
within  it.  The  court  of  the  women  was  the 
eastern  and  lower  portion.  It  was  reached 
from  the  court  of  the  men  through  a  great 


triple :  the  wall  of  the  courts  of  Israel  and 
the  women,  which  has  been  already  men- 
tioned, and  which  was  very  thick,  like  the 
walls  of  a  fortress  (cp.  War  vi.  4,  1)  ;  a  ter- 
race, of  which  the  top  was  level  and  10  cubits 
broad :  and  at  the  foot  of  the  terrace  a  wall 


Temple 


r29 


Temple 


3  cubits  in  height,  surmounted  by  jiillars,  on 
whieb  were  inscriptions  forbidding  ;ill  per- 
sons save  those  of  the  commonwealth  of  Is- 
rael, from  entering  the  inclosure.  "Let  no 
gentile,"  so  ran  the  Greek  inscription,  "'en- 
ter inside  of  the  barrier  and  the  fence  around 
the  sanctuary.  Anyone  trespassing  will  bring 
death  upon  himself  as  a  penalty."  This 
triple  wall  of  partition  (Eph.  ii.  14)  was 
pierced  by  nine  gates.  These  tower-like 
structures  were  sheatlied  with  gold  and  sil- 
ver. Four  were  on  the  northern,  and  four 
ou  the  southern  side.  Of  these,  one  on  each 
side  led  into  the  court  of  the  women  and  three 
into  that  of  Israel.  The  ninth  was  the  great 
eastern  gate,  the  only  one  on  that  side,  prob- 
ablv  the  gate  Beautiful  (Acts  iii.  2,  10).    The 


forming  three  aisles.  Each  column  was  a 
monolith  of  white  stone,  25  cubits  high. 
The  roof  was  ceiled  with  cedar,  curiously 
carved  and  carefully  polished.  The  other 
colonnades  consisted  of  two  rows  of  columns. 
That  along  the  eastern  side  of  the  court  was 
regarded  as  a  remnant  of  the  first  temple, 
and  was  called  Solomon's  porch  (John  x.  23 ; 
Acts  iii.  11  ;  Antiq.  xx.  9,  7 ;  War  v.  5,  1). 
It  was  this  court  which  was  so  far  abused 
that  money  changers  were  allowed  to  set  up 
their  tables  and  traders  were  permitted  to 
expose  cattle  for  sale  there  (Mat.  xxi.  12 ; 
John  ii.  14).  Finally  the  sacred  area  was 
surrounded  by  massive  walls.  The  western 
wall  was  pierced  by  four  gates :  the  two  more 
northerly  ones  led  to  the  suburbs ;  the  third 


Stones  in  the  Western  Wall  of  the  Temple,  with  the  Wailing  Place  of  the  Jews. 


diflFerence  of  level  between  the  vestibule  of 
the  temple  within  the  inclosure  and  the 
court  of  the  gentiles  without  appears  to  have 
been  about  15  cubits.  From  the  vestibule  to 
the  court  of  the  priests  were  12  steps ;  from 
the  court  of  Israel  to  that  of  the  women  15; 
thence  to  the  terrace  5,  and  thence  to  the 
court  of  the  gentiles  14.  This  court  of  the 
gentiles  occupied  the  remainder  of  the  temple 
yard  and  completely  surrounded  the  sacred 
inclosure.  It  was  foursquare  (War  vi.  5,  4), 
and  measured  fully  6  stades,  or  three-quarters 
of  a  mile,  in  circuit  (War  v.  5,  2).  It  was 
paved  throughout.  At  the  northwestern  cor- 
ner stood  the  castle  of  Antonia  (q.  v.).  Except 
perhaps  at  that  point,  it  was  bordered  on  all 
sides  by  magnificent,  covered  colonnades  or 
cloisters  (Antiq.  xvii.  10.  2  :  cp.  War  vi.  3.2). 
Those  on  the  south  were  the  finest.  They 
contained  162  columns,  arranged  in  four  rows, 


crossed  the  Tyropoeon  valley  at  a  point  now 
marked  by  Wilson's  arch  ;  and  the  fourth, 
still  farther  south,  opened  into  the  valley, 
and  was  reached  by  steps  from  the  temple 
yard  (Antiq.  xv.  11,  5).  In  the  southern  wall 
were  two  gates,  known  by  the  name  of  Hul- 
dah.  In  the  eastern  wall  was  the  Shushan 
gate.  One  is  mentioned  in  the  northern 
wall  (War  vi.  4,  1). 

During  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  by  the 
Eomans  in  a.  d.  70,  the  Jews  themselves, 
who  were  using  the  temple  yard  as  a  fortress, 
set  fire  to  the  outer  cloisters  :  but  the  temple 
itself  was  fired  by  a  Eoman  soldier  contrary 
to  the  orders  of  Titus,  and  all  that  was  com- 
bustible was  destroyed  (War  vi.  3,  1 ;  4,  5  ; 
cp.  5,  1 ;  9.  2).  Afterwards  the  conquerors 
threw  down  the  walls  (vii.  1.  1).  On  its 
site  the  emperor  Hadrian  dedicated  a  temple 
to  Jupiter  Capitolinus  in  a.  d.  136  or  earlier. 


Ten  Commandments 


^30 


Ten  Commandments 


In  A.  D.  363  the  emperor  Julian,  in  order  to 
defeat  the  prophecy  of  Christ  (Mat.  xxiv.  1, 
2 1,  undertook  to  rebuild  the  temple  ;  but  his 
plans  were  frustrated  by  flames  which  burst 
from  the  foundation.  The  Dome  of  the 
Eock,  generally  called  the  Mosque  of  Omar, 
now  occupies  the  place  where  the  old  tem- 
ples stood.  Warren  between  February,  1867, 
and  April,  1870,  sunk  shafts  in  the  rubbish,  in 
some  places  100  and  in  one  place  125  feet  deep, 
which  now  covers  portions  of  mount  Moriah. 
The  corner  stones  of  the  foundations,  which 
still  remain,  are  14  to  15  feet  long,  and  from 


the  free  citation  of  the  words  by  Moses  in 
Deut.  V.  6-21.  The  principal  ditf'erence  is 
that  the  law  of  the  Sal)batli  is  enforced,  in 
the  original  law,  ))y  reference  to  God's  rest- 
ing on  the  seventh  day  from  the  work  of 
creation  ;  whereas  when  Moses  cites  the  law 
in  his  public  address,  he  omits  this  funda- 
mental basis  of  the  command  and  urges  the 
deliverance  from  Egypt  as  the  reason  why 
Israel  should  remember  the  day.  Another 
ditf'erence,  and  one  upon  which  undue  stress 
has  been  laid,  is  that  when  Moses  repeats 
the   tenth   commandment,  he  uses  the  word 


The  Warning  Tablet  of  Herod's  Temple. 

Discovered  by  Clermonl-Ganneau  ia  1871. 


3A  to  4i  feet  high.  Some  of  those  at  the  south- 
east angle  have  on  them  Phcenician  charac- 
ters, coming  down  at  least  from  Herod's,  and 
perhaps  from  Solomon's  time.  The  walls 
surrounding  the  temple  area  were  found  to 
have  been  1000  feet  long,  and  the  platform 
on  which  the  holy  place  stood  to  have  been 
supported  by  a  buttress  200  feet  high  from 
the  valley  beneath.  Finally,  one  of  the 
actual  inscriptions  has  been  recovered  which 
forbade  any  foreigner  to  enter  the  second 
court. 

Ten  Com-mand'ments. 

The  fundamental  law  of  the  Hebrew  state; 
see  Theocracy.  The  Hebrews  called  them 
the  ten  words  (E.  V.  margin  of  Ex.  xxxiv. 
28;  Deut.  iv.  13;  x.  4).  They  were  spoken 
by  God  at  Sinai,  and  written  by  him  on 
tables  of  stone.  They  appear  in  two  forms: 
the  original  form,  contained  in  Ex.  xx.,  and 


covet  in  one  clause  only  and  employs  de- 
sire instead  of  covet  in  reference  to  a 
neighbor's  house,  field,  etc.  (E.  V.).  These 
differences  are  not  contradictions,  and  they 
are  fully  explained  by  the  character  of 
Deuteronomy.      See    Deuteeonomy,    S.^vb- 

BATH. 

The  ten  commandments  are  not  indi- 
vidually numbered  in  the  Bible.  Later  .Tews 
regarded  the  words  "  I  am  the  Lord  thy  God, 
which  have  brought  thee  out  of  the  land  of 
Egypt,  out  of  the  house  of  bondage"  (Ex. 
XX.  2)  as  the  first  commandment.  These 
words,  however,  are  not  in  the  form  of  a 
command.  They  constitute  the  preface  to 
the  ten  laws  which  follow.  Omitting  the 
preface,  there  are  two  methods  of  enumera- 
tion :  1.  According  to  the  received  teaching  of 
the  Eoman  Catholic  and  Lutheran  churches, 
based  on  Augustine,  the  first  table  contains 
three  commandments  and  the  second  table 


Ten  Commandments 


731 


Tent  of  Meeting 


seven.  Augustine  adopted  this  classification 
because  it  exhibits  the  symbolical  numbers 
three,  seven,  teu,  and  represents  a  real  dif- 
ference in  the  nature  of  the  commands,  the 
first  three  lieiug  duties  toward  God  and  tlie 
last  .seven  duties  toward  man.  The  first 
division  included  the  command  to  remember 
the  Sabbath  ;  and  to  make  out  three  com- 
mands in  this  table,  Augustine  joined  into 
one  the  commands  to  have  no  other  gods 
and  to  make  no  graven  image;  and  to  secure 
seven  in  the  second  table  he  divided  the 
command  against  covetousness  into  two  laws. 
He  followed  the  text  of  Deuteronomy,  and 
made  the  command  not  to  covet  a  neighbor's 
wife  the  ninth  commandment,  and  that 
against  desiring  a  neighbor's  property  the 
tenth.  The  Roman  Catholic  church  follows 
the  text  of  Exodus,  and  makes  the  command 
not  to  covet  a  neighbors  house  the  ninth, 
and  that  against  coveting  a  neighbor's  wife, 
manservant,  etc.,  the  tenth.  The  great  ob- 
jections to  this  method  of  enumeration  are 
that  it  makes  no  distinction  between  poly- 
theism and  idolatry,  and  introduces  an  arbi- 
trary distinction  regarding  kinds  of  cov- 
etousness. 2.  The  division  which  numbers 
the  command  against  polytheism  as  the  first, 
that  again.st  idolatry  as  the  second,  and  that 
against  covetousness  as  the  tenth.  This  divi- 
sion is  the  oldest  that  is  known.  It  was 
recognized  by  Josephus  (Antiq.  iii.  5,  .5),  by 
Philo  (de  Dec.  i.t,  and  by  Origen  ;  and  it 
was  adopted  by  the  Reformed  churches  at 
the  Reformation.  But  there  are  two  methods 
of  distributing  the  teu  between  the  two 
tables:  (1)  They  are  ordinarily  grouped  as 
four  relating  to  man's  duty  toward  God  and 
six  to  his  duty  to  his  fellows.  This  division 
is  simple  enough,  and  it  is  ethically  correct ; 
but  it  lacks  symmetry.  (2)  Five  are  as- 
signed to  each  table  (Antiq.  iii.  •^.  8).  This 
arrangement  preserves  the  grouping  of  laws 
into  decads,  subdivided  into  pentads, 
which  characterizes  much  of  the  legisla- 
tion. And  from  the  Jewish  point  of  view, 
doubtless,  the  division  is  ethically  correct ; 
for  the  first  table  includes  duties  of  piety, 
which  imply  no  corresponding  rights,  and 
the  second  table  embraces  duties  of  jus- 
tice, which  involve  rights.  The  duty  of 
honoring  parents  to  the  extent  of  maintain- 
ing them  if  need  be,  was  regarded  as  absolute 
and  unconditional  (Mark  vii.  10-13).  It  was 
a  pious  duty,  a  religious  duty,  and  properly 
belonged  to  the  first  table.  Paul  is  some- 
times cited  as  lending  countenance  to  this 
division :  for  when  summing  up  the  duties 
which  are  comprehended  in  the  command  to 
love  one's  neighbor  as  one's  self,  he  enumer- 
ates the  last  commandments,  and  makes  no 
mention  of  honoring  parents  (Rom.  xiii.  9). 
But  Paul's  enumeration  is  not  intended  to  be 
complete.  He  omits  the  ninth  command- 
ment. Jesus  placed  the  fifth  commandment 
in  the  same  group  with  the  last  five  (Mark 
X.  19). 


Tent. 

1.  A  movable  habitation  ;  such  as  is  used 
by  nomads,  shepherds,  and  soldiers  (Gen.  iv. 
20;  XXV.  27;  Judg.  viii.  11).  The  tent  was 
frequently  made  of  black  cloth  woven  from 
goats'  hair  (Song  i.  'i),  fastened  with  cords 


Arab's  Tent. 

and  stakes  (Ex.  xxxv.  18;  Is.  liv.  2).  There 
were  both  round  and  tapering  tents;  and 
flat,  oblong  tents. 

2.  A  habitation  generally:  a  part  of  the 
dwellings  being  put  for  all,  or  one  kind  for 
another,  according  to  circumstances  (Gen. 
ix.  27;  1  Kin.  viii.  66:  2  Kin.  xiii.  5:  Job 
viii.  22,  R.  V.:  Ps.  Ixxxiv.  10;  Jer  xxx.  18; 
Lam.  ii.  4,  R.  Y. ;  Zech.  xii.  7;  Mai.  ii.  12, 
R.  v.). 

Tent  of  the  Con-gre-ga'tion.  See  next 
article. 

Tent  of  Meet'ing,  in  A.  V.  Tent  or  Taber- 
nacle of  the  Congregation  [tent  where  Jeho- 
vah meets  his  people]. 

1.  A  provisional  tent  where  Jehovah  met 
with  his  people  (Ex.  xxxiii.  7-11 ;  xxxiv. 
34,  35).  After  the  golden  calf  was  made, 
Jehovah  refused  to  acknowledge  Israel  any 
longer  as  his  people  and  to  dwell  in  their 
midst.  He  was  estranged  and  distant.  Be- 
cause of  this  fact  and  to  symbolize  it,  Moses 
used  to  pitch  the  tent  outside  the  camp. 
What  tent  this  was  is  uncertain.  A  tent  was 
needed  in  which  to  keep  the  book  of  the 
covenant  (xxiv.  3-7).  Doubtless  Moses  sat 
there  in  judgment,  and  the  people  resorted 
thither  to  inquire  of  the  Lord  (xviii.  ].5-20i. 
It  was  probably  this  tent  (the  Greek  trans- 
lators read  "his  tent")  which  Moses  now 
pitched  without  the  camp.  He  called  it  the 
tent  of  meeting,  because  it  was  a  place  of 
revelation :  there  Jehovah  met  his  people  in 
their  representative,  when  the  pillar  of  cloud 
descended  to  the  door  of  the  tent ;  and 
thither  went  everv  one  that  sought  the  Lord 
(xxxiii.  7,  9).  It  may  have  borne  its  appro- 
priate name  from  the  beginning ;    if  not, 


Tent  of  the  Testimony 


732 


Teresh 


Moses  borrowed  the  name  from  the  in- 
structions which  he  received  regarding  the 
permanent  tabernacle,  since  it  represented 
the  same  truth  (xxvii.  21).  The  tent  was 
cared  for  by  Moses'  minister,  because  the 
house  of  Aaron  and  the  tribe  of  Levi  had 
not  yet  been  set  apart  for  the  service 
of  the  sanctuary.  The  cloud  descended 
upon  this  tent  when  Moses  entered  it  to  in- 
quire of  God  ;  but  the  cloud  abode  on  the 
permanent  tabernacle  and  the  glory  of  the 
Lord  tilled  it,  and  Moses  could  not  enter  it 
(xl.  34,  35,  38). 

2.   The  tabernacle  (q.  v.). 

Tent  of  the  Tes'ti-mo-ny  (Num.  ix.  15). 
See  Tabernacle. 

Te'phon,  in  A.  V.  Taphon. 

A  town  of  Judaea  fortified  by  Bacchides  (1 
Mac.  ix.  .50).  Tephon  is  perhaps  a  modifica- 
tion of  Tappuah,  a  name  which  was  borne 
by  several  towns. 

Te'rah,  in  A.  V.  twice  Tarah,  (Num.  xxxiii. 
27.  28)  once  Thara  (Luke  iii.  34)  [prob- 
ably, wild  goat]. 

1.  The  son  of  Nahor,  and  the  father  of 
Abraham,  another  Nahor,  and  Haran.  He 
was  a  resident  at  Ur  of  the  Chaldees  dur- 
ing the  greater  part  of  his  life ;  serving  other 
divinities  than  Jehovah  (Josh.  xxiv.  2),  prob- 
ably among  the  rest  the  moon-god,  who  had 
a  celebrated  temple  at  Ur.  With  Abraham 
and  Lot,  he  removed  to  Haran,  where  he 
died,  at  the  age  of  '^05  (Gen.  xi.  25-32). 

2.  A  station  of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilder- 
ness (Num.  xxxiii.  27,  28).  The  site  is  un- 
known. 

Ter'a-phim. 

Images,  but  not  of  a  particular  deity,  which 
were  used  in  the  household  and  by  private 
individuals,  and  which  varied  in  size  from 
such  as  were  small  enough  to  be  easily  car- 
ried in  hasty  flight  and  concealed  in  the 
furniture  of  a  camel  (Gen.  xxxi.  19,  30,  34, 
R.  V.)  to  one  apparently  large  enough  to 
represent  a  man  (1  Sam.  xix.  13,  R.  V.). 
They  were  probably  regarded  as  bringers  of 
good  luck.  They  were  consulted  with  re- 
.spect  to  the  advisability  of  proposed  actions 
(Ezek.  xxi.  21 ;  Zech.  x.  2,  both  R.  V.).  The 
word,  like  the  usual  word  for  God,  is  plural 
in  form,  but  may  be  singular  in  signification 
(1  Sam.  xix.  13).  Teraphim  were  employed 
in  Babylonia  (Ezek.  xxi.  21).  Laban  used 
them  in  Haran,  and  his  daughter  Rachel 
stole  them  and  carried  them  with  her  to 
Canaan  (Gen.  xxxi.  19,  34).  This  was  done 
without  Jacob's  knowledge  (32).  When  he 
reached  Shechem,  he  demanded  the  surren- 
der of  all  the  strange  gods  which  members 
of  his  company  had  brought  with  them,  and 
he  removed  them  from  his  people  (xxxv.  2-4). 
In  the  days  of  the  judges  Micah  of  mount 
Ephraim  had  a  private  sanctuary  with  priest, 
ephod,  and  teraphim  (Judg.  xvii.  5),  and 
eventually  a  molten  image  and  a  graven 
image  (4  ;    xviii.  14).     Through  them  prob- 


ably the  Lord  was  consulted  (5, 6).  All  these 
idols  the  band  of  Danites  carried  off  for  their 
own  use  (17-20).  Samuel  the  prophet  classed 
teraphim  with  witchcraft  and  rebellion  (1 
Sam.  XV.  23,  R.  V.) ;  nevertheless,  there  was 
one  in  David's  house,  doubtless  belonging  to 
his  wife  (xix.  13,  R.  V.).  Teraphim  figured 
largely  in  the  corrupt  religion  of  the  north- 
ern Israelites  (Hos.  iii.  4).  The  teraphim 
were  condemned  with  other  idols  as  abom- 
inations, and  were  destroyed  by  Josiah  in 
his  work  of  reformation  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  24, 
R.  V.)  ;  but  they  still  found  favor  with  a 
part  of  the  people  after  the  exile  (Zech. 
X.  2). 

Ter'e-binth. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  'Elah,  a  ro- 
bust tree,  on  the  R.  V.  margin  with  oak  in 
the  text.  Twice,  when  it  is  associated  with 
another  word  which  is  rendered  oak,  it  ap- 
pears in  the  text  of  the  R.  V.  (Is.  vi.  13  ; 
Hos.  iv.  13).  'E!ah  is  probably  the  terebinth. 
The  terebinth  or  turpentine  tree  {Pistacia 
terebinthus)  is  a  small  tree  with  pinnate  leaves, 


Terebinth. 

inconspicuous  flowers,  with  tlic  sexes  sepa- 
rated, and  little  roundish  dark-purple  fruit. 
It  is  a  native  of  southern  Europe,  northern 
Africa,  and  western  Asia,  including  Palestine. 
The  turpentine  is  obtained  by  making  in- 
cisions in  the  trunk.  It  merges  into  Pistacia 
palwstina,  which  is  also  found  in  Palestine, 
and  is  but  a  variety  of  the  species. 

Te'resli  [perhaj^s  Persian,  austere]. 

A  chamberlain  who  kept  a  door  in  the 
palace  of  king  Ahasuerus,  and  plotted  the 


Tertius 


733 


Theocracy 


murder  of  his  master  and  king,  a  crime  for 
which  he  and  an  accomplice  were  executed 
(Esth.  ii.  21-2o;  vi.  2). 

Ter'ti-us  [third]. 

Paul's  amanuensis,  who  wrote  for  him  the 
Epistle  to  the  Romans  (Rom.  xvi.  22). 

Ter-tul'lus  [diminutive  of  Tertius]. 

A  Roman  advocate,  employed  by  the  Jew- 
ish authorities  to  prosecute  Paul  before  the 
tribunal  of  Felix,  the  Roman  procurator 
(Acts  xxiv.  1-8).  His  rhetorical  address  is 
thoroughly  in  the  style  affected  by  Roman 
advocates  of  the  time. 

Tes'ta-ment. 

The  rendering  of  the  Greek  Diaiheke,  a 
will,  a  covenant.  A  third  meaning  has  no 
bearing  on  the  present  subject.  In  Heb. 
ix.  16,  17  diatheke  is  clearly  a  will.  But  in 
viii.  6-10,  13  and  ix.  1,  4  the  meaning  is 
evidently  covenant,  and  the  term  is  so  trans- 
lated in  the  text.  The  Old  Covenant  and 
the  New  Covenant  would  be  more  accurate 
designations  of  the  two  parts  of  the  Bible 
than  the  Old  Testament  and  the  New  Testa- 
ment. See  Heik,  New  Testament,  Old 
Testament. 

Teth. 

The  ninth  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet. 
Greek  theta  comes  from  the  same  source  ;  but 
the  Greek  versions  represent  it  in  Hebrew 
names  by  tau,  reserving  theta  for  the  aspi- 
rated Hebrew  tau.  In  the  English  versions 
teth  is  represented  by  t.  It  stands  at  the 
beginning  of  the  ninth  section  of  Ps.  cxix. 
in  several  versions,  in  which  section  each 
verse  begins  with  that  letter. 

Te'trarch. 

One  who  rules  over  the  fourth  part  of  a 
kingdom  or  province.  Philip  of  Macedon 
divided  Thessaly  into  four  districts  called 
tetrarchies.  Eventually  the  word  was  used 
loosely  for  a  petty  .subject  prince,  even  though 
the  land  was  not  divided  among  four  such 
rulers.  The  Romans  adopted  the  term,  and 
used  it  as  a  convenient  title  for  a  prince  to 
whom  they  granted  a  small  territory  only, 
and  whom  they  were  unwilling  to  dignify 
with  the  authority  and  rank  of  a  king.  The 
N.  T.  names  three  of  these  petty  digni- 
taries :  Herod,  tetrarch  of  Galilee,  Philip,  te- 
trarch  of  Ituraa  and  Trachonitis,  and  Lysa- 
nias,  tetrarch  of  Abilene  (Luke  iii.  1).  In  the 
case  of  the  tetrarchs  Herod  Antipas  and  Philip 
the  title  was  appropriate,  even  in  its  original 
sense,  for  Augustus  gave  one-half  of  the 
kingdom  of  Herod  the  Great  to  Archelaus, 
with  the  title  of  ethnarch.  and  divided  the 
remainder  into  two  tetrarchies,  which  he  gave 
to  them  (Antiq.  xvii.  11,  4;  War  ii.  6,  3).  A 
tetrarch  was  sometimes  in  courtesy  called  a 
king  (Mat.  xiv.  1  with  9;  see  also  Mark  vi. 
14). 

Thad-dse'us.    See  Judas  5. 


Tha'hash. 
Tha'mah. 


See  Tahash. 
See  Temah. 


Tha'mar.    Sec  Tamar. 

Tham'na-tha.    See  Timnah. 

Thank  Of  fer-ing.    See  Offerings. 

Tha'ra.     See  Terah. 

Thar'sMsh.    See  Tarshish. 

Tlie'a-ter. 

A  place  where  dramatic  performances  are 
given.  The  theater,  with  its  auditorium, 
orchestra,  and  stage,  and  capable  of  seating 
immense  throngs  (see  Ephesus),  was  admir- 
ably adapted  for  large  public  meetings  and 
the  transaction  of  public  business,  and  was 
often  put  to  that  use  (Acts  xix.  29,  31 ;  An- 
tiq. xix.  8,  2). 

Thebes.    See  No. 

The'bez  [perhaps,  brightness  or  sydendor]. 

A  town  near  Shechem,  having  in  it  a 
strong  tower,  in  besieging  which  Abimelech 
was  killed  (Judg.  ix.  50-55;  2  Sam.  xi.  21). 
It  continues  to  exist  in  the  large  village  of 
Tubas,  9J  miles  northeast  of  Shechem,  on 
the  road  to  Beth-shean.    . 

The-co'e.    See  Tekoa. 

The-la'ser.    See  Telassar. 

The-oc'ra-cy. 

Josephus  coined  the  word  theocracy  to  de- 
scribe the  government  instituted  at  Sinai. 
"  Our  legislator  .  .  .  ordered  our  government 
to  be  what  I  may  call  by  a  strained  expres- 
sion a  theocracy,  attributing  the  power  and 
the  authority  to  God"  (con.  Apion.  ii.  IT). 
Jehovah  was  the  head  of  the  nation,  dwell- 
ing in  its  midst  between  the  cherubim  (Ex. 
XXV.  22).  In  him  all  the  powers  of  the  state, 
legislative,  executive,  judicial,  were  united. 
As  legislator,  he  announced  the  fundamental 
law  of  the  state  in  the  hearing  of  the  con- 
gregation. After  that  immediate  i)resenta- 
tion  of  himself  to  the  nation,  he  exercised 
his  governmental  offices  for  the  most  part 
through  men  whom  he  raised  up.  Like  all 
potentates,  he  delegated  the  judicial  func- 
tion for  the  most  part  to  judges  ;  only  the 
most  difficult  matters  were  referred  to  Jeho- 
vah (Ex.  xviii.  19)  ;  see  Urim  and  Thum- 
MIM.  His  legislative  function  he  exercised 
through  Moses  and  through  ]>ro]ihets  (Dent, 
xviii.  15-19).  Legislation  was  intermittent ; 
the  given  body  of  laws  was  a  sufficient  rule, 
and  seldom  required  modification  or  enlarge- 
ment. The  executive  function  was  likewise  ex- 
ercised for  many  years  intermittently  through 
leaders,  called  judges,  who  were  raised  up 
from  time  to  time,  and  who.  accredited  by  the 
great  deeds  which  were  wrought  by  their 
hands,  secured  public  confidence  and  became 
the  acknowledged  head  in  state  affairs. 

The  theocratic  government  was  proposed 
by  God  at  Sinai  on  condition  of  obedience 
(Ex.  xix.  4-9).  The  terms  were  accepted  by 
the  elders  of  the  peojde  (7,  8).  The  ten  com- 
mandments, which  formed  the  basis  of  the 
covenant,  were  proclaimed  by  .Tehovah  him- 
self in  such  a  manner  that  all  the  people  could 


Theocracy 


734 


Theophany 


hear  (xx.  1,  19,  22 ;  Dent.  iv.  12,  33,  36  ;  v. 
4,  22),  in  order  that  they  might  believe  (Ex. 
xix.  !)).  At  the  people's  request,  the  remain- 
ing law.s,  which  are  a  practical  application 
and  interpretation  of  the  ten  commandments, 
were  not  spoken  directly  to  them,  but 
through  Moses  (xx.  18-21).  Then  the  cov- 
enant was  ratified.  Moses  wrote  all  the 
words  of  the  Lord,  erected  an  altar  and 
twelve  pillars,  ordered  a  sacrifice,  and 
sprinkled  the  altar  with  half  the  blood.  He 
read  the  book  of  the  covenant  in  the  audi- 
ence of  the  people,  and,  on  their  formal  ac- 
ceptance of  it,  sprinkled  the  remaining  por- 
tion of  the  blood  upon  the  people,  saying : 
"  Behold  the  blood  of  the  covenant,  which 
the  Lord  hath  made  with  you  concerning  all 
these  words"  (xxiv.  3-8).  Thus  the  theocra- 
cy was  established. 

This  book  of  the  covenant  contains  the 
constitution  and  earliest  laws  of  Israel.  The 
ten  commandments  formed  the  fundamental 
law  of  the  state.  In  modern  mode  of  thought 
and  expression,  they  would  be  called  the  con- 
stitution ;  in  Hebrew  conception  and  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  they  were  a  covenant  between 
God  and  the  nation.  There  was  a  treaty, 
not  between  several  communities,  but  be- 
tween the  commnnity  and  God.  Being  fun- 
damental law,  they  were  engraven  on  stone, 
and  deposited  in  the  ark  ;  they  were  known 
as  the  covenant  (Dent.  iv.  13 ;  ix.  9,  11  ;  1 
Kin.  viii.  9-21 ;  see  also  Num.  x.  33  ;  Judg. 
XX.  27 ;  1  Sam.  iv.  3)  ;'or  the  testimony  (Ex. 
xxxi.  18;  xxxii.  15,  etc.).  The  laws  which 
follow  the  ten  commandments  are  by-laws 
or  statutes.  They  are  constitutional,  involv- 
ing no  principle  contrary  to  the  organic  law 
of  the  state  ;  they  are  expository,  being  the 
application  of  the  doctrines  of  the  constitu- 
tion to  the  affairs  of  daily  life  ;  they  are  tem- 
porary, liable  to  abrogation  and  amendment 
and  numerical  increase  to  meet  the  new  con- 
ditions and  peculiar  needs  of  each  age.  They 
are  presented  in  the  form  of  a  code  ;  they 
are  not  a  loose  aggregation  of  statutes,  but 
are  disposed  in  orderly  arrangement :  1. 
Laws  relating  to  the  form  of  worship  (xx. 
23-26).  2.  Laws  to  protect  the  rights  of  man. 
(a)  To  protect  liberty  (xxi.  2-11).  (b)  Con- 
cerning injury  of  person  (12-36).  (c)  Concern- 
ing property  rights  (xxii.  1-17).  3.  Laws  to 
govern  personal  conduct  (18-xxiii.  9).  4. 
Laws  concerning  sacred  seasons  and  sacrifice 
(10-19).     5.  The  promise  annexed  (20-33). 

At  the  institution  of  the  theocratic  govern- 
ment at  Sinai,  the  idea  before  the  people  was 
simply  that  God  was  ruler  and  Moses  his 
accredited  representative  through  whom  he 
exercised  the  legislative,  judicial,  and  execu- 
tive offices.  Moses  already  had  subordinate 
judges  to  assist  him  (Ex.  xviii.  21-26);  and 
at  the  end  of  the  wilderness  period,  promise 
was  made  of  future  legislation,  that  is  the 
continued  revelation  of  the  will  of  God 
(Deut.  xviii.  1.5-19).  The  expectation  was 
also  entertained  by  Moses  that  God  would 


appoint  leaders  to  succeed  him,  and  that 
eventually,  on  account  of  the  people's  lack 
of  faith,  a  king  would  be  needed  as  earthly, 
visible  representative  of  the  executive  power 
when  the  people  should  be  settled  in  Pales- 
tine. Accordingly  a  general  law  of  the  king 
was  framed  (xvii.  14-20). 

The  stability  of  the  state  under  theocratic 
form  of  government  depended  in  the  first  in- 
stance and  ultimately  on  the  faithfulness  of 
God  to  his  election  and  his  promises ;  but  the 
success  of  the  theocracy  at  any  given  period 
was  conditioned  by  the  attitude  of  the  peoj)]e 
toward  God  and  toward  the  provisions  of  the 
covenant.  Their  obedience  to  God  and 
reliance  on  him  were  requisite.  The  the- 
ocracy was  based  on  the  conception  of 
Israel  as  a  community,  and  it  is  well 
to  note  the  weakness  of  the  bond  which 
at  the  first  bound  Israel  into  a  commun- 
ity. The  children  of  Lsrael  were  divided 
into  twelve  tribes ;  they  were  bound  to- 
gether by  common  blood  and  common  lan- 
guage, by  common  misfortune  and  common 
need.  They  were  held  together  in  i)ursuit 
of  a  great  end  by  the  enthusiasm  and  expec- 
tation which  one  man  had  awakened,  by  the 
hope  of  freedom  and  a  country,  by  the  prom- 
ise and  evidence  of  God's  protection.  They 
were  kept  together  by  providence.  All  these 
unifying  elements  save  the  last  were  weak. 
They  were  bonds  that  might  easily  be,  and 
constantly  were,  broken.  This  lack  of  com- 
munal strength  was  an  obstacle  to  the  theoc- 
racy, which  even  the  establishment  of  the 
monarchy  did  not  rectify. 

The-oph'a-ny. 

A  manifestation  of  God  to  man  by  actual 
appearance.  It  was  not  an  immediate 
revelation  of  God  the  Father  (John  i.  18 ;  1 
Tim.  vi.  16)  ;  but  a  manifestation  of  Jehovah 
in  the  person  of  the  angel  of  the  Lord  (Gen. 
xvi.  7),  the  angel  of  the  presence  or  the  Lord's 
presence  (Ex.  xxxii.  34 ;  xxxiii.  14),  the 
angel  of  the  covenant  (Mai.  iii.  1),  or  Christ. 
A  common  classification  is:  1.  The  O.  T.  the- 
ophany, an  epiphany  of  the  future  Christ. 
2.  The  incarnation  of  Christ,  as  the  revelation 
of  God  in  the  flesh.  3.  The  second  coming 
of  Christ. 

The  O.  T.  theophanies  were  transient  man- 
ifestations and  permanent  localization.  They 
were  temporary  manifestations  to  the  patri- 
archs, and  became  abiding  in  the  shekinah. 
The  theophanies  which  were  granted  to  the 
patriarchs  may  have  been  unsubstantial  mani- 
festations, incorporeal  and  merely  the  appear- 
ance of  the  human  form.  Some  interpreters, 
like  Tertullian,  believe  that  occasionally  at 
least  there  was  actual  flesh,  not  putative 
flesh;  real  and  solid  human  substance;  just 
as  Christ,  who  was  God  manifested  in  the 
flesh,  had  flesh  and  blood  both  before  and 
after  his  resurrection,  and  could  be  seen 
and  handled  (Luke  xxiv.  30-43;  John 
XX.  27).     If  the  angel  of  the  Lord  assumed 


i 


Theophany 


735       Thessalonians,  Epistles  to  the 


I 


an  actual  body,  be  did  so  miraculouijly, 
as  Cbrist  made  tbe  water  wiue ;  and  it 
disappeared  iiiiraciilously,  as  Christ  who 
possessed  a  human  l)uily  of  flesh  and  blood 
vanished  from  men's  siglit.  In  the  O.  T. 
theophany  the  angel  of  the  Lord  ate  actual 
food  (Gen.  xviii.  1-8).  Does  this  prove  that 
the  angel  had  assumed  an  actual  body?  1. 
Josepbus  interprets  the  eating  as  mere  ap- 
pearance (Antiq.  i.  11,  2) ;  so  also  Philo  (Op. 
ii.  18)  and  the  writer  of  Tobit  (Tob.  sii.  19). 
2.  Justin  Martyr  speaks  of  the  angel  as  con- 
suming food  "as  fire  consumes"  (Dial.  c. 
Tryph.  xxxiv.).  The  angel  of  the  Lord  who 
appeared  to  Manoab,  touched  the  food,  and 
it  was  burnt.  "The  thirsty  earth  absorbs 
water  in  one  manner,  tlie  hot  ray  of  the  sun 
in  another"  (Augustine). 

The  transient  manifestations  gradually  gave 
place  to  the  permanent  localization.  The 
shekinah  was  the  visible  majesty  of  the  divine 
presence,  especially  when  dwelling  between 
the  cherubim  in  the  tabernacle  and  temple  in 
the  midst  of  God's  people  Israel.  It  first  ap- 
peared at  the  exodus.  The  Lord  went  be- 
fore the  Israelites  in  a  pillar  of  cloud  by  day, 
and  by  night  in  a  pillar  of  fire  to  give  them 
light  (Ex.  xiii.  21,  22).  A  thick  cloud  rested 
upon  mount  Sinai,  and  the  mountain  was  al- 
together on  smoke,  because  the  Lord  de- 
scended upon  mount  Sinai  in  fire  (xix.  16, 18). 
Later  the  glory  of  the  Lord  abode  on  mount 
Sinai,*and  tbe  cloud  covered  it  six  days ;  and 
the  seventh  day  he  called  unto  Moses  out  of 
the  midst  of  the  cloud,  and  the  appearance 
of  the  glory  of  the  Lord  was  like  devouring 
fire  on  the  top  of  the  mount  in  the  eyes  of 
the  children  of  Israel  (xxiv.  Ifi,  17).  When 
Moses  entered  the  first  tent  of  meeting  the 
cloud  descended  and  hovered  at  the  door,  and 
the  Lord  talked  with  Moses  face  to  face  (Ex. 
xxxiii.  11  ;  cp.  Deut.  v.  4).  When  the 
tabernacle  was  erected,  the  Lord  took  pos- 
session of  it.  The  cloud,  dark  by  day  and 
luminous  bv  night,  covered  the  tent,  and  the 
glory  of  the  Lord  filled  it  (Ex.  xl.  34,  35; 
Num.  ix.  15,  16).  When  Moses  appeared 
before  the  Lord  in  the  tabernacle,  he 
heard  the  voice  of  one  speaking  unto  him 
from  off  the  mercy  seat  (Num.  vii.  89:  cp. 
Ex.  XXV.  22  ;  Lev.  xvi.  2).  Probably  the 
glory  was  not  seen  constantly,  but  gleamed 
forth  occasionally  from  the  cloud  which  con- 
cealed it  (Ex.  xvi.  7,  10 ;  Lev.  ix.  6,  23 ; 
Num.  xiv.  10;  xvi.  19,  42;  xx.  6).  From 
frequent  references,  it  seems  that  God  con- 
tinued to  manifest  bis  presence  between  the 
cherubim  on  the  ark.  At  length,  when  the 
temple  of  Solomon  was  dedicated,  the  cloud 
filled  the  house  of  the  Lord,  so  that  the 
priests  could  not  stand  to  minister  by  reason 
of  the  cloud  ;  for  the  glory  of  the  Lord  filled 
the  house  (1  Kin.  viii.  10,  11). 

The  temporary  manifestations  had  given 
place  to  the  abiding  presence  in  the  tabernacle 
and  Solomon's  temple  :  and  finally  the  Word 
became  flesh  and  dwelt  among  men  ;  and  men 


beheld  his  glory,  glory  as  of  the  only  begotten 
from  the  Father  (John  i.  14).  The  latter 
glory  of  the  house  was  greater  than  the  for- 
mer (Hag.  ii.  9,  R.  V.).  The  divine  presence 
dwelt  in  Christ's  body  as  in  the  temple. 

The-oph'i-lus  [loved  by  God]. 

The  Christian  to  whom  Luke  addressed  his 
Gospel  (Luke  i.  3)  and  The  Acts  of  tlie  Apostles 
(Acts  i.  1).    See  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  The, 

Thes-sa-lo'ni-ans,  Epistles  to  the. 

The  First  Epistle  of  Paul  the  Apostle  to 
the  Thessalonians  is  the  earliest  of  Paul's 
epistles.  It  was  written  by  the  apostle  in 
conjunction  with  Silvanus  (Silas)  and  Timo- 
thy, to  the  church  at  Thessalonica.  Paul 
had  founded  this  church  on  his  second  mis- 
sionary journey,  and  had  been  driven  from 
Thessalonica  to  Bercea  and  from  Bercea  to 
Athens  by  the  persecuting  Jews ;  see  Paul. 
The  epistle  contains  allusions  (1  Thes.  ii.)  to 
his  life  at  Thessalonica.  It  also  relates  that, 
when  at  Athens,  he  had  sent  Timothy  back 
to  Thessalonica  to  encourage  the  Christians 
amid  their  persecutions  (iii.  1-3)  and  that 
Timothy  had  recently  brought  him  good 
news  of  their  steadfastness.  In  Acts  xviii. 
5  we  learn  that  Silas  and  Timothy  rejoined 
the  apostle  at  Corinth.  Hence  the  epistle 
was  written  from  that  city,  probably  in  the 
year  A.  D.  52.  The  allusions  which  the  epistle 
contains  to  Paul's  life  in  Thessalonica  and  to 
the  distress  felt  by  the  Thessalonians  over  the 
death  of  their  friends,  as  well  as  the  ele- 
mentary character  of  the  instruction  given, 
confirm  this  date.  There  appear  to  have 
been  three  special  features  in  the  condition  of 
the  Thessalonians  which  occasioned  anxiety 
to  the  apostle,  and  led  him  to  write  this 
epistle  :  (1 )  a  tendency  to  neglect  their  daily 
work,  probably  under  the  idea  that  the 
second  advent  would  soon  take  place, — and 
with  this  was  sometimes  found  a  failure  to- 
preserve  moral  purity  of  life;  (2)  distress 
lest  their  Christian  friends  who  died  would 
fail  to  enjoy  the  glories  of  the  kingdom 
which  the  returning  Christ  was  to  establish  ; 
(3)  friction  between  the  regular  oflicers  of 
the  church  and  those  who  ]>ossessed  miracu- 
lous endowments  of  the  Spirit.  Hence  the 
analysis  of  the  epistle :  1.  A  grateful  state- 
ment of  their  Christian  earnestness,  their 
endurance  of  trial,  and  the  influence  they  had 
already  exerted  over  others  (i.).  2.  A  re- 
minder of  the  uprightness  and  industry  with 
which  he  had  lived  among  them,  and  of  the 
enthusiasm  with  which  they  had  received 
his  preaching  even  in  the  face  of  persecu- 
tion from  the  Jews  (ii.).  3.  A  recital  of  the 
joy  he  had  had  in  Timothy's  good  report  of 
their  condition  (iii.).  4.  Instruction  on  spe- 
cial points  (iv.  1-v.  24)  :  (a)  Concerning 
purity  in  the  relation  of  the  sexes  (iv.  3-8). 
(b)  Concerning  a  life  of  mutual  love  and 
orderliness  (9-12).  (c)  Concerning  dead  be- 
lievers, declaring  that  at  the  advent  they 
will  rise  first  and   be  caught  up  with  the 


Thessalonians,  Epistles  to  the       736 


Thessalonica 


living  to  meet  the  Lord  in  the  air,  and  thus 
willnotfailof  their  reward  (13-18).  (d)  Con- 
cerning watchfulness  and  sobriety  of  life  (v. 
1-11).  (e)  Concerning  respect  for  officers  of  the 
church,  consideration  for  those  in  need,  culti- 
vation of  spiritual  gifts,  and  otherduties  of  the 
CTiristian  life  (12-24).  5.  Closing  words  (25-28). 

The  epistle  strikingly  illustrates  the  dif- 
ficulties natural  to  a  newly  formed  gentile 
church  and  the  breadth  and  practical  wisdom 
of  the  apostle's  instructions. 

The  Second  Epistle  of  Paul  the  Apostle  to 
the  Thessalonians  evidently  followed  the 
first  after  but  a  short  period.  It  too,  there- 
fore, is  to  be  assigned  to  a.  d.  52,  and  was 
written  from  Corinth.  We  learn  from  it 
that  the  difficulties  of  the  Thessalonians  had 
become  more  serious,  but  were  still  of  the 
same  general  character  as  those  dealt  with  in 
the  first  epistle.  Like  the  first,  this  was 
written  by  Paul  in  conjunction  with  Sil- 
vanus  (Silas)  and  Timothy ;  it  deals  largely 
with  the  second  advent  and  misconceptions 
about  it;  and  refers  again  to  the  tendency 
of  some  to  disorderly  living  (2  Thes.  iii.  6- 
12).  If,  however,  the  first  epistle  treated  of 
the  relation  of  the  advent  to  believers,  the 


The  ei)istle  may  be  divided  as  follows : 
1.  Thanksgiving  for  their  fidelity  amid  per- 
secution, and  assurance  that  persecution 
should  only  make  stronger  their  faith  in 
the  vindication  of  the  saints  and  in  the 
punishment  of  the  ungodly  which  will  take 
place  at  the  second  advent  (i.).  2.  Warning 
against  supposing  that  "  the  day  of  the  Lord 
is  now  present,"  and  description  of  the  apos- 
tasy and  rise  of  the  man  of  lawlessness, 
which  must  precede  the  coming  of  the  Lord 
(ii.  1-12).  3.  Expression  of  his  confidence 
in  their  election  and  fidelity  (13-17).  4. 
Concluding  exhortations, — that  they  pray  for 
him,  that  they  avoid  tliose  who  are  disor- 
derly, that  they  be  industrious  and  faithful, 
that  they  all  subject  themselves  to  the 
authority  which  he  as  an  apostle  exercised, 
etc.  (iii.).  From  ii.  2  it  appears  that  a  forged 
letter  of  Paul's  bad  been  circulated  ;  hence  in 
iii.  17  he  appends  his  signature.  We  thus  see 
also  that  from  the  beginning  the  same  author- 
ity was  attached  in  the  church  to  the  apos- 
tle's letters  as  to  his  oral  teaching.  The 
statements  concerning  the  apostasy  and  the 
man  of  lawlessness  have  been  variously  in- 
terpreted.    We  think  it  most  probable  that 


Saloniki. 


second  treats  of  its  relation  to  the  wicked 
(i.  5-10).  Further  the  apostle  warns  them 
not  to  suppose  that  "  the  day  of  the  Lord  is 
now  present"  (ii.  2,  R.  V.),  and  that  the 
visible  advent  would  therefore  soon  come  ; 
for,  before  that  happens,  there  must  be  the 
apostasy  (predicted  by  Christ ;  cp.  Mat. 
xxiv.  9-12)  and  the  revelation  of  the  man 
of  lawlessness  (2  Thes.  ii.  3,  R.  V.  ;  see 
Antichrist),  whom  the  Lord  will  destroy 
at  his  coming.  He  had,  when  with  them, 
told  them  of  these  things  (ii.  5). 


the  apostasy  was  contemplated  by  Paul  as 
arising  within  the  church  ;  the  man  of  law- 
lessness as  the  culmination  of  the  apostasy  in 
a  personal  antichrist ;  and  he  or  that  which 
hindereth  (ii.  7)  as  either  the  civil  power  or 
else,  and  w'ith  much  probability,  the  Holy 
Spirit.  G.  T.  p. 

Thes-sa-lo-ni'ca  [conquest  of  Thessaly]. 

A  city  on  the  Therniaic  Gulf,  now  called 
the  gulf  of  Saloniki.  The  city  was  first 
called  Therme,  or  Therma,  hot  spring ;  but 


Theudas 


737 


Thief 


Cassander,  one  of  the  sticcossors  of  Alexander 
the  (ireat,  made  it  liis  residence  and  renamed 
it  Thessaloniea,  after  liis  wife  Thessah)nike, 
a  (huigliter  of  the  conqueror  of  tlie  C'herso- 
iiesiis  and  sister  of  tiie  great  Alexander. 
I'nder  the  Koiiiaiis  it  was  the  capital  of  the 
second  district  out  of  four  into  wliich  they 
had  divideil  Macedonia.  The  .Jews  had  a 
.synagogue  in  the  city.  I'aul  ])reached  there 
and  made  converts,  who  hecame  the  nucleus 
of  a  Christian  church  (Acts  xvii.  1-13;  cp. 
riiil.  iv.  It)).  To  this  church  Paul  sent  two 
letters.  Two  of  his  coworkers,  Aristarchusand 
.Secuudus,  were  men  of  Thessalouica  (Acts 
XX.  4;  xxvii.  2).  Thessalouica  was  taken 
l>y  the  Saracens  in  A.  D.  904.  After  other 
vicissitudes,  it  was  captured  by  the  Turkish 
sultan  Amurath  II.  in  1430.  It  still  exists 
as  Saloniki,  with  a  pojmlation  of  about 
100,000  Mohammedans,  Christians,  and  Jews. 

Theu'das. 

(lamaliel,  in  his  speech  before  the  .sanhe- 
drin.  about  A.  D.  32,  referred  to  Theudas, 
who  gave  himself  out  to  be  somebody,  to 
whom  a  number  of  men,  about  400,  joined 
themselves,  who  was  slain,  and  all,  as  many 
as  obeyed  him,  were  dispersed  and  came  to 
nought,  and  after  whom  Judas  of  Galilee 
rose  up  in  the  days  of  the  enrollment  (Acts 
v.  3fi,  37).  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
Judas  here  spoken  of  was  Judas  the  Gaulon- 
ite  of  Gamala,  who,  in  the  times  of  Quirinins, 
during  the  procuratorship  of  Copouius,  raised 
an  insurrection  by  opposing  the  enrollment 
(.Antiq.  xviii.  1,  1;  War  ii.  8,  1).  Theudas 
accordingly  arose  sometime  before  A.  D.  6. 
Now  Josejilnis  mentions  a  magician  named 
Theudas,  who,  while  Fadus  was  procurator 
of  Judaea,  a.  r>.  44-46,  persuaded  a  great  part 
of  the  people  to  follow  him  to  the  river 
Jordan,  for  he  told  them  that  he  was  a 
prophet,  and  that  at  his  command  the  waters 
would  divide  and  allow  them  a  passage.  But 
Fadus  sent  a  troop  of  horse  against  him, 
wlio  fell  upon  the  people  unexpectedly,  slew 
many  and  took  many  others  alive,  and  se- 
cured Theudas,  cut  off  his  head,  and  carried 
it  to  Jerusalem  (Autiq.  xx.  5,  1). 

The  question  is.  Do  Luke  and  Josephus 
refer  to  the  same  person  ?  Some  answer  that 
they  do,  and  say  that  either  Luke  or  Josephus 
errs.  Josephus  scarcely  is  mistaken,  for  he 
gives  details.  But  Luke  has  fully  estab- 
lished his  credibility  as  a  historian,  and  it  is 
a  rash  thing  to  accuse  him  of  an  error. 
Accordingly  other  interpreters  believe  that 
it  is  quite  probaVde  that  two  persons  by  the 
name  of  Theudas,  at  a  distance  of  forty  years 
or  more  from  each  other,  laid  themselves 
open  to  the  just  vengeance  or  justifiable  sus- 
picions of  the  Romans  and  were  punished. 
It  is  not  at  all  clear  that  Theudas  the  Gau- 
lonite  was  an  insurgent  of  the  same  class  as 
Theudas  whom  Gamaliel  cites.  Tlie  one  was 
an  impo.stor,  a  pretended  prophet,  who,  on 
the  faith  of  the  people  in  his  supernatural 
47 


powers,  drew  crowds  of  followers  after 
him.  The  other  made  some  sort  of  claim 
to  greatness,  gained  a  following  of  400 
men,  and  came  to  naught.  Who  then  was 
Theudas  to  whom  Gamaliel  refers?  He  was 
probably  one  of  the  insurrectionary  chiefs, 
who  led  belligerent  bands  in  the  closing  year 
of  Herod  the  Great.  That  year  was  remark- 
ably turbulent.  Josej)hus  mentions  three 
disturbers  by  name,  and  makes  general  allu- 
sion to  others.  Theudas  was  either  1.  One 
of  these  unnamed  insurrectionists,  whom 
Gamaliel  cites  to  show  that  a  bad  cause  and 
its  leaders  come  to  grief.  Theudas  w^as  a 
common  name,  and  within  a  period  of  half 
a  century,  might  be  borne  by  two  persons  of 
some  j)rominence  and  somewhat  similar  in 
their  career.  Analogouslj-  Josephus  gives 
an  account  of  four  men  named  Simon, 
who  followed  each  other  within  forty 
years,  and  of  three  named  Judas,  within 
ten  years,  who  were  all  instigators  of  rebel- 
lion. Or  2.  One  of  the  three  insurgents  who 
are  named  by  Josephus.  Two  are  advocated 
as  identical  with  Theudas.  (1)  Simon  (Antiq. 
xvii.  10,  6 ;  War  ii.  4,  2),  a  slave  of 
Herod,  who  attempted  to  make  himself 
king  when  Herod  died.  He  was  noted  as  a 
disturber  of  the  peace  at  this  time  and  his 
name  would  be  apt  to  occur  to  Gamaliel ;  he 
was  a  man  of  lofty  pretensions ;  he  died  a 
violent  death  ;  he  appears  to  have  had  com- 
paratively few^  adherents ;  he  was  a  slave, 
and  it  was  quite  common  among  the  Jews 
to  assume  a  new  name  on  changing  occupa- 
tion or  mode  of  life.  Gamaliel  speaks  of  him 
as  Theudas,  the  name  he  had  borne  longest, 
and  by  which  he  was  best  known  in  Jerusa- 
lem and  to  the  members  of  the  sanhedrin, 
while  Josephus  calls  him  by  the  name  Simon, 
which  he  had  adopted  when  appearing  as 
king  of  the  Jews  and  by  which  he  was  nat- 
urally known  to  the  Eoman  government  and 
people.  (2)  The  man  called  Matthias  by 
Josephus  (Antiq.  xvii.  6,  2;  War  i.  33,  2). 
Matthias  is  a  Greek  form  of  the  Hebrew 
Mattanyah,  gift  of  God,  and  is  equivalent  to 
the  Greek  name  Theudas,  which,  it  is  urged, 
is  the  same  as  Theodas,  shortened  from  Theo- 
doras, gift  of  God.  Matthias  was  an  eloqueni 
teacher,  who  with  another  teacher  headed  a 
band  in  the  days  of  king  Herod,  and  de- 
stroyed the  golden  eagle  .set  up  by  the  king 
over  the  great  gate  of  the  temple.  He  was 
caught  and  burnt  alive  with  some  of  his 
companions,  and  many  of  the  rest  were  put 
to  death  by  other  means. 

Thief. 

In  a  broad  sense,  anyone  who  appropriates 
what  is  not  his  own,  as  the  petty  pilferer 
(John  xii.  6),  the  robber  or  high-^^-ayman 
(Luke  X.  .30,  E.  V.  robber),  the  burglar  (Mat. 
vi.  SO).  The  highwayman  was  often  a  rebel 
against  Roman  rule  and  a  fomcnter  of  strife, 
like  Barabbas  (Mark  xv.  7),  who  was  com- 
pelled by  the  exigencies  of  the  case,  as  much. 


Thimnathah 


738 


Thorns  and  Thistles 


as  by  the  lust  of  plunder,  to  flee  from  the  sol- 
diers and  adopt  the  wild,  robber  life.  Under 
the  Mosaic  law  a  thief  caught  had  to  make 
restitution  of  twice  the  amount  he  had 
taken,  and  if  he  were  unable,  could  be  sold 
into  temporary  servitude  till  he  had  earned 
the  requisite  amount.  If  a  thief  entered  a 
house  and,  coming  into  contact  with  the 
owner  in  the  dark,  was  killed,  the  homicide 
was  not  to  be  charged  with  blood-guiltiness  ; 
but  if  the  sun  had  risen,  the  householder 
was  held  to  be  guilty  if  he  killed  the  in- 
truder (Ex.  xxii.  1-4).  That  the  thieves  on 
the  cross  were  something  far  beyond  petty 
pilferers  is  plain  from  the  Greek  term  applied 
to  them,  the  severity  of  their  punishment 
(War  ii.  13,  2),  and  the  fact  that  one  of  them 
acknowledged  the  justice  of  the  death  pen- 
alty inflicted  on  him  (Luke  xxiii.  41) ;  he 
must  have  been  a  robber  at  the  least  (Mat. 
xxvii.  38,  R.  V.),  and  quite  possibly  even  a 
brigand.  Both  reviled  Jesus  on  the  cross  (44), 
but  subsequently  one  was  touched  with  awe  at 
the  meekness  and  forgiving  spirit  of  Jesus, 
and  with  the  fear  of  God  in  his  heart,  the 
confession  of  the  sinfulness  of  his  past  life, 
the  acknowledgment  that  Jesus  had  done 
nothing  amiss,  and  was  the  true  King,  and 
would  reign  in  power  after  the  death  on  the 
cross,  turned  to  Jesus  for  acceptance  after 
death  (Luke  xxiii.  39-43). 

TMm'na-thah.    See  Timnah. 

This'tle.    See  Thorns  and  Thistles. 

Thom'as  [Greek,  from  Hebrew  ta'om,  a 
twin] . 

One  of  the  twelve  apostles  (Mat.  x.  3).  He 
was  also  called  Didymus,  a  Greek  name, 
meaning,  like  Thomas,  a  twin.  When  the 
disciples  were  astonished  that  Jesus  intended 
going  again  to  Judaea,  where  a  little  before 
the  Jews  had  threatened  to  stone  him  (John 
xi.  7,  8),  Thomas,  in  devotion  to  Jesus,  de- 
termined to  share  the  peril,  and  said  to  his 
fellow-disciples :  "  Let  us  also  go,  that  we 
may  die  with  him"  (16).  When  Jesus,  in 
anticipation  of  his  departure,  spoke  of  going 
to  prepare  a  place  for  them,  and  added  that 
they  knew  whither  he  was  going  and  the 
way,  Thomas  said :  "  Lord,  we  know  not 
whither  thou  goest ;  and  how  can  we  know 
the  way?"  To  which  the  reply  commenced 
with  the  well-known  words :  "  I  am  the 
way,  the  truth,  and  the  life "  (xiv.  1-6). 
Thomas  was  not  at  the  first  meeting  at  which 
the  privilege  was  granted  of  seeing  the  risen 
Lord,  and  when  he  heard  that  Jesus  had 
been  present  he  .said  :  "  Except  I  shall  see  in 
his  hands  the  print  of  the  nails,  and  put  my 
finger  into  the  print  of  the  nails,  and  thrust 
my  hand  into  his  side,  I  will  not  believe  "  (xx. 
24,  25).  This  incident  has  given  rise  to  his  des- 
ignation, "doubting  Thomas."  But  God 
turned  the  doubt  of  Thomas  to  the  good  of  oth- 
ers. "  He  doubted  that  we  might  not  doubt " 
(Augustine),  and  eight  days  later  Jesus  gave 
him  the  evidence  he  required,  and  elicited 


from  him  the  adoring  exclamation :  "  My  Lord 
and  my  God  ! "  (26-29).  He  was  on  the  sea 
of  Galilee  with  six  other  disciples  when  Jesus 
hailed  them  from  the  beach  and  told  them 
where  to  cast  the  net  (xxi.  1-8)  ;  and  was  with 
the  rest  of  the  apostles  in  the  upper  room  at 
Jerusalem  after  the  ascension  (Acts  i.  13). 
Tradition  makes  Thomas  afterwards  labor  in 
Parthia  and  Persia,  dying  in  the  latter  coun- 
try. At  a  later  period  India  was  named  as 
the  place  where  he  had  preached  and  suffered 
martyrdom,  and  a  place  near  Madras  is  called 
St.  Thomas'  mount. 

Thorns  and  This'tles. 

In  most  passages  where  these  words  occur 
the  terms  are  generic  rather  than  specific. 
Thorny  weeds,  bushes,  and  small  trees  of 
various  kinds  are  abundant  in  Palestine. 
Among  them  may  be  mentioned  the  thorny 
burnet  {Poteiium  spinosum),  which  is  burnt  as 
fuel  in  lime  kilns  and  ovens;  the  thorny 
caper  {Capparis  spinosa),  seen  everywhere 
hanging  from  rocks  and  walls ;  the  James- 
town or  jirason  weed  (Datura  stramonium)  l)y 
the  roadside  and  in  waste  places ;  the  arti- 
choke ((Tj/nara  .s.(/ri«ca) ;  and  in  the  uplands 
the  acanthus  with  its  whitish  flowers.  The 
prickly  pear  (Opuntia  ficus  indica),  a  cactus 
with  yellow  flowers,  is  the  characteristic 
hedge  plant  of  modern  Syria  ;  but  it  was  in- 
troduced from  America  and  was  unknown  in 
ancient  times.  For  hedge  purposes  there  are 
also  used  the  box  thorn  (Lycium  europieum) 
and  the  bramble  (Rubus  discolor).  Various 
hawthorns  are  found,  Cratiegus  azarolus,  C. 
monogj/na,  and  east  of  the  Jordan  C.  orieuiaUs. 
Numerous  thistles  grow  in  the  fields  and 
waste  places:  such  as  Cirsium  acarna.  with 
its  leaves  tipped  with  long,  yellow  spines ; 
Carthamus  lanatus,  with  yellow  flowerets.  C. 
glaucus,  with  purple,  C.  cseruleus,  with  blue, 
and  C.  tinctorius,  with  red  flowerets,  which 
are  used  as  a  red  dye  ;  Carduus  pycnocephalus 
and  arqentalus ;  Echinops  riscosus ;  the  tall 
Notobasis  syriaca,  with  pink  flowers  and  pow- 
erful spines;  cotton  thistles  {Onopordon  illy- 
ricum  and  cynarocephalum) ;  the  milk  thistle 
(Silybum  marianum)  ;  sow  thistles  (Sonchus 
oleraceus  and  (jlaucescens)  ;  star  thistles  (Cen- 
tauvca  caJcitrapa  and  rerutum),  the  former 
with  ])urple,  the  latter  with  yellow  flowers. 
The  cocklebur  (Xanthium)  is  common,  as  is 
also  teasel  (Dij)sacus  sylvestris). 

Several  words  rendered  thorn  or  thistle 
appear  to  be  used  speciflcally  :  1.  Hebrew 
dardar,  Greek  tribolos,  which  grows  in  fields 
(Gen.  iii.  18 ;  Hos.  x.  8  ;  Mat.  vii.  16  ;  all  in 
E.  V.  thistle  ;  and  Heb.  vi.  8,  in  A.  V.  brier)  is 
probably  a  species  of  Tribulus,  perhaps  T.  ter- 
restris,  one  of  the  plants  called  caltrop.  It  is 
common  in  the  fields  and  by  the  roadside. 
The  fruit  is  composed  of  bony  cells  armed 
with  prickles  on  the  back.  It  does  not  be- 
long to  the  Composite,  as  do  the  thistles.  2,  3, 
and  4,  see  Bramble,  Brier  5,  6,  Nettle  2. 

The  crown  of  thorns,  which  was  plaited  by 


i 


Three  Taverns 


739 


Throne 


the  Eoman  soldiers  and  placed  on  the  head 
of  Jesus  to  torture  and  insult  him  (Mat.  xxvii. 
29),  is  generally  believed  to  have  been  made 
of  the  Zizi/phus  spina  Christi,  a  speeies  of 
jujube  or  lotus  tree,  with  soft,  round,  pliant 
branches,  and  with  leaves  resembling  the 
ivy  with  which  emperors  and  generals  were 
wont  to  be  crowned.     See  Bkamble. 

The  thorn  in  the  tiesh  was  some  bodily 
pain  or  iutirmity,  sent  as  a  messenger  of  Sa- 
tan to  buflet  the  apostle  Paul  and  keep  him 
humble  amid  all  his  spiritual  triumphs  (2  Cor. 
xii.  7).     Its  nature  is  unknown. 

Three  Tav'erns. 

A  small  station  on  the  Appian  Way,  about 
a  mile  from  Apjyii  Forum,  and  30  miles  from 
Kome,  where  a  number  of  Koman  Christians 
met  Paul  ou  his  way  to  Eome  (Acts  xxviii. 
15). 

Threshing. 

The  process  of  separating  grain  from  the 
straw.  Small  quantities  of  grain  were  beaten 
out  with  a  stick  or  flail  (Judg.  vi.  11  ;  Euth  ii. 
7),  and  this  was  the  customary  method  of  hull- 
ing fitches  and  cummin  (Is.  xxviii.  27)  ;  but 
when  much  work  was  to  be  done,  oxen  and 
threshing  floors  were  employed.  The  weather 
of  Palestine  permits  the  thi-eshing  floor  to  be 
under  the  open  sky  (Judg.  vi.  37).  It  is  gen- 
erally common  to  the  whole  village,  but 
may  have  a  private  owner  (2  Sam.  xxiv.  16). 
If  possible,  it  is  the  surface  of  a  flat  rock  on 
the  top  of  a  hill,  exposed  to  any  wind  that 
blows.  If  such  a  natural  floor  is  not  avail- 
able, an  artificial  floor  is  laid  out  by  the 
roadside,  and  soon  assumes  a  circular  shape, 


Threshing  Floor. 

about  50  feet  in  diameter,  and  becomes  firm 
and  hard  under  the  trampling  of  the  oxen. 
The  sheaves  are  loosened  and  arranged  in  a 
circle  on  the  floor ;  or,  if  the  straw  is  to  be 
preserved  whole,  the  ears  are  cut  from  the 
stock  and  cast  on  the  floor.  Oxen,  which  to 
this  day  are  unmuzzled  except  by  the  nig- 


gardly (Dent.  XX v.  4),  are  driven  round  and 
round  to  trample  out  the  kernels;  or  else  are 
made  to  drag  a  sled  or  cart,  weighted  by  a 
heavy  stone  or  the  driver,  to  facilitate  the 
operation.  The  sled  is  made  of  two  heavy 
planks,  curved  upward  at  the  front  and  fast- 
ened side  by  side.  Sharp  pieces  of  stone  are 
fixed  in  holes  bored  in  the  bottom.  The  cart, 
at  least  as  used  in  Egypt,  consists  of  a  frame 
containing  three  wooden  rollers  set  with 
sharp  iron  knives.  If  there  is  any  wind,  the 
threshed  grain  is  tossed  high  in  the  air  with 
a  shovel  or  a  fork  (Is.  xxx.  24  ;  Mat.  iii.  12 ; 
Iliad  xiii.  586),  when  the  chafl'  is  blown 
away  and  the  clean  grain  falls  to  the  ground  ; 
but  if  there  is  no  wind,  a  large  fan  is  plied 
by  one  man.  while  another  tosses  the  grain 
with  his  shovel.  The  fan,  however,  is  sel- 
dom used  except  to  purge  the  floor  of  the 
refuse  dust.  Winnowing  is  done  in  the  even- 
ing for  the  sake  of  the  wind  ;  and  it  is  cus- 
tomary for  the  owner  of  the  grain  to  spend 
the  night  at  the  floor  during  the  time  of 
threshing  to  prevent  stealing  (Euth  iii.  2 
seq.).  The  grain  is  finally  passed  through  a 
sieve  to  cleanse  it  from  dirt,  after  which  it  is 
ready  for  grinding  (Amos  ix.  9). 

Thresh'olds  of  the  Gates. 

A  building,  in  Hebrew  '"sttppim,  which  was 
intended  for  the  storage  of  temple  goods  (Neh. 
xii.  25,  A.  v.).     See  Asuppim. 

Throne. 

A  chair  of  state,  in  Hebrew  Mss^,  in  Greek 
thronos,  which  was  occupied  by  a  person 
of  authority,    whether  high   priest,   judge, 


Ancient  Egyptian  Throne. 


military  leader,  governor,  or  king  (Gen.  xii. 
40;  1  Sam.  i.  9;  2  .Sam.  iii.  10;  Neh.  iii.  7; 
Ps.  cxxii.  5  ;  Jer.  i.  15;  Mat.  xix.  28).     Eoyal 


Thummim 


r4o 


Tiberias 


thrones  were  often  i)(>rt;il)le,  like  those  of 
Ahiib  and  Jehoshaphat  (1  Kin.  xxii.  10),  and 
the  one  used  by  Sennacherib  at  Lachish  ;  see 
Sennachkrib.  Solomon's  throne  was  an 
elevated  seat  reached  by  six  steps.  Its  frame 
was  probably  made  of  cedar.  It  was  inlaid 
with  ivory,  and  elsewhere  overlaid  with  gold  ; 
the  back  of  it  was  arched  or  rounded  otif ;  it 
was  furnished  with  arms  and  was  provided 
with  a  footstool.  A  lion  stood  at  each  side, 
ornamenting  the  arms,  and  on  each  end  of  each 
of  the  six  steps  (1  Kin.  x.  18-20  ;  2Chron.  ix. 
17-19).  It  resembled  the  thrones  of  the  As- 
syrian and  Egyptian  monarchs,  but  with  its 
dais  was  the  most  magnificent  royal  chair  of 
the  time. 

The  king,  arrayed  in  his  royal  robes,  regu- 
larly sat  on  his  throne  when  granting  audi- 
ences, receiving  homage,  administering  jus- 
tice, or  promulgating  commands  (1  Kin.  ii. 
19;  vii.  7;  xxii.  10;  2  Kin.  xi.  19;  Jon. 
iii.  fi). 

The  throne  symliolized  supreme  power  and 
authority  (Gen.  xli.  40).  It  is  constantly  at- 
tributed to  Jehovah. 

Thum'mim.     See  Ueim  and  Thummim. 

Thun'der. 

Tlie  noise  which  follows  a  flash  of  light- 
ning. It  intensifies  the  awfulness  of  a  ter- 
rific storm  (Ex.  ix.  23).  Thunder  is  an  un- 
usual event  during  summer,  which  is  the 
dry  season  in  Palestine  (Prov.  xxvi.  1)  ;  and 
hence,  when  it  occurred  at  that  time  of  year 
after  prayer  for  it,  it  was  an  evident  answer 
and  served  as  a  sign  (1  Sam.  xii.  17).  It  was 
often  called  simply  kol,  voice,  sound,  noise  ; 
and  was  poetically  described  as  the  voice  of 
Jehovah  (Job  xxxvii.  2-5 ;  xl.  9 ;  Ps.  xxi.x. 
3-9),  who  sends  and  directs  the  storm  (Job 
xxviii.  26).  It  accompanied  manifestations 
of  God's  presence  when  he  came  in  dread 
majesty  (Ex.  xix.  16  ;  Rev.  iv.  5)  ;  it  was  an 
indication  of  divine  power  at  work  in  nature 
(Ps.  xxix.  3-9) ;  and  as  thunder  is  a  precurscn* 
of  the  destructive  storm,  it  symbolized  divine 
vengeance  (1  Sam.  ii.  10  ;  2  Sam.  xxii.  14,  15  ; 
Ps.  1 XX  vii.  18). 

Thy-a-ti'ra. 

A  city  of  Asia  Minor,  in  Lydia,  near  the 
boundary  of  Mysia.  It  was  on  the  road  from 
Pergamos  to  Sardis.  It  had  already  come 
into  existence  and  been  known  as  Pelopia 
and  Euhippia  when  Seleucus  Nicator  about 
280  K.  c.  colonized  it  with  Greeks,  giving  it 
the  name  of  Thyatira.  Its  inhabitants  were 
famed  for  their  skill  in  dyeing  purple ;  and 
I^ydia,  the  seller  of  purple  at  Philippi,  came 
from  Thyatira  (Acts  xvi.  14).  It  contained 
one  of  the  seven  churches  in  Asia  (Rev.  i.  11 ; 
ii.  18-24).  Traces  of  its  existence  remain  in 
fragments  of  columns  built  into  the  streets 
and  edifices  of  its  modern  successor,  Ak  His- 
sar.     dliristians  still  live  in  the  place. 

Thy'ine  Wood. 

One  of  tlie  commodities  sold  in  the  mar- 
kets of    the    mystic    Babylon,    Rome    (Rev. 


xviii.  12).     It  was  the  wood  of  Callitris  quad- 
rivalvis,  a  large  tree  of  the  cypress  family.    It 


Thyiue  Wood. 

is  reddish-brown,  hard,  and  fragrant  ;  and 
was  greatly  prized  by  the  Romans  for  orna- 
mental purposes.  They  ran  it  up  to  a  high 
price.  "The  resin  which  exudes  from  the  tree 
is  gum  sandarac. 

Ti-be'ri-as. 

A  city  on  the  sea  of  Galilee  (John  vi.  23), 
built  by  Herod  the  tetrarch,  and  named  by 
him  after  the  then  reigning  Roman  emperor, 
Tiberius  Cisesar  (Antiq.  xviii.  2,  3 ;  War  ii.  9, 
1).  Tiberias  was  fortified  by  Joseph  us  during 
the  Jewish  war  (Life  8 ;  War  ii.  20,  6).  It 
opened  its  gates  to  Vespasian.  A  number  of 
the  inhabitants  of  Taricheje,  a  neighboring 
town,  whom  he  had  assured  of  their  lives, 
were  afterwards  slain  in  cold  blood  in 
the  race  course  of  Tiberias  (War  iii.  10, 
1-10).  After  the  destruction  of  Jeru.salem 
and  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Jews  from 
Judaea,  consequent  on  the  failure  of  Bar- 
cocheba's  rebellion,  Tiberias  became  the 
virtual  metropolis  of  the  Jewish  nation,  and 
coins  of  the  city  have  been  found,  bearing 
the  names  of  Tiberius,  Claudius,  Trajan, 
Adrian,  and  Antoninus  Pius.  The  sanhedrin 
was  transferred  to  Tiberias  about  the  middle 
of  the  second  century,  and  the  city  became 


4 


Tiberius  Caesar 


741 


Tiglath-pileser 


the  center  of  Jewisli  Icariiiii}?.  A  (-elehrated 
wliool  was  estal)lislicil  in  it,  wliicii  iiriidiiccd 
the  volume  of  Scripture  tradition  called  tlie 
Mishua  about  A.  u.  190  or  '^20,  and  its  su[i- 
plement,  the  Geniara,  which  was  codified  in 
the  fourth  century.  The  Masorah,  or  body 
of  traditions  which  transmitted  thedetails  of 
the  Hebrew  text  of  the  O.  T.  and  preserved  its 
pronunciation  by  means  of  vowel  signs,  orig- 
inated in  a  great  measure  at  Tib(;rias  ;  see 
Old  Testament.  The  Jews  regard  Ti- 
berias as  one  of  their  four  sacred  cities,  Jeru- 


competitor   for    the    throne   of    Israel    with 
Omri  (1  Kin.  xvi.  21,  22j. 

Ti'dal. 

King  of  Goiim  and  one  of  Chedorlaomer's 
confederates  (Gen.  xiv.  ],  9,  R.  V.).  He  was 
Tudhul,  king  of  Gutium,  northeast  of  Baby- 
lonia. 

Tlg-lath-pi-le'ser,  in  Chronicles  Tilgath- 
pilneser  [Assyrian  Tuknlti-npU-Eshani,  my 
strength  is  the  god  Ninib]. 

A  king  of  Assyria,  who  reigned  from  745  to 


salem,  Hebron,  and  Safed  being  the  others, 
in  which  prayer  must  be  offered  continually, 
or  the  world  will  instantly  fall  back  into 
chaos.  It  still  exists  under  the  name  of 
Tubariya,  on  the  western  shore  of  the  sea 
of  Galilee,  Hi  miles  from  the  entrance  and 
t;  from  the  exit  of  the  Jordan.  At  that  place 
the  steep  mountain  ridge  does  not  closely 
approach  the  lake,  but  leaves  on  its  margin 
a  narrow  strip  of  undulating  land,  at  the 
northern  part  of  which  Tiberias  stands.  It 
extends  about  half  a  mile  along  the  shore, 
and  is  defended  on  the  land  side  by  a  wall, 
towers,  and  a  castle.  The  houses  are  mostly 
of  black  basalt.  On  January  1,  1837,  it  suf- 
fered severely  from  an  earthquake,  but  has 
since  in  a  large  measure  been  rebuilt.  The 
Jewish  quarter  is  near  the  lake. 

The   sea    of   Tiberias   is   more   commonly 
called  the  sea  of  Galilee  (John  vi.  1 ;  xxi.  1), 

Ti-be'ri-us  Cae'sar.     See  C^sar. 
Tib'hath  [slaughter]. 

A  town  of  Aram-zobah  (1  Chron.  xviii.  8). 
Site  unknown.    See  Betah  and  Tebah. 
Tib'ni. 
A  son   of   Ginath,   and  the  unsuccessful 


727b.  c.  Tiglath-pileser  is  but  another  name 
for  Pul,  as  appears  from  the  fact  that  wliere 
Ptolemy's  list  of  Babylonian  kings  gives 
Poros,  and  the  so-called  dynastic  tablets  of 
the  Babylonians  give  Pulu,  the  Babylonian 
chronicle  gives  Tiglath-pileser.  Probably  Pul 
was  his  original  name,  and  when  be  secured 
the  throne  he  assumed  the  grander  title  of 
Tiglath-pileser,  wiiich  had  already  been  made 
famous  by  a  great  king  of  the  past.  There 
is  reason  to  believe  that  he  owed  his  eleva- 
tion to  the  throne  to  tlie  disturbances  in 
C'alah,  which  are  recorded  for  the  year  746  B.  c. 
He  seated  himself  upon  the  Assyrian  throne 
on  the  twelfth  day  of  the  second  month, 
and  in  the  .seventh  mouth  was  marching 
against  Babylonia.  He  first  became  known 
to  the  Israelites  as  Pul.  During  the  years 
743-740  his  military  headquarters  were  at 
Arpad  in  northern  Syria,  not  far  from  the 
site  of  the  later  Antioch  ;  but  be  found  op- 
portunity to  send  or  lead  expeditions  and 
terrify  the  country  within  a  radius  <»f  100 
miles  or  more.  Among  other  places  against 
which  became  at  that  time  or  a  little  later 
was  the  land  of  Israel,  but  Meuahcni  paid 
him  tribute  and  the  Assyrian  confirmed  the 


Tigris 


742 


Timna 


kingdom  to  Menahem  and  left  the  country 
(2  Kin.  XV.  19,  20) ;  see  Pekah.  Tiglath- 
pileser  records  the  names  of  kings  wlio  ahout 
738  B.  c.  paid  him  tribute,  and  among  others 
the  name  of  Menahem  of  Samaria.  During 
the  next  few  years  he  was  conducting  war 
first  in  the  far  east,  and  then  in  the  country 
north  and  northwest  of  Nineveh ;  but  in 
7;{4  he  was  again  in  the  west.  The  alliance 
of  Pekah  and  Kezin  against  Ahaz  of  Judah 
impelled  Ahaz,  contrary  to  tlie  exhortation 
of  the  prophet  Isaiah,  to  turn  for  help  to  a 
human  po^ntate.  Tiglath-pileser  was  in- 
duced by  large  money  (xvi.  7,  8),  and  by  the 
favorable  opportunity  afforded  him  of  ex- 
tending his  authority,  to  side  with  Ahaz. 
He  marched  against  Philistia,  capturing  cities 
on  the  Phcenician  coast  as  he  proceeded.  He 
apparently  records  the  seizure  of  towns  in 
northern  Israel;  but  whether  he  makes  the 
record  or  not,  it  was  during  his  advance 
south  or  as  he  returned  north  that  he  took 
IJMi,  Abel-beth-maacah,  Janoah,  Kedesh, 
Hafeor,  Gilead,  and  Galilee,  all  the  land  of 
Naphtali,  and  carried  them  captive  to  Assyria 
(xv.  29).  He  captured  Gaza.  Thus  he  pun- 
ished the  Philistines,  who  had  taken  advan- 
tage of  Judah's  straits  to  pillage  (2  Chron. 
xxviii.  18).  In  the  years  733  and  732  he 
was  at  Damascus,  according  to  the  Assyrian 
records.  During  the  siege  or  immediately 
after  the  capture  of  the  city,  he  ravaged 
sixteen  districts  of  Dama.scus ;  leaving  them, 
as  he  says,  like  ruins  after  a  flood-storm. 
He  slew  Rezin  king  of  Damascus.  At  this 
time  God  stirred  up  the  spirit  of  Pnl  king 
of  A.ssyria  and  (or  rather,  as  it  may  equally 
well  be  translated,  even)  the  spirit  of  Tiglath- 
pileser  king  of  Assyria,  and  he  carried  them 
away,  even  the  Reubenites  and  the  Gadites, 
and  the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh  (1  Chron.  v. 
2G).  He  reports  his  reception  of  tribute 
from  many  kings,  among  others  from  the 
kings  of  Ammon,  Moab,  and  Edom,  and 
from  Jehoahaz  of  Judah.  This  statement 
agrees  with  the  biblical  record  that  king 
Ahaz  went  to  Damascus  to  meet  Tiglath- 
pileser  (2  Kin.  xvi.  10).  In  730  B.  c,  accord- 
ing to  biblical  chronology,  Hoshea  revolted 
against  Pekah.  The  revolt  was  instigated 
or  assisted  by  Tiglath-pileser,  who  may  have 
been  in  Nineveh  at  the  time,  for  he  says : 
"  Pekah  I  slew  and  appointed  Hoshea  to  rule 
over  them."  After  the  fall  of  Damascus  in 
733  or  732  Tiglath-pileser  returned  to  Nin- 
eveh. During  the  remainder  of  his  life  he 
was  much  engaged  in  building  operations; 
but  he  found  time  for  war,  and  among  other 
expeditions  he  conducted  an  army  into  Baby- 
lonia and  made  himself  king  of  Babylon. 
He  died  in  the  tenth  month,  Tebeth,  727 
B.  c,  after  having  occupied  the  throne  for 
eighteen  years  and  having  raised  the  As- 
syrian empire  to  a  power  and  glory  unknown 
to  it  under  any  of  his  predecessors. 

Ti'gris.     See  Hiddekel. 


Tik'vah  [expectation]. 

1.  The  father  of  Shallum,  the  husband  of 
Huldah  the  prophetess  (2  Kin.  xxii.  14).  In 
2  Chron.  xxxiv.  22  the  name  appears  as 
Tokhath,  in  A.  V.  Tikvath  ;  but  the  Hebrew 
form  is  probably  a  corruption  of  Tikvah  (cp. 
Lucian's  Septuagint). 

2.  The  father  of  a  certain  Jahaziah  (Ezra 
X.  15). 

Tik'vath.     See  preceding  article. 

Tile. 

A  slab  or  plate  of  baked  clay.  Tiles  were 
the  common  writing  material  of  Babylonia 
(Ezek.  iv.  1).  The  characters  were  impressed 
on  the  surface  while  it  was  yet  soft,  and  the 
clay  was  then  baked  to  render  the  writing 
indelible.  Tiles  were  used  in  many  countries 
as  roofing  material  (Luke  v.  19),  but  not,  or 
not  commonly,  in  Palestine.  Probably  either 
Luke,  accustomed  to  the  tiled  roofs  of  Greek 
houses,  uses  the  expression  "  through  the 
tiles  "  for  through  the  roof,  without  reference 
to  the  material  of  the  roof  in  question,  or 
else  in  this  particular  house  there  was  an 
opening  in  the  roof  to  permit  the  inmates  to 
ascend  from  the  room  to  the  coolness  of  the 
outer  air,  but  which  during  the  winter  was 
closed  with  a  frame  and  bricked  over. 

Til-gath-pil-ne'ser.  See  Tiglath-pile- 
ser. 

Ti'lon. 

A  son  of  Shimon,  whose  registry  was  with 
the  tribe  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  iv.  20). 

Ti-mse'us  [highly  prized]. 

Father  of  the  blind  beggar  of  Jericho 
(Mark  x.  46). 

Tim'brel  or  Tab'ret. 

An  humble  kind  of  drum,  which  has  de- 
veloped into  our  modern  tambourine.  By 
the   Hebrews    it    was    called    tojjh,    an    in- 


Tiinbrel. 

strument  that  is  beaten.  It  was  much  used 
in  domestic  festivities,  was  often  played  by 
women  to  accompany  song  and  beat  time  for 
dances,  and  was  emjiloyed  alone  or  in  orches- 
tra in  the  worship  of  God  (Gen.  xxxi.  27 ; 
Ex.  XV.  20 ;  Judg.  xi.  34  ;  1  Sam.  x.  5  ;  xviii. 
6;  1  Chron.  xiii.  8;  Job  xxi.  12;  Ps.  Ixxxi. 
2  ;  Is.  V.  12). 

Tim'na,   in    A.   V.    twice    Timnah  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  40;  1  Chron.  i.  51),  and  so  once  in 


Timnah 


743 


Timothy 


E.  v.,  oddly  enough    (Gen.  xxxvi.   40)    [re- 
straint, inaccessible]. 

1.  Daughter  ofSeir  and  sister  of  Lotan.  She 
became  a  concubine  of  Eliphaz,  Esau's  eldest 
son,  and  the  mother  of  Ainalek  (Gen.  xxxvi. 
12.  22  :  1  C'hron.  i.  39).  In  interpreting  the.se 
statements,  it  must  be  remembered  that 
terms  of  relationship  are  used  in  describing 
tribes  as  well  as  individuals. 

2.  A  duke  of  Edom  (Gen.  xxxvi.  40;  1 
Chrou.  i.  51). 

Tim'nah,  in  A.  V.  eight  times  Timnath 
((tch.  xxxviii.  12-14  ;  Judg.  xiv.  1-5),  once 
TMmnatliali  (Josh.  xix.  43),  and  once  Tham- 
natha  il  Mac.  i.K.  50)  [an  assigned  portion]. 

1.  A  town  on  the  border  line  of  the  terri- 
tory assigned  to  Judah.  and  not  far  from 
Beth-shemesh  (Josh.  xv.  10).  It  was  subse- 
quently given  over  to  the  tribe  of  Dan  (xix. 
43).  It  was  occupied  by  the  Philistines  in 
the  days  of  Samson  (Judg.  xiv.  2),  and  was 
captured  by  them  in  the  reign  of  Ahaz  (2 
C'hron.  xxviii.  18).  Its  site  is  at  Tibnah, 
about  3  miles  west  by  south  of  Beth-shemesh, 
151  west  by  south  of  Jerusalem,  and  l(i  east 
of  Ashdod. 

2.  A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  .57),  probably  the  place  referred  to 
in  Gen.  xxxviii.  12, 14  ;  cp.  1.  On  the  survey 
map  it  is  placed  at  Tibna,  9  miles  west  by 
south  of  Bethlehem  ;  but  this  site  appears  to 
be  too  remote  from  Maon,  Carmel,  and  Ziph. 

3.  A  town  enumerated  after  Emmaus,  Beth- 
horon,  and  Bethel,  and  before  Pharathon  (1 
Mac.  ix.  .50).  It  was  fortified  by  Bacchides. 
The  data  point  to  Thamna,  chief  city  of  a 
toparchy  (War  iii.  3,  5).  which  bordered  on 
the  toparchies  of  Gophna,  Lydda,  and  Em- 
maus (ii.  20,  4),  and  lay  between  Antipatris 
and  Lydda  (iv.  8,  1).  Its  site  is  probably 
marked  by  the  ruins  Tibneh,  7i  miles  west- 
northwest  of  Jufna  (Gophna),  on  the  old 
road  from  Antipatris  by  way  of  Gophna  to 
Jerusalem.     See  Timx.\th-ser.\h. 

4.  An  improper  spelling,  found  in  both 
versions,  of  the  name  of  Timna,  daughter  of 
Seir. 

Tim'nath.     See  preceding  article. 

Tim-nath-he'res.     See  Timnath-serah. 

Tim-nath-se'rah  [superfluous  or  extra 
portion]. 

A  village  in  the  hill  country  of  Ephraim, 
on  the  north  side  of  the  hill  of  Gaash.  It 
was  given  to  Jo.shua  as  an  inheritance,  and 
there  he  was  buried  (Josh.  xix.  50  ;  xxiv.  30). 
It  is  once  written  Timnath-heres,  portion  of 
the  sun  (Judg.  ii.  9),  but  heres  is  probably 
serah  accidentally  written  backwards.  Con- 
der  locates  it  at  Kefr  Haris,  which  might  be 
an  echo  of  Heres,  and  where  Samaritan  tra- 
dition locates  the  graves  of  Joshua  and  Caleb. 
It  is  rather  8^  miles  south  bv  west  of  this 
village,  at  Tibneh.     See  Timnah  3. 

Tim'nite. 

A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Timnah  (Judg. 
XV.  6). 


Ti'mon  [deeming  worthy]. 

One  of  the  seven  men  chosen  to  relieve 
the  apostles  from  semisecular  work  in  the 
primitive  church  (Acts  vi.  5). 

Ti-mo'the-us  [worshiping  God]. 

1.  Leader  of  a  large  body  of  Ammonites, 
with  whom  Judas  Maccaba-us  fought  several 
battles  (1  Mac.  v.  6,  40). 

2.  Paul's  convert  and  fellow-worker.  See 
Timothy. 

Tim'o-tliy,  in  A.  V.  usually  Timotheus 
[venerating  or  worshiping  God]. 

The  well-known  companion  and  assistant 
of  Paul.  The  terms  which  the  apostle  ap- 
plies to  him,  "my  beloved  and  faithful  child 
in  the  Lord  "  (1  Cor.  iv.  17,  E.  V.),  "  mv  true 
child  in  faith  "  (1  Tim.  i.  2,  E.  V.,  etc. )'  seem 
to  indicate  not  only  the  apostle's  love  for  his 
youthful  friend,  but  also  that  he  had  been 
the  means  of  Timothy's  conversion.  At  any 
rate  it  is  clear  (2  Tim.  i.  5  ;  iii.  11)  that  when 
on  his  first  missionary  journey  Paul  visited 
Lystra  in  Lycaonia  Timothy's  mother  Eunice 
and  grandmother  Lois  were  led  to  Christ, 
and  that  Timothy  was  old  enough  to  be  in- 
structed in  the  new  faith  which  his  mother 
had  adopted.  Though  his  mother  was  a 
Jewess,  his  father  was  a  gentile  (Acts  xvi.  1). 
On  the  one  hand,  he  had  from  a  child  been 
instructed  in  the  O.  T.  (2  Tim.  iii.  15)  ;  yet, 
on  the  other  he  had  not  been  circumcised 
(Acts  xvi.  3).  But,  whether  converted 
through  Paul,  or  afterwards  through  the  in- 
struction of  his  mother,  Timothy  soon  be- 
came active  in  Chri.stian  work,  so  that  when, 
a  few  years  later,  Paul  on  his  second  journey 
again  visited  Lystra  he  found  the  young 
man  well  reported  of  by  the  brethren  both 
at  Lystra  and  Iconium  (xvi.  2).  Already  the 
voice  of  prophecy  had  indicated  that  Timo- 
thy was  destined  for  special  service  (1  Tim. 
i.  18;  iv.  14).  Paul  therefore  determined  to 
take  him  with  him  ;  and  the  young  man  was 
set  apart  to  the  work  of  an  evangelist  by 
the  laying  on  of  the  hands  both  of  Paul  and 
of  the  presbytery  (iv.  14  ;  2  Tim.  i  .6).  In 
order  also  not  to  oflend  the  Jews,  Timothy 
was  circumcised  ;  the  apostle  thus  indicating 
his  wish,  where  no  principle  was  involved, 
to  conciliate  those  among  whom  in  nearly 
every  place  he  would  have  to  begin  work. 
Thereafter  Timothy's  fortunes  were  united 
with  Paul's.  He  evidently  accompanied  the 
apostle  through  Galatia,  then  to  Troas  and 
Philippi,  and  then  to  Thessalonica  and  Bercea, 
for  it  is  mentioned  (Acts  xvii.  14)  that  he 
and  Silas  remained  in  Beroea  when  Paul 
went  on  to  Athens.  Paul  sent  word  for  them 
to  follow  him  to  Athens  speedily  (15)  ;  but 
from  1  Thes.  iii.  1,  2  it  appears  that  he  sent 
Timothy  back  to  Thessalonica,  and  that  Silas 
and  Timothy  did  not  rejoin  him  until  he  had 
reached  Corinth  (Acts  xviii.  5:  1  Thes.  iii. 
6).  Timothv  then  remained  with  Paul  in 
Corintli  (1  Thes.  i.  1 ;  2  Thes.  i.  1)  and  prob- 
ably, though  his  name  is  not  mentioned,  ac- 


Timothy 


744 


Timothy 


comjianied  the  apostle  on  bis  return  voyage. 
We  next  hear  of  hira  during  Paul's  ministry 
in  Ephesus.  Paul  inforjns  us  in  1  C'or.  iv.  17 
that,  before  vvriting  that  epistle,  he  had  sent 
Timothy  to  Corinth  to  correct  abuses  there. 
Yet  for  some  reason,  as  1  t'or.  xvi.  10  inti- 
mates, there  was  a  possibility  that  Timothy 
might  not  reach  Corinth,  and  in  fact  we  do 
not  know  whether  he  did  so  or  not.  At  any 
rate  he  seems  to  have  returned  to  Ephesus, 
for  shortly  before  Paul  left  that  city  Timothy 
and  Erastus  preceded  him  into  Macedonia 
(Acts  xix.  22),  where  Paul  soon  joined  his 
young  friend  (2  Cor.  i.  1).  Together  they 
went  to  Corinth  (Kom.  xvi.  21),  and  Timothy 
is  mentioned  as  one  of  the  company  who 
escorted  the  apostle  on  his  return  from  the 
third  journey  toward  Jerusalem  (Acts  xx.  4). 
Whether  Timothy  went  with  the  apostle  to 
Jerusalem  does  not  appear.  No  mention  of 
him  occurs  during  the  imprisonment  at  CaiS- 
area  or  the  voyage  to  Rome.  But  in  the 
epistles  written  from  Rome  his  name  occurs 
(Phil.  i.  1;  ii.  19-22;  Col.  i.  1;  Philem.  1). 
He  had  evidentlj^  followed  the  apostle  to  the 
capital,  and  was  his  devoted  coworker. 
After  the  apostle's  release,  he  seems  to  have 
more  than  ever  intrusted  important  duties 
to  Timothy.  In  1  Tim.  we  tind  that  he  had 
been  left  in  charge  of  the  church  at  E])hesus. 
It  was  a  i)ost  of  responsibility  and  difficulty, 
especially  for  one  who  was  still  a  young  man 
(1  Tim.  iv.  12).  False  teachers  were  to  be 
combated,  officials  wfere  to  be  appointed, 
church  customs  were  to  be  organized  or  regu- 
lated. The  position  of  Timothy  appears  to 
have  been  that  of  an  apostolic  deputy,  and 
it  is  not  surprising  that  Paul  wrote  to  him  a 
special  epistle  with  regard  to  his  task.  To 
Timothy  he  also  wrote  his  last  epistle  shortly 
before  his  death  (2  Tim.).  Almost  alone, 
and  with  death  impending,  Paul  desired 
ardently  the  presence  of  liis  "child"  (iv. 
9,  21),  and  to  him  he  laid  bare  his  whole 
heart.  It  is  probable  that  Timothy  reached 
Paul  before  the  latter's  death,  but  we  do  not 
know.  The  only  further  reference  to  him  is 
Heb.  xiii.  23.  From  it  we  learn  that  Timo- 
thy had  suffered  imprisonment,  but  had  been 
set  at  liberty  again.  If  that  epistle  was 
written  by  Paul,  Timothy's  imprisonment 
must  have  occurred  during  the  period  be- 
tween Paul's  release  and  his  second  arrest ; 
see  P.\UL.  If  the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews  was 
not  by  Paul,  then  we  may  believe  that  Timo- 
thy joined  Paul  and  for  a  while  shared  his 
imprisonment.  This,  however,  is  mere  con- 
jecture. We  know  nothing  certainly  of 
'Timothv's  last  year.s. 

The  First  Ejiistle  of  Paul  the  Apostle  to  Tim- 
othy was  written  after  the  ain)stle's  release 
from  his  first  Roman  im])risonment  and  re- 
sumption of  missionary  work  (cp.  above  ;  also 
Paul).  Timothy  had  been  left  in  charge  of 
the  church  of  Ephesus  Avhile  Paul  went  into 
Macedonia  (1  Tim.  i.  '.i).  Many  su])pose  that 
the  epistle  was  written  from  Macedonia,  but 


that  is  by  no  means  clear.  It  should  prob- 
ably be  assigned  to  A.  D.  (J4  or  (J5.  It  deals 
with  the  ecclesiatical  difficulties  which  con- 
fronted Timothy,  and  gives  him  personal  ad- 
vice. It  evinces  tlie  interest  of  the  apostle 
in  the  practical  working  of  the  church  and 
his  personal  interest  in  Timothy's  own  wel- 
fare and  success.  Its  contents  may  be  ar- 
ranged as  follows:  1.  Instructions  concern- 
ing the  church  (i.-iii.)  ;  including  warnings 
again.st  false  teachers  (i.),  instructions  con- 
cerning worship  (ii.),  instructions  concerning 
church  officers,  closing  -with  a  brief  state- 
ment of  the  dignity  of  the  church  and  the 
fundamental  truths  on  which  it  rests  (iii.). 
2.  Advice  for  Timothy's  own  guidance  (iv.- 
vi.),  with  respect  to  the  false  doctrines  and 
practical  errors  which  he  had  to  meet  (iv.), 
and  with  respect  to  his  treatment  of  various 
classes  in  the  church  (v.  1-vi.  2),  followed  by 
concluding  exhortations  partly  of  a  i)ersoual 
character  and  partly  to  reinforce  the  previous 
instructions  (vi.  3-21). 

The  Second  Epistle  of  Paul  the  Apo.stle  to 
Timothy  was  written  from  Rome  after  the 
apostle  had  been  arrested  the  second  time, 
A.  D.  67.  It  is  the  last  product  of  his 
pen.  He  speaks  of  himself  as  a  prisoner 
(2  Tim.  i.  8,  16;  ii.  9),  charged  with  be- 
ing an  evildoer  (ii.  9),  and  he  expected 
soon  to  suffer  martyrdom  (iv.  6).  Many  of 
his  friends  had  left  him  (i.  15 ;  iv.  10,  12). 
Luke  only,  of  his  former  friends,  was  with 
him  (iv.  11),  though  other  friends  had  gath- 
ered round  him  (21).  He  had  already  had 
one  trial,  at  which  he  had  not  been  con- 
demned (16,  17),  but  he  was  still  held  on 
some  other  charge.  In  his  loneliness  and 
danger  his  heart  turned  to  Timothy,  and 
this  letter  was  written  partly  to  encourage 
Timothy  in  his  work  as  an  evangelist  and 
partly  to  urge  him  to  hasten  to  Rome  and  to 
perform  some  personal  services  for  the  apostle. 
It  maybe  divided  as  follows:  1.  After  a  brief 
introduction,  expressive  of  his  wish  to  see 
Timothy  and  his  confidence  in  him  (i.  1-5), 
he  urges  him  to  be  courageous  in  spite  of  ex- 
isting trials  (6-12),  and  to  be  faithful  to- 
the  truth  he  had  received  in  spite  of  all  op- 
ponents (13-18).  2.  He  charges  Timothy 
to  be  strong ;  to  secure  the  preservation  of 
the  truth  ;  to  be  a  good  soldier ;  to  bear  in 
mind  the  imperishable  foundation  of  fact 
and  truth  on  which  the  gospel  rests;  to 
avoid  false  teaching  ;  and  to  take  heed  to  his 
own  spiritual  life  (ii.).  3.  He  warns  Iiim  that 
errors  will  increase,  and  bids  him  remember 
the  example  of  steadfast  endurance  which 
Paul  himself  had  shown  him  and  the  teach- 
ing of  inspired  Scripture  in  which  he  had 
been  trained  (iii.).  4.  As  his  last  direction, 
he  bids  him  preach  the  word  and  make  full 
proof  of  his  ministry  (iv.  1-5),  solemnly 
adding  that  he,  on  the  verge  of  death,  re- 
joiced that  he  had  been  able  to  do  the  same 
(6-8).  The  cjiistle  then  closes  with  some 
personal  directions  (9-22). 


Tin 


745 


Tishbite 


The  epistles  to  Timothy  and  Titus  are 
called,  from  their  contents,  the  Pastoral 
Epistles.  Iliitioualistie  critics  refuse  to  lic- 
lieve  that  Paul  wrote  them,  at  least  in  their 
present  form ;  hut  the  external  evidence 
that  the  church  of  the  post-apostolic  age  re- 
ceived them  as  Pauline  is  ahundant,  and  it 
is  most  natural  that  tiie  closing  years  of  the 
apostle's  ministry  should  he  occupied  with 
the  practical  affairs  of  the  churches.  These 
ei)istles  teach  the  same  doctrines  which  are 
found  in  Paul's  other  writings,  with  only 
such  an  added  emphasis  on  the  jiractical 
aspects  of  Christian  faith  as  the  situation 
called  for;  and  Paul  would  not  be  the  large- 
minded  man  that  we  know  he  was  if  he  had 
not  dealt,  as  he  does  in  these  epistles,  with 
the  organization  of  the  churches  which  he 
was  so  soon  to  leave.  G.  T.  p. 

Tin. 

A  metal,  in  Hebrew  bUlil,  separated,  alloy. 
It  was  obtained  from  its  ore  by  smelting  ;  and 
was  sometimes  refuse  from  silver  ore  (Ezek. 
xxii.  20).  It  was  in  use  in  Palestine  and 
neighboring  countries  before  the  exodus 
(Num.  xxxi.22),  in  Egyptasearly  as  the  sixth 
dynasty  at  least.  Itsprincipal  use  was  in  mak- 
ing bronze,  which  is  an  alloy  of  copper  and  tin. 
The  Tyrians  got  their  supply  from  Tarshish 
(Ezek.  xxvii.  12).  Tin  was  obtained  in 
Spain,  but  the  most  of  it  came  from  islands  in 
the  western  ocean  (Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  xxxiv. 
47;  Herod,  iii.  115).  There  is  little  doubt 
that  these  islands  were  identical  with  Eng- 
land, thinly  disguised,  and  that  the  mines 
of  Britain  were  the  chief  source  of  supi)ly 
to  the  ancient  world,  and  that  Phoenician 
mariners  made  direct  voyages  from  Gades  in 
Spain  to  Cornwall  for  the  metal  (Strabo  iii. 
IT.")).  Later  it  was  transported  across  France 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Ehone  by  a  thirty  days' 
journey  (Diodorus  Siculus  v.  21,  22).  The 
same  word  signifies  the  base  metal  existing 
in  combination  with  silver  in  the  ore  (Is.  i. 
25),  and  is  supposed  to  denote  the  slag  which 
separates  from  the  lead  when  silver  is  being 
smelted  from  the  ore. 

Tiph'sah  [a  passage]. 

1.  A  town  at  the  extreme  limit  of  Solo- 
mon's dominions,  in  the  direction  of  the 
Euphrates  (1  Kin.  iv.  24).  It  is  generally 
identified  with  Thajisacns,  a  large  city  on 
the  Eu])hrates,  near  the  modern  Eakka,  by  a 
ford.  The  ford  was  used  by  the  armies  of 
Cyrus  the  Younger  and  Alexander  the  Great. 

2.  A  jilace  on  the  inhabitants  of  which 
Menahem  inflicted  barbarous  cruelties  (2 
Kin.  XV.  16).  It  is  mentioned  in  connec- 
tion with  Tirziih,  from  which  it  would  seem 
not  to  have  been  far  distant.  Conder  identi- 
fies it  with  the  ruined  village  Tafsah,  6^ 
miles  southwest  of  Shechem. 

Ti'ras. 

A  land  and  its  inhabitants,  who  were  a 
Japhetic  people  (Gen.  x.  2).  Ancient  opinion 
identified  it  with  Thrace  (Antiq.  1.  6,  1),  from 


.slight  similarity  of  sound.  The  river  Turas, 
the  modern  Diuister.  and  the  Turitai,  who 
dwelt  on  its  banks  (Herod,  iv.  51),  have  also 
been  suggested.  The  conditions  are  best  met 
by  the  Tursenoi,  an  ancient  Pela.sgic  peojile 
who  occupied  islands  and  coast  lands  of  the 
iEgean  Sea  (Herod,  i.  .57,  !)4).  Ttirsrnos  is 
the  Ionic  and  old  Attic  form  of  Tioreiios, 
Tyrrhenian. 

Ti'rath-ites. 

A  family  of  scribes,  Kenites  from  Tirah, 
dwelling  at  Jabez  (1  Chron.  ii.  55). 

Tire. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  P^'er,  orna- 
mental. It  means  an  ornamental  headdress 
(Ezek.  xxiv.  17,  23).  Aaron  in  his  priestly 
capacity  wore  one  of  fine  linen  (Ex.  xxxix. 
28;  in  A.  V.  bonnet).  Women  used  them  (Is. 
iii.  20;  in  A.  V.  bonnet).  The  bridegroom 
decked  himself  with  it  (Is.  Ixi.  10 ;  in  A.  V. 
ornaments,  E.  V.  garland). 

Tir'ha-kah.     See  Phaeaoh. 

Tir'ha-nah. 

A  son  of  Caleb,  the  brother  of  Jerahmeel, 
by  Maacah,  his  concubine  (1  Chron.  ii.  48). 

Tir'i-a. 

A  son  of  Jehallelel  (1  Chron.  iv.  16). 

Tir-sha'tha. 

The  I'ersian  title  of  the  governor  of  ,Tudah 
under  the  Persians.  It  is  borne  by  Zeruh- 
babel  (Ezra  ii.  f)3 ;  Neh.  vii.  65,  70),  and  Ne- 
hemiah  (Neh.  viii.  9;  x.  1).  In  xii.  26  the 
latter  ruler  is  called  jjehah  or  governor,  to 
which  Tirshatha,  therefore,  must  have  been 
practically  equivalent. 

Tir'zah  [pleasantness,  delightfulness]. 

1.  The  youngest  among  the  five  daughters 
of  Zelophehad  (Num.  xxvi.  33 ;  xxvii.  1 ; 
xxxvi.  11  ;  Josh.  xvii.  3). 

2.  A  town  noted  for  beauty  (Song  vi.  4), 
which  belonged  originally  to  the  Canaanites, 
but  was  captured  by  Joshua  (Josh.  xii.  24). 
Jeroboam  I.  took  up  his  residence  in  Tirzah 
(1  Kin.  xiv.  17),  and  it  became  the  capital  of 
the  ten  tribes  (xv.  21,  33  ;  xvi.  6,  8,  9,  15,  17) 
till  Omri  built  Samaria  (23,  24),  after  which  it 
sank  into  a  provincial  but  still  important 
town  (2  Kin.  xv.  14,  16).  Eobinson,  with 
much  doubt,  suggests  as  its  site  Tulluza.  6 
miles  east,  very  slightly  south,  of  Samaria. 
Conder,  with  no  hesitation,  fixes  it  at  Teiasir, 
with  ancient  ruins,  13  miles  east-northeast  of 
Samaria,  on  a  table-land  where  the  valleys 
begin  to  dip  suddenly  toward  the  Jordan. 

Tish'bite. 

A  member  of  the  family,  or  native  of  the 
town,  called  Tishbeh  or  something  similar 
(1  Kin.  xvii.  1).  A  family  of  the  name  is 
unknown.  Towns  only  claim  attention. 
One  is  mentioned  by  Tobit  (i.  2),  "Thisbe  on 
the  right  [south]  of  Kydiosof  Naphtali,"  /.''., 
Kedcsh  of  Naphtali  (E.  V.).  Another  is  dis- 
cerned by  the  Septuagint  and  Josephus  in  the 
text  of  1  Kin.  xvii.  1,  lying  east  of  the  Jor- 
dan, in  Gilead.     The  con.struct  plural  before 


Tithe 


746 


Tithe 


Gilead  in  the  Hebrew  text,  which  is  ren- 
dered sojourners  in  the  E.  V.,  the  makers  of 
the  Septuagint  regarded  as  a  local  name,  and 
transferred  it  to  their  pages  as  a  genitive 
plural,  Theshon  or  Thessebon,  of  Thesbeh. 
Josephus  prefixed  the  word  city  and  added  a 
singular  termination  to  the  name  (Autiq.  viii. 
13,  2,  Niese's  text). 

Tithe. 

A  tenth  part  of  one's  income  consecrated  to 
God.  The  separation  of  a  certain  proportion 
of  the  products  of  one's  industry  or  of  the 
spoils  of  war  as  tribute  to  their  gods  was  prac- 
ticed by  various  nations  of  antiquity.  The 
Lydians  offered  a  tithe  of  their  booty  (Herod. 
1.  89).  The  Phoenicians  and  Carthaginians 
sent  a  tithe  annually  to  the  Tyrian  Hercules. 
These  tithes  might  be  regular  or  occasional, 
voluntary  or  prescribed  by  law.  The  Egyp- 
tians were  required  to  give  a  fifth  pai't  of 
their  crops  to  Pharaoh  (Gen.  xlvii.  24).  Be- 
fore the  days  of  Joseph  and  Pharaoh,  Abra- 
ham, returning  with  spoil  from  his  victory 
over  the  confederate  kings,  gave  to  Melchiz- 
edek,  priest-king  of  Salem,  a  tenth  part  of 
all  (xiv.  20).  Jacob  said  that  if  God  con- 
ferred on  him  certain  specified  benefits,  he 
would  surely  give  the  tenth  of  it  unto  God 
(xxviii.22).  Under  the  Mosaic  law  the  fruits 
of  the  ground  and  cattle  were  subject  to 
tithing  (Lev.  xxvii.  30,  32).  The  tithe  of 
grain  and  fruit  need  not  be  paid  in  kind. 
The  owner  might  redeem  it  by  purchasing  it 
at  one-fifth  more  than  its  market  value  (31). 
But  the  tithe  of  the  herd  and  Hock  might 
not  be  redeemed.  This  tithe  was  .separated 
by  causing  the  cattle  to  pass  under  the  rod, 
and  every  tenth  animal  was  taken,  whether 
it  was  defective  or  without  blemish.  The 
choice  had  been  committed  to  God,  and  the 
beast  might  not  be  exchanged  (32,  33).  Grain 
was  threshed  before  it  was  tithed,  and  the  fruit 
of  vineyard  and  oliveyard  was  converted  into 
wine  and  oil  before  the  tenth  was  taken  (Num. 
xviii.  27).  All  the  tithe  of  Israel,  which 
they  offered  as  a  heave  ofiering,  was  given 
unto  the  Levites  (21,  24).  It  was  given  to 
them  as  an  inheritance  in  return  for  the  serv- 
ice which  they  rendered  at  the  sanctuary 
(21),  and  as  compensation  for  their  lack  of 
landed  possessions.  They  paid  a  tithe  of  it 
to  the  priest  (26,  27),  and  freely  ate  the  rest 
anywhere  (31).  On  the  eve  of  entering 
Canaan,  where  many  of  the  Israelites  would 
obtain  homes  far  from  the  sanctuary,  it  was 
necessary  to  insist  that  the  people  should 
bring  all  prescribed  sacrifices  and  freewill 
offerings,  and  all  tithes,  to  the  sanctuary 
(Deut.  xii.  5,  0,  11).  They  might  not  eat  at 
home  the  tithe  of  their  grain,  wine,  or  oil, 
nor  any  offering,  but  before  the  Lord  (17, 18). 
They  must  tithe  all  the  increase  of  the  field, 
and  eat  before  the  Lord  the  tithe  of  grain, 
wine,  and  oil,  and  the  firstlings  of  flock  and 
herd;  l)ut  if  the  distance  to  the  sanctuary 
was  great,  they  might  convert  the  offering 


into  money,  carry  that  to  the  sanctuary,  and 
there  buy  what  they  chose  for  the  euchari.stic 
meal  (xiv.  23-27).  Every  third  year  each 
man's  tithe  should  be  laid  up  in  his  town, 
and  the  Levite,  the  stranger,  the  widow,  and 
the  fatherless  should  go  to  the  store  and  eat 
(28,29).  After  tithing  the  tithe  in  this  third 
year,  which  was  distinguished  as  the  year  of 
tithing,  and  reminded  the  people  that  the 
tithe  was  to  be  kei)t  in  the  town,  it  was  put 
at  the  dis])osal  of  those  for  whom  it  was  in- 
tended (xxvi.  12).  There  were  two  third- 
year  tithings  between  Sabbatic  years,  when 
there  was  no  tithe. 

Inconsistencies  between  these  laws  do  not 
exist,  although  interpreters  often  force  them 
into  contradiction.  The  Israelites  took  the 
tithe  to  the  sanctuary  both  during  the  so- 
journ in  the  wilderness  and  after  the  settle- 
ment in  the  land  (Num.  xviii.  24 ;  Deiit.  xii. 
6).  There  a  portion  was  eaten  by  the  offerer 
and  the  Levites  in  a  eucharistic  feast,  and 
the  rest  was  given  to  the  Levites.  The  law 
was  slightly  modified  in  anticipation  of  the 
settlement  of  Canaan,  and  the  residence  of 
Levites  and  producers  in  many  cases  far  from 
the  sanctuary.  Every  third  year  they  should 
store  the  tithe  in  the  town  where  they  dwelt, 
dispense  with  the  eucharistic  meal,  place  all 
the  tithe  at  the  disposal  of  the  Levites  and 
other  dependent  persons,  and  make  solemn 
protestation  before  the  Lord  to  having  done 
this  (Deut.  xxvi.  12-15).  This  asseveration 
before  the  Lord  may  have  been  made  in  the 
town,  or  at  the  sanctuary  on  occasion  of 
attending  one  of  the  annual  festivals.  It  is 
sometimes  asserted  that  Deuteronomy  is  pecu- 
liar in  two  respects  :  it  prescribes  vegetable 
tithes  only,  and  enjoins  that  they  shall  be 
eaten  at  the  altar  by  the  offerer  and  the 
Levites  in  company.  If  Detiteronomy  does 
actually  differ  from  the  law  of  Leviticus  and 
Numbers  in  these  points,  it  is  a  modification 
of  the  law  forty  years  after  its  first  enact- 
ment and  in  view  of  new  circumstances.  In 
the  later  historj%  even  when  the  Levitical 
legislation  was  in  full  force,  the  vegetable 
tithe  alone  is  often  mentioned  (Neh.  x.37;  xii. 
44;  xiii.  12).  It  was  the  more  prominent,  since 
agriculture  and  horticulture  were  the  chief 
industries  of  the  peojde.  The  tithe  of  the  cat- 
tle is,  however,  referred  to(2Clirou.  xxxi.  6). 
It  would  be  in  itself  natural,  if  the  euchar- 
istic feast  did  not  already  exist,  for  Moses 
to  introduce  it  in  connection  with  tithes  and 
fii'stlings,  in  view  of  the  fact  that  the  offerer 
frequently  came  from  a  distance,  and  natur- 
ally required  at  least  one  meal  at  the  sanctu- 
ary before  returning.  Still  the  omission  of 
all  mention  of  the  feast  in  Leviticus  and 
Numbers  may  be  due  to  the  feast's  being  re- 
garded as  a  matter  of  course,  a  meal  having 
been  customary  from  time  immemorial  in 
connection  with  certain  kinds  of  sacrifices 
and  offerings;  and  the  tithe  on  agricultural 
and  horticultural  products  alone  is  mentioned 
in  Deuteronomy,  because  among  tithes  it  was 


Titus 


747 


Tizite 


with  them  only  tliat  a  iiu-al  at  the  sanctu- 
ary was  connoi'ted,  and  the  legislation  in 
question  is  treating  of  cueharistic  meals. 

Another  interpretation  of  the  tithing  laws 
requires  mention.  Not  a  few  scholars  have 
believed  tliat  tlie  setting  apart  of  one-fifth 
for  riiaraoli,  to  wliicli  the  Israelites  had  been 
accustomed  in  Egypt,  was  jierpetuated  by  the 
Mosaic  law  as  tribute  to  Jehovali.  This  fifth 
was  made  up  of  two  tithes.  The  first  went 
to  the  Levites,  the  second  was  taken  to  the 
sanctuary  and  consumed  there  (Antiq.  iv. 
8,  8),  but  in  the  third  year  was  given  to  the 
Levites  in  addition  to  their  own  tithe.  Some 
interi)reters  have  even  thought  of  three 
tithes.  They  regard  the  tithing  of  the  third 
year  as  addititmal  to  the  two  others.  This 
interpretation  is  as  old  as  Josephus  at  least 
(8,  22 ).  but  it  is  unnecessary,  and  was  scarcely 
the  original  intention  of  the  law.  The  law 
is  satisfiei^by  the  theory  of  one  tithing. 

In  tnnes  of  religious  declension  the  people 
neglected  to  jiay  tithes.  Hezekiah  found  it 
necessary  to  call  authoritatively  for  their 
payment  (2  Chron.  xxxi.  4-12),  and  the 
prophet  Malachi  was  obliged  to  rebuke  the 
people  of  his  day  for  robbing  God  by  with- 
iiolding  tithes  and  offerings  (Mai.  iii.  7-12). 
The  respou.se  of  the  people  to  Hezekiah's 
appeal  was  so  hearty  that  he  had  to  prepare 
chambers  in  the  temple  precincts  for  storing 
the  tithes  (2  Chron.  xxxi.  11).  ^Yhether  he 
built  additional  quarters  or  cleared  out  old 
storehouses  is  not  stated.  The  second  temple 
was  likewise  provided  with  storehouses  (Xeh. 
xiii.  10-14;  Mai.  iii.  10),  and  Levites  under 
the  superintendence  of  a  priest  gathered  the 
tithes  into  the  towns  and  tithed  them  for  the 
sanctuary  (Xeh.  x.  37,  38).  The  payment  of 
tithes  continued  (Ecclus.  xxxv.  8 ;  1  Mac.  iii. 
49 ;  Luke  xi.  42 ;  xviii.  12) ;  but  by  the  time  of 
Christ  changes  had  occurred.  The  tithe 
went  to  the  priests  (Antiq.  xi.  5,  8 ;  con. 
Apion.  i.  22;  cp.  Heb.  vii.  .5),  and  was  col- 
lected by  them  (Life  12,  15).  Later  the 
ordinary  priests  suffered  from  the  cupidity 
of  the  chief  priests,  who  forcibly  took  pos- 
session of  the  tithes  (Antiq.  xx.  8,  8;  9,  2). 

Ti'tus. 

1.  A  godly  man  of  Corinth  who  was  sur- 
named  Justus  (Acts  xviii.  7,  R. V.) ;  see  Justus. 

2.  A  trusted  c(jmpanion  of  Paul.  He  is  not 
mentioned  in  The  Acts,  but  is  frequently  re- 
ferred to  in  Paul's  epistles.  He  was  born  of 
gentile  parents  (Gal.  ii.  3),  and  was  one  of 
the  delegation  from  Antioch  (Actsxv.  2)  who 
accompanied  Paul  and  Barnabas  to  Jerusa- 
lem at  the  time  of  the  council  (Gal.  ii.  3).  It 
is  possible  that  he  was  a  native  of  Antioch, 
and,  since  Paul  calls  him  "my  true  child 
after  a  common  faith  "  (Tit.  i.  4,  E.  V.),  he 
may  liave  been  converted  through  the  instru- 
mentality of  the  apostle.  He  was  evidently 
also  much  younger  tlian  Paul.  His  presence 
at  the  council  gave  offense  to  the  .Tudaizers, 
but  the  church  refused  to  compel  him  to  be 


circumcised,  thus  siding  with  Paul  in  his  ad- 
vocacy of  the  freedom  of  gentiles  from  the 
Mosaic  law  (Gal.  ii.  3-;")).  Titus  next  appears 
during  and  after  Paul's  residence  in  Kphesus. 
We  learn  from  2  Cor.  ii.  13;  vii.  fi,  13;  viii. 
(J,  Id  ;  xii.  18  that  Titus  had  been  .sent  to 
Corinth  to  correct  certain  abuses  there  which 
caused  anxiety  to  the  apostle.  Some  suppose 
that  he  was  one  of  the  brethren  who  carried 
the  first  epistle  to  the  Corinthians  (1  Cor. 
xvi.  12).  It  is  more  probable,  however,  that 
he  and  another  (2  Cor.  xii.  18)  were  dispatched 
after  1  Cor.  had  been  sent,  on  account  of 
later  reports  whicli  the  apostle  had  received. 
His  task  was  a  delicate  one,  and  Paul 
awaited  his  return  with  much  solicitude  (2 
Cor.  ii.  13).  When  the  apostle  left  Ephesus, 
he  expected  to  meet  Titus  at  Troas  (12,  13), 
and,  failing  in  this,  went  to  Macedonia. 
There  Titus  rejoined  him  with  good  news 
(vii.  6,  13,  14),  and  was  forthwith  sent  back 
to  Corinth  with  our  Second  Epistle  to  the  Cor- 
inthians (viii.  6,18,23).  We  do  not  read  again 
of  Titus  until  after  Paul's  release  from  his 
first  Roman  imprisonment ;  see  Paul.  The 
Epistle  to  Titus  informs  us  that  he  had  been 
left  in  Crete  to  superintend  the  organization 
of  the  churches  in  that  island.  He  seems  to 
have  been,  like  Timothy  in  Ephesus,  an 
apostolic  deputy.  His  mi.ssion,  however,  was 
but  a  temporary  one,  and  he  was  told  to  re- 
join the  apostle  in  Nicopolis.  The  only  re- 
maining notice  of  him  is  in  2  Tim.  iv.  10, 
where  he  is  said  to  have  gone  to  Dalmatia. 

The  Epistle  of  Paul  to  Titus  was  written 
after  Paul's  release  from  his  first  Roman  im- 
prisonment and  resumption  of  missionary 
work.  It  may  be  assigned  to  A.  P.  65  or  66. 
Titus  had  been  left  as  superintendent  of  the 
churches  in  Crete,  and  the  epistle,  like  the 
First  Epistle  to  Timothy,  was  intended  to  di- 
rect him  in  the  performance  of  his  difficult 
task.  It  may  be  divided  as  follows :  1.  Saluta- 
tion, particularly  describing  the  dignity  of  the 
apostolic  message  (i.  1-4).  2.  Instructions 
concerning  the  character  of  those  selected  for 
bishops  or  elders,  especially  in  view  of  the 
many  false  disciples  whom  Titus  would  be 
likely  to  meet  and  by  whom  he  might  be  im- 
posed upon  (5-16).  3.  Instructions  which 
Titus  should  give  to  various  classes  in  the 
church,  all  to  the  effect  that  Christians 
.should  be  " zealous  of  good  works"  (ii.).  4. 
Directions  concerning  the  duty  of  Christians 
to  society,  bidding  them  emulate  the  love  of 
man  which  God  has  shown  in  Christ  (iii.  1-8). 
5.  Warnings  against  false  teaching  and  here- 
tics (9-11).  6.  Personal  directions  and  clos- 
ing exhortation  and  benediction  (12-15). 
The  leading  thought  of  the  epistle  is  the  im- 
portance of  good  works  in  all  tho.se  repre- 
senting or  professing  Christianity.  On  the 
pastoral  epistles  see  remarks  at  close  of  the 
article  on  Timothy.  o.  t.  p. 

Ti'zite. 

The  designation  of  a  certain  Joha  (iCliron. 


Toah 


748 


Tongue 


xi.  45),  probably  derived  from  tbe  place  of 
which  he  was  a  native. 

To'ah  [perliaps,  low]. 

A  Kohathite  Levite  (1  Chron.  vi.  34)  ;  see 
Nahath. 

Tob  [good]. 

A  region  east  of  the  Jordan,  to  which 
Jephthah  tied  when  disowned  by  his  breth- 
ren (Judg.  xi.  ;},  5).  When  Hanun,  king  of 
Amnion,  gave  David  just  offense,  he  drew 
soldiers  from  Tob,  among  other  places  (2 
Sam.  X.  6,  R.  V.),  which  indicates  that  it 
was  beyond  the  borders  of  Israel.  It  was 
probably  the  district  of  Gilead  known  in 
Greek  as  the  land  of  Tnbias  (1  Mac.  v.  13; 
cp.  2  Mac.  xii.  17).  Exact  situation  is  debata- 
ble. 

Tob-ad-o-ni'jah  [good  is  my  Lord  Jeho- 
vah]. 

One  of  the  Levites  sent  by  Jehoshaphat 
to  teach  in  the  cities  of  Judah  (2  Chron. 
xvii.  8). 

To-bi'ah  [Jehovah  is  good]. 

1.  Founder  of  a  family,  members  of  which, 
coming  to  Jerusalem  after  the  captivity, 
failed  to  prove  their  descent  (Ezra  ii.  60; 
Neh.  vii.  62). 

2.  An  Ammonite  .servant  who  ridiculed  the 
effort  of  the  Jews  to  rebuild  the  wall  of  Je- 
rusalem (Neh.  ii.  10;  iv.  3,  7). 

To'bie.     See  Tubias. 

To-bi'Jah  [Jehovah- is  good]. 

1.  One  of  the  Levites  sent  by  Jehoshaphat 
to  teach  in  the  cities  of  Judah  (2  Chron. 
xvii.  8). 

2.  A  Jew,  one  of  those  of  the  captivity 
from  whom  the  prophet  Zechariah  obtained 
gold  and  silver  to  make  crowns  to  put  on 
the  head  of  Joshua,  the  high  priest  (Zech.  vi. 
10.  14). 

To'bit.     See  Apocrypha. 
To'chen  [a  weight,  a  measure]. 
A  city  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Simeon  (1 
Chron.  iv.  32).     Site  unknown. 

To-gar'mah. 

A  country  of  the  far  north  (Ezek.  xxxviii. 
6),  inhabited  by  a  people  descended  from 
Japheth  through  Gomer  (Gen.  x.  3).  They 
traded  in  horses  and  mules  (Ezek.  xxvii.  14). 
It  is  generally  identified  with  Armenia. 
Friedrich  Delitzsch,  however,  believes  that 
the  name  api)cars  in  Til-garimmu,  a  city  in 
the  extreme  east  of  Cappadocia,  mentioned 
in  the  Assyrian  inscriptions. 

To'hu  [perhaps,  low]. 

A  son  of  Znjih  (1  Sam.  i.  1)  ;  see  Nahath. 

To'i  and  To'u  [wandering,  error]. 

A  king  of  Hamath,  probably  a  Hittite, 
who  was  at  war  with  Hadadezer,  king  of 
Zobah,  a  Syrian.  He  sent  to  congratulate 
David  on  his  victorv  over  their  common  foe 
(2  Sam.  viii.  9-12;  1  Chnm.  xviii.  9-11). 

Tok'hath.     See  Tikvah. 


To 'la  [worm,  scarlet]. 

1.  A  son  of  Issachar,  and  founder  of  a  tribal 
family  (Gen.  xlvi.  13;  Num.  xxvi.  23;  1 
Chron.  vii.  1). 

2.  Son  of  Puah,  of  the  tribe  of  Issachar, 
who  judged  Israel  twenty-three  years.  He 
lived,  dii^d,  and  was  buried  at  Shamir,  on 
mount  Ephraim  (Judg.  x.  1,  2). 

To'lad.     See  Eltolad. 

Tomb.     See  Sepulchek. 

Tongue. 

An  organ  of  the  body  (Ex.  xi.  7;  Jas.  iii. 
6),  situated  in  the  mouth  (Job  xxix.  10),  and 
much  used  in  sjjcaking  (Ps.  xxxix.  3;  Ixxi. 
24 ;  Mark  vii.  35).  Figuratively,  speech  or 
language  (Gen.  x.  5  ;  Acts  ii.  8  with  11). 

The  descendants  of  Noah  spoke  one  lan- 
guage for  a  long  time  after  the  flood  (Gen. 
xi.  1).  Differences  of  speech  were  produced 
by  divine  judgment  at  Babel,  which  resulted 
in  scattering  the  people  who  had  gathered 
there  abroad,  to  all  parts  of  the  known 
world  (2-9) ;  see  Babel,  Tower  of.  This 
event,  which  is  known  as  the  confusion  of 
tongues,  may  have  occurred  after  the  rise  of 
the  family  of  Eber  (x.  25).  In  process  of 
time  the  descendants  of  Noah  came  to  speak 
several  distinct  languages  and  many  dif- 
ferent dialects.  The  Japhetic  peoples  largely 
used  the  languages  now  classed  as  Indo-Ger- 
manic  (x.  2-5),  including  the  languages 
spoken  in  Media  and  Ionia  (ver.  2).  The 
Semitic  peoples  generally  spoke  various  dia- 
lects of  the  Semitic  group  (21-31),  embracing 
Assyrian,  Aramaic  (22),  Arabic  (26-29),  and 
Hebrew  ;  but  the  Elamites  (22)  used  an  ag- 
glutinative language,  which  is  supposed  to 
be  akin  to  the  Finnish.  Many  of  the  de- 
scendants of  Ham  also  spoke  Semitic  ;  as,  for 
example,  Cush  in  Assyria  (11),  Arabia  (6,  7), 
and  Africa,  and  Canaan  in  Palestine  and 
Phoenicia  (15)  ;  but  the  old  inhabitants  of 
Mizraim  (6,  13),  better  known  as  Egypt,  u.sed 
an  agglutinative  language,  although  many 
Egyptologists  of  the  first  rank  believe  in  its 
descent  from  the  same  stock  as  tlie  Semitic. 
It  must  be  remembered  that  tribes  which 
migrate  to  a  new  locality  frequently  adopt 
the  language  of  the  people  among  whom 
they  have  taken  up  their  residence. 

The  gift  of  tongues  was  granted  on  the  day 
of  Pentecost  which  followed  the  feast  of  the 
passover  at  which  Jesus  suttered.  The  disci- 
jdes  being  a.ssembled  together,  suddenly  there 
came  from  heaven  a  sound  like  that  of  a 
rushing,  mighty  wind,  and  visible  tongues, 
having  the  appearance  of  fire,  were  dis- 
tributed to  each,  and  they  were  all  filled 
with  the  Holy  Spirit  (Acts  ii.  1-4).  The 
church  was  qualified  and  .symljolically  com- 
missioned by  the  Spirit  to  declare  the  gospel 
to  all  men.  Two  general  theories  exist  as  to 
the  nature  of  this  gift.  1.  The  gift  of  tongues 
was  manifested  in  ecstatic  or  elevated  praise 
of  God  (Acts  X.  4()),  but  which  was  unintel- 
I   ligible  to  man.     The  tongue  was  the  organ 


Topaz 


r49 


Tower 


<if  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  not  of  the  person  to 
whom  llie  ^il't  was  j;iven  :  and  tlie  words 
spoken  were  devotional  and  not  for  the  in- 
stnietiou  of  the  church.  In  defense  of  this 
view  it  is  urged  that :  (1)  Paul  makes  .no 
mention  of  furei};n  languages  having  heen 
introduced  at  t'orintli  ;  and  if  tongues  were 
referred  to  in  1  Cor.  xiv.  only,  the  impres- 
sion would  never  have  been  made  that  they 
denote  foreign  languages.  (2)  Paul  teaches 
that  tlie  understanding  was  not  engaged  (1 
Cor.  xiv.  2).  (3)  The  multitude  could  not 
understand  them  at  Pentecost,  and  accused 
the  speakers  of  being  drunken.  It  was 
necessary  for  Peter  to  interpret  to  the  mul- 
titude what  had  taken  jilace  (Acts  ii.  13-17). 
Or  if  the  di.sciples  used  foreign  languages  on 
the  day  of  Pentecost,  this  was  a  temporary 
form  in  which  the  gift  of  tongues  w-as  mani- 
fested and  did  not  aj)pear  again.  2.  The 
gift  of  tongues  was  manifested  in  intelligible 
discourse  in  tongues  before  unknown.  (1) 
Luke's  language  clearly  implies  this  (Acts  ii. 
6-12).  (2)  Anybody  could  babble  hysteri- 
cally ;  only  when  the  speakers  used  lan- 
guages which  they  did  not  know  before 
could  the  gift  of  tongues  be  recognized  as 
miraculous.  (3)  The  whole  argument  in  1 
(Jot.  assumes  that  the  gift  was  speech  in  a 
foreign  language,  Paul  contrasting  speech 
and  prayer  in  a  foreign  language  uninter- 
preted with  speaking  and  praying  so  as  to 
be  understood  (xii.  10,  .30  ;  xiv.  13-lfi.  27,  28). 
Chri.stians  who  had  the  gift  should  use  it  for 
missionary  purposes,  and  not  exhibit  their 
skill  before  their  brethren,  who  did  not  un- 
derstand what  they  said  unless  an  inter- 
preter were  present. 

Tongues  were  a  sign  that  followed  them 
that  believed  (Mark  xvi.  17).  They  were  a 
visible  gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit  bestowed  in 
cimnectiou  with  the  preaching  of  the  apostles, 
or  bj'  the  apostles  through  laj-ing  on  of  their 
hands  (Acts  x.  44-4G ;  xix.  1-7;  cp.  viii.  14- 
24).  They  were  a  phenomenon  of  the  apos- 
tolic age,  and  gradually  disappeared  after- 
wards. In  the  next  century,  perhaps  fifty 
or  sixty  years  after  the  death  of  the  last 
apostle,  Irenseus  can  still  report  that  he  had 
"heard  many  brethren  who  had  prophetic 
gifts  and  spoke  through  the  Spirit  in  all  kinds 
of  tongues"  (adv.  Haer.  v.  6,  1). 

In  1830  some  jjeople  in  Scotland,  and  in 
1831  others  in  London,  chiefly  females  of  ex- 
citable temperament,  believed  that  they  had 
received  the  gift  of  tongues.  They  persuaded 
the  Rev.  Edward  Irving  to  emVjrace  their  opin- 
ions, but  failed  to  convince  his  brethren  in 
the  ministry.  The  movement  led  to  the 
creation  of  the  Catholic  Apostolic  Church. 

To'paz. 

A  precious  stone,  called  by  the  Greeks  to- 
pazion,  and  generally  believed  to  be  denoted 
by  the  Hebrew  pit'iJah.  It  was  the  second 
stone  in  the  first  row  of  the  high  priest's 
breastplate  (Ex.  xxviii.  17).     It  was  found  in 


Ethiopia  (Job  xxviii.  19)  and  on  an  i.sland  in 
the  Red  Sea  (I)iodorus  Siculus  iii.  '.if*;  Pliny, 
Hist.  Xat.  xxxvii.  9),  and  was  known  at  Tyre 
(Ezek.  xxviii.  13).  It  adorns  the  ninth  foun- 
dation of  the  New  Jerusalem  (Rev.  xxi.20). 
The  topaz  of  the  ancients  was  a  yellow  va- 
riety of  corundum.  The  Romans  seem  to 
have  transferred  the  name  chrysolite  to  to- 
paz, and  called  both  chrysolite  and  precious 
stones  resembling  it  topaz. 

To'phel  [perhaps,  untempered  mortar], 

A  place,  perhaps  once  a  station  of  the  Is- 
raelites in  the  wilderness  (Deut.  i.  1).  Rob- 
inson and  others  have  identified  it  with 
Tufileh,  about  14  miles  southeast  of  the 
southeastern  curve  of  the  Dead  Sea.  The 
consonants,  however,  are  different,  teth  in- 
stead of  tau,  which  raises  a  doubt  as  to  the 
correctness  of  the  identification. 

To'pheth,  in  A.  Y.  Tophet  (except  2  Kin. 
xxiii.  10)  [spitting  out,  abhorrence]. 

Certain  high  places  built  in  the  valley  of 
the  son  of  Hinnom,  on  which  the  people  of 
Jerusalem  in  the  times  of  I.saiah  and  Jere- 
miah were  accustomed  to  burn  their  sons  and 
their  daughters  in  the  fire  (Jer.  vii.  31),  as 
offerings  to  Molech  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  10).  Appar- 
ently on  the  top  of  the  high  place  there  was 
a  deep  and  large  hole,  in  which  much  wood 
was  piled,  ignition  being  produced  by  a 
stream  of  brimstone  (Is.  xxx.  33).  Josiah 
defiled  it  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  10),  and  Jeremiah 
prophesied  that  such  a  number  of  people 
should  be  kflled  there  that  the  name  To- 
pheth  should  disappear,  and  the  valley  where 
it  stood  be  called  the  valley  of  slaughter 
(Jer.  vii.  32,  33  ;  xix.  6).  A  Topheth,  appar- 
ently of  the  same  type,  was  to  be  prepared 
for  the  king  of  Assyria  (Is.  xxx.  33).  See 
Hinnom. 

Tor'mah  [fraud]. 

A  town  in  which  Abimelech  was  once 
found  (Judg.  ix.  31,  margin).  More  proba- 
bly the  word  means  craftily,  as  it  is  rendered 
in  the  R.  V. ;  in  which  case  the  town  of  Tor- 
mali  disappears. 

Tor-ment'ors. 

The  jailers  who  were  to  keep  the  debtor 
safe  and  make  his  life  miserable  by  chains, 
stocks,  and  doubtless  other  means  of  distress 
and  torture  until  his  debts  were  paid  (Mat. 
xviii.  34).  Torture  was  often  applied  to  ex- 
tort confessions  (Acts  xxii.  24  ;  Antiq.  xvi. 
8,  4;  11,  6). 

Tor'toise.     See  Lizard. 

To'u.     See  Toi. 

Tow'er. 

A  lofty  building,  much  higher  than  broad. 
A  booth  was  sufficient  to  shelter  the  watch- 
man placed  to  guard  a  vineyard  (Is.  i.  8)  ; 
but  a  tower,  being  more  permanent  and  or- 
namental, indicated  the  owner's  interest  in 
his  vineyard  and  his  expectation  of  many 
seasons  of  fruitfulness  (v.  2;  Mat.  xxi.  33; 
I   Mark  xii.  1).     Stronger  towers  were  built  for 


Town  Clerk 


750 


Tribute 


defense.  They  were  erected  in  the  wilder- 
ness for  the  security  of  the  shepherds  and 
to  keep  marauders  away  [2  Kin.  xvii.  9  ;  2 
Chron.  xxvi.  10).  They  formed  part  of  the 
defenses  of  fortified  cities  (xiv.  7 ;  Neh.  iii. 
1).  The}'  were  erected  beside  the  city  gates, 
at  tlie  corners  of  the  walls,  and  at  intervals 
in  the  intervening  space  (2  Chron.  xxvi.  9)  ; 
see  illustrations,  Lachis-h,  Ram.  Watch- 
men were  stationed  on  them  (2  Kin.  ix.  17), 
military  engines  for  shooting  arrows  and 
stones  were  mounted  on  them  (2  Chron. 
xxvi.  1.")),  and  the  citizens  found  refuge  in 
them  when  sore  pressed  by  the  enemy  ( Judg. 
ix.  51,  52  ;  Ps.  Ixi.  3).  Within  their  massive 
walls  the  inmates  were  secure ;  their  height 
allowed  openings  for  light  and  air,  out  of 
reach  of  the  adversary ;  and  from  their  top 
missiles  could  be  advantageously  discharged 
at  the  foe. 

Town  Clerk. 

An  ofhcial  with  the  title  of  (jrammafeus  or 
scribe  (Acts  xix.  .35).  Probably  the  duties 
of  a  grammateus  originally  were  to  record  the 
laws  and  read  them  in  public,  but  in  course 
of  time  other  functions  were  added  to  the 
office.  Coins  show"  that  in  the  several  cities 
of  Asia  Minor  the  town  clerk  presided  in 
popular  assemblies,  and  was  the  virtual,  or  in 
some  cases  the  actual,  head  of  the  municipal 
government. 

Trach-o-ni'tis  [rough,  stony]. 

A  region  which  at  the  appearance  of  John 
the  Baptist  as  a  preacher  constituted,  with 
Itursea,  a  tetrarchy,  ruled  over  by  Philip,  the 
brother  of  Herod,  the  tetrarch  of  Galilee 
(Luke  iii.  1).  It  lay  behind  Damascus 
(Strabo  xvi.  2,  20),  and  comprehended  the 
stretch  of  volcanic  rocks  now  called  el-Lej- 
jah,  and  extended  westward  to  Ulatlia  and 
Paneas,  and  southward  to  the  borders  of  Ba- 
tanea  and  Jebel  Hauran  (Antiq.  xv.  10,  3  ; 
xvii.  2,  1  and  2  ;  Ptolemy  v.  15,  4). 

Trag'a-canth. 

A  gum  (Gen.  xxxvii.  25;  xliii.  11,  E.  V. 
margin),  produced  by  several  low,  spiny 
shrubs  of  the  genus  Astragalus,  especially 
from  Astragalus  giimm  if er.  The  plant  is  legum- 
inous. Those  from  which  gum  is  obtained 
are  dwarf  shrubs,  protected  by  a  dense  mass 
of  long  thorns.  The  flowers  are  axillary ; 
and  in  most  species  are  yellow,  but  in  .some 
are  white  or  purple.  Under  the  heat  of  the 
sun  the  gum  exudes  from  the  trunk,  branches, 
thorns, and  leaves;  and  is  collc^cted  in  Pales- 
tine by  passing  over  the  shrub  a  cloth  or 
bunch  of  threads  to  which  the  viscous  ex- 
udation adheres.  It  is  used  to  impart  firm- 
ness to  pills,  to  marble  books,  and  to  stiffen 
crapes  and  calicoes. 

Trance. 

A  state  in  which  the  functions  of  the 
senses  are  suspended  and  the  soul  seems  to 
be  liberated  from  the  body  while  it  contem- 
plates some  extraordinary  object;  ecstasy. 
Peter  on  one  occasion  (Acts  xi.  5),  and  Paul 


on  another,  fell  into  such  a  trance  (xxii.  17). 
See  Visions. 

Tres'pass  Of  fer-ing.     See  Offerings. 

Tribe.     See  Egypt  III.  7. 

Trib'ute. 

1.  Money,  goods,  or  service  exacted  by  a 
nation  or  king  from  foreign  subjects  (Deut. 
XX.  11,  E.  V.  margin  taskwork ;  Judg.  i.  28 ; 
Ezra  iv.  13 ;  Neh.  v.  4 ;  Esth.  x.  1 ;  Mat. 
xvii.  25).  The  Pharisees  endeavored  to  put 
Jesus  in  a  dilemma  by  asking  him  whether 
it  was  lawful  to  pay  tribute  to  the  Eomau 
emperor  (Mat.  xxii.  17).  If  he  answered  in 
the  aflirmative,  he  would  ofiend  the  people, 
since  with  them  independence  was  a  matter 
of  religion  and  they  paid  the  foreign  tax 
with  undisguised  reluctiince.  The  Pharisees 
expected  him  to  declare  that  tribute  to  the 
Eomans  was  unlawful,  for  they  knew  that 
he  had  publicly  announced  his  claims  to  the 
throne  of  David  ;  and  an  answer  of  this  sort 
would  justify  a  charge  of  rebellion  against 
him.  He  replied  by  calling  for  a  coin.  The 
coinage  of  money  is  the  prerogative  of  the 
ruler.  Pointing  to  the  image  of  the  Roman 
emperor  which  it  bore,  he  said:  "Give  to 
the  ruler  whom  you  acknowledge  whatever 
belongs  to  him,  and  to  God  whatever  belongs 
to  God."  Jesus  recognized  the  distinction 
between  the  two  spheres  of  duty. 

2.  The  didrachma  or  half  shekel  paid  for 
the  expenses  of  the  temple  worship  (Mat. 
xvii.  24,  in  R.  V.  half  shekel).  This  pay- 
ment was  suggested  at  first  by  the  half 
shekel  which  each  male  Israelite  above 
twenty  years  of  age  paid  as  atonement 
money  when  he  was  numbered  in  the  census 
(Ex.  XXX.  11-16).  In  the  time  of  Xehemiah 
the  Israelites  voluntarily  assumed  an  annual 
payment  of  the  third  part  of  a  shekel 
toward  defraying  the  cost  of  the  temple 
service  (Xeh.  x.  32,  33).  Later  the  third 
part  of  a  shekel  was  changed  to  half  a 
shekel,  and  was  made  an  annual  tax  col- 
lected from  every  Jew  of  twenty  years  of  age 
and  upward  tliroughout  the  world  (Antiq. 
xviii .  9,  1).  The  collector  at  Capernaum 
asked  Peter  whether  his  Master  paid  this 
half  shekel,  and  Peter  impulsively  answered 
that  he  did  (Mat.  xvii.  24,  25).  Jesus  did  in- 
deed pay  it ;  but  it  was  incongruous  for  him  to 
do  so,  and  he  drew  Peter's  attention  to  the 
matter.  He  pointed  out  to  him  that  earthly 
kings  exact  tribute  from  aliens,  not  from 
their  own  children.  Peter  had  recently  con- 
fessed Jesus  as  the  Son  of  God.  It  was  for 
God's  house  and  worship  that  this  tax  was 
levied,  and  it  was  scarcely  proper  for  God's 
Son  to  be  required  to  pay  it.  Such  is  the 
common  interpretation  of  Christ's  words  on 
this  occasion.  After  the  fall  of  Jerusalem 
the  Eoman  emperor  Vespasian  enjoined  the 
Jews  throughout  the  empire  to  bring  to 
Jupiter  Capitolinus  in  Rome  the  two  drachmas 
which  they  had  formerly  paid  to  the  temple 
(War  vii.  6,  6). 


Troas 


751 


Trumpet 


Tro'as  [the  Troad,  region  around  Troy]. 

The  I'ity  where  Paul  saw  in  vision  the 
man  of  Macedonia  inviting  him  to  Eurojie 
(Acts  xvi.  8-10  ;  2  Cor.  ii.  12).  It  was  a  sea- 
port (Acts  xvi.  11).  Paul  tarried  there  a 
week  while  returning  from  his  third  journey 
(XX.  6).  On  one  occasion  he  left  his  cloak, 
hooks,  and  parchments  there  {2  Tim.  iv.  13). 
It  was  founded  by  Antigonus,  one  of  Alex- 
ander's successors,  who  called  it  Antigonia  ; 
hut  after  his  death  his  opponent  Lysimachus, 
king  of  Thrace,  altered  its  name  to  Alex- 
andria, and  Troas  was  added  to  distinguish 
it  from  Alexandria  in  Egypt.  It  was  situated 
some  distance  south  of  Homer's  Troy,  which 
furnished  the  name  Troas  to  the  district. 
Its  ruins,  which  are  extensive,  are  now 
called  Eski  Stam]>oul. 

Tro-gyl'li-tun. 

A  town  and  a  promontory  on  the  western 
coast  of  Asia  Minor,  opposite  the  island  of 
Samos.  Paul  tarried  there  on  the  return  to 
Jerusalem  from  his  third  journey  (Acts  xx. 
lo).  An  anchorage  at  the  place  is  called  St. 
Paul's  Port. 

Troph'1-mus  [nourishing]. 

A  gentile  Christian  of  Ephesus,  who  was 
with  Paul  for  a  time  on  his  missionary 
travels,  and  whom  he  was  falsely  accused  of 
having  brought  into  the  temple  in  defiance 
of  the  law  (Acts  xx.  4;  xxi.  29).  The  last 
we  hear  of  him  is  that  he  was  left  by  the 
apostle  at  Miletus  sick  (2  Tim.  iv.  20,  in  A. 
V.  Miletum). 

Trump'et. 

1.  A  wind  instrument,  made  of  the  horn 
of  an  animal  or  in  imitation  of  it  (Josh.  vi. 
5;  cp.  Dan.  iii.  5,  where  keren,  horn,  is  ren- 
dered cornet),  and  called  in  Hebrew  shophar. 
The  word  is  rendered  cornet  in  four  passages 


blc  the  army  (Judg.  iii.  27;  vi.  34  ;  1  Sam. 
xiii.  3),  to  sound  the  attack  (Job  xxxix.  24), 
to  signal  the  cessation  of  the  pursuit  (2  Sam. 
ii.  28  ;  xviii.  16),  and  to  announce  the  dis- 
banding of  the  army  (xx.  1,  22).  Watchmen 
blew  it  to  sound  the  alarm  (Jer.  vi.  1 ;  Amos 
iii.  6).  Its  blast  proclaimed  the  accession  of 
the  king  (2  Sam.  xv.  10;  1  Kin.  i.  34;  2  Kin. 
ix.  13),  and  the  commencement  of  the  year 
of  jubile  (Lev.  xxv.  9).  The  first  day  of 
the  seventh  mouth  was  celebrated  by  solemn 
rest  from  ordinary  labor,  a  holy  convocation, 
and  the  ofl'ering  of  special  burnt  ofl'erings 
(xxiii,  24,  2o;  Xum.  xxix.  1-6),  because 
the  day  marked  a  recurring  seventh  portion 
of  time.     It  was  a  day  or  memorial  of  blow- 


Ancient  Horns  and  Curved  Trumpets. 

ingof  trumpets,  designed  to  bring  the  people 
into  remembrance  before  the  Lord  (cp.  Ex. 
xxviii.  12,  29;  xxx.  16).  The  Jewish  tradi- 
tion is  doubtless  correct  which  states  that 
the  trumpet  used  was  the  shophar  (cp.  Lev. 
xxv.  9). 

2.  The  invariable  rendering  of  the  Hebrew 
H''sos'rah.     Two  were  made  for  use  at  the 


Assyrian  and  Egyptian  Trumpets. 


where  the  h'sofrah  is  mentioned  with  it 
and  rendered  trumpet  (1  Chron.  xv.  28 ;  2 
Chron.  xv.  14;  Ps.  xcviii.  6;  Hos.  v.  8).  Its 
sound  was  loud,  and  audible  at  a  great  dis- 
tance (Ex.  xix.  16,  19)  ;  and  was  well  adapted 
to  increase  the  noise  of  shouting  (2  Sam.  vi. 
15;  2  Chron.  xv.  14;  Ps.  xcviii.  6),  but  was 
ill  suited  to  be  played  with  harps  and  pipes 
in  an  orchestra.   It  was  used  in  war  to  assem- 


tabernacle  (Num.  x.  2) :  but  the  number  was 
increased  as  time  went  on  (2  Kin.  xii.  13). 
One  hundred  and  twenty  were  blown  at  the 
dedication  of  the  temple  (2  Chron.  v.  12). 
Those  used  at  the  sanctuary  were  of  silver 
(Num.  X.  2).  They  were  a  little  less  than  a 
cubit  in  length.  The  tube  was  narrow,  some- 
what thicker  than  a  flute,  and  ended  in  the 
form  of  a  bell,  like  common  trumpets  (An- 


Tryphaena 


752 


TycMcus 


tiq.  iii.  12,  6) ;  see  illustration  under  Show- 
BUEAD.  They  were  used  by  the  priests  to 
announce  festivals,  to  call  the  cougrej^ation, 
and  on  advancing  to  battle  (Num.  x.  1-10 ; 
xxxi.  6).  Earely  is  mention  made  of  their 
being  blown  by  laymen  in  war  (Hos.  v.  8). 
Priests  may  have  blown  them  at  the  corona- 
tion of  Joash  (2  Kin.  xi.  14;  2  Chron.  xxiii. 
13).  For  their  use  in  the  temple  orcliestra 
see  Music. 

3.  Trumpet  is  expressed  by  the  Greek 
word  mlpUjx  in  N.  T.  It  was  used  in  war  (1 
Cor.  xiv.  8),  and  will  announce  the  second  ad- 
vent of  Christ  (Mat.  xxiv.  31),  and  the  resur- 
rection of  the  dead  (1  Cor.  xv.  52).  Seven 
trum])ets  were  sounded  to  introduce  as  many 
apocalyiitic  visions  (Rev'.  viii.-xi.  19).  By 
salphjx  the  h'sofrah  or  sacred  trumpet  is 
meant  in  Ecclus.  1.  16 ;  1  Mac.  iii.  54 ;  and 
probably  iv.  40;  v.  33;  xvi.  8. 

Try-pbse'na,  in  A.  Y.  Tryphena  [delicate, 
dainty] .  ' 

A  woman  at  Rome  to  whom  Paul  sent  his 
salutation,  commending  her  for  laboring  in 
the  Lord  (Rom.  xvi.  12). 

Try'plion  [luxurious]. 

A  general  of  Alexander  Balas  (1  Mac.  xi. 
39j.  He  was  a  native  of  Casiana  near  Apamea 
in  Syria,  and  originally  bore  the  name  of 
Diodotus  (Strabo  xvi.  2,  10).  After  .the 
death  of  Balas  and  the  recognition  of 
Demetrius  II.  as  king  of  Syria.  146  b.  c, 
Tryphon  set  up   Antiochus  VI.,  the   infant 


Tryphon. 

son  of  Alexander  Balas,  as  a  rival  to  De- 
metrius (xi.  39,  40),  and  with  the  help  of  the 
Jews  was  rapidly  conquering  the  country.  His 
treachery  to  Jonathan  ^lacrabaeus,  however 
(xii.  39-50;  xiii.  23),  caused  his  Jewish  allies 
to  go  over  to  the  side  of  Demetrius.  Tryphon 
meantime  had  murdered  young  Antiochus 
and  declared  himself  king  (xii.  31,  39).  The 
capture  of  Demetrius  by  Ar.saces,  the  Par- 
thian king,  left  Tryphon  to  his  own  schemes 
for  a  while,  but  Demetrius'  brother,  Anti- 
ochus VII.,  opposed  him  and  succeeded  in 
besieging  him,  first  in  Dor  on  the  Phoenician 
coast  (xv.  10-14,  37),  and  afterwards  in 
Apamea,  where  Tryphon  lost  his  life  in  138 
B.  c.  (Antiq.  xiii.  7.  2). 

Try-pho'sa  [delicate]. 

A  woman  at  Rome  whose  name  is  coupled 


with  that  of  Tryphfena  in  the  list  of  those 
Romans  to  whom  Paul  sent  his  salutation. 
They  may  have  l)eeu  sisters  or  fellow-deacon- 
esses. They  are  mentioned  as  laboring  in  the 
Lord  (Rom.  xvi.  12). 

Tu'bal. 

A  tribe  descended  from  Japheth  (Gen.  x. 
2).  It  is  mentioned  with  Javan  (Is.  Ixvi. 
19)  and  with  Mcshech  (Ezek.  xxxii.  26)  as 
trading  in  the  Tyrian  markets  with  slaves 
and  vessels  of  brass  (xxvii.  13).  Gog  was 
prince  of  Meshech  and  Tubal  (xxxviii.  2, 
3  ;  xxxix.  1).  The  descendants  of  Tubal  are 
the  Tublii  of  the  Assyrian  inscriptions  and 
the  Tibareni  or  Tibarenoi  of  the  classical 
writers.  For  their  country  and  history,  see 
Mesiiech. 

Tu'bal-cain  [possibly,  production  of  forged 
work] . 

A  son  of  the  Cainite  Lamech,  by  his  wife 
Zillah.  He  was  the  forger  of  cutting  instru- 
ments of  brass  and  iron  (Gen  iv.  22). 

Tu'bi-as,  in  A.  V.  To'bie. 

A  district  east  of  the  Jordan  (1  Mac.  v.  13; 
cp.  2  Mac.  xii.  17),  probably  the  land  of  Tob ; 
see  Tob. 

Tur'ban.     See  Di.^dem. 

Tur'tle  and  Tur'tle-dove. 

A  species  of  pigeon.  It  is  gentle  and  harm- 
less, fit  emblem  of  a  defenseless  and  innocent 
people  (Ps.  Ixxiv.  19).  It  is  migratory  (Jer. 
viii.  7),  and  a  herald  of  spring  (Song  ii.  12). 
Abraham  sacrificed  a  turtledove  and  other 
victims  when  the  Lord's  covenant  was  made 
with  him  (Gen.  xv.  9).  Under  the  law  it 
served  as  a  burnt  otfering  (Lev.  i.  14)  and  for 
a  sin  offering ;  and  two  turtledoves  were 
prescribed  for  these  two  sacrifices  in  case  a 
poor  person  was  obliged  to  make  a  guilt  ofltr- 
ing,  and  for  the  purification  of  a  woman  after 
childbirth  if  she  was  poor,  of  a  man  or  woman 
with  an  issue,  and  of  a  Nazirite  (v.  7 ;  xii.  6, 
8;  XV.  14,  29,  30;  Xum.  vi.  10,  11).  It  was 
readily  obtainable  by  the  poor,  for  it  abounds 
in  Palestine  and  is  easily  trapped.  Three  spe- 
cies of  turtledove  are  described  by  Tristram 
as  occurring  in  Palestine.  The  most  abun- 
dant is  the  common  turtledove  (Turtnr  rul- 
(lavix),  which  reaches  Palestine  from  the 
south  in  countless  numbers  at  the  beginning 
of  March,  and  departs  again  at  the  a])])roach 
of  wnnter.  The  second  is  the  collared  turtle- 
dove (  Tnrtiir  risoriiis).  It  is  a  summer  mi- 
grant, breeding  in  Palestine  in  trees  and 
bushes.  The  third  species,  the  palm  turtle- 
dove {TurtHr  senegalensis),  does  not  migrate, 
but  remains  permanently  in  the  Dead  Sea 
valley,  which  has  a  tropical  climate. 

Tu'tor.     See  Schoolmaster. 

Twin  Broth'ers.  See  Castor  and  Pollux. 

Tych'1-cus  [fortuitous]. 

A  Christian  of  the  province  of  Asia  who, 
with  others,  traveled  on  in  advance  of  Paul 
from  Macedonia  to  Troas,  and  awaited  the 
apostle's  arrival  in  that  city  (Acts  xx.  4).  He 


Tyrannus 


753 


Tyre 


was  a  beloved  hrotlior  and  faitliful  minister 
iu  tlie  Lord,  and  was  sent  l)y  Paul  to  carry 
to  tlu'ir  (1(  stination  the  Eiiistles  to  the  Ephe- 
sians  and  Colossians  (Eph.  vi.  -21  ;  Col.  iv.  7). 
Paul  i)nij)()sed  also  to  send  him  as  a  messen- 
ger to  Titus  in  Crete  (Titus  iii.  12).  After- 
wards he  was  disjjatched  to  Ephesus  (2  Tim. 
iv.  12). 

Ty-ran'nus  [an  absolute  sovereigu,  a  ty- 
rant]. 

A  man  at  Ephesus  who  was  either  a  teacher 
of  philosophy  or  rhetoric,  or  else  a  Jewish 
scribe  who  gave  instruction  in  the  law.  In 
his  school  Paul  disputed  with  the  view  of 
making  ChrLstiauity  known  after  he  no 
longer  had  access  for  the  purpose  to  the  Jew- 
ish synagogue  (Acts  xix.  iJ). 

Tyre,  in  A.  V.  often  Ty'rus  [a  rock]. 

An  important  city  of  Phu'uicia.  It  was  a 
place  of  great  antiquity  (Is.  xxiii.  7  ;  Antiq. 
viii.  3,  1) ;  but  it  was  founded  or  attained  to 
importance  after  Sidon  (Gen.  x.  15  ;  Is.  xxiii. 
12).  The  priests  of  Melkarth  told  Herodotus 
that  it  was  founded  2300  years  before  his 
visit,  which  would  make  the  city  come  into 
existence  about  2750  b.  c.  (Herod,  ii.  44). 
According  to  ancient  testimony,  Tyre  origin- 
ally stood  on  the  mainland  ;  but  in  course 
of  time,  for  safety  against  besiegers,  it  was 
transferred  to  the  neighboring  rocky  island 
which  gave  name  to  the  locality.  The  town 
on  the  mainland  became  known  as  Palatyrus. 
Tyre  was  nearer  to  the  Israelites  than  Sidon, 
and  this  fact,  with  the  increasing  greatness 
of  Tyre  over  Sidon,  established  the  constant 
order  observed  in  speaking  of  the  two  cities. 
Tyre  and  Sidon.  As  early  as  the  times  of 
Joshua,  Tyre  was  a  strong  place.  It  lay  on 
the  border  of  Asher.  but  was  not  assigned  to 
that  or  any  other  tribe  (Josh.  xix.  29  ;  Judg. 
i.  31,  32),  nor  do  the  Israelites  appear  to  have 
possessed  it  at  any  period  of  their  history. 
In  the  time  of  David  it  was  regarded  as  a 
stronghold  (2  Sam.  xxiv.  7).  Hiram,  king 
of  Tyre,  was  friendly  with  David  and  Solo- 
mon, and  aided  them  with  materials  for  the 
erection  by  the  former  of  his  palace  (v.  11 ; 
1  Kin.  V.  1  ;  1  Chron.  xiv.  1)  and  by  thelatter 
of  the  temple  and  the  other  edifices  which 
he  built  (1  Kin.  v.  1  ;  ix.  10-14  :  2  Chron.  ii. 
3.  11  ;  cp.  Ps.  xlv.  12).  Another  Hiram,  a 
brass  founder,  who  cast  pillars  and  other 
work  for  the  temple,  was  of  mixed  Tyrian 
and  Hebrew  parentage  (1  Kin.  vii.  13, 14,  40. 
45).  The  taste  of  the  Tyrians  was  not  for 
war,  but  for  commerce,  money-making,  sea 
voyages,  and  colonization.  They  traded  with 
all  countries  (Ezek.  xxvii.)  ;  their  merchants 
were  princes,  the  honorable  of  the  earth  (Is. 
xxiii.  8).  In  the  ninth  century  b.  c.  a 
colony  from  Tyre  founded  Carthage,  which 
became  a  formidable  rival  to  Eome.  Still, 
though  by  taste  a  commercial  people,  they 
were  often  forced  into  war.  About  724  B.  c. 
Shalmaneser,  king  of  Assyria,  besieged  Tyre, 
from  which  he  had  previouslv  exacted  heavy 
48 


tribute,  but  he  died  in  722  without  etfecting 
its  capture  (Antiq.  ix.  14,  2;  cp.  probably  Is. 
xxiii.).  The  friendliness  of  the  Tyrians  to- 
ward Israel  ceased  about  this  time.  The 
prophets  denounced  the  Tyrians  for  deliver- 
ing Israelites  to  the  Edomites  (Amos  i.  9), 
and  plundering  them  of  goods  and  selling 
them  as  slaves  to  the  (ireeks  (Joel  iii.  5,  6). 
Jeremiah  proi)hesied  Tyre's  subjection  ( Jer. 
xxvii.  1-11).  The  classic  prophecy  against 
Tyre,  entering  into  more  details,  is  that  of 
Ezekiel  (Ezek.  xxvi.-xxviii.  19  ;  xxix.  18-20). 
These  })rophecies  of  Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel  re- 
fer largely  to  a  siege  of  Tyre  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, lasting  thirteen  years  (con.  A])ion.  i. 
21).  It  is  not  certainly  known  whether  he 
took  any  part  of  the  two  cities  (cp.  Ezek. 
xxix.  18-20);  if  he  did,  it  was  probably  only 
the  one  on  the  shore.  In  332  B.  c.  Alexan- 
der the  Great  took  the  city  on  the  island 
after  a  siege  of  seven  months,  having  made 
his  way  to  it  by  building  a  mole  from  the 
mainland  across  the  narrow  strait.  But  it 
soon  again  recovered  its  prosperity  (cp.  Is. 
xxiii.  15-18).  Our  Lord  once  visited  the 
coasts  of  Tyre  and  Sidon  (Mat.  xv.  21-31 ; 
Mark  vii.  24-31),  and  people  from  the  region 
occasionally  attended  on  his  ministry  (Mark 
iii.  8  ;  Luke  vi.  17).  He  jjointed  out  that  the 
responsibilities  of  those  heathen  cities  were 
much  less  than  those  of  the  places  around 
the  sea  of  Galilee,  which  constantly  heard 
his  preaching  and  saw  his  miracles  (Mat.  xi. 
21,22;  Luke  x.  13,  14 >.  A  Christian  com- 
munitA'  existed  there  in  the  first  century 
(Acts  xxi.  3-6).  On  the  27th  of  June,  1124, 
Tyre  was  taken  by  the  Crusaders,  who  lost 
it  again  in  March,  1291.  Since  then  it 
has  nearly  always  been  in  Mohammedan 
hands.  It  is  now  called  es-Siir.  The  walls 
are  in  ruinous  condition,  and  have  iu 
part  disap]ieared  or  been  covered  with  sand. 
Formerly  there  were  two  harbors ;  now 
only  the  old  Sidonian  jiort  is  in  use.  It  is 
on  the  northeast  side  of  the  island  ;  the 
other,  or  the  Egyptian  port,  has  been  filled 
with  sand.  Alexander's  mole  still  remains; 
its  breadth  is  nearly  lialf  a  mile.  Most  of  the 
ruins,  including  a  cathedral,  are  of  Crusading 
times.  The  fountains  and  reservoirs  called 
Ras  el-'Ain  supplied  the  city  with  water  by 
means  of  an  aqueduct  starting  15  or  20  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  ground,  so  as  to  give  a 
sufficient  slope  for  its  descent.  Tyre  was  for 
a  considerable  period  all  but  destitute  of  in- 
habitants. In  the  present  century  it  has 
slightlv  revived,  so  that  it  may  have  at  pres- 
ent 3000  to  4000  inhabitants,  'its  houses  are 
chiefly  on  the  eastern  part  of  what  was  once 
the  island,  but  the  former  island  has  lieen 
converted  by  Alexander's  mole  and  accumu- 
lated sand  into  a  jiromontory  jutting  out 
from  the  shore. 

The  Ladder  of  Tyre  is  a  high  mountain  on 
the  coast  of  Syria,  100  stades  or  about  11 
miles  north  of  Ptolemais  (War  ii.  10,  2).  This 
statement  of  distance  and  direction  identi- 


Tzade 


754 


Unclean  Animals 


fies  it  with  a  part  or  the  whole  of  the  mas- 
sive, mountainous  promontory,  7  miles  in 
width,  which  thrusts  itself  into  the  sea  and 
forms  the  natural  boundary  between  Pales- 
tine and  Phcenicia  (1  Mac.  xi.  59).  At  its 
southwestern  angle  Ras  en-Nakurah,  a  bold 
headland,  projects,  leaving  no  beach  between 
its  base  and  the  water,  and  forcing  the  coast 
road  to  ascend  and  cross  it.  This  part  of  the 
great  promontory  is  commonly  identified 
with  the  Ladder.  Some  travelers,  however, 
localize  the  Ladder  at  the  northwestern  angle, 
where  Ras  el-'Abyad,  the  white  promontory, 
stands.  In  its  precipitous  clifls  the  road  is 
cut  for  about  a  mile,  overhanging  the  sea  and 
rising  at  points  to  the  height  of  200  feet  above 
the  water. 

Tza'de,  in  A.  V.  Tzaddi. 

The  eighteenth  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alpha- 
bet. No  letter  in  the  English  alphabet  cor- 
responds to  it.  In  anglicizing  Hebrew  names, 
s,  t,  or  z  is  used  to  represent  it.  It  heads  the 
eighteenth  section  of  Ps.  cxix.,  in  which  sec- 
tion each  verse  of  the  original  begins  with 
this  letter. 


U. 


U'cal  [I  am  strong]. 

One  of  two  sons,  pupils,  or  contemporaries, 
to  whom  Agur  addressed  his  prophecy  or 
proverbs  (Prov.  xxx.  1).  This  interpretation 
represents  the  traditional  Hebrew  punctua- 
tion, and  derives  support  from  ver.  4,  where 
a  person  is  addressed  and  asked  to  answer, 
if  he  knows.  Another  interpretation,  which, 
however,  neglects  the  punctuation,  is  given 
on  the  margin  of  the  R.  V. 

U'el  [will  of  God]. 

A  son  of  Bani,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put  away 
his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  34). 

Uk'naz. 

The  marginal  reading  at  1  Chron.  iv.  15, 
A.  V.  ;  but  a  Hebrew  proper  name  would  not 
begin  as  this  word  does.  In  the  text  it  is 
properly  regarded  as  two  words,  and  the 
R.  V.  correctly  renders  it  "and  Kenaz." 

U'lai. 

A  river  on  the  banks  of  which  Daniel  was 
in  vision  when  he  saw  the  prophetic  ram, 
the  he  goat,  etc.  (Dan.  viii.  2,  16).  The  Ulai 
is  undoubtedly  the  Eulpeus  ;  identified  both 
with  the  Kerkha,  which  washes  the  walls 
of  Susa,  that  is  Shushau,  and  the  Karun, 
which  flows  considerably  eastward  of  the 
city.  The  conflicting  views  have  been  recon- 
ciled by  the  apparently  well-founded  suppo- 
sition that  the  Kerkha  sent  out  a  branch 
from  a  spot  20  miles  northwest  of  Susa, 
which  joined  the  Karun,  so  that  the  name 
Ulai  might  be  applied  to  both  rivers. 

U'lam  [front]. 

1.  A  Manassite  (1  Chron.  vii.  16,  17). 

2.  A  son  of  Eshek,  a  Benjamite  descended   I 


from  Saul  thi-ough  Jonathan  (1  Chron.  viii> 
39,  40). 

Ul'la  [a  yoke]. 

An  Asherite  (1  Chron.  vii.  39),  probably 
descended  from  Helem  (35). 

Um'mah  [conjunction]. 

A  town  of  Asher  (Josh.  xix.  30).  Not 
identified.  Thomson  proposes  'Alma,  about  5 
miles  from  the  shore  at  Ras  en-Nakurah. 
Some  considerations  suggest  that  Akko  may 
be  the  original  text.  Caph  was  not  infre- 
quently mistaken  for  mem,  i.  e.  k  for  m  ;  see 
Beth. 

Un'cle. 

The  brother  of  one's  father  (2  Kin.  xxiv. 
17,  Hebrew).  The  Hebrew  word  is  clod, 
which  is  of  broader  meaning  than  uncle  and 
denotes  any  kinsman  on  the  father's  side 
(Lev.  X.  4 ;  Amos  vi.  10) ;  as  a  cousin  (Jer. 
xxxii.  12  with  8,  9),  or  a  member  of  the  same 
tribe  (Num.  xxxvi.  11). 

Un-clean'  An'i-mals. 

A  general  distinction  between  clean  and 
unclean  meats  was  made  by  the  nations  of 
antiquitJ^  Some  animals  were  recognized  as 
fit  for  food  and  sacrifice,  while  others  were 
not.  The  distinction  was  based  partly  on 
the  discovered  unsuitableness  or  unwhole- 
someness  of  the  flesh  for  food,  partly  on 
habits  and  prey,  and  partly  on  an  inexplica- 
ble natural  abhorrence  to  certain  animals. 
Regard  was  paid  in  the  Mosaic  legislation  to 
this  customary  attitude  of  the  men  of  the 
age,  and  the  distinction  between  clean  and 
unclean  meats  was  incorporated  in  the  law. 
Other  animals  were  added  to  the  list  Qf  the 
unclean,  out  of  special  considerations  in- 
volved in  the  religion  of  the  Israelites.  LTn- 
clean  animals  were  classified  as  follows  :  1. 
Beasts  that  do  not  both  part  the  hoof  en- 
tirely and  chew  the  cud  (Lev.  xi.  3,  4), 
including  all  that  go  on  four  paws  (27).  The 
law  accordingly  allows  only  animals  of  the 
ox,  sheep,  and  goat  kind,  and  deer  and 
gazelles  (Deut.  xiv.  4,  5).  It  excludes  among 
other  animals  all  carnivorous  beasts.  They 
eat  blood  or  carrion,  and  were  therefore  in- 
tolerable to  the  Israelite.  2.  Carnivorous 
birds,  of  which  twenty  or  twenty-one  are 
specially  named  (Lev.  xi.  13-19  ;  Deut.  xiv. 
12-18).  The  enumeration  included  the  bat, 
which  was  classed  as  a  bird.  They  eat  blood 
or  carrion.  3.  Winged  insects  which  do  not 
have  in  addition  to  the  four  legs  two  hind  legs 
for  leaping  (Lev.  xi.  20-23).  All  insects  are 
excluded  except  the  locust  (grasshopper).  4. 
Whatever  in  the  water  had  not  both  fins  and 
scales  (9,  10).  This  prohibition  left  for  use 
the  most  wholesome  varieties  of  fish  found 
in  the  waters  of  Palestine.  It  excludes  eels, 
and  water  animals  which  are  not  fish,  such 
as  crabs.  Noma  forbade  the  Romans  to  ofl'er 
scaleless  fish  in  sacrifice  (Pliny,  Hist.  Nat. 
xxxii.  10) ;  and  the  modern  Egyptians  are 
said  to  regard  such  fish  as  unwholesome. 
Some  of  these  scaleless  and  Unless  creatures 


Uncleanuess 


755 


Unicorn 


were  suakelike,  and  recalled  the  first  sin  and 
its  curse.  5.  Small  crci'itinfi  things  (Lev.  xi. 
29,  30)  ;  every  creeping  thing  that  goeth 
upon  its  belly  or  upou  all  fours,  or  has  many 
feet  (41,  42).  Some  were  unwholesome. 
Others  crej^t  in  the  dust  or  through  slime. 
Others  still  were  snakelike.  Not  iniprol>al)ly 
there  was  a  religious  repugnance  to  creei)ing 
things  in  general,  because  their  mode  of  lo- 
comotion was  a  reminder  of  the  sei-pent  and 
the  curse  on  the  teui])ter. 

These  animals  were  unclean  under  any 
circumstance.  But  the  tie.sh  of  even  clean 
animals  might  become  unclean.  The  law 
forbade  the  eating  of  things  ottered  in  sac- 
ritice  to  idols,  things  strangled  or  dead  of 
themselves  or  killed  by  beast  or  bird  of  prey. 
Blood  and  fat  of  bird  and  beast  were  sacred 
to  the  Lord.  None  might  eat  of  the  blood, 
not  even  the  stranger  that  sojourned  in  Israel 
(Lev.  xvii.  10-14).  The  violator  of  the  law 
respecting  blood  was  cut  off  from  his  people 
(vii.  27;  xvii.  10,  14).  The  otlender  against 
the  laws  regarding  unclean  animals  was  un- 
clean until  the  evening  (xi.  24,  40;  xvii.  15). 
Animals  that  died  of  themselves  might  be 
sold  to  strangers  and  eaten  by  them  ( Deut. 
xiv.  21). 

Un-clean'ness. 

The  law  distinguished  between  clean  and 
holy  (Lev.  x.  10) ;  for  example,  animals  are 
clean  or  unclean,  not  holy  or  unholy.  Un- 
cleanuess, when  not  presumptuously  in- 
curred, was  ceremonial,  not  moral  defile- 
ment. It  excluded  man  from  the  sanctuary 
(vii.  20,  21)  and  from  fellowship  with  mem- 
bers of  the  commonwealth  of  Israel,  but  it 
did  not  interrupt  spiritual  communion  with 
God  in  prayer.  At  the  same  time,  the  laws 
that  defined  uncleanness  were  in  some  cases 
enforced  by  the  injunction,  "  Be  ye  holy,  for 
I  am  holy  "  (xi.  44,  45).  In  keeping  himself 
from  the  unclean,  man  had  regard  to  the  fact 
that  he  was  set  apart  from  a  common  to  a 
sacred  service,  and  that  as  a  man  of  God  he 
was  holy  unto  the  Lord  and  must  be  separate 
and  touch  no  unclean  thing.  Furthermore, 
ceremonial  uncleanness  was  typical  of  sin. 
Physical  cleanliness  also  is  different  from 
ceremonial  cleanness.  The  two  were  not 
synonymous,  although  the  two  conditions 
sometimes  coincided.  Comfort  and  the  de- 
mands of  society  required  bodily  cleanliness 
on  the  part  of  the  Hebrews.  There  were 
divers  washings  which  had  nothing  to  do 
with  ceremonial  purity.  The  laws  of  clean- 
liness which  governed  men  in  their  inter- 
course M-ith  each  other  were  instinctively 
observed  by  reverent  persons  in  their  ap- 
proach to  God,  and  found  expression  in  com- 
mands and  institutions  (Ex.  xix.  12,  14 ;  xxx. 
18-21  :  .Tosh.  iii.  5).  Ceremonial  defilenient, 
for  which  purification  was  provided,  was 
incurred  in  a  si)ecial  manner  and  was  re- 
stricted to  certain  acts  and  processes.  It 
was  acquired  by — 1.  Contact  with  a  human 


corpse  (Num.  xix.  11-22).  This  defilement 
was  the  gravest,  for  the  effect  of  sin  is  re- 
vealed in  strongest  liglit  in  the  death  of  man 
and  the  dis.solution  of  the  body.  Unclean- 
ness arising  from  this  cause  continued  seven 
days,  and  was  removed  by  tlie  water  of 
separation.  Even  the  necessary  handling 
of  the  ashes  of  the  red  heifer,  which  were 
used  to  cleanse  from  defilement  by  contact 
with  the  dead,  rendered  unclean  (7-10) ;  and 
contact  with  the  unclean  person  rendered 
the  clean  person  unclean  until  ev<-ning  (22). 
2.  Leprosy  in  man,  clothing,  or  building 
(Lev.  xiii.,  xiv.).  The  leper  was  excluded 
from  human  society  (xiii.  46),  and  for  his 
cleansing  he  required  special  ablution  and 
sacrifice.  3.  Natural  and  morbid  issues  from 
the  generative  organs  (xv.),  including  puer- 
peral uncleanness  (xii.).  Generation  and 
parturition  were  not  sinful  in  themselves; 
they  were  ordained  by  the  Creator  (Gen.  i. 
27,  28).  The  bodily  issues  connected  with 
them,  however,  in  man  or  woman,  whether 
voluntary  or  involuntary,  defiled ;  man's 
aflBnity  to  the  lower  animals  is  api)arent  in 
reproduction,  for  right  though  it  is,  in 
heaven  they  neither  marry  nor  are  given 
in  marriage;  and  prol>ably  the  divine  judg- 
ment pronounced  on  Eve  for  sin  was  remem- 
bered in  connection  with  childbirth.  4. 
Eating  the  flesh  of  an  unclean  animal,  or 
contact  with  its  carcass  or  with  that  of  a 
clean  animal  not  slain  for  food  and  which 
had  thus  become  subject  to  the  corruption 
of  death  (Lev.  xi.).  See  Unclean  Animals; 
Purification. 

U'nl-corn. 

Any  one-horned  animal,  as  the  rhinoceros 
(Is.  xxxiv.  7,  A.  Y.  margin).  The  biblical  ani- 
mal, however,  was  two-horned  (Deut.  xxxiii. 
17,  where  the  word  is  singular,  and  not  plural, 
as  in  A.  Y.).  It  was  possessed  of  great 
strength  (Num.  xxiii.  22;  xxiv.  8),  but  was 
too  untamable  to  bend  its  neck  to  the  yoke, 
or  assist  man  in  his  agricultural  labors  (Job 
xxxix.  9-12).  It  was  frisky  in  youth  (Ps. 
xxix.  6).  It  was  not  the  wild  buffalo,  for 
this  beast  is  quite  tamable.  The  E.  V.  margin 
(Num.  xxiii.  22)  renders  it  by  ox-antelope, 
meaning  the  oryx  (Antilope  leucori/x)  ;  see 
Antelope.  This  interpretation  is  supported 
by  the  analogy  of  the  Hebrew  r'^eru  to  the 
Arabic  rhn.  which  is  now  used  in  Syria  for 
the  white  and  yellow  gazelle ;  but  the  oryx 
is  timid  and  in  ancient  Egypt  was  frequently 
tamed  and  used  in  the  plow.  There  is  every 
reason  to  believe  that  the  Hebrew  word  sig- 
nifies the  wild  ox  (R.  Y.) ;  for  this  animal  is 
denoted  by  the  corresponding  Assyrian  word 
rimu.  Admirable  representations  of  it  by 
Assyrian  artists  show  it  to  be  the  anroch.s 
{Bos  primitieniiis).  Tiglath-pileser  about  1120 
to  1100  B.  c.  hunted  it  in  the  land  of  the 
Hittifes,  at  the  foot  of  Lebanon.  It  is  now 
extinct,  and  its  name  has  been  transferred 
in  Syria  to  another  animal  ;  but  ilvS  previous 


Unni 


756 


Uriah 


occurrence  on  and  around  Lebanon  is  inde- 
pendently proved  by  the  fact  that  Tristram 
discovered  its  teeth  in  the  bone  caves  of 
Lebanon.  Julius  Csesar,  who  met  with  it  in 
Gaul,  described  it  as  the  Boa  unm  (Bello  Gal- 
ileo vi.  28).  Independently  of  its  size,  it  is 
distinguished  from  its  descendant,  the  com- 
mon ox,  by  having  a  flatter  forehead  and 
large  horns  with  double  curvature. 

Un'ni  [oppres.sed,  afflicted]. 

1.  A  Leviteof  the  second  degree  in  David's 
reign,  who  played  the  psaltery  (1  Chron.  xv. 
18,  20).  It  is  doubtful  whether  the  word 
doorkeepers  (18)  is  intended  to  include  him. 

2.  A  Levite  in  the  time  of  Zerubbabel 
(Neh.   xii.  9,  A.  V.) ;  see  Unno. 

Un'no,  in  A.  V.  Unni,  which  was  substi- 
tuted by  the  Hebrews  in  reading  the  text 
[oppres.sed,  afflicted]. 

A  I.ievite  who  was  a  contemporary  of  the 
high  priest  Jeshua  (Neh.  xii.  9). 

U-phar'sin.     See  Mene. 

U'phaz. 

A  place  from  which  gold  was  brought  (Jer. 
X.  9;  Dan.  x.  5).  The  same,  a])parently,  as 
Ophir,  though  tlie  difference  in  form  has  not 
been  satisfactorily  explained. 

Ur,  I.  [perhaps,  settlement]. 

A  city  of  the  Chaldees,  the  birthplace  of 
Abraham  (Gen.  xi.  28,  31 ;  xv.  7;  Neh.  ix.  7). 
Its  site  is  now  generally  held  to  have  been 
at  Mugheir  or  Um-mugheir,  Bitumened  or 


called  Kaldu  as  early  as  at  least  the  ninth 
century  B.  c. ;  and  was  a  .seat  of  the  worship 
of  the  moon-god.  Considerable  ruins  are 
still  found  on  its  site. 

Ur,  II. 

Father  of  one  of  David's  mighty  men  (1 
Chron.  xi.  35).  The  transcriber  perhaj)s  made 
two  heroes,  Ur  and  Hepher,  out  of  one  whose 
name  was  Ahasbai  or  something  similar  (cp. 
2  Sam.  xxiii.  3'!). 

Ur-ba'nus,  in  A.  V.  Ur'bane  [urbane,  po- 
lite], 

A  Christian  to  whom  the  apostle  Paul  sent 
his  salutation  (Rom.  xvi.  9). 

U'ri  [fiery,  or,  perhaps,  light  of  (Jehovah), 
being  an  abbreviation  of  Urijah]. 

1.  Father  of  Bezalel,  the  craftsman  (Ex. 
xxxi.  2). 

2.  Father  of  Solomon's  taxgatherer  Geber 
(1  Kin.  iv.  19). 

3.  A  porter  whom  Ezra  induced  to  put  away 
his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  24j. 

U-ri'ah,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Urias  [light  of 
Jehovah].  The  Hebrew  name  is  often  ren- 
dered Urijah. 

1.  A  Hittite,  one  of  David's  mighty  men 
(2  Sara,  xxiii.  39  ;  1  Chron.  xi.  41),  whom 
the  king  arranged  to  have  placed  at  an  ex- 
posed point  in  a  battle  with  the  Ammonites 
and  lose  his  life,  to  prevent  his  discovering 
an  intrigue  which  his  sovereign  had  been 


ii^^' 


Mugheir,  the  Site  of  Ur  of  the  Chaldees. 


the  Mother  of  Bitumen,  in  Lower  Babylonia, 
on  the  western  bank  of  the  Euphrates.  It  is 
called  on  inscribed  tablets  ITru  ;  was  in  a  dis- 
trict which,   according  to  inscriptions,  was 


carrving  on  with  the  faithful  soldier's  wife 
(2  Sam.  xi.  1-27;  Mat.  i.  6). 

2.  A  priest,  one  of  two  witnesses  to  a  tablet 
M'ritten  by  Isaiah  (Is.  viii.  2) ;  see  Urijah  1. 


Uriel 


757 


Urim  and  Thummim 


3.  A  priest,  father  of  a  certain  Meremoth 
(Ezra  viii.  33).  Called  in  Neb.  iii.  4,  21  Uri- 
jah. 

4.  One  of  those,  pro])ably  priests,  who 
stood  bv  Ezra  while  he  addressed  the  i>eoi)le 
(Neh.  viii.  4 ;  in  A.  V.  Urijah). 

U'ri-el  [light  of  God]. 

1.  A  Levite,  fiimily  of  Kohath,  bouse  of 
Izhar,  descended  through  Korah,  Abiasaj)!!, 
and  Tahath  (1  l^hron.  vi.  24).  He  is  proba- 
bly a  ditlereut  pei'son  from  Zephaniah  (36), 
and  belonged  to  the  collateral  line  which 
sprang  from  Tahath.  The  head  of  the  Ko- 
hathite  family  in  David's  reign  bore  this 
name  (xv.  5,  11),  and  is  conceivably  the  same 
person. 

2.  A  man  of  Gibeah  who.se  daughter  Mica- 
iah  was  Abijah's  mother  (2  Chron.  xiii.  2). 

U-ri'jah  [light  of  Jehovah]. 

1.  The  high  priest  in  Ahaz'  reign  who  was 
directed  to  make  an  altar  like  that  which 
caught  the  king's  fancy  at  Damascus  (2  Kin. 
xvi.  10-16).  He  was  probably  one  of  the  two 
witnesses  to  the  enigmatical  inscription  writ- 
ten by  Isaiah  ( Is.  viii.  2,  in  E.  V.  Uriah). 

2.  A  prophet,  the  sou  of  Sheniaiah  of  Kii-- 
jath-jearim.  He  agreed  with  Jeremiah  in 
predicting  that  the  kingdom  of  Judah  was 
about  to  be  temporarily  destroyed,  which  so 
enraged  king  Jehoiakim  that  he  sought  to 
kill  the  prophet  of  evil.  Urijah  fled  to  Egyx>t, 
but  was  brought  back  and  slain  (Jer.  xxvi. 
20-23). 

3.  A  priest  (Neh.  iii.  4,  21) ;  .see  Uriah  3. 

4.  One  who  stood  by  Ezra  while  he  ad- 
dressed the  people  (Neh.  viii.  4;  in  R.  V. 
Uriah) ;  see  Uriah  4. 

U'rim  and  Thurn'mim  [lights  and  perfec- 
tions]. The  order  is  once  reversed  (Deut. 
xxxiii.  8),  and  twice  Urim  alone  is  used 
(Num.  xxvii.  21 ;  1  Sam.  xxviii.  6). 

One  or  more  objects  belonging  to  the  e]ihod 
of  the  high  priest,  put  in  the  breastplat<'  of 
judgment  so  as  to  be  on  the  high  priest's 
heart  when  he  went  in  before  the  Lord  (Ex. 
xxviii.  30;  Lev.  viii.  8).  The  receptacle  was 
probably  a  fold  of  the  l)reast})late  or  the 
space  underneath  it.  In  connection  with  the 
Urim  and  Thummim,  the  high  priest  learned 
the  will  of  God  in  doubtful  cases.  This 
method  was  not  adopted  for  inquiring  the 
divine  will  concerning  private  individuals  or 
private  matters,  but  was  only  employed  in 
behalf  of  the  nation  ;  hence  the  required 
place  for  the  L^rim  and  Thummim  was  in  the 
breastplate  of  judgment,  which  bore  the 
names  of  the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel  on 
twelve  precious  stones.  With  the  Urim  and 
Thummim,  the  will  of  Jehovah,  the  judge, 
concerning  judicial  matters,  and  the  royal 
desire  of  Jehovah,  the  king,  were  learned 
(Num.  xxvii.  21 ;  cp  Josh.  ix.  14  ;  Judg.  i.  1 ; 
XX.  18,  23.  27,  28;  1  Sam.  x.  22;  xiv.  36- 
42;  xxii.  10,  13;  xxiii.  9-12;  xxviii.  6;  xxx. 
7,  8  ;  2  Sam.  ii.  1  ;  v.  1ft.  23,  24).  The  will 
of  Jehovah   was  inquired   with   Urim   and 


Thummim,  not  only  in  the  sanctuary  or 
where  the  ark  was  (Judg.  .\x.  27,  28  ;  1  Sam. 
xxii.  10),  but  in  any  place,  provided  tlie 
authorized  priest  with  the  ejdiod  was  present. 
The  answer  was  usually  (juite  .simple,  often  a 
mere  afhrniation  or  denial,  or  a  clioice  of  one 
tribe  or  jilace  out  of  several  ;  but  it  was  not 
always  so  (1  Sam.  x.  22  ;  2  Sam.  v.  23,24). 
Occasionally,  also,  when  sin  had  interruj)ted 
communion  with  God,  no  answer  was  granted 
(1  Sam.  xiv.  37  ;  xxviii.  6).  There  is  no  ref- 
erence to  the  use  of  Urim  and  Thimimiin 
after  the  reign  of  David,  and  at  the  time  of 
the  return  from  exile  there  was  no  priest 
with  Urim  and  Thummim  (Ezra  ii.  63;  Neh. 
vii.  65) ;  hence  Josephus  is  probably  wrong  in 
saying  that  the  virtue  or  use  ceased  200  years 
before  his  time  (Antiq.  iii.  8,  9).  The  use 
of  this  method  was  a  prerogative  of  the  high 
priest  alone  ;  and,  since  he  belonged  to  the 
tribe  of  Levi,  the  po.ssessicm  of  the  Urim  and 
Thummim  was  a  glory  of  that  tribe  (Deut. 
xxxiii.  8). 

Different  explanations  of  the  Urim  and 
Thummim  have  been  offered.  For  cxami)le, 
an  analogue  has  been  sought  in  the  badge  of 
office  which  the  Egyptian  high  priest,  as  su- 
preme judge,  is  reported  by  classical  writers 
to  have  worn,  consisting  of  an  emblem  of 
truth  suspended  from  his  neck  on  a  golden 
chain ;  but  the  Egyptian  high  priest  carried 
this  official  token  during  the  judicial  pro- 
ceedings only,  and  hanged  it  on  the  person 
in  whose  favor  judgment  was  pronounced  ; 
and  there  is  no  evidence  that  it  was  ever 
used  as  a  means  for  inquiring  the  divine 
will.  Other  interpreters  have  supposed  that 
when  to  the  high  priest,  clad  in  the  ei)hod 
with  the  L^rim  and  Thummim  and  offering 
prayer,  an  idea  occurred,  its  divine  origin 
and  truth  were  confirmed  by  the  unwonted 
gleaming  of  the  gems  in  the  breastplate. 
From  this  phenomenon  was  derived  the  name 
L'rim,  lights.  It  has  been  suggested  that  the 
answer  was  spelled  out  by  the  successive 
gleaming  of  the  letters  which  composed  the 
proper  names  on  the  stones ;  but  to  say  noth- 
ing of  the  fact  that  the  complete  al])habet  is 
not  yielded  by  these  names,  and  that  in  sev- 
eral of  the  recorded  responses  letters  occur 
which  are  not  found  on  the  stones,  the  whole 
idea  smacks  of  the  feigned  miracles  of  Greek 
and  Roman  priests,  and  is  foreign  to  the 
methods  and  conceptions  of  the  Hebrew 
ritual. 

Only  two  theories  are  important.  1.  The 
Lfrim  and  Thummim  were  one  or  more  ap- 
pendages of  the  ephod  and  detachable,  and 
were  used  as  the  lot,  cast  like  dice,  and  by 
their  fall  revealed  the  divine  will.  This  is, 
indeed,  a  possible  conception,  but  it  lacks 
proof.  Support  is  sought  for  it  in  the  fact 
that  the  casting  of  the  lot  is  twice  referred 
to  in  close  association  with  seeking  revelation 
through  Urim  and  Thummim  (1  Sam.  x.  19-22; 
xiv.  37-42).  In  the  latter  case,  Saul  prayed  : 
"  Give  a  perfect  lot "  (41,  R.  V.  margin).   The 


Usury 


758 


Uzziah 


word  thamim  is  used,  which  it  is  proposed  to 
l)ronounce  thummim,  and  thus  make  the  Urim 
and  Thummim  to  have  been  a  kind  of  sacred 
lot.  But  in  the  two  cases  mentioned,  the 
casting  of  lots  was  a  distinct  act  from  inquir- 
ing of  the  Lord,  and  was  undertaken  for  a 
different  purpose  from  that  for  which  coun- 
sel was  asked.  2.  The  Urim  and  Thummim 
gave  no  outward  manifestation,  but  served 
as  a  symbol.  The  high  priest  arrayed  him- 
.st^lf  in  the  ephod  with  Urim  and  Thummim, 
■which  I)etokened  his  authority  to  obtain 
light  and  truth,  as  the  name  indicates,  in 
order  tliat  he  might  seek  counsel  of  Je- 
hovah in  the  divinely  appointed  manner. 
He  laid  the  matter  humbly  before  God  in 
prayer  ;  the  answer  dawned  in  his  mind  ;  he 
believed  that  the  response  was  correct,  be- 
cause he  had  made  his  request  in  the  manner 
of  God's  appointment,  and  because  he  had 
God's  promise  that  he  should  receive  light 
and  truth.  Faith  in  God  was  the  evidence 
of  things  not  seen.  This  interpretation  of 
the  u.se  of  the  Urim  and  Thummim  accords 
with  the  spirituality  of  the  entire  ritualism 
of  the  tabernacle.  The  answer  was  inward 
illumination,  without  any  external  sign,  and 
finds  its  parallel  in  the  revelations  granted  to 
the  i)rophets. 

U'su-ry. 

Interest  on  loaned  money,  the  word  being 
used  in  its  primary  sense,  without  any  im- 
putation that  the  interest  is  extortionate  in 
amount.     See  Loan. 

U'thai  [probably,  helpful]. 

1.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Perez,  and 
son  of  Ammihud.  He  was  the  head  of  the 
father's  house  to  which  he  belonged,  and 
dwelt  at  Jerusalem  (1  Chron.  ix.  4). 

2.  A  descendant  of  Bigvai.  He  accom- 
panied Ezra  from  Babylon  (Ezra  viii.  14). 

Uz,  in  A.  V.  once  Huz  (Gen.  xxii.  21). 

A  tribe  of  the  Aramseans  (Gen.  x.  23),  able 
to  trace  their  descent  partly  from  Nahor 
(xxii.  21),  and  connected  by  blood  or  political 
ties  with  Dishan  the  Horite  (xxxvi.  28).  Job 
resided  in  the  land  of  Uz  (Job  i.  1),  and  was 
exposed  to  attack  from  the  Sabeans  and  Chal- 
deans (1.5,  17).  At  the  time  of  Jeremiah, 
Edomites  dwelt  in  the  land  of  Uz  (Lam.  iv. 
21).  Josephus  regarded  Uz  as  the  founder 
of  Trachonitis  and  Damascus  (Antiq.  i.  6,  4). 
Ptolemy  locates  the  Ausitai  in  the  desert 
west  of  the  Euphrates.  Uz,  according  to 
these  data,  was  in  the  Syrian  desert  between 
the  latitudes  of  Damascus  and  Edom. 

U'zai. 

Father  of  one  who  helped  to  rebuild  the 
wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  25). 

U'zal  [possibly,  travel  or  wandering]. 

A  peoi)le  of  Arabia  descended  from  Joktan 
(Gen.  X.  27;  1  Chron.  i.  21;  Ezek.  xxvii.  19, 
R.  V.  margin).  The  kindred  name  Azal  was, 
according  to  Arabian  tradition,  the  ancient 
name  of  Sana,  the  capital  of  Yemen,  in  Arabia. 


Uz'za  [strength].  The  orthography  is 
Aramaic. 

1.  A  Benjamite,  a  son  or  a  descendant  of 
Ehud  (1  Chron.  viii.  7). 

2.  The  founder  of  a  family  of  Nethinim, 
members  of  which  returned  from  captivity 
(Ezra  ii.  49;  Neh.  vii.  51). 

3.  A  man  known  only  as  the  original  owner 
of  a  garden.  This  garden  ultimately  i)as.sed 
into  the  hands  of  Manasseh,  king  of  Judah, 
and  was  within  the  precincts  of  his  palace. 
Both  Manasseh  and  his  son  Amon  were  buried 
in  it  (2  Kin.  xxi.  18,  26;  cp.  2  Chron.  xxxiii, 
20).  The  garden  was  apparently  at  or  near 
Jerusalem,  but  the  exact  spot  -is  undeter- 
mined. 

4  and  5.  Two  men  otherwise  called  Uzzah. 
Uz'zah,    and  Uzza  in  1  Chron.  xiii.  7-11 
and  A.  V.  of  vi.  29  [strength]. 

1.  A  son  of  Abinadab,  of  what  tribe  is  un- 
known. When  the  ark  had  reached  the 
threshing  floor  of  Nacon,  or  Chidon,  on  its 
way  to  the  city  of  David,  the  oxen  stumbled, 
and  Uzzah,  putting  forth  his  hand  to  sup 
port  the  sacred  symbol,  was  struck  dead. 
The  place  was  therefore  called  Perez-uzzah, 
breach  of  Uzzah,  or  breaking  out  against 
Uzzah,  and  long  retained  the  name  (2  Sam. 
vi.  3-11 ;  1  Chron.  xiii.  7-14). 

2.  A  son  of  Merari  (1  Chron.  vi.  29). 
Uz-zen-she'e-rali,  in  A.  V.  Uzzen-sherah. 
A  village  built  by  Sheerah,  daughter  of  an 

Ephraimite  named  Ephraim  (1  Chron.  vii.  24). 
It  is  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  two 
Beth-horons,  and  is  considered  to  have  been 
at  Beit  Sira,  3  miles  west  by  south  of  the 
nether  Beth-horon,  and  13  west  by  north  of 
Jerusalem. 

Uz'zi  [my  strength,  or  might  of  (Jehovah)]. 

1.  A  man  of  Issachar,  family  of  Tola,  and 
head  of  a  father's  hou.se  (1  Cliron.  vii.  2,  3). 

2.  A  priest,  son  of  Bukki,  and  father  of 
Zerahiab,  of  the  line  of  Eleazar  (1  Chron.  vi. 
5,  6,  51).  He  was  an  ancestor  of  Ezra  (Ezra 
vii.  4). 

3.  A  Benjamite,  family  of  Bela,  and  head 
of  a  father's  house  (1  Chron.  vii.  7). 

4.  Another  Benjamite,  .son  of  Michri,  and 
father  of  Elah  (1  Chron.  ix.  8). 

5.  A  Levite  of  the  sons  of  Asaph.  He  was 
son  of  Bani,  and  overseer  of  the  Levites  at 
Jerusalem  (Neh.  xi.  22). 

6.  A  priest,  head  of  the  house  of  Jedaiah 
in  the  days  of  the  high  priest  Joiakim  (Neh. 
xii.  19). 

7.  A  priest,  one  of  those  who  assisted  at 
the  dedication  of  the  rebuilt  wall  of  Jerusa- 
lem (Neh.  xii.  42). 

Uz-zi'a  [probably,  Aramaic  spelling  of 
'Usziyi/ah,  might  of  Jehovah]. 

A  man  from  the  town  of  Ashtaroth,  and 
one  of  David's  mighty  men  (1  Chron.  xi.  44). 

Uz-zi'ah,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Ozias  [might 
of  Jehovah]. 

1.  A  Kohathite  Levite,  the  son  of  Shaul 
(1  Chron.  vi.  24). 


Uzziel 


759 


Vau 


2.  The  father  of  a  certain  Jehonathan  in 
David's  lime  (1  Chrou.  xxvii.  2')). 

3.  A  kiiij:  of  Judah,  who  is  called  in  2  Kin. 
XV.  1  Azariah,  and  by  the  Assyrians  Azri- 
yau ;  but  in  2  Cbron.  xxvi.  and  in  Is.  i.  1; 
vi.  1 ;  Hos.  i.  1 ;  Amos  i.  1  ;  and  Zech.  xiv.  5 
Uzziah.  He  succeeded  his  father  Aniaziuh 
about  '."'(j  B.  c,  durinj;  tlie  hitter's  lifetime, 
a  few  years  after  the  crusliing  defeat  was  in- 
flicted on  Amaziah  by  the  king  of  Israel. 
That  he  reigned  during  his  father's  lifetime 
is  evident  from  the  statement  made  in  con- 
nection with  the  record  of  his  reign,  that  he 
built  Elath  after  the  death  of  the  king  (2 
Kin.  xiv.  22).  He  was  sixteen  years  old 
when  he  aseended  the  throne  (21).  After 
i-ouducting  the  government  for  twenty-four 
years,  it  is  recorded  tliat  "he  reigned  in 
the  twenty-seventh  year  of  Jeroboam  "  (xv. 
1 ;  the  word  "  began "  is  not  in  the  He- 
brew text).  This  statement  "is  most  easily 
explained,"  says  Kleinert,  "by  the  assump- 
tion that  in  this  year  the  kingdom  of  Judah 
had  regained  the  full  sovereignty  ;  "  freeing 
itself  from  vassalage  to  Jeroboam,  in  which 
it  had  been  held  since  the  overthrow  of 
Amaziah,  the  capture  and  dismantlement  of 
Jerusalem,  and  the  enforcement  of  hostages. 
tJzziah  organized  the  army  ;  and  he  improved 
the  fortifications  of  Jerusalem,  and  the 
weapons  and  military  engines  of  his  troops. 
He  gained  important  victories  over  the  Phi- 
listines, the  Arabs,  the  Ammonites,  and  other 
foes.  So  strong  did  Judah  become,  that  the 
kingdom  of  Hamath  .sought  alliance  with  it, 
as  the  Assyrian  records  relate  (cp.  2  t'hron. 
xxvi.  8).  He  promoted  agriculture  by  build- 
ing towers  in  the  desert  and  digging  wells. 
Uzziah  himself  worshiped  Jehovah,  but  did 
not  take  away  the  high  places  at  which  his 
people  sacrificed  to  other  gods.  At  length, 
elated  by  his  prosperity,  he  entered  the  tem- 
ple against  priestly  remonstrance,  and  at- 
tempted to  otl'er  incense,  but  was  struck 
with  leprosy,  from  which  he  never  recovered. 
He  had  therefore  to  associate  his  son  Jotham 
with  him  in  the  government.  A  notable 
earthquake  occurred  during  his  reign  (Amos 
i.  1;  Zech.  xiv.  5),  which  took  place  near 
enough  to  his  attempt  to  invade  the  priest's 
office  to  be  connected  with  it  in  the  popular 
memory  (Antiq.  ix.  10,  4).  His  reign  ex- 
tended to  fifty-two  years.  He  died  about  the 
year  735  b.  c.  (2  Kin.  xv.  1-7 ;  2  Chron.  xxvi. 
1-23).  Before  his  decea.se  the  prophets  Isaiah, 
Hosea,  and  Amos  had  Vjegun  their  public 
career  (Is.  i.  1 ;  vi.  1 ;  Hos.  i.  1  ;  Amos 
i.  1). 

4.  A  priest,  son  of  Harim.  He  was  in- 
duced bv  Ezra  to  put  away  his  foreign  wife 
(Ezra  x.'21). 

5.  A  man  of  Judah,  familv  of  Perez  (Neh. 
xi.  4). 

Uz'zi-el  [might  of  God]. 
1.  A  Levite,  son  of  Kohath,  and  founder 
of  a  tribal  family  (Ex.  vi.  18,  22 ;  Num.  iii. 


19,  27,  30).  He  was  a  kinsman  of  Aaron  on 
the  father's  side  (Lev.  x.  4).  Amniinadab, 
the  chief  of  the  Uzzielites,  and  112  of  his 
brethren,  were  organized  by  David  for  ser- 
vice wlien  he  brought  up  the  ark  to  the  citv 
of  David  (1  Chron.  xv.  10). 

2.  A  Benjamite,  family  of  Bela  (1  Chron. 
vii.  7). 

3.  A  Levite,  instrumentalist  in  David's 
reign  (1  Chron.  xxv.  4).  Called  in  verse  18 
Azarel ;  see  Az.^rkl  2. 

4.  A  Levite,  son  of  Jeduthun.  He  assisted 
king  Hezekiah  in  his  work  of  reformation  (2 
Clirun.  xxix.  14). 

5.  A  Simeonite  captain,  one  of  those  who, 
in  Hezekiah's  reign,  led  a  successful  expedi- 
tion against  the  Amalekites  of  mount  Seir  (1 
Chron.  iv.  41-43). 

6.  A  goldsmith,  son  of  Harhaiah.  He 
helped  to  rebuild  the  wall  of  Jerusalem 
(Neh.  iii.  8). 


V. 


Va'heb. 

A  place  near  the  Arnon  (Num.  xxi.  14,  15, 
E.  v.),  otherwise  unknown.     See  Di-zah.\b. 

Va-iz'a-tha,  in  A.  V.  Va-jez'a-tha  [Per- 
sian, pei-haps  meaning  strong  as  the  wind]. 

A  son  of  Haman  (Esth.  ix.  9). 

Vale  and  Valley. 

The  vale  or  the  valley,  2"""  excellence,  is 
in  A.  V.  the  Shephelah  or  lowland  (q.  v.). 

Va-ni'ah  [perhaps,  distress]. 

A  son  of  Bani,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  36). 

Vash'ni. 

According  to  1  Chron.  vi.  28  (A.  Y.  follow- 
ing the  Hebrew  text),  the  eldest  son  of  Sam- 
uel, in  which  case  he  would  be  the  same  as 
Joel  of  verse  33,  and  of  1  Sam.  viii.  2.  But 
the  text  is  corrupt.  Joel  has  accidentally 
slipped  out,  the  conjunction  van  before 
Abiah  has  crept  in,  and  vashii  should  be  ren- 
dered "and  the  second"  (R.  V.  following 
Syriac  and  1  Sam.  viii.  2). 

Vash'ti. 

The  queen  of  the  Persian  sovereign  Ahasn- 
erus.  For  refusing  to  show  herself  to  the 
king's  guests  at  a  feast,  she  was  divorced  and 
deposed  (Esth.  i.  9-ii.  1).  Vashti  may  be  a 
title,  old  Persian  rnhi.ihti,  sweetest ;  or  it 
may  be  the  Hebrew  reproduction  of  the  Per- 
sian name  which  the  Greeks  pronounced 
Amestris.  Amestris  was  the  wife  of  Xerxes 
(Herod,  vii.  61,  1141.  If  she  was  Vashti, 
Vashti  was  ultimately  restored  to  favor. 

Vau. 

The  sixth  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet. 
The  English  F,  through  the  Greek  digamma 
or  fan,  has  the  same  origin.  Where  it  is  a 
consonant  in  Hebrew  names,  it  appears  as  v 
in  the  anglicized  form. 


Veil 


760 


Versions 


It  stands  at  the  head  of  the  sixth  section 
of  Ps.  cxix.  in  several  versions,  in  which  sec- 
tion each  verse  begins  with  this  letter. 

At  several  ditiereut  periods  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Hebrew  alphabet  it  has  had 
similarity  with  other  letters.  On  the  tomb 
of  James,  dating  from  the  first  century  be- 
fore Christ,  van  and  zain  are  scarcely  dis- 
tinguishable from  one  another,  and  jod  dif- 
fers only  by  a  hook  at  the  top  and  a  slope  ; 
thus,  in  the  order  named,  ^»ll,'^ 
In  the  inscription  on  the  synagogue  at  Kefr 
Bir'im  the  diti'erence  between  vau  and  jod 
has  disajipeai-ed. 

Veil,  in  A.  V.  often  Vail.  See  Clothing, 
T.\BKKNACLE,  and  Temple,  Herod's. 

Ver-mil'ion. 

A  red  pigment  obtained  by  grinding  the 
mineral  ciuual)ar  (Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  xxxiii. 
38).  It  was  called  shashar  in  Hebrew,  miltos 
in  Greek ;  and  was  used  to  paint  walls, 
mural  decorations,  and  idols  (Jer.  xxii.  14 ; 
Ezek.  xxiii.  14  ;  Wisd.  xiii.  14).  Vermilion 
is  a  satisfactoiy  translation  of  the  word  in 
these  passages;  but  miltos  was  of  broader 
meaning  and  denoted  any  red,  mineral,  color- 
ing matter ;  as  red  lead,  or  clay  mingled  with 
the  oxide  of  iron  and  kiiown  as  oclier.  Rude 
Africans  bedaubed  the  body  with  it  (Herod, 
iv.  191,  194),  and  certain  tribes  used  it  as  war 
paint  (vii.  69). 

Ver'sions. 

Translations  of  the  Bible  or  of  any  por- 
tions of  it  into  vernacular  tongues,  for  the 
benefit  of  those  who  understand  the  original 
imperfectly  or  not  at  all.  It  would  not  be 
possible  within  narrow  limits  to  treat  the 
subject  exhaustively ;  all  that  can  be  done 
will  be  to  select  the  versions  which  are  most 
valuable  for  critical  purposes  or  are  of  most 
interest  to  the  English  reader. 

Ver-sions  are  imnudiate  or  mediate,  accord- 
ing as  they  are  made  directly  from  the  orig- 
inal text  or  through  the  medium  of  other 
translations.  Four  ancient  immediate  ver- 
sions of  the  O.  T.  have  come  down  to  modern 
times :  the  Septuagint,  the  Targums  of  On- 
kelos  and  Jonathan  ben  Uzziel,  the  Syriac 
Peshito  with  a  considerable  portion  of  its  pred- 
ecessors, and  the  Latin  Vulgate.  They  de- 
rive special  value  from  the  fact  that  they 
were  made  before  the  Hebrew  text  of  the 
Masoretes  was  established. 

The  Samaritan  Pentateuch  is  not  a  version  ; 
it  is  the  Hebrew  text  written  in  Samaritan 
or  old  Hebrew  characters,  with  various  di- 
vergences from  the  Hebrew  text  of  the  Mas- 
oretes (see  Samaritan  Pentateuch)  ;  and 
the  Samaritan  version  of  the  Pentateuch  is 
a  translation  of  this  divergent  text  into  the 
Samaritan  dialect. 

I.  Ancient  Versions  of  the  0.  T.,  made  for 
the  use  of  Jews. 

1.  The  Sepfua(ji)if.  The  most  celebrated 
Greek   version    of    the    Hebrew    Scriptures 


and  the  oldest  complete  translation  of  them. 
It  was  called  the  Septuagint,  commonly 
designated  by  LXX.,  after  the  seventy 
translators  reputed  to  have  been  employed 
on  it  in  the  time  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus, 
285-247  B.  e.  Aristobulus,  a  Jewish  priest 
who  lived  in  Alexandria  during  the  reign 
of  Ptolemy  Philometor,  181-14()  B.  c,  and 
who  is  mentioned  in  2  Mac.  i.  10,  is  quoted  by 
Clement  of  Alexandria  and  Eusebius  as 
stating  that  while  portions  relating  to  He- 
brew history  had  been  translated  into  Greek 
previously,  the  entire  law  was  translated 
from  the  Hebrew  in  the  reign  of  Ptolemy 
Philadelphus  under  the  direction  of  Deme- 
trius Phalereus.  The  same  tradition,  but  con- 
siderably embellished,  is  contained  in  a  letter 
purporting  to  have  been  written  by  Aristeas 
to  his  brother.  This  letter  is  condemned  by 
modern  scholars  as  spurious.  The  same  story 
as  that  told  by  Aristeas  is  repeated  with 
slight  variations  by  Josephus,  who  may  have 
had  the  letter  before  him.  Josephus  relates 
that  Demetrius  Phalereus,  librarian  to  Ptol- 
emy Philadelphus,  who  reigned  alone  from 
283-247  B.  C,  wished  to  add  to  the  200,000 
volumes  in  the  library  a  copy  of  the  Hebrew 
books  of  the  law,  and  to  have  them  translated 
into  Greek,  as  they  were  unintelligible  in 
the  original.  The  king  consented,  and  made 
application  to  Eleazar  the  high  priest  at 
Jerusalem  for  seventy-two  aged  and  skillful 
interpreters,  six  from  each  tribe,  to  make  the 
translation.  They  arrived  in  Alexandria, 
bi-inging  the  law  written  in  golden  letters 
on  books  of  parchment.  They  were  hos- 
pitably received,  were  assigned  a  quiet  house 
on  the  island  of  Pharos  in  the  harbor  of 
Alexandria,  and  transcribed  and  interpreted 
the  law  in  seventy-two  days  (Antiq.  xii.  2, 
1-13;  con.  Apion.  ii.  4). 

These  ancient  reports  concerning  the  origin 
of  the  Septuagint  have  great  value,  although 
reliance  cannot  be  placed  on  the  details,  and 
the  statements  regarding  the  scope  of  the 
work  are  difficult  of  interpretation.  It  is, 
however,  commonly  agreed  that  the  Sep- 
tuagint originated  in  Egypt,  that  the  Penta- 
teuch was  translated  into  Greek  in  the  time 
of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  that  the  other 
books  followed  gradually,  and  that  the  entire 
work  was  completed  by  150  B.  c.  Reference 
to  a  Greek  version  of  the  law,  the  prophets, 
and  the  other  books  is  made  by  Jesus,  .son  of 
Sirach,  as  early  as  132  b.  c.  (Ecclus.  prologue). 
It  is  possible  that  the  work  was  revised  in 
the  Maccabjean  period.  The  version  is  the 
work  of  many  translators,  as  differences  in 
style  and  method  show,  and  its  quality  is 
unequal  in  different  parts;  it  is  also  much 
corrupted.  The  translation  of  the  Penta- 
teuch, except  poetic  portions  (Gen.  xlix.  ; 
Deut.  xxxii.,  xxxiii.),  is  the  best  part  of  the 
work,  and  on  the  whole  is  well  executed,  al- 
though not  literal.  The  translators  of  The 
Proverl)s  and  Job  were  masters  of  a  good 
Greek  style,  but  were  imperfectly  acquainted 


Versions 


761 


Versions 


with  Hebrew  and  handled  the  eriginal  arbi- 
trarily. The  translatitin  ol"  The  Proverbs  is 
based  on  a  Hebrew  text  whieh  ditl'ered  from 
the  present  ]\Iasoretic  one.  Tlie  general 
sense  of  the  Psalms  is  fairly  well  reproduced. 
The  translation  of  the  prophets  is  not  satis- 
factory, but  diflerences  are  discernible.  The 
version  of  Jeremiah  was  possibly  made  from 
a  dittereut  text  than  the  Masorotic.  That 
of  Amos  and  Ezekiel  is  tolerably  well  done, 
but  that  of  Isiiiah  is  quite  inferior.  Of  all 
the  O.  T.  books,  Daniel  is  the  most  jjoorly 
translated,  so  much  so  that  the  early  Chris- 
tians, since  the  time  of  Irenjeus  and  Hip- 
polytus,  substituted  for  it  the  version  of 
Theodotion. 

Christ  and  his  apostles  used  the  Septuagint 
frequently.  In  quoting  passages  from  the 
O.  T.,  sometimes  they  did  so  verbatim,  or 
with  unimjiortant  verbal  changes,  from  the 
Septuagint;  at  others,  they  set  it  aside,  and 
api)arently  themselves  translated  fmm  the 
original  Hebrew.  There  are  about  '.I'A)  quo- 
tations from  the  O.  T.  in  the  gospels.  The 
Acts,  and  the  epistles,  of  which  only  about 
fifty  materially  difier  from  the  Greek.  When 
Philip  met  the  Ethiopian  eunuch,  the  latter 
was  reading  the  Septuagint  (Acts  viii.  30-33). 

Three  main  recensions  of  the  Septuagint 
were  made.  One  was  issued  about  a.  d.  236, 
and  the  others  previous  to  a.  d.  311.  They 
were  that  of  Origen  in  Palestine,  of  Luciau 
in  Asia  Minor  and  Constantinople,  and  of 
Hesychius  in  Egypt.  The  Vatican  manu- 
script of  the  Septuagint  is  acknowledged  to 
exhibit  relatively  the  purest  and  most  origi- 
nal test,  and  it  probably  descended  from  that 
upon  which  Origen  based  the  text  of  the  Septu- 
agint given  in  the  fifth  column  of  his  Hex- 
apla ;  see  1.  2.  Lucian's  recension  has  been 
recovered,  and  has  been  edited  by  Lagarde. 
Lucian  was  a  presbyter  of  Antioch,  and  died 
a  martyr's  death  at  Nicomedia  in  a.  d.  311 
or  312.  He  issued  a  revised  text  of  the  Sep- 
tuagint based  on  a  comjjarison  of  the  com- 
mon Greek  text  with  the  Hebrew  text, 
which  proves  to  have  been  a  good  text,  but 
diflferent  from  that  of  the  Masoretes.  Hesy- 
chius was  bishop  of  Egypt,  and  suffered 
martyrdom  A.  d.  310  or  311 ;  his  text  has 
been  lost. 

2.  Minor  Greek  Versions.  After  the  de- 
struction of  Jerusalem  in  a.  d.  70,  the 
Septuagint  lost  favor  among  the  Jews,  partly 
because  of  the  successful  use  made  of  it 
by  the  Christians  in  establishing  the  claims 
of  Jesus,  and  partly  because  they  discovered 
that  its  style  lacked  elegance.  Accordingly 
three  translations  of  the  canonical  books  of 
the  O.  T.  were  made  by  Jews  in  the  second 
century.  1.  The  translation  by  Aquila,  a 
native  of  Pontus  and  a  proselyte  to  Judaism. 
He  lived  in  the  time  of  the  emperor  Hadrian, 
and  he  undertook  to  make  a  literal  version 
of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  in  order  to  coun- 
teract the  use  of  the  Septuagint  made  by  the 
Christians  in  advancing  their  doctrines.     It 


was  so  slavislily  literal  as  often  to  be  unin- 
telligible to  readers  who  did  not  know  Helirew 
as  well  as  Greek.  2.  The  revision  of  the 
Siptuagint  by  Theodotion,  a  Jewish  prose- 
lyte of  Ephesus  according  to  IrcuiEUs,  and 
according  to  Eusebiiis  an  Ebionite,  believ- 
ing in  the  JIessialishi]>,  but  not  in  the  divinity 
of  Christ.  He  lived  bt'l'ore  A.  D.  ItiO,  for  he 
is  mentioned  by  Justin  Martyr.  In  his  re- 
vision of  the  Septuagint  he  made  use  both 
of  A(|uila's  translation  and  of  the  Hebrew 
original.  3.  The  elegant,  but  jjeriphrastic, 
translation  by  Symmachus,  a  Samaritan 
Ebionite. 

Origen  arranged  the  Hebrew  text  and  four 
different  versions  in  six  parallel  columns  for 
l)Urpo.ses  of  comparison.  In  the  first  colunm 
he  put  the  Hebrew  text,  in  the  second  the 
Hebrew  written  in  Cireek  letters,  in  the  third 
the  version  of  Aquila,  in  the  fourth  that  of 
Symmachus,  in  the  fifth  the  Septuagint,  in 
the  sixth  the  revision  by  Theodotion.  From 
these  six  columns  his  work  takes  its  name 
of  Hexapla.  In  the  column  devoted  to  the 
Septuagint  he  marked  with  obeli  words 
which  were  not  in  his  Hebrew  text.  He 
emended  the  Greek  text  by  supjilying  words 
lacking  in  it,  but  foxind  in  the  Hebrew. 
These  he  indicated  by  asterisks.  He  con- 
formed the  spelling  of  proper  names  to  the 
Hebrew.  Origen's  work  has  perished  as  a 
whole,  but  fragments  are  preserved  in  quo- 
tations made  by  the  fathers.  The  Septuagint 
column  was  separately  edited  and  widely 
used,  and  it  was  translated  into  Svriac  by 
Paul,  bishop  of  Telia,  in  a.  d."  617-18. 
Origen  pur.sued  an  unfortunate  method, 
when  he  conformed  the  text  of  the  Sep- 
tuagint to  the  Hebrew  text  of  his  day ; 
since  the  great  desideratum  of  scholars  is 
the  Greek  text  as  it  left  the  translators' 
hands,  for  that  text  would  throw  light  on 
the  Hebrew  text  which  they  used.  More- 
over, the  obeli  and  a.sterisks,  which  Origen 
used,  were  often  neglected  or  carelessly  em- 
ployed by  copj-ists,  so  that  the  additions 
which  he  made  to  the  Septuagint  and  the 
portions  of  the  Septuagint  which  he  did  not 
find  in  his  Hebrew  text  cannot  always  be 
discovered.  V 

3.  The  Targnms.  When  the  Jews  returned 
from  the  BabJ'lonian  exile,  the  Hebrew  of 
their  forefathers  ceased  to  be  their  ordinary 
speech,  and  Aramaic,  misnamed  Chaldee, 
took  its  place.  It  soon  became  neces.sai-y  at 
the  public  reading  of  the  Scriptures  for  the 
reader  or  his  assistant  to  translate  the  pas- 
sage orally  that  the  people  might  understand. 
The  custom  of  explaining  obscure  words  and 
phrases  at  the  public  reading  was  in  vogue 
in  Ezra's  time  (Neh.  viii.  8).  The  event  re- 
ferred to  has  been  cited  as  evidence  that  the 
words  read  were  translated  ;  but  this  is  more 
than  the  statement  warrants,  and  depinds 
upon  the  answer  to  the  question  whether 
the  Hebrews  had  adopted  a  foreign  language 
during  the  exile.     The  oral  targum— that  is. 


Versions 


r62 


Versions 


interpretation  or  translation — which  became 
necessary,  was  at  first  a  simple  paraphrase  in 
Aramaic  ;  but  eventually  it  became  elaborate, 
and  in  order  to  fix  it  as  a  translation  and 
render  it  authoritative  as  an  interpretation, 
it  was  reduced  to  writing.  These  written 
Targums  are  a  valuable  aid  in  determining 
the  text  as  read  in  the  early  synagogues  and 
in  discovering  the  meaning  which  the  Jews 
attached  to  difficult  passages.  The  principal 
Targums  are  the  Targum  of  Onkelos  on  the 
Pentateuch  and  the  Targum  of  Jonathan 
ben  Uzziel  on  the  prophets.  According  to 
the  Talmud,  Onkelos  was  the  friend  of 
Gamaliel  and  a  fellow-pupil  of  Paul,  and 
therefore  lived  about  A.  D.  70.  His  Targum 
would  then  antedate  the  beginning  of  the 
second  century  ;  but  it  is  generally  regarded 
as  a  later  production,  perhaps  as  early  as 
the  second  century.  It  is  quite  literal.  The 
Targum  of  Jonathan  ben  Uzziel,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  periphrastic  ;  and  it  is  of  later  date. 
The  Targums  on  the  Hagiographa  date  from 
the  eleventh  century. 

II.  Ancient  Versions  of  a  part  or  the  whole  of 
the  Bible,  and  intended  chiefly  for  Christians. 

1.  Si/riac  Versions. 

(1)  The  Old  Syriac  Version  of  the  N.  T. 
This  is  represented  by  the  gospels  discov- 
ered by  Mrs.  Lewis  in  the  convent  of  St. 
Catherine  on  mount  Sinai  in  1892,  and  by 
the  closely  related  fragments  found  by  Cure- 
ton  in  a  Syrian  convent  in  the  Nitrian  desert 
in  1841-43. 

(2)  The  Peshito.  Peshito  means  simple  or 
■vulgate.  The  O.  T.  was  made  directly  from 
the  Hebrew,  and  in  the  first  instance  was 
probably  prepared  for  the  use  of  Jewish 
proselytes.  It  was  made  as  earlj-  as  the  first 
century.  The  N.  T.  is  a  revision  of  the  old 
Syriac  in  order  to  bring  it  into  closer  agree- 
ment with  the  Greek  text  and  improve  its 
•diction  and  style.  The  Peshito  seems  to 
have  been  in  circulation  in  the  second  cen- 
tury. By  reason  of  its  elegance  it  has  often 
been  called  the  queen  of  versions. 

(3)  The  Philoxenian  Version  of  the  N.  T. 
This  is  so  called  because  it  was  translated 
in  A.  D.  508  by  Philoxenus,  bishop  of  Hier- 
apolis,  in  Asia  Minor. 

(4)  The  Jerusalem  or  Palestinian  Syriac  Ver- 
sion of  the  N.  T.  is  but  little  known  as  yet, 
but  promises  to  be  of  critical  value. 

2.  Latin  Versions. 

(1)  The  Old  Latin  or  North  African  Version. 
By  the  end  of  the  second  century  a  Latin 
version  of  the  Scriptures  was  in  circulation 
in  northern  Africa.  It  was  used  by  Tertul- 
lian,  who  died  about  A.  D.  220,  and  by 
Cyprian  and  Augustine.  The  O.  T.  was  not 
translated  immediately  from  the  Hebrew, 
but  was  based  on  the  Greek  version. 

(2)  The  Itnla  or  Italian  Version.  Augustine 
testifies  that  a  translation  of  the  N.  T.  was 
made  by  any  one  who  had  sufficient  knowl- 
edge of  Greek.  The  North  African  version 
of  the  O.  and  N.  T.  was  provincial  in  its  lan- 


guage and  offensive  to  the  ears  of  the  Latin- 
speaking  Romans  of  the  capital.  In  the 
fourth  century,  therefore,  a  recension  of  the 
text  took  place,  which,  from  being  made  in 
Italy,  was  called  the  Itala. 

(3)  The  VuUjnte.  The  issue  of  the  Itala 
was  followed  by  other  recensions,  of  which 
almost  the  only  efl'ect  was  to  bring  the  text 
into  confusion ;  till  at  length  in  A.  D.  383  a 
Christian  father,  Jerome  or  Hieronymus, 
A.  D.  329  or  331  to  420,  the  most  learned 
scholar  of  his  day  and  a  man  of  moral 
earnestness  and  piety,  was  requested  by 
Damasus,  bishop  of  Rome,  to  undertake  a 
revision  of  the  Latin  N.  T.  The  gospels 
were  compared  with  the  original  Greek,  in- 
terpolations were  removed,  and  gross  errors 
were  corrected.  He  also  made  two  revisions 
of  the  old  Latin  version  of  the  Psalms  by 
comparing  it  with  the  Septuagint.  These 
are  known  as  the  Eoman  and  Galilean 
psalters,  because  introduced  into  Rome  and 
Gaul  respectively.  Jerome  then  designed  a 
revision  of  the  entire  O.  T.  In  387  he  took 
up  his  residence  in  a  monastery  at  Bethle- 
hem. He  began  and  completed  a  revision 
based  on  the  hexaplar  text  of  Origen  ;  but 
ultimately  he  made  a  version  immediately 
from  the  Hebrew,  with  constant  reference  to 
the  Greek  versions  and  with  special  respect 
for  Symmachus.  As  a  yo>ith  he  had  pursued 
the  study  of  Hebrew,  and  after  his  removal 
to  Bethlehem  he  resumed  it  with  the  aid  of 
Jewish  teachers.  Samuel  and  Kings,  prefaced 
by  the  famous  Proloqus  galleatus  giving  an 
account  of  the  Hebrew  canon,  were  issued 
in  392,  and  the  entire  work  was  completed 
in  405.  His  own  generation  gave  him  abuse 
rather  than  gratitude  for  the  very  important 
service  he  had  rendered  it ;  and  the  eminent 
father,  whose  temper  was  none  of  the  best, 
retorted  by  expressing  the  contempt  which 
knowledge  feels  for  blatant  and  aggressive 
ignorance.  As  the  ages  rolled  forward,  his 
work,  which  was  done  not  for  one  genera- 
tion, but  for  all  succeeding  time,  was  more 
and  more  appreciated.  The  Vulgate  became 
the  Bible  of  the  whole  western  church  in 
the  Middle  Ages,  and  notwithstanding  ver- 
nacular tran.slations,  remains  the  Bible  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  church  still.  A  recen- 
sion of  the  text  was  made  by  Alcuin,  at  the 
instance  of  Charlemagne,  about  802.  The 
Latin  Vulgate  was  the  first  book  ever  printed, 
having  been  Lssued  from  the  press  about 
1455,  soon  after  the  invention  of  print- 
ing. On  April  8,  1546,  the  Council  of  Trent 
made  a  decree  which  ex]>ressed  the  wish  for 
a  fresh  revision.  Scholars  were  dilatory 
about  undertaking  the  duty,  till  a  pontiil" 
of  iron  will,  Sixtus  V.,  urged  on  the  work 
and  even  took  a  personal  part  in  its  accom- 
plishment. The  revision  was  jniblished  in 
1590.  A  difterent  one  came  forth  under  the 
ausi)ices  of  pope  Clement  VIII.  in  1592.  It 
was  an  improvement  on  the  Sixtine  edition, 
but  did  not  quite  render  it  obsolete.     Both 


Versions 


763 


Versions 


editions  are  still  in  use.  The  Clementine 
test  of  tlie  Vulgate  of  the  ().  T.,  with  the 
various  readings  of  the  codex  Aniiatinus, 
Las  been  edited  by  Hej-se  and  Tischendorf, 
and  tlie  X.  T.  according  to  the  codex  Anii- 
atinus by  Tischendorf.  It  is  from  the  Vul- 
gate that  a  large  part  of  the  technical  lan- 
guage used  in  theology  is  derived.  For 
instance,  sacrament,  justification,  and  sanc- 
tification  are  simjily  the  anglicized  forms  of 
sacrameutnm,  justijicatio,  and  sanctificatio,  oc- 
curring in  the  Vulgate. 

3.  Coptic  ]'eisionsof  the  N.  T.  They  appear 
principally  in  two  dialects,  Memphitic  and 
Thebaic.  The  Memphitic  version  is  supposed 
to  date  from  the  close  of  the  second  century. 
It  is  for  the  mo.st  part  faithful,  and  preserves 
the  best  text  as  current  among  the  Alexan- 
drian fathers,  free  from  the  corruptions 
that  prevailed  in  the  second  century.  The 
Thebaic  version  is  believed  to  be  slightly 
later  in  date,  and  it  is  less  faithful  to  the 
original. 

4.  The  Ethiopic  Versio)t  of  the  Bible  waii  made 
some  time  between  the  fourth  and  sixth  cen- 
turies A.  D. ;  it  is  the  oldest  monument  as 
well  as  the  foundation  of  the  whole  Ethiopic 
literature.  Its  translators  were  not  learned 
men,  nor  entirely  familiar  with  Greek,  but 
the  rendering  is  faithful  and  has  preserved 
peculiarities.  The  O.  T.  portion  was  not 
translated  immediately  from  the  Hebrew, 
hut  was  made  from  the  Greek  version,  and 
is  therefore  valuable  as  an  aid  in  determining 
the  text  of  the  Septuagint. 

5.  The  Gothic  J'ersion  was  made  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  fourth  century  by  Ulphilas, 
bishop  of  the  West  Goths.  It  embraced  the 
whole  Bible  except  the  books  of  Samuel  and 
Kings,  which  the  bishop  omitted,  because  he 
thought  it  would  be  dangerous  to  place  them, 
with  their  warlike  spirit  and  opposition  to 
idolatrv,  in  the  hands  of  the  Goths.  Most 
of  the'N.  T.,  but  little  of  the  O.  T.  in  this 
version  is  extant.  The  translation  is  faith- 
ful and  skillful. 

fi.    The  extant  Arabic  Versimis  are  late,  and 
of  no  critical  importance. 
III.  English  Ver.votia. 

1.  Early  En(}lish  Versions.  In  Anglo-Saxon 
times  portions  of  Scripture,  especially  the 
Psalms,  the  ten  commandments,  and  por- 
tions of  the  gospels,  were  translated  into 
the  vernacular  tongue.  After  the  language 
had  been  modified  by  the  Norman  conquest, 
various  jiortions  of  Scripture,  especially  the 
gospels,  were  rendered  into  the  language  of 
the  nation.  But  no  effort  was  made  simi- 
larly to  treat  the  Bi))le  as  a  whole. 

2.  Wycliffe  and  Piirrei/'s  Bible.  Of  this 
there  are  two  versions:  the  first  apparently 
between  1382  and  1383,  and  the  second  about 
1388.  Tlie  first,  which  was  robust  and  terse, 
but  unpolished  in  language,  was  mainly  Wye- 
liffe's:  the  second,  which  was  more  refined, 
emanated  chiefly  from  Purvey,  for  Wycliffe, 
who  was  born  about   A.  d.  1324,  had  died 


on  December  31, 1384.  The  best-known  ver- 
sion is  Purveys.  Here  are  specimens  of 
both  versions.  Gen.  i.  1  :  "In  the  firste  made 
God  of  noust  heuene  and  erthe."  In  the  later 
version  this  reads  :  "  In  the  bigynuyng  God 
made  of  noU3t  heuene  and  erthe."  In 
the  older  version  John  iii.  KS  is:  "  Forsothe 
God  so  loued  the  world,  that  he  gaf  his  oon 
bigetun  sone,  that  ech  man  that  bileueth  in 
to  him  perische  not,  but  haue  euere  lasting 
lyf "  ;  but  in  the  later  version  it  is  changed 
to :  "  For  God  louede  so  the  world,  that  he  gaf 
his  oon  bigetun  sone,  that  ech  man  that 
bileueth  in  him  peri.sche  not,  but  haue  euer- 
lastyuge  lijf."  Both  versions  were  made 
from  the  Latin  Vulgate.  Wycliife's  version 
was  the  first  rendering  of  the  Scriptures  into 
any  form  of  modern  English,  and  it  helped 
to  mold  the  language ;  it  al.so  exerted  great 
influence  on  the  national  life  ;  but  it  was 
circulated  in  manuscript  copies  only,  and 
was  not  printed  until  1848. 

3.  About  1526  there  arrived  from  abroad  a 
translation  of  the  N.  T.  from  the  original 
Greek  by  the  reformer  William  Tyndale, 
who  had  left  his  native  England  to  escape 
persecution.  It  was  published  at  Worms, 
and  was  made  from  the  Greek  of  Erasmus, 
probably  from  the  edition  of  1519,  although 
the  edition  of  1522  was  consulted.  Tyndale 
translated  immediately  from  the  Greek,  using 
the  German  X.  T.  of  Luther  and  the  Vulgate 
as  aids.  His  work  excited  great  opposition 
from  the  leading  dignitaries  of  the  then 
dominant  church,  though  many  of  the  com- 
mon people  received  it  gladly.  The  book 
was  pronounced  full  of  pestilent  err()rs,  and 
was  burnt  at  Paul's  Cross.  In  1530,  and 
again  in  1534,  he  published  a  translation  of 
the  Pentateuch,  and  in  1531  of  the  book  of 
Jonah.  They  were  made  immediately  from 
the  original  Hebrew,  Luther  and  the  Vulgate 
being  used  as  aids.  In  1534  a  fresh  edition 
of  his  N.  T.  was  issued  from  Antwerp.  There 
is  evidence  that  he  translated  other  portions 
of  the  O.  T.  besides  those  already  mentioned, 
mofst  probably  to  the  end  of  Chronicles  with 
several  prophetical  books;  but  he  did  not 
live  to  publish  them.  He  was  arrested  on 
the  23d  or  24th  of  May,  1535,  at  Antwerp, 
where  he  had  permanently  .settled,  and  on 
the  ()th  of  October,  1536,  was  fir.st  strangled 
and  then  burnt  as  a  heretic.  But  his  work 
remained.  It  fixed  the  English  standard  of 
Bible  translation,  and  its  diction  and  style 
still  live  in  the  English  version  and  lend  it 
literary  charm  and  character. 

4.  Corerdale's  Bible.  This  work  was  pub- 
lished in  1535.  with  no  mention  who  the 
printer  was  nor  from  what  city  or  town  it 
issued.  Probably  Zurich  is  entitled  to  the 
honor,  but  possibly  Frankfort  or  Cologne.  It 
was  the  first  complete  English  Bible  issued 
from  the  press.  The  X'.  T.  and  much  of  the 
O.  T.  are  practically  Tyndalc's.  Only  the 
portion  from  .Job  to  ]\Ialachi  was  translated 
independently  by   ISIiles  Coverdale,  and   he 


Versions 


764 


Versions 


1 


used  not  the  original  Hebrew,  but  a  Swiss- 
German  Bible  printed  at  Zurich  in  1527-29. 
He  describes  the  book  as  "  translated  out  of 
Douche  and  Latyn  in  to  Englishe."  Cover- 
dale's  version  of  the  Psalms,  virtually  un- 
changed, is  still  used  by  the  church  of  Eng- 
land in  its  Book  of  Common  Prayer. 

5.  Matthew's  Bible.  Thomas  Matthew  is 
believed  to  have  been  only  a  name  assumed 
by  John  Rogers,  successor  to  Tyndale  as 
chaplain  to  the  English  merchants  of  the 
Steelyard  at  Antwerp,  the  first  martyr  in  the 
persecution  under  Mary  Tudor.  In  1537  he 
printed  an  edition  of  the  Bible,  perhaps  at 
Antwerp.  It  contains  Tyndale's  translations 
in  their  latest  form.  For  books  not  trans- 
lated by  Tyndale,  the  text  is  taken  from 
Coverdale's  version.  It  had  bold  annota- 
tions, yet  it  was  the  first  Bible  licensed  by 
public  authority. 

6.  Taverner's  Bible.  This  was  published  in 
the  year  1539,  and  was  designed  to  counter- 
act the  influence  of  Matthew's  Bible,  and 
especially  of  his  daring  explanatory  notes. 

7.  The  Great  Bible :  called  also  Cranmer's 
Bible.  The  first  name  was  given  it  on  ac- 
count of  its  size,  the  page  of  type  measuring 
13|  by  7^  inches,  and  the  second  name  came 
into  use  because  Cranmer  wrote  the  introduc- 
tion to  it.  It  was  undertaken  by  Coverdale 
at  Cromwell's  suggestion,  was  produced 
mainly  by  the  revision  of  the  text  of  Mat- 
thew's Bible,  and  appeared  in  1539-41.  '  It 
was  warmly  welcomed,  and  seven  editions  of 
it  ere  long  appeared. 

8.  The  Geneva  Bible.  This  revision  was  the 
work  of  thi-ee  exiles,  who  had  taken  refuge 
in  Geneva  during  the  Marian  persecution, 
Whittingham,  Gilby,  and  Sampson.  It  was 
a  revision  of  Tyndale,  collated  with  the 
Great  Bible.  From  the  occurrence  of  the 
word  breeches  in  Gen.  iii.,  where  the  A.  V. 
was  subsequently  to  have  aprons,  it  is  some- 
times called  the  Breeches  Bible.  The  N.  T. 
appeai'ed  in  1.557,  and  the  whole  Bible  in 
1560.  It  was  the  first  to  introduce  the  di- 
vision into  verses  into  the  N.  T.  Its  trans- 
lators availed  themselves  of  the  aids  fur- 
nished by  the  best  biblical  scholarship  of  the 
age,  and  it  is  itself  the  most  scholarly  of  the 
early  English  versions.  It  was  a  handy  vol- 
ume, being  small  quarto  in  size.  It  was  well 
received  among  the  common  people,  espe- 
cially those  of  Puritan  tendency,  and  for  sev- 
enty-five years  was  the  Bible  in  current  use. 
It  was  provided  with  notes,  which  form  a 
sound  and  helpful  commentary  along  practi- 
cal, expository,  and  doctrinal  lines,  and  was 
the  first  Bible  printed  in  Scotland. 

9.  The  Bishops'  Bible.  The  popularity  of  the 
Geneva  Bible  was  not  acceptable  to  the  bish- 
ops, and  in  1568  thejMssued  one  of  their  own. 
It  borrowed  from  the  Geneva  version  the 
division  of  the  chapters  into  verses.  In  1571 
Convocation  pronounced  in  its  favor,  and 
ordered  copies  to  be  placed  in  all  the  churches. 
It  was  founded  chiefly  on  the  Great  Bible, 


though  borrowing  a  few  variations  from  the 
Geneva  version. 

10.  The  Bheims  and  Douay  Bible.  This  is 
the  Roman  Catholic  version  of  the  Scriptures 
into  English.  It  was  made  from  the  Vulgate, 
and  published,  the  N.  T.  at  Rheims  in  1582, 
and  the  U.  T.  at  Douay  in  1609-10.  It  con- 
tains a  highly  controversial  commentary.  Its 
language  and  style  smack  more  of  Latin 
than  English  ;  but  it  gave  currency  to  many 
words  borrowed  from  the  Latin,  and  not  a 
few  of  them,  such  as  impenitent,  propitia- 
tion, remission,  found  a  place  in  the  A.  \ . 

11.  The  Authorised  Version.  The  proposal 
to  make  this  version  came,  apparently  on  the 
.spur  of  the  moment,  from  Dr.  Reinolds,  or 
Reynolds,  president  of  Corpus  Christi  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  during  the  discussion  between 
the  Anglicans  and  the  Puritans  at  the 
Hampton  Court  Conference,  on  the  14th, 
16th,  and  18th  of  January,  1604.  King  James 
I.,  whose  interest  in  theology  is  well  known, 
was  pleased  bj'  the  proposal,  and  on  the  10th 
of  February,  1604,  he  ordered,  among  other 
things,  "  that  a  translation  be  made  of  the 
whole  Bible,  as  consonant  as  can  be  to  tlie 
original  Hebrew  and  Greek ;  and  this  to  be 
set  out  and  printed,  without  any  marginal 
notes,  and  only  to  be  i;sed  in  all  churches  of 
England  in  time  of  divine  service."  The 
king  appointed  fifty-four  translators,  but 
only  forty-seven  took  part  in  the  work.  They 
were  formed  into  six  companies,  two  of 
which  met  at  Westminster,  two  at  Oxford, 
and  two  at  Caml)ridge.  The  work  was  issued 
in  1611,  with  a  fulsome  dedication  to  king 
James.  It  was  not  a  new  translation,  but,  as 
tho.se  who  prepared  it  desired  it  to  be,  a  schol- 
arly revision  of  a  good  version.  It  isthe  transla- 
tion now  in  common  use,  which  has so endeared 
itself  to  all  English-speaking  Christians. 

12.  The  Revised  Version.  A  revision  of  the 
A.  V.  became  necessary  because  in  the  course 
of  more  than  two  centuries  and  a  half 
through  new  manuscripts  and  careful  study 
corruptions  had  been  discovered  in  the  text 
of  the  Greek  Testament  which  had  been 
used  for  the  English  version,  and  a  superior 
text  had  been  ])rovided.  Greek  and  Hebrew 
scholarship  had  also  made  great  advances 
during  the  same  period.  In  February,  1870, 
the  Convocation  of  the  Province  of  Canter- 
bury planned,  not  a  new  translation,  but  a 
fresh  revision  of  the  time-honored  version. 
Two  companies  were  formed  for  the  purpose, 
one  for  each  Testament.  That  for  the  O.  T. 
consisted  of  twenty-seven  members;  and 
that  for  the  N.  T.  likewise  of  twenty-seven 
members  at  first,  but  for  the  greater  part  of 
the  time  of  twenty-four.  Two-thirds  of 
these  belonged  to  the  church  of  England. 
Two  comi)anies  of  scholars  in  America  co- 
operated, fourteen  for  the  O.  T.  and  thirteen 
for  the  N.  T.,  repi-esenting  the  difi"ei'ent 
Protestant  churches.  The  work  was  begun 
on  the  22d  of  June,  1870.  The  N.  T.  took 
ten  and  a  half  years,  and  was  published  in 


Vine 


765 


Vine  of  Sodom 


May,  1881.  The  revision  of  the  O.  T.  was 
commenced  on  the  30th  of  June,  1870,  and 
was  completed  in  fourteen  years,  on  June  20th, 
1884.  As  a  work  of  art,  the  Revised  is  in- 
ferior to  the  A.  v.,  the  phrases  in  some  ca.ses 
being  less  felicitous,  and  the  sentences  less 
perfect  in  their  rhythm  and  their  cadence. 
As  a  work  of  science,  it  is  a  great  improve- 
ment on  the  A.  V.  Especially  in  the  poetic 
portions  of  the  O.  T.  and  in  tlie  epistles  of 
the  N.  T.  has  the  true  meaning  been  made 
clear.  The  orthography  also  of  the  proper 
names  has  been  vastly  improved. 

Vine. 

Any  plant  with  a  long,  slender,  prostrate 
or  climbing  stem,  with  leudrils,  as  a  gourd 
(2  Kin.  iv.  39).  The  word  usually  denotes 
the  common  or  grape  vine  ( ]"ttis  viuifera).  It 
is  believed  to  be  indigenous  in  western  Asia 
south  of  the  Caspian  Sea  (cp.  Gen.  ix.  20,  21). 


Vintage  in  Ancient  Egypt. 

It  was  largely  cultivated  in  Egypt  (xl.  9-11  ; 
Ps.  Ixxviii.  47)  ;  and  Egyptian  sculptures  of 
the  Old  Empire,  before  the  time  of  Joseph, 
represent  vineyards,  vines  laden  with  grapes, 
presses,  and  the  manufacture  of  wine.  The 
soil  and  climate  of  Palestine  were  favorable 
to  the  vine,  which  was  cultivated  in  Canaan 
as  early  as  the  time  of  Melchizedek  (Gen.  xiv. 
18).  It  is  incidentally  referred  to  as  growing 
in  the  lowland  of  Philistia,  at  Jezreel,  and  in 
the  plain  of  Gennesaret  (Judg.  xv.  5  ;  1  Kin. 
xxi.  1 ;  War  iii.  10,  8),  and  especially  in  the 
mountainous  districts,  as  near  Hebron,  Shiloh, 
andShechem  (Num.  xiii.  23;  Judg.  ix.27;  xxi. 
20;  Jer.  xxxi.  5).  Especial  mention  is  made 
of  the  vines  of  Eshcol  in  the  hill  country  of 
Judali  (Num.  xiii.  23),  of  En-gedi  in  the  valley 
of  the  Dead  Sea  (Song  i.  14),  of  Heshbon, 
Elealeh,  and  Siltmah  bevond  .lordan  (Is.  xvi. 
8-10;  Jer.  xlviii.  32),  and  of  Lebanon  (Hos. 
xiv.  7).  Under  cultivation,  varieties  of  the 
vine  arose,  and  there  was  the  greatest  differ- 
ence in  value  between  one  of  the  choicest 
vines  (Is.  v.  2),  called  also  a  noble  vine, 
wholly  a  right  seed,  and  the  degenerate  plant 
of  a  strange  vine  (Jer.  ii.  21).     Israel  is  com- 


pared to  a  vine  (Ps.  Ixxx.  8-l(J),  and  our  Lord 
to  the  stem  of  a  vine,  his  true  followers  being 
the  branches  (John  xv.  1-8). 

The  vineyard  was  frequently  on  a  hill- 
side or  peak  (Is.  v.  1 ;  Joel  iii.  18),  which  was 
terraced  when  necessary.  It  w'as  surrounded 
by  a  hedge  or  a  stone  wall  to  keep  out  destruc- 
tive animals  (Num.  xxii.  24  ;  Ps.  Ixxx.  8-13  ; 
Prov.  xxiv.  31  ;  Song  ii.  I.')-,  Is.  v.  5).  The 
ground  was  cleared  of  stones,  the  vines  were 
planted,  a  booth  or  tower  was  erected  for  the 
watchman,  a  press  was  constructed,  and  a 
vat  w'as  hewn  in  the  rock  (Is.  i.  8 ;  v.  1-7; 
Mat.  xxi.  3.3-41).  Laborers  were  some- 
times hired  to  work  in  it  (xx.  l-Ki),  for  it 
was  necessary  to  prune  the  vines,  dig  about 
them,  and  keep  the  ground  free  from  weeds 
(Lev.  XXV.  3;  Prov.  xxiv.  30,  31;  Is.  v.  6 : 
John  XV.  2).  The  vines  were  allowed  to 
spread  on  the  ground,  the  stock  not  being 
supported,  only  the  fruit-bearing  branches 
being  slightly  rai.sed  from  the  earth  (Is.  xvi. 
8;  Ezek.  xvii.  (i;  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  xvii.  3.">, 
15).  Other  vines  were  doubtless  trained  to 
trees;  and  yet  others  were  probably  planted, 
as  at  present  in  Palestine,  in  rows,  8  to  10 
feet  apart,  the  stock  being  allowed  to  grow  6 
or  8  feet  high  and  then  fastened  to  stout 
stakes  and  the  branches  trained  from  stock 
to  stock. 

The  grapes  ordinarily  grown  M'ere  red  (Is. 
Ixiii.  2  ;  Rev.  xiv.  19,  20)  ;  but  at  the  ju-esent 
day  a  white  variety  is  almost  exclusively 
i-aised  at  Bethlehem  and  Hebron.  The 
grapes  began  to  ripen  about  August,  in  fa- 
vored localities  simiewhat  earlier.  They 
were  eaten  both  fresh  and  dried  (Num.  vi. 
3  ;  Deut.  xxiii.  24).  The  dried  grapes  or 
raisins  were  preserved  in  clusters  or  pres.sed 
into  cakes,  and  were  esteemed  as  food  (1  Sam. 
XXV.  18  ;  1  Chron.  xvi.  3).  The  juice  of  grai)es 
was  expressed,  and  was  drunk  fresh  and  fer- 
mented :  see  Wixe. 

The  vintage  began  in  the  middle  of  Sep- 
tember and  continued  into  October.  It  was 
a  season  of  festivity.  In  the  vineyards  there 
were  singing  and  joyful  noise,  and  the  tread- 
ers  in  the  press  kept  time  bj-  shouting  as  they 
trod  the  grapes  (Judg.  ix.  27 ;  Is.  xvi.  10  ; 
Jer.  XXV.  30;  xlviii.  33). 

Vine  of  Sod'om. 

A  plant  growing  near  Sodom,  and  bearing 
clusters  of  bitter  fruit  (Deut.  xxxii.  32).  But 
the  language  may  be  figurative.  Josephus 
describes  fruits  growing  near  the  site  of 
Sodom,  which  bear  a  color  as  if  they  are  fit 
to  be  eaten ;  but  contain  ashes,  and  if 
plucked  with  the  hands,  dissolve  into  smoke 
and  ashes  (War  iv.  8,  4;  cp.  Tacitus,  Hist.  v. 
6).  This  fruit  does  not  correspond  to  the 
grapes  of  gall  and  hitter  clusters  which  ap- 
parently characterize  the  vine  of  Sodom.  It 
is  often  assumed,  however,  that  the  plants 
are  one.  and  the  effort  is  made  to  identify  it. 
Excluding  plants  which  are  common  else- 
where in  Palestine,  the  principal  claimants 


Vinegar 


766 


Vow 


are:  1.  What  the  Arabs  call  the  'ushdr,  an 
asclepiadaceous  plaut  (Cahtropis  giguntea  or 
procera),  a  native  of  Upper  Egypt,  Arabia, 
and  India.  It  grows  at  En-gedi  and  other 
parts  of  the  tropical  Dead  Sea  valley,  is  a  tree 
10  or  15  feet  high,  and  bears  a  fruit  resem- 
bling an  apple  or  orange,  three  or  four  of  them 
in  a  cluster.  They  are  pleasant  to  the  eye 
and  to  the  touch  ;  but  if  pressed  or  struck 
they  explode  like  a  puffball,  leaving  only 
fragments  of  the  rind  and  a  few  fibers  in  the 
hand.  A  formidable  objection  to  the  identi- 
fication is  the  difficulty  of  seeing  how  the 
terra  vine  can  be  applied  to  a  small,  erect  tree. 
2.  The  colocynth  (CitruUus  colocynthus),  a 
trailing  plant.  Its  fruit  is  "  fair  to  look 
upon  ;  but  when  fully  ripe,  merely  a  quantity 
of  dusty  powder  with  the  seeds  inside  its 
beautiful  orange  rind"  (Tristram);  see 
Gourd,  Wild. 

Vin'e-gar. 

Wine  or  other  strong  drink  turned  sour  by 
acetous  fermentation  (Num.  vi.  3).  If  vinous 
fermentation  was  pushed  too  far,  or  if  the 
Avine  was  kept  too  long,  it  became  vinegar. 
Vinegar  is  acid,  .setting  the  teeth  on  edge 
(Prov.  X.  26),  and  hardening  soap  or  neutral- 
izing its  alkali  (xxv.  20).  In  itself  it  is  unfit 
to  drink  (Ps.  Ixix.  21)  ;  but  mingled  Avith  a 
little  oil  it  is  drunk  by  the  common  people 
in  the  East  to  quench  thirst  when  fresh  water 
is  not  obtainable ;  and  it  was  used  at  meals 
in  the  heat  of  harves't,  bread  being  dipped  in 
it,  as  it  brought  grateful  refreshment  to  the 
system  (Ruth  ii.  14).  The  vinegar  used  by 
Boaz'  reapers  is,  however,  regarded  by  many 
interpreters  as  sour,  not  soured,  wine.  The 
Roman  soldiers  when  in  camp  drank  a  thin, 
sour  wine  called  acetnm,  vinegar,  both  in  its 
pure  state  and  diluted  with  water.  In  the 
latter  condition  it  was  termed  posea  (Pliny, 
Hist.  Nat.  xix.  29).  It  was  lu-oliablya  drink 
of  this  sort  which  the  Roman  soldier  off'ered 
to  Jesus  on  the  cross  to  quench  his  burning 
thirst  (Mark  xv.  36 ;  John  xix.  29,  30).  This 
draught,  which  Jesus  accepted,  was  different 
from  the  sour  wine,  previously  offered  and 
refused,  which  w^as  mingled  with  a  bitter 
substance  or  more  definitely  with  myrrh, 
which  is  astringent  (Mat.  xxvii.  34 ;  Mark 
XV.  23). 

Vine'yard.     See  Vine. 

Vine'yards,  Plain  of.    See  Abel-cheka- 

MIM. 

Vi'ol.    See  Psaltery. 

Vi'per. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  'Eph'rh, 
blowing,  hi.ssing ;  a  venomous  serpent  re- 
ferred to  as  inhabiting  the  south  country 
(Job  XX.  16  ;  Is.  XXX.  6 ;  lix.  5).  The  species 
is  not  properly  determined. 

2.  A  poisonous  reptile,  in  Greek  echi/Jna, 
incidentally  mentioned  as  found  on  the  island 
of  Melita  (Acts  xxviii.  3)  and  familiar  to  the 
Jews   (Mat.   iii.   7) ;    probably   the   common 


viper  (  Vipera  communis  or  Pelias  berus),  which 
is  common  on  the  Mediterranean  coast. 

Vi'sions. 

No  sharp  line  of  demarcation  is  discernible 
between  visions  and  dreams  (q.  v.).  The  one 
shades  into  the  other.  The  Bible  recognizes 
— 1.  Vain  visions  (Job  xx.  8 ;  Is.  xxix.  7). 
2.  Visions  of  the  prophets.  The.se  were  for 
the  most  part  private  ;  they  were  appre- 
hended by  the  individual,  not  by  his  com- 
panions. A  natural  cause  sometimes  co- 
operated in  producing  the  vision  :  the  vision 
of  the  great  sheet  let  down  from  heaven, 
which  Peter  saw,  and  the  voice  heard  saying 
"Rise,  Peter;  kill  and  eat,"  stood  in  some 
relation  to  his  bodily  hunger,  as  the  account 
in  the  book  of  The  Acts  clearly  intimates  (x.  9 
seq.).  Thus  far  the  visions  of  the  prophets 
have  points  in  common  with  visions  begotten 
of  an  abnormal  mental  condition,  and  to  this 
extent  are  to  be  classed  as  mental  phe- 
nomena. These  facts  are  only  additional 
proofs  of  what  might  be  expected,  namely, 
that  God,  in  holding  communication  with 
men,  works  in  accordance  with  the  laws  of 
man's  mind.  The  vi.sions  of  the  prophets, 
however,  form  a  unique  class.  AVith  per- 
haps one  exception  (Num.  xxiv.  4),  they 
were  granted  to  holy  men  only,  men  who 
were  surrendered  to  God's  service,  men  be- 
tween whom  and  their  divine  sovereign 
there  "had  arisen  an  understanding."  These 
visions,  again,  were  clearly  distinguished,  by 
those  who  saw  them,  from  ordinary  visions 
and  were  recognized  as  proceeding  from  God. 
They  were  cautiously  accepted  by  the  church  ; 
by  law  they  were  not  received  as  genuine 
until  their  teaching  and  their  credentials 
had  been  subjected  to  tests  (Jer.  xxiii.  16,  21, 
22,  27;  cp.  Is.  viii.  20;  Dent,  xviii.  10  seq.). 
The  visions  recorded  in  the  Bible  stand 
alone,  in  the  history  of  religions,  for  purity 
and  righteousness.  They  were  never  vain  ; 
never  meaningless  vagaries  or  lying  wonders. 
They  always  have  a  clearly  discernible  moral 
and  didactic  content.  They  were  often  pre- 
dictive, upon  which  fulfillment  has  set  the 
seal  of  truth.  They  belong  to  an  age  of 
revelation  and  came  to  men  wiio  in  mani- 
fold manner  proved  themselves  to  be  vehicles 
of  revelation. 

Because  there  were  genuine  visions,  false 
prophets  feigned  visions.  These  men  are 
denounced  and  their  destruction  is  foretold 
(Jer.  xiv.  14  ;  xxiii.  16;  Ezek.  xiii.  7  seq.). 

Voph'si. 

Father  of  Nahbi,  the  Naphtalite  spy  (Num. 
xiii.  14). 

Vow. 

A  voluntary  obligation  to  God,  generally 
assumed  on  condition  of  his  bestowing  cer- 
tain specified  blessings.  Man  has  shown  a 
tendency  during  sickness  or  any  other  afflic- 
tion, or  in  time  of  anxiety  or  earnest  desire, 
to  make  a  vow  to  God  to  be  fulfilled  when 
the  calamity  is  over  or  the  desired  object 


Vulgate 


767 


War 


obtained  (Gen.  xxviii.  20-22;  Num.  xxi.  2 ; 
1  8ani.  i.  11  ;  2  Sam.  xv.  8).  The  vow  sprang 
primarily  from  the  consciousness  of  entire 
dependeucc  on  tlic  will  of  (iod  and  of  the 
obligation  of  thankfulness.  Vows  were  taken 
by  persons  of  every  nation  (Jonah  i.  16),  and 
not  by  the  Jews  only.  The  earliest  mention 
of  a  vow  in  Scripture,  and  a  ty]iical  case,  is 
that  of  Jacob  at  Bethel,  who  promised  that 
if  God  would  care  for  him  and  bring  him 
again  to  his  father's  house,  the  place  where 
he  was  should  be  a  sanctuary  and  the  tenth 
of  his  income  should  be  the  Lord's  (Gen. 
xxviii.  18-22). 

The  Mosaic  law  did  not  prescribe  vows,  it 
only  regulated  them.  Three  kinds  were  the 
subject  of  legislation.  Vows  of  devotion,  of 
abstinence,  aud  of  devotion  to  destruction. 
1.  By  the  vow  of  devotion,  any  ])erson  or 
possession,  not  already  set  apart  for  sacred 
uses,  or  otherwise  removed  from  the  legal 
control  of  the  devoter,  might  be  devoted  and 
turned  over  to  the  sanctuary  ;  but  anything 
thus  devoted  to  the  service  of  God  was  re- 
deemable, except  a  sacrificial  animal  (Lev. 
xxvii.  1-27),  usually  at  one-fifth  more  than 
its  assessed  value.  Devoted  land  sold  by  the 
owner,  without  having  been  first  redeemed, 
was  retained  by  the  buyer,  but  at  the  year 
of  jubilc  did  not  return  to  the  seller,  but 
became  the  po!5session  of  the  sanctuary  (20, 
21).  Persons  devoted  to  God  served  at  the 
sanctuary  (1  Sam.  i.  11,  24,  28),  but  Mere 
usually  redeemed  (2  Kin.  xii.  4),  especially  as 
the  service  of  the  Levites  rendered  such  de- 
votion as  a  rule  useless.  The  price  of  re- 
demption varied  with  age  and  sex.  2.  The 
vow  of  abstinence  involved  a  renunciation 
of  some  enjoyment,  otherwise  allowable,  for 
the  glory  of  God.  It  included  such  acts  as 
fasting,  in  testimony  of  penitence,  and  such 
obligation  as  was  assumed  by  the  Nazirite. 
3.  It  has  been  inferred  from  Ex.  xxii.  20; 
Deut.  xiii.  16,  that  only  what  was  under 
judgment  for  idolatry  could  be  devoted  by  a 
vow  of  destruction.  Nothing  devoted  by  such 
a  vow  was  redeemable  (Lev.  xxvii.  28,  29). 

(xeneral  princii)les  applying  to  vows  were  : 
1.  Vows  were  assumed  voluntarily,  but  once 
made  were  regarded  as  compulsory  (Num. 
XXX.  2 ;  Deut.  xxiii.  21-23) ;  only  in  excep- 
tional cases  as  in  those  of  Samson,  Samuel, 
and  John  the  Baptist,  who  had  a  special 
mission  to  fulfill,  was  the  Nazirite  vow  pre- 
.scribed.  2.  A  vow,  especially  a  vow  of  ab- 
stinence, made  by  an  unmarried  daughter  or 
a  wife,  was  void  if  disallowed  by  the  father 
or  husband  (Num.  xxx.  3-16).  3.  The 
produce  of  sinful  traffic  could  not  be  devoted 
(Deut.  xxiii.  18);  see  Dori.  4.  Vows  must 
not  be  taken  rashly.  This  principle  was  en- 
forced by  the  example  of  Je]ihthah,  and 
inculcated  by  proverb  (Prov.  xx.  25). 

Vul'gate.     See  Versions. 

Vul'ture. 

A  bird  of  prey,  which  has  the  head  naked 


or  but  thinly  covered  with  feathers,  and 
feeds  largely  or  wholly  on  carrion.  It  is 
enii)loyed  in  the  A.  V.  to  render  the  Hebrew 
words  \l!/!/iih  (Job  xxviii.  7,  elsewhere  kite; 
in  K.  V.  always  falcon),  La  ah  (Lev.  xi.  14; 
in  E.  V.  kite),  and  Dai/yah  (Deut.  xiv.  13; 
Is.  xxxiv.  17  ;  in  R.  V.  kite).  In  the  R.  V.  it  is 
used  to  translate  Rahnm  (Lev.  xi.  18;  in  A.  V. 
gier  eagle)  ;  and  frequently  on  the  margin, 
where  the  text  has  eagle,  to  render  the  He- 
brew Nesher,  Greek  Aeios. 

The  great  vulture  (Lev.  xi.  13,  R.  V. 
margin)  is  the  fulvous  or  tawny  vulture, 
generally  called  the  grillin  {(iyps  fulvus). 
The  neck  and  head  are  bald,  covered  with 
down.  The  whole  of  the  body,  the  wings, 
and  the  back  on  to  the  tail  are  yellowish- 
brown.  It  is  about  4  feet  high.  Its  talons 
are  not  formidable,  but  its  bill  is.  "The 
griffon,"  says  Tristram,  "is  the  most  strik- 
ing ornithological  feature  of  Palestine.  It 
is  impossible  in  any  part  of  the  country 
to  look  up  without  seeing  some  of  them 
majestically  soaring  at  an  immense  height, 
and  their  eyries  abound  in  great  colonies  in 
all  the  ravinec  of  the  country." 


W. 


Wa'ges. 

In  early  times  and  not  infrequently  at  a  com- 
paratively late  date  wages  were  paid  in  kind 
(Gen.  xxix.  1.5,  20  ;  xxx.  28-34).  In  Egypt 
money  or  goods  were  given  as  hire  at  the  time 
of  the  sojourn  of  the  Lsraelites  there  (Ex.  ii.  9). 
By  the  law  of  Moses,  wages  were  to  be  paid 
each  evening  (Lev.  xix.  13;  Deut.  xxiv.  14, 
15),  and  the  withholding  of  wages  due  was 
severely  denounced  bv  religious  teachers 
(Jer.  xxii.  13;  Mai.  iii."5;  Ja.s.  v.  4).  Tobit 
offered  a  drachma,  or  16  cents,  a  day  and  food 
as  wages  (Tob.  v.  14).  When  our  Lord  was 
on  earth  the  rate  for  a  day's  labor  was  a 
denarius,  worth  about  17  cents  (Mat.  xx.  2, 
in  E.  V.  penny).  What  the  purchasing 
power  of  that  amount  was  is,  however,  un- 
known ;  it  was  evidently  great  (cp.  Luke  x. 
35).  In  the  later  days  of  the  Roman  re- 
public, the  usual  pay  of  a  Roman  .soldier  was 
10  asses,  or  about  a  dime,  a  day  (Tacitus, 
Annal.  i.  17). 

Wag'on.    See  Cart. 

Wal'let.    See  Scrip. 

War. 

Before  engaging  in  aggressive  war,  the 
Israelites  consulted  God's  will  in  the  matter 
(Judg.  XX.  23,  27, 28  ;  1  Sam.  xiv.  37  ;  xxiii.  2 ; 
1  Kin.  xxii.  6)  or,  when  conflict  was  unavoid- 
able, invoked  God's  help  by  prayer  and 
sometimes  bv  sacrifice  (1  Sam.  vii.  8,  9  ;  xiii. 
12;  2  Chroii.  xx.  6-12;  1  Mac.  iii.  47-54). 
The  heathen  had  recourse  to  divination  for 
the  same  purpose  (Ezek.  xxi.  21),  and  were 
careful  to  set  forth  on  a  day  jironounced  to 
be  propitious.     Frequently  before  entering  a 


War 


768 


Wave  Offering 


hostile  country  or  engaging  in  battle  spies 
were  sent  forward  to  obtain  information  re- 
garding the  country,  and  the  preparation  for 
resistance  {Num.  xiii.  17 ;  Josh.  ii.  1 ;  Judg.  vii. 
10;  1  Sam.  xxvi.  4) ;  and,  when  captives  were 
taken,  they  were  questioned  with  the  same 
intention  (Judg.  viii.  14;  1  Sam.  xxx.  11). 
When  the  host  drew  nigh  unto  battle,  a 
priest  or  the  commander  encouraged  the 
people  by  reminding  them  of  God's  presence 
and  help ;  and  the  officers  exempted  from 
service  those  who  were  faint-hearted  and 
those  who  had  ))uilt  a  new  house  but  not 
inhabited  it,  planted  a  vinej^ard  but  not 
enjoyed  the  fruit  of  it,  betrothed  a  wife  but 
not  married  her  (Deut.  xx.  2-9;  2  Chron.  xx. 
14-20;  1  Mac.  iii.  5<3 ;  iv.  8-11).  Various 
stratagems  were  practiced,  such  as  surprise, 
ambush,  pretended  flight,  circumvention 
(Gen.  xiv.  15  ;  Josh.  viii.  2,  5 ;  Judg.  vii.  16; 
2  Sam.  V.  23).  Occasionally  when  the  op- 
posing armies  were  di-awn  up  in  battle  array, 
a  champion  was  chosen  by  each  party  (1 
Sam.  xvii.).  Otherwise  the  battle  was  joined. 
A  trumpet  sounded  the  attack,  the  blast 
being  both  a  signal  to  advance  and  an  appeal 
to  God  (Num.  x.  9;  Josh.  vi.  5;  Judg.  vii. 
20;  2  Chron.  xiii.  12;  1  Mac.  iv.  13;  v.  33). 
The  host  pressed  forward  with  shouting 
(Josh.  vi.  5 ;  1  Sam.  xvii.  52 ;  Jer.  1.  42 ; 
Ezek.  xxi.  22;  Amos  i.  14),  and  engaged  in 
hand  to  hand  conflict.  The  pursuit  was 
bloody.  Like  other  nations  of  their  time, 
the  Israelites  when  victorious  pillaged  the 
camp  of  the  enemy,  robbed  the  dead  (Judg. 
viii.  24-26;  1  Sam.'xxxi.  9;  2  Chron.  xx.25; 
1  Mac.  iv.  17-23),  and  sometimes  killed  or 
mutilated  the  prisoners  (Josh.  viii.  23,  29  ;  x. 
22-27 ;  Judg.  i.  6  ;  viii.  21  ;  2  Sam.  viii.  2), 
but  more  frequently  reduced  them  to  slavery. 
When  a  city  was  besieged,  the  besiegers 
fortified  their  own  camp  against  attack  (War 
V.  2,  3) ;  if  possible,  they  cut  oflf  the  water 
supply  from  the  city  (Judith  vii.  7).  In 
order  to  bring  their  engines  into  play  they 
cast  up  mounds  in  the  direction  of  the  city 
(2  Sam.  XX.  15 ;  Ezek.  iv.  2).  The  mound  grad- 
ually increased  in  height  until  it  was  some- 
times half  as  high  as  the  city  wall.  Upon 
this  inclined  plane  the  battering-ram  was 
rolled  into  position  ;  from  its  roof  and  from 
the  mound,  archers  and  slingers  discharged 
their  missiles,  and  from  the  summit  of  the 
mound  scaling-ladders  were  leaned  against 
the  wall ;  see  illustrations  Lachish,  Ram. 
Sometimes  fuel  was  laid  against  the  gates 
and  fired  in  order  to  burn  them  and  afford 
ingress  (Judg.  ix.  52) ;  and  often  the  de- 
fenders of  the  wall  were  attacked  by  archers 
posted,  not  on  the  mound,  but  at  the  base  of 
the  wall.  The  besieged  were  not  idle :  they 
prepared  for  the  investment  by  protecting 
their  water  su])i)ly,  and  repairing  and 
strengthening  the  fortifications  (2  Chron. 
xxxii.  3-5) ;  they  harassed  the  enemy  and 
attempted  to  drive  them  off  by  sallies  ;  they 
repelled  attack  and  hindered   the  besiegers 


in  their  aggressive  operations  by  casting 
darts  and  stones  and  shooting  arrows  at 
them  from  the  walls ;  and  they  destroyed, 
or  attempted  to  destroy,  the  militarj' engines 
by  hurling  burning  torches  at  them  and  by 
undermining  the  banks  on  which  the  batter- 
ing-rams stood  (2  Sam.  xi.  21,  24  ;  2  Chron. 
xxvi.  15;  1  Mac.  vi.  31 ;  War  v.  2,  2  and  4  ; 
6,  4;  11,  4).  Captured  cities  were  often  de- 
stroyed and  their  inhabitants  slaughtered, 
neither  age  nor  sex  being  s])ai'ed  (.Josh.  vi. 
21,  24;  viii.  24-29;  x.  22-27;  2  Kin.  xv.  16). 
Victory  was  celebrated  with  song  and  dance 
(Ex.  XV.  1-18;  Judg.  v.  ;  1  Sam.  xviii.  6  ;  2 
Chron.  xx.  26-28 ;  1  Mac.  iv.  24).   See  Akmy. 

Wash'ing.     See  Bathing. 

Watch.     Sec  NifiHT. 

Wa'ter  of  Bit'ter-ness. 

Holy  water  in  an  earthen  vessel,  mingled 
with  dust  from  tiie  floor  of  the  sanctuary 
(Num.  V.  17),  intended  to  reveal  the  inno- 
cence or  guilt  of  a  woman  accused  of  adultery 
by  her  husband,  when  there  were  no  wit- 
nesses. The  charge  was  perhaps  only  brought 
when  suspicion  was  aroused  by  the  woman's 
being  found  with  child.  The  accu.sed  woman, 
with  loosened  hair,  sat  before  the  Lord  in 
the  sanctuary,  and  held  an  offering  of  dry, 
unscented,  barley  meal  in  her  hand  (18, 
E.  v.).  The  priest,  taking  the  water  of  bit- 
terness, asked  that  it  have  no  efl'ect  upon 
the  woman,  if  she  were  innocent,  but  that 
God  would  cause  her  body  to  swell  and  her 
thigh  to  fall  away,  if  she  were  guilty.  The 
woman  responded.  Amen.  The  jiriest  wrote 
the  imprecation  in  a  book,  and  washed  it  out 
into  the  water  ;  and  having  waved  the  meal 
oflering  before  the  Lord  and  thrown  a  hand- 
ful of  it  on  the  altar,  he  gave  the  water  of 
bitterness  to  the  woman  to  drink.  If  guilty, 
it  became  bitter  within  lier  and  the  cur.se 
went  into  effect;  if  innocent,  the  potion  re- 
mained inoperative,  and  the  woman  was 
pronounced  clean  and  received  or  retained 
ability  to  conceive.  The  essential  part  of 
this  procedure  was  the  oath,  the  ritual  was 
symbolical,  the  efiect  was  left  to  God.  It  is 
probable  that  this  ordeal  was  an  old  custom, 
which  the  Mosaic  law  took  up  in  order  to 
regulate  and  elevate  it. 

Wa'ter  of  Sep-a-ra'tion.  See  Purifica- 
tion 1. 

Wa'ter-pot.     See  Pitcher,  Pot. 
Wave  Of 'fer-ing. 

Tlie  rite  of  waving  was  regularly  per- 
formed in  connection  with — 1.  Peace  offer- 
ings :  the  right  thigh  or  shoulder  was  heaved 
and  the  breast  was  waved  before  the  Lord 
and,  having  been  thus  consecrated,  were 
eaten  by  the  priest.  2.  The  sheaf  of  first 
ripe  grain  on  the  second  day  of  the  passover, 
wiiereby  the  harvest  was  consecrated  to  the 
Lord  (Lev.  xxiii.  10,  11).  3.  The  two  loaves 
made  from  the  !iew  grain  and  the  two  lambs 
for  a  peace  oft'ering  at  Pentecost,  fifty  days 


Weasel 


J69 


Weaving 


from  the  waviug  of  the  sheaf  at  the 
pas>=over  (15,  20).  4.  The  guilt  ofler- 
itig  of  the  leper  (xiv.  r^.  21 ),  whereby 
the  oflerer  represented  by  it  was  con- 
secrated again  to  the  service  of  God. 
5.  The  meal  oflering  of  jealousy 
(Num.  V.  S.'i). 

\Vhon  the  peace  oflering  was  i)ri- 
vate.  the  wave  breast  and  the  heave 
shoulder  or  thigh  went  to  the  priest, 
and  the  rest  of  the  tlesh  was  eaten 
by  the  oflerer  and  his  friends  before 
the  Lord  at  the  .sanctuary  (Lev.  vii. 
:5n  :}4;  x.  14,  15;  Num.  xviii.  IS 
Of  the  peace  oflering  brought  by  the 
Nazirite,  the  sodden  shoulder  of  the 
ram  went  to  the  priest,  iu  addition 
to  his  regular  perquisites  (Num.  vi. 
17-20).  At  Pentecost,  the  whole  of 
the  two  lambs  of  the  peace  oflering 
and  the  loaves  went  to  the  priests 
(Lev.  xxiii.  20),  since  they  were  of- 
ered  iu  behalf  of  the  nation. 

In  performing  the  rite  the  priest 
laid  the  matter  to  be  waved  upon 
the  hands  of  the  oflerer,  ])robabIy 
placed  his  own  hands  under  the 
hands  of  the  latter,  and  moved  them 
(Ex.  xxix.  24,  25;  Num.  vi.  19,  20).  The 
motion  was  horizontal  backward  and  for- 
ward (Talmud),  and  toward  the  right  and 
left  (Rabbis),  that  is,  toward  the  four  car- 
dinal points;  but  this  fourfold  movement 
may  have  been  a  late  refinement  of  the 
original  waving. 

Wea'sel. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Holed,  glider 
or  burrower,  applied  to  an  unclean  quad- 
ruped (Lev.  xi.  29).  It  is  confessedly  either 
a  weasel  or  a  mole.  The  corresponding  word 
in  Arabic  and  Syrian  signifies  a  mole:  but 
probably  the  former  meaning  is  intended  by 
the  Hebrew  word,  as  the  ancient  versions, 
followed  by  the  A.  V.  and  R.  Y.,  render 
it  by  weasel  ;  in  the  Talmud  the  hnl'dah 
is  often  mentioned  as  an  animal  that  cap- 
tures birds  and  creeping  things,  like  the 
mouse,  and  that  can  lap  water  out  of  a  dish  ; 
and,  finally,  the  typical  mole  genus  Tnlpa  is 
not  believed  tooccurin  Palestine  (see  Mole  2), 
while  the  weasel  {Putorius  vnlqaris)  and  the 
polecat  {Putorius  fcetidus)  are  found  through- 
out the  country. 

Weaving. 

The  Egyptians  ]iracticed  the  art  of  weav- 
ing before  the  arrival  of  the  Israelites  in 
their  midst,  producing  woven  goods,  such  as 
linen  (Gen.  xli.  42).  The  work  was  usually 
done  by  men  (Herod,  ii.  35),  but  not  ex- 
<lusively,  for  women  appear  at  the  loom  in 
ancient  Egyptian  delineations.  At  the  time 
of  the  exodus  the  Hebrews  understood  both 
simple  and  elaborate  weaving  (Ex.  xxxv.  35). 
They  produced  various  textures  on  the 
looms.  Coarse  kinds,  such  as  tent  cloth  and 
rough  garments  for  the  poor,  were  made  of 
49 


Eastern  'Waterpots. 

goats'  and  camels'  hair  (xxvi.  7:  Mat.  iii.  4) ; 
finer  goods  were  woven  of  tlax  and  wool 
(Lev.  xiii.  47)  ;  chequered  and  figured  pat- 
terns, as  well  as  variegated  stuff's,  were  made 
by  the  use  of  diflerentlj^  colored  threads 
(Ex.  xxvi.  1  ;  cp.  xxviii.  39,  E.  \.  ;  c\k 
Herod,  iii.  47;,  and  gold  threads  were  even 
woven  in  (Ex.  xxxix.  3)  ;  cloth  was  also  em- 
broidered with  figures  or  patterns  (xxvii.  Ifi  ; 
xxxviii.  23)  with  the  needle  (ibid.,  Septua- 
gint) ;  see  Embroidkry.  Many  interpre- 
ters, however,  believe  that  the  Hebrew  word 
rendered  embroiderer  denotes  one  who  in- 
weaves designs,  as  the  modern  Arabic  nmrktim, 
from  the  same  root,  .signifies  the  curtain  with 
inwoven  flowers  or  other  patterns  which  is 
used  to  partition  off  ajtartments  in  a  tent. 
Among  the  Hebrews,  the  weaving  as  well  as 
the  spinning  was  usually  done  by  the  women 
(2  Kin.  xxiii,  7  ;  cp.  1  Sam.  ii.  19;  Prov.  xxxi. 
22,  24;  Acts  ix.  39).  Mantles  and  even 
tunics  came  from  the  loom  ready  for  use  ;  the 
latter,  when  thus  woven  complete,  required  no 
seam.  Such  tunics  were  prescribed  for  the 
priests  (Ex.  xxviii.  (5,  8 ;  Antiq.  iii.  7,  4) :  and 
one  was  worn  by  Jesus  previous  to  his  cruci- 
fixion (.John  xix.  23),  perhaps  not  without 
symbolical  ])urpose. 

The  loom  in  Egypt  was  placed  either  ver- 
tically or  horizontally.  The  accompanying 
illustration  is  intended  to  rei)resent  a  loom 
in  the  latter  position.  The  frame  is  but 
slightly  raised  above  the  ground,  the  weaver 
squats  at  his  work  and  apparently  treads  on 
the  threads.  The  warp  threads  run  in  paral- 
lel relation  and  extend  between  the  two 
beams  to  which  they  are  attached  ;  heddles 
of  primitive  sort,  which  separate  the  warp 
threads  into  two  series  and  form  a  shed  for 


Wedding 


70 


Week 


the  passage  of  the  shuttle  or  other  bearer  of 
the  woof  threads,  are  uext  to  him,  between 
him  and  the  woven  cloth.  With  a  reed  he 
strikes  the  last  thread  which  he  shot  through 
against  the  woof,  pressing  it  close. 


Weaving  and  Spinning  in  Ancient  Egypt. 


The  Hebrew  loom  likewise  had  its  beam 
and  shuttle  (1  Sam.  xvii.  7;  2  Sam.  xxi.  19  ; 
Job  vii.  6).  The  pin  of  the  beam,  or  rather 
weaving  pin,  for  a  ditferent  Hebrew  word  is 
used  from  that  elsewhere  rendered  beam, 
may  have  been  the  slay  or  reed  by  which 
the  thread  of  the  woof  was  struck  home 
(Judg.  xvi.  1.3,  14).  The  web  was  cut  off 
from  the  thrum  (Is.  xxxviii.  12,  R.  V.  mar- 
gin), or  to  speak  more  generally  from  the 
loom  (R.  V.  text). 

Wed'ding.     See  Marriage. 

Week. 

The  division  of  time  into  periods  of  seven 
days  appears  in  Scripture  in  connection  with 
the  institution  of  the  Sabbath  (Gen.  ii.  1-3), 
and  according  to  both  the  Hebrew  and 
Babylonian  account  was  in  vogue  at  the  time 
of  the  tlood  (vii.  4, 10 ;  viii.  10, 12) ;  .see  Flood. 
In  the  Babylonian  legend  of  Adapa,  which 
was  current  fifteen  centuries  and  more  be- 
fore Christ,  it  is  mentioned  that  the  wind 
ceased  to  blow  for  seven  days.  There  is 
reason  to  believe  that  the  reference  to  its 
cessation  for  seven  days  is  more  than  the 
mere  note  of  a  chance  fact.  Izdubar's  sleep 
lasted  six  days  and  seven  nights;  and  this 
peculiar  phrase  was  the  familiar  designation 
for  a  week.  Gudea,  prince  of  Lagash,  cele- 
brated the  completion  of  a  temple  by  a  fes- 
tival of  .seven  days'  duration.  Seven  days 
was  the  conventional  period  for  marriage 
festivities  in  Syria  at  the  time  of  Laban  and 
Jacob  (Gen.  xxix.  27,  28)  ;  and  the  same 
custom  prevailed  among  the  Philistines  in 
the  days  of  Sam.son  (Judg.  xiv.  12,  17). 
Funeral  obsequies  also,  like  those  of  Jacob 
and  others,  were  conducted  for  seven  days 
(Gen.  1.  10;  1  Sara.  xxxi.  1.3).  Weeks  con- 
stantly entered  into  all  the  arrangements  of 
the  ceremonial  law^  (Ex.  xii.  1.5;  xiii.  6,7; 
xxii.  30  ;  xxix.  30,  So,  37 ;  Lev.  xii.  2 ;  xiii.  5  ; 
xiv.  8,  etc.).  A  week  with  a  fixed  beginning, 
which  everybody  reckoned  as  the  first  day, 
is,  of  course,  not  intended  in  all  or  even  in  the 


majority  of  these  eases.  The  week  of  nup- 
tial festivities,  for  example,  began  on  the  day 
of  the  wedding  on  whatever  date  it  occurred. 
Nevertheless  these  numerous  instances  show 
that  the  seven-day  period  was  a  standard  in 
common  use ;  and  it  is 
worthy  of  notice  that  the 
periods  are  consecutive 
in  the  narrative  of  the 
flood  (see  Flood),  as  well 
as  later,  in  determining 
the  date  of  Pentecost. 
For  the  origin  of  the 
week,  see  Sabbath. 

The  ancient  Hebrews 
named  none  of  the  days 
of  the  week  except  the 
seventh  day,  which  they 
called  the  Sabbath.  They 
numbered  the  days  of  the 
festivals,  and  the  Baby- 
lonian narrator  enumerates  each  of  the  seven 
days  during  which  the  ark  lay  stranded.  In 
the  N.  T.  period  the  Hebrews  numbered  the 
days  of  the  week  (Mat.  xxviii.  1 ;  Acts  xx. 
7),  and  besides  the  seventh  day  named  also 
the  preceding  day,  which  they  called  the  prep- 
aration (Mark  xv.  42). 

The  week  and  the  names  of  its  days  were 
introduced  at  a  comparatively  late  period 
into  the  Roman  empire.  The  ancient  Romans 
had  a  week  of  eight  days.  The  Greeks  di- 
vided the  month  into  three  periods.  The 
Egyptians,  as  early  as  the  time  wiien  the 
pyramids  were  built,  had  a  ten-day  period, 
each  one  of  which  began  with  the  rising  of 
one  of  thirty-six  constellations  in  succession. 
Dio  Cassius,  who  wrote  in  the  second  cen- 
tury A.  D.,  speaks  of  the  hebdomadal  division 
of  time  being  universal  in  his  day  in  the 
Roman  empire  and  a  recent  introduction. 
He  represents  it  as  borrowed  from  the  Egyp- 
tians, and  as  based  upon  astrology.  Of  the 
two  schemes,  by  one  or  the  other  of  which 
he  con.siders  that  the  planetary  names  of  the 
different  days  were  fixed,  only  one  has 
plausibility  :  each  day  in  succession  was  as- 
signed to  one  of  the  planets  as  regent,  and 
the  hours  were  also  allotted  to  the  planets. 
If  the  planets  are  arranged  in  the  order  of 
their  distance  from  the  earth,  as  believed  at 
the  time  of  Dio  Cassius,  Saturn,  Jupiter, 
Mars,  Sun.  Venus,  Mercury,  Moon,  and  if, 
further,  the  fir.st  hour  is  allotted  to  Saturn, 
the  second  to  Jupiter,  and  so  on,  the  twenty- 
fifth  hour,  or  the  first  hour  of  the  morrow, 
will  fall  to  the  sun  and  on  the  following 
morning  to  the  moon,  and  so  on  to  Mars, 
Mercury,  Jui)iter,  and  Venus.  If  the  planet 
to  which  the  first  hour  of  the  day  belongs 
be  r-eckoned  as  the  regent  of  the  day,  the 
days  of  the  week  will  be,  Saturn's  day.  Sun's 
day.  Moon's  day,  and  so  on.  This  theory  must 
be  held  with  cautious  reserve.  There  may  be 
an  entirely  different  reason  from  that  given 
for  the  order  of  the  planets,  although  the 
effort  to  explain  satisfactorily  the  names  from 


Weeks,  Feast  of 


771 


Weights 


Babylonian  astronomy  lias  not  boon  suocoss- 
ful  as  yot.  Tlio  nanios  passod  froiii  Kotnan 
to  Europoan  use,  both  in  tlioir  Latin  form, 
and  also,  wlion  translated  into  the  Germanic 
languages,  \\nth  the  names  of  Germanic 
deities  substituted  for  the  corresponding 
Roman  ones.  Tliey  are  found  also  in  India, 
which  is  believed  to  have  received  them  with 
astronomy  and  astrology  from  Greece  and 
Eome.  The  names  are  of  heathen  origin, 
and  originated  in  superstition,  but  no  asso- 
ciations of  any  kind  are  now  connected  with 
them  any  more  than  with  January,  the 
month  of  Janus,  god  of  the  sun  and  the 
year,  or  with  March,  month  of  Mars,  god 
of  war,  or  with  June,  which  was  sacred  to 
the  goddess  Juno. 

The  Hebrew  word  for  week,  shabua',  heb- 
domad, might  of  itself  refer  to  a  period  of 
seven  years  as  well  as  to  one  of  seven  days. 
The  existence  of  the  Sabbatic  year  would 
tend  to  produce  this  usage.  It  is  therefore 
not  surprising  to  find  the  Hebrew  word  for 
week  used  by  Daniel  for  a  period  of  seven 
years,  as  interpreters  commonly  understand 
(Dan.  ix.  24-27 ;  cp.  Lev.  xsv.  8). 

Weeks,  Feast  of. 

The  second  of  the  three  annual  festivals  at 
which  every  male  Israelite  was  required  to 
appear  before  the  Lord  at  the  sanctuary,  and 
the  first  of  the  two  agricultural  festivals 
(Ex.  xxxiv.  22,  23;  2  Chron.  viii.  12,  13;  cp. 
1  Kin.  ix.  25).  It  was  so  called  because  its 
date  was  set  seven  complete  weeks  after  the 
consecration  of  the  harvest  season  by  the 
offering  of  the  sheaf  of  the  first  ripe  bar- 
ley (Lev.  xxiii.  15,  16;  cp.  Deut.  xvi.  9, 
10).  This  sheaf  was  waved  on  the  morrow 
after  the  Sabbath  (Lev.  xxiii.  11).  The 
Baithoseans  (Sadducees)  interpreted  this  Sab- 
bath as  meaning  the  weekly  Sabbath  which 
occurred  during  the  festival  of  unleavened 
bread ;  and  some  modern  scholars  have 
adopted  this  view.  The  opinion  has  even 
been  held  tliat  it  denoted  merely  the  weekly 
Sabbath  which  fell  immediately  before  the 
harvest.  The  older  and  better  opinion  is 
that  it  denotes  the  first  day  of  the  festival 
of  unleavened  bread.  The  Greek  translators 
understood  it  so  (Lev.  xxiii.  7,  11,  Septua- 
gint),  as  did  also  those  who  directed  the 
services  of  the  second  temple  (Antiq.  iii.  10, 
5)  ;  this  first  day  was  kept  as  a  Sabbath,  no 
work  was  done  on  it  and  there  was  a  holy 
convocation ;  and  such  re.st  days,  not  less 
than  the  seventh  day  of  the  week,  ■were 
called  Sabbath  (Lev.  xxiii.  32 ;  xxv.  2) ;  on 
the  morrow  after  the  passover  the  now  grain 
was  used,  which  could  not  be  eaten  until  the 
sheaf  had  been  waved  before  the  Lord  (Lev. 
xxiii.  14  ;  Josh.  v.  10,  11,  R.  V.  margin).  The 
festival  fell  on  the  fiftieth  day  after  the 
waving  of  the  sheaf,  wliieh  gave  rise  to  the 
name  Pentecost  or  fiftieth  day  (Acts  ii.  1). 
It  was  also  called  the  feast  of  harvest  or  day 
of  firstfruits,  because  the  firstfruits  of  the 


wheat  harvest,  then  ended  in  mcst  districts, 
were  presented  (Ex.  xxiii.  KJ;  xxsiv.  22; 
Num.  xxviii.  26).  It  celebrated  the  close  <if 
the  grain  harvest.  It  was  bound  up  with  the 
cycle  of  religious  feasts  by  the  number  seven. 
It  was  observed  as  a  Sabbath,  ordinary  labors 
were  suspended  and  there  was  a  holy  convo- 
cation (Lev.  xxiii.  21  ;  Num.  xxviii.  26);  two 
loaves  of  leavened  bread,  such  as  was  used  in 
the  household,  representing  the  firstfruits  of 
the  grain  harvest,  were  ofl'ored  to  the  Lord 
(Lev.  xxiii.  17,  20;  cp.  Ex.  xxxiv.  22  ;  Num. 
xxviii.  26;  Deut.  xvi.  10);  and  with  them 
ten  proper  animals  were  sacrificed  for  a 
burnt  offering,  a  kid  for  a  sin  ofl'oring,  and 
two  lambs  for  a  peace  offering  (Lev.  xxiii.  Ih, 
19).  The  sacrifices  for  the  entire  day  were 
distributed  into — 1.  The  regular  daily  burnt 
ofi'ering  of  two  lambs  (Num.  xxviii.  3,  31 ':. 
2.  The  special  sacrifices  for  the  feast  day 
(27-30),  which  were  the  same  as  on  the  day 
of  the  now  moon  and  each  day  of  unleav- 
ened bread  (ver.  11,  19).  3.  The  sacrifices 
connected  with  the  offering  of  the  loaves 
and  the  two  lambs  (Lev.  xxiii.  17-19).  Jo- 
sephus  correctly  sums  up  the  oflerings 
additional  to  the  daily  burnt  offering,  ex- 
cept that  he  or  his  text  as  transmitted  men- 
tions two  instead  of  three  rams  (Anti(|.  iii. 
10,  6).  As  at  the  culminating  agricultural 
festival,  so  at  this  the  people  were  urged  to 
remember  the  needy  (Deut.  xvi.  11,  12). 
Pentecost  came  to  be  regarded  in  later  times, 
especially  in  the  early  Christian  centuries,  as 
the  commemoration  of  the  giving  of  the  law 
on  mount  Sinai ;  but  there  is  no  authority 
for  this  belief  in  the  O.  T.,  and  it  cannot  be 
shown  that  the  law  was  given  exactly  fifty 
days  after  the  passover. 

The  mo.st  notable  Pentecost  was  the  fir.st 
which  occurred  after  the  resuri-ection  and 
ascension  of  Christ  (Acts  ii.).  From  it  dates 
the  founding  of  the  Christian  church.  The 
essential  traits  of  an  institution  are  seen  in 
the  history  of  its  establishment.  At  the  in- 
stitution of  the  church,  the  Holy  Sjiirit  de- 
scended into  all  believers,  without  distinc- 
tion of  age,  sex,  or  class  (1-4,  14-21)  ;  see 
Tongue.  Life  had  been  imparted.  The 
Spirit  had  been  given  to  men  before,  but  now 
the  church  entered  upon  what  is  character- 
istically the  dispensation  of  the  Spirit.  The 
Spirit  is  now  given  in  full  measure  to  all 
believers  without  the  intervention  of  pre- 
scribed rites.  He  had  preserved  a  peo- 
ple of  God  on  earth  ;  in  this  new  era  of 
his  power  he  devotes  his  divine  energy 
to  enlarging,  perfecting,  and  edifying  the 
church. 

Weights. 

The  Hebrews  used  scales  and  weights  (Lev. 
xix.  36).  and  they  weighed  numey  as  well  as 
other  commodities  (Jer.  xxxii.  10).  The  de- 
nominations were  talent  (circle),  maneh 
(part),  shekel  (weight),  gerah  (grain),  and 
beka  (half  [shekel]). 


Weights 


772 


Weights 


20  gerahs  =  1  shekel 
60  shekels  =  1  maneh 
tiO  manehs  =  1  talent. 

It  is  important  to  ohserve  that  the  table  for 
gold  and  silver  is  diti'erent  from  the  table  for 
commodities,  and  is— 

20  gerahs  =  1  shekel 
50  shekels  =  1  maneh 
60  manehs  =  1  talent. 

Pound  is  the  rendering  of  1.  Hebrew  Maneh 
(1  Kin.  X.  17) ;  2.  Greek  Mna  (1  Mac.  xiv. 


Bronze  and  Stone  Weights  in  the  form  of  Lions 
and  Ducks.    They  were  used  by  Trades- 
people in  Nineveh. 

24;  XV.  18),  vphich  is  generally  believed   to 
be  reckoned  on  the  basis  of  the  Attic  talent, 


Hebrew  maneh  of  gold.  Pound  as  a  sum  of 
money  was  equivalent  to  100  drachmas  and 
worth  about  sixteen  dollars  (Luke  xix.  13, 
K.  V.  margin) ;  see  Money. 

In  weight  a  shekel  equaled  20  gerahs,  and  a 
maneh  was  20  +  25  +  15  ^  60  shekels  (Ezek. 
xlv.  12).  This  interpretation  is  confirmed  by 
the  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  division  of 
their  maneh  into  sixty  parts.  Weights  of 
the  denomination  of  maneh  have  been  dis- 
covered in  Nineveh  and  Babylonia,  and  show 
that  a  heavy  and  a  light  talent  were  used, 
the  former  weighing  60.6  kilogrammes  and 
the  latter  exactly  one-half  or  30.3  kilo- 
grammes. The  heavy  and  light  manehs 
weighed  1010  and  505  grammes  respectively, 
and  the  shekels  16.83  and  8.41  grammes. 
According  to  Josephus,  the  Hebrew  maneh 
of  gold  equaled  two  and  a  half  Roman 
pounds  (Antiq.  xiv.  7,  1)  or  818.57,  according 
to  Madden,  819.538  grammes.  It  appears 
from  this  that  the  Jewish  maneh  of  gold  was 
reckoned  at  50  siiekels,  that  the  shekel  of 
gold  was  a  trifle  lighter  than  the  Assyrian 
shekel  of  weight,  being  16.37,  according  to 
Madden  16.39,  grammes,  and  that  the  shekel 
of  gold  and  the  shekel  of  weight  were  in- 
tended to  be  identical.  The  difference  be- 
tween this  Hebrew  shekel  and  the  Assyrian 
shekel  was  about  seven  troy  grains.  A  com- 
parison of  1  Kin.  X.  17  (R.  V.  margin  maneh) 
with  2  Chron.  ix.  16,  if  the  text  is  pure, 
probably  indicates  that  a  maneh  of  gold 
was  sometimes  reckoned  at  one  hundred 
liglit  shekels,  instead  of  at  fifty  normal 
shekels. 

Three  thousand  shekels  of  silver  equaled 
one  talent.  This  appears  from  the  fact  that 
603,550  half  shekels  or  301,775  shekels  of  the 
sanctuary  equaled  100  talents  and  1775  shek- 
els (Ex.  xxxviii.  25,  26).  It  may  justly  be 
concluded  that  the  talent  of  silver  was  reck- 
oned at  sixty  manehs  of  fifty  shekels  each. 
The  shekel  equaled  twenty  gerahs  (Ex.  xxx. 
13).     The  shekel   of   silver,   however,    was 


Weighing  and  Recording  in  Ancient  Egypt. 


and  hence  a  little  more  than  half  as  heavy 
as  the  Hebrew  maneh  ;  and  3.  Lifra  (John 
xii.  3;  xix.  39),  eciuivalent  to  the  Roman 
libra,   of  which  two  and  a  half  equaled  a 


lighter  than  the  shekel  of  gold  and  weight, 
the  average  weight  of  the  extant  silver  shek- 
el coins  being  only  14.5565,  according  to 
Madden   14.5668,  grammes. 


WeU 


773 


Wheat 


Table  of  Weight. 

Avoirdupois, 
lb.         oz.        grains. 
Talent  =  909,438.48      grains  =  129        14        313.48 
Maneh  =    lo.loT.SOB         "      =      2  2        282.308 

Shekel  =         252.6218       "      =  252.621 

Table  of  Gold. 

Trov, 


lb. 
157 


Troy. 

oz.        pwt. 

10         13 

7         11 

10 


grains. 

6.48 

13.308 

12.621 


lb. 
Talent  =  757.865.4  grains  =  131 
Maneh  -    12,631.09  "       =2 

Shekel  =         252.6218      "      = 
The  dollar  containing  25.8  grains. 


pwt. 

17 

6 

10 


grains. 
17.4  =  S-29,374.50 
7.09  =    489.577 
12.62  =     9.791 


Table  of  Silver. 

Troy, 
lb.  oz.  pwt.  grains. 

Talent  --  673,907.724    grains  =  116  11  19  11.724 

Maneh  =     11,231.7954      "       =      1  11  7  23.795 

Shekel  -         •:?24.6359      "       =  9  8.6359 

The  value  of  the  silver  shekel  was  one-fifteenth  that  of  the  gold  shekel,  or 
about  65  cents. 


Well. 

A  pit  sunk  in  the  earth  to  reach  a  supply 
of  water.  It  was  called  in  Hebrew  h'ev.  a 
word  often  used  in  compound  names  like 
Beer-sheba.  The  water  reached  was  found 
collected  in  a  depression,  or  slowly  percolat- 
ing through  the  sand  on  its  way  to  a  lower 
level,  or  flowing  as  an  underground  stream 
(Gen.  xvi.  7  with  14  ;  sxiv.  11  with  13).  Wells 
were  often  scooped  in  the  sandy  soil  by  those 
who  knew  of  the  presence  of  water.  They 
were  dug  in  the  wadiesand  fed  by  an  under- 
flow, even  when  the  bed  of  the  torrent  was 
dry,  as  at  Beer-sheba  and  in  the  vallej'  of 
Gerar  (xsi.  30,  31 ;  xxiv.  19).  They  were 
sunk  far  and  wide  through  the  surface  soil 
of  the  Philistine  plain  into  the  lower  sand, 
where  an  inexhaustible  stream  makes  its 
way  to  the  sea.  In  hilly  Palestine  they  were 
dug  in  the  limestone  rock.  The  well  did  not 
es-sentially  differ  in  outward  appearance  from 
a  cistern.  The  mouth  was  protected  by  a 
stone  curb  (John  iv.  6),  and  to  prevent  acci- 
dents to  man  or  beast  was  covered  by  a  stone 
or  plank  (Ex.  xxi.  33 :  2  Sam.  xvii.  19 ;  An- 
tiq.  iv.  8,  37).  When  the  well  was  shallow, 
steps  were  cut  in  the  rock  which  led  down 
to  the  water.  Troughs  of  wood  or  stone 
were  placed  near  the  mouth  for  the  benefit 
of  the  cattle  (Gen.  xxiv.  30).  The  water 
was  dipped  with  the  pitcher  (16),  or,  when 
the  well  was  deep,  was  drawn  by  a  rope  with 
bucket,  jar,  or  waterskin  attached  (John  iv. 
11).  The  rope  was  either  dragged  over  the  curb 
by  the  person  getting  the  water,  or  perhaps 
an  ox  or  ass  was  sometimes  employed,  as  now. 
for  the  purpo.se,  and  occasionally  a  wheel 
was,  as  now,  fixed  over  the  well  to  assist  in 
the  work. 

The  shaduf  is  common  in  Egypt  for  raising 
water  from  the  Nile,  and  it  was  used  there  in 


antiquity.  It  is  not  employed  in  Palestine, 
but  its  counterpart,  the  well  swet-j)  and 
bucket,  is  used.  In  the  Philistine  plain,  the 
Persian  wheel,  called  na'ui-n,  is  emploj-ed  by 
the  hundred.  It  consists  of  a  tall  upright 
axle,  bearing  a  horizontal  cogwheel,  and 
turned  by  a  mule  attached  to  a  sweep ;  tliis 
turns  a  vertical  wheel  which  is  directly  over 
the  mouth  of  the  well.  Over  this  pass 
two  thick  ropes,  made  of  twigs  twisted  to- 
gether and  carrying  jars  or  wooden  buckets. 
The  ascending  buckets  come  up  full  of  water, 
which  they  emptj^  into  a  spout  as  they  )iass 
over  the  wheel ;  this  spout  conducts  the  water 
to  a  reservoir.    See  Cistern,  Fountain. 

Whale. 

The  word  rendered  whale  in  the  A.  Y.  of 
the  O.  T.  denotes  any  great  animal  of  the 
sea,  except  in  Ezek.  xxxii.  2,  where  the  He- 
brew text  must  be  emended  and  translated 
dragon  (E.  V.)  ;  see  Dragon. 

The  Greek  word  keios,  which  is  used  in 
Mat.  xii.40  and  rendered  whale  in  the  E.  V., 
means  any  huge  fish  or  other  larjje  animal 
of  the  sea.  such  as  the  dolphin,  sea  dog.  and 
seal,  and  later  whale,  shark,  tunny.  Tlie 
Septuagint  emploj's  ketos  mecjnlos  in  Jon.  i. 
17  (in  Septuagint  ii.  1)  to  render  the  two 
words  "great  fish  "  of  the  Hebrew  text,  and 
thus  the  word  ketos  passed  into  Mat.  xii.  40. 

Wheat. 

Wheat  was  cultivated  in  Babylonia  (Herod, 
i.  193),  in  Mesopotamia  (Gen.  xxx.  14),  in 
Egypt  (Ex.  ix.  .32),  in  Palestine  (xxxiv.  22 ; 
Deiit.  viii.  8;  Judg.  vi.  11),  and  elsewhere, 
from  a  very  early  period. 

In  Palestine  wheat  was  sown  in  November 
or  December,  after  the  rains  began.  It  was 
thought  that  the  best  manner  of  planting  it 
was  in  rows  (Is.  xxviii.  25,  E.  V.).     The  har- 


Wheat 


774       Wilderness  of  the  Wandering 


vest  was  in  April,  May,  or  June  in  Palestine, 
varying  according  to  the  locality,  the  soil  at 
the  place,  and  the  weather  at  the  time  ;  see 
Year. 

The  ordinary  bread  of  the  Hebrews  was 
made  of  the  flour  of  wheat  (Ex.  xxix.  2). 
Tiie  ears  wei-e  also  roasted  and  eaten  (Lev. 
ii.  14 ;  Kuth  ii.  14) ;  see  Parched  Corn.  The 
wheat,  bruised  and  crushed,  was  also  used  as 
food  (Lev.  ii.  14,  l(j).  New  wheat  thus  pre- 
pared, or  else  the  fresh  ear,  is  mentioned  as 
eaten  (xxiii.  14  ;  2  Kin.  iv.  42). 

P^gypt  was  the  granary  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean region,  and  vast  quantities  were  shipped 
annually  to  Rome  from  Alexandria  (Acts 
xxvii.  C,  38).  The  best  quality,  according  to 
Pliny,  was  grown  in  Upper  Egypt,  in  the 
Thebaid  (Hist.  Nat.  xviii.  47).     The  Egyptian 


Egyptian  Wheat. 


wheat  was  a  bearded  variety,  with  many  ears 
on  the  head  (Triticum.  composHum) .  It  is  men- 
tioned in  Gen.  xli.  22,  is  depicted  on  the  an- 
cient monuments,  and  is  still  grown.  The 
wheat  commonly  cultivated  in  Palestine  is 
Trificnm  vulf/are,  with  a  simple  head. 


Wheel.     See  Garden,  Well. 
Whore.     See  Harlot. 
Widow. 

A  widow  from  early  times  wore  an  appro- 
priate garb  (Gen.  xxxviii.  14,  19) ;  she  laid 
aside  her  ornaments,  clothed  her.self  in  sack- 
cloth, let  her  hair  hang  unbound,  and  did 
not  anoint  her  face  (Judith  x.  3,  4;  xvi.  8). 
God  shows  special  compassion  to  the  more 
helpless  classes,  among  whom  he  reckons 
widows  (Deut.  x.  18;  Ps.  Ixviii.  5;  cxlvi.  9; 
Prov.  XV.  25;  Jer.  xlix.  11).  Under  the  Mo- 
saic law,  and  subsequently,  the  Hebrews 
were  enjoined  to  treat  widows  with  justice 
and  consideration,  threatening  judgment  on 
those  who  did  diflerently  (Ex.  xxii.  22 ;  Deut. 
xiv.  29 ;  xvi.  11,  14  ;  xxiv.  17-21 ;  xxvi.  12, 
13;  Is.  i.  17;  Jer.  vii.  (i;  xxii.  3;  Zech.  vii. 
10;  Mai.  iii.  5),  as  our  Lord  also  did  in  his 
preaching  (Mark  xii.  40).  The  apostolic 
church  looked  after  poor  widows  (Acts  vi.  1 ; 
Jas.  i.  27).  In  the  churches  under  Timothy's 
care  certain  widows,  who  were  widows  in- 
deed, and  had  neither  children  nor  grand- 
children to  provide  for  them  (1  Tim.  v.  4), 
were  enrolled  and  cared  for  by  the  church 
(16).  To  obtain  enrollment  it  was  required 
that  they  be  at  least  sixty  years  of  age,  have 
been  married  but  once,  and  be  well  reported 
of  for  good  works  (9,  10).  Here  are  the  be- 
ginnings of  an  institution.  From  the  end  of 
the  .second  century  to  the  fourth  they  are 
mentioned  by  ecclesiastical  writers  as  elder 
widows  or  the  order  of  widows.  Their  duty 
was  to  serve  the  church,  and  they  had  over- 
sight over  the  women  of  the  congregation, 
especially  over  widows  and  orphans.  The 
office  was  abolished  by  the  synod  of  Laodicea, 
a.  d.  3G4. 

For  the  enactment  as  to  marriage  in  cer- 
tain circumstances  to  a  deceased  husband's 
brother,  see  Marriage. 

Wife.     See  Marriage. 

Wild  Ass,  Bull,  Goat,  etc.  See  Ass  and 
the  otlier  nouns;  but  for  Wild  Ox  see  both 
Ox  and  Unicorn. 

Wil'der-ness.     See  Desert. 

Wil'der-ness  of  the  Wan'der-ing. 

1.  BoniKhirief  and  Extent  of  the  Wilderness. 
Nature  has  defined  a  large  inverted  triangle, 
having  for  its  base  the  southeastern  shore  of 
the  Mediterranean  Sea  and  the  southern 
boundary  of  Palestine,  for  its  western  side 
the  depression  in  which  the  gulf  of  Suez 
and  the  Bitter  Lakes  lie,  and  for  its  eastern 
side  the  depression  occupied  by  the  gulf  of 
Akaba  and  the  gorge  of  the  Arabah.  The 
base  of  this  triangle  measures  200  miles,  and 
its  area  about  22,000  S()uare  miles.  This  dis- 
trict_  may  be  called  the  wilderness  of  the 
wandering  ;  but  this  designation  in  Arabic, 
Badiet  et-Tih,  is  restricted  to  the  table-land 
north  of  Sinai.  The  region  is  barren,  little 
desired  by  man  ;  and  the  great  nations  of 
antiquity    accordingly    left    it   virtually   to 


Wilderness  of  the  Wandering       775       Wilderness  of  the  Wandering 


itself.  The  Israelites  pushed  their  southern 
boundary  but  a  short  distance  into  its  limits, 
and  the  Egyptians  fortified  a  frontier  for 
themselves  where  its  sands  began. 

2.  J'hysica!  Features  of  the  Wilderness.  The 
eliief  features  of  the  territory  are  four:  a 
region  of  sand,  or  the  northern  and  north- 
western coast;  a  region  of  limestone,  or  the 
table-land  ;  a  region  of  sandstone,  or  the  low 
mountains ;  and  a  region  of  granite,  or  the 
high  mouutiiins.  (1)  The  region  of  sand 
extends  in  a  broad  baud  from  I'hilistia  along 
the  shore  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea  to  the 
boundary  of  Egypt  and  beyond,  bending  to 
the  south  and  continuing  in  a  strip  about  10 
miles  wide  past  Suez  to  a  point  one-third  of 
the  way  down  the  coast.  This  sandy  region 
is  more  or  less  coextensive  with  the  wilder- 
ness of  Shur  (Saadia,  quoted  by  Delitzsch, 
Gen.  xvi.  7).  (2)  The  northern  and  central 
portion  of  the  triangle  is  a  sterile  table-land 
of  limestone,  from  2000  to  2500  feet  high  ; 
slojjing  down  on  the  north  to  the  sandy 
region  on  the  Mediterranean ;  swelling  in 
the  northeast  into  a  mountainous  coun- 
try; and  confined  on  the  other  sides  by  an 
encircling  chain  of  mountains,  4000  and 
more  feet  high,  now  called  Jebel  ct-Tih. 
The  middle  of  this  desert  is  occupied  by  a 
long  central  basin,  which  is  drained  into  the 
Mediterranean  by  the  wady  el-'Arish  and  its 
tributaries.  These  water  courses  are  dry 
most  of  the  year,  but  filled  by  the  rains  with 
raging  torrents.  West  of  this  basin,  other 
wadies  run  by  themselves  down  to  the  sea. 
On  the  east  of  the  same  central  basin,  be- 
tween it  and  the  Arabah,  is  another  similar 
and  parallel  one,  extending  from  Jebel  et- 
Tih  nearly  to  Jebel  'Araif  and  the  moun- 
tainous country  of  the  northeast,  and  drained 
throughout  by  the  wady  el-Jerafeh.  The 
table-land  proper,  with  its  continuation  in 
the  adjacent  clusters  of  mountains  in  the 
northeast  as  far  as  the  cleft  of  the  wady  el- 
Fikreh,  was  the  wilderness  of  Paran  (Num. 
X.  11,  12;  xiii.  26;  1  Sam.  xxv.  1,  2),  in 
which  the  Israelites  wandered  for  38  years, 
and  of  which  the  portion  lying  between 
Horeb  and  Kadesh  was  remembered  by  them 
as  "  the  great  and  terrible  wilderness  "  (Dent, 
i.  19).  This  plateau  is  mostly  naked  of  vege- 
tation, and  has  a  gravelly  surface.  The 
wadies,  however,  seldom  fail  to  show  vegeta- 
tion of  some  sort,  and  after  the  rainy  season 
are  covered  with  a  thin  herbage.  The  si)rings 
are  few,  and  generally  send  forth  impure 
water;  but  in  the  region  about  Kadesh  and 
along  the  border  of  the  Arabah  there  is  a 
considerable  number  of  living  fountains,  and 
near  Kadesh  and  even  at  other  places  in  the 
very  heart  of  the  desert  water  is  obtainable 
by  digging.  (3)  The  Sivndstone  formation 
crosses  the  peninsula  in  a  broad  belt  imme- 
diately south  of  Jebel  et-Tih  and  extends 
nearly  from  shore  to  shore,  separating  the 
limestone  table-land  from  the  granite  moun- 
tains.    It  is  rich  in  mineral  wealth.     It  may 


be  compared  to  a  dumb-bell  in  shape  ;  for  it 
consists  of  two  gnxujts  of  mountains  con- 
nected by  a  central  i)lateau.  This  sandy 
table-land  has  an  altitude  of  about  1500  feet. 
(4)  The  region  of  granite  consists  of  tiie 
groups  of  mountain  ranges  about  mount 
Sinai.  The  watershed  runs  north  and  south, 
and  lies  just  east  of  wady  esh-Sheikh. 

3.  Possibility  of  a  Kojonrn  of  Forty  Years  in 
the  Wilderness.  The  Israelites  numbered 
()00,0i)0  men  from  20  years  old  and  ujjward, 
according  to  the  repeated  lestinu)ny  of  the 
Hebrew  records.  According  to  statistics  of 
jjopulation,  whidi  yield  the  i)rop()rtion  of 
four  to  five  between  those  under  and  those 
above  20  years  of  age  in  a  given  community, 
the  whole  body  of  fugitives  from  Egypt 
numbered  2,100,000.  The  Bible,  as  well"  as 
exploration,  teaches  that  this  great  host  could 
not  have  survived  for  any  great  length  of 
time  in  the  wilderness  save  by  the  ])rovi- 
dence  and  miracles  of  God.  Moses  reminded 
the  people  that  in  the  wilderness  they  had 
seen  how  that  the  Lord  their  God  did  bear 
them,  as  a  man  doth  bear  his  son,  in  all  the 
way  that  they  went  (Deut.  i.  31).  The  re- 
corded miracles  of  sustenance  are  few.  In 
the  wilderness  of  Sin,  at  the  beginning  of 
their  journey,  to  the  children  of  Israel 
manna  was  given,  of  which  they  continued 
to  eat  for  forty  years,  until  they  came  into  the 
borders  of  Canaan  (Ex.  xvi.  1,  4,  14,  15,  35). 
This  was  the  permanent  provision  for  their 
needs.  The  occasional  supplies  were  the 
quails,  given  at  the  same  time  as  the  manna, 
but  apparently  only  as  a  sign  and  tempo- 
rarily, for  tliey  are  not  again  mentioned 
(xvi.  12,  13) ;  the  water  provided  shortlj' 
afterwards  from  the  rock  near  Rephidim 
(xvii.  3-7)  ;  the  quails  given  in  the  second 
year  for  a  month  (Num.  x.  11 ;  xi.  4-6,  31)  ; 
and  the  water  caused  to  gush  from  the  rock 
at  Kadesh  toward  the  end  of  the  forty  years' 
sojourn  (xx.  2-11).  The  Bible  teaches  further 
that,  notwithstanding  these  miracles,  certain 
periods  of  the  sojotirn  remainetl  a  horrible 
memory  (Deut.  i.  19;  viii.  15):  that  though 
it  could  be  said  "Thou  hast  lacked  nothing" 
(ii.  7),  yet  the  life  in  the  wilderness  was  one 
of  repeated  privation  and  hardship.  The 
water  was  insufficient  at  Ee])hidim  and 
Kadesh  (Ex.  xvii.  1 :  Num.  xx.  2) ;  the  pcojile 
were  murmuring  thi-ee  days  after  leaving 
Sinai  before  reaching  Hazeroth  (x.  33;  xi.  1, 
35)  and  as  they  journeyed  from  mount  Hor 
toward  the  Red  Sea  (xxi.  4,  5)  :  and  the 
wilderness  was  found  to  be  terrible  (Deut. 
viii.  15). 

It  appears  from  the  biblical  narrative 
that  the  manna  sufficed  as  staple  fare,  though 
the  people  grew  weary  of  it  ;  and  that  the 
water  supply,  though  scanty  often  to  distress, 
was  ordinarily  sufficient.  Food  was  fur- 
nished continuou.sly.  In  regard  to  the  supply 
of  water  in  this  region  of  desolation,  there 
are  two  considerations  of  importance:  (1) 
The  ability  of  the   people   to   alleviate    the 


Wilderness  of  the  Wandering       776       Wilderness  of  the  Wandering 


distress  of  the  desert  journey  arising  from 
the  scarcity  of  water.  The  power  of  man 
and  beast  to  endure  thirst  is  great  in  these 
dry  countries.  The  camel  drivers  of  Egypt, 
both  men  and  boys,  escort  travelers  across 
scorching  sands  and  under  a  burning  sun 
without  tasting  a  drop  of  water  from  early 
morning  until  after  nightfall,  because  unable 
to  obtain  it.  Dr.  Eobinson  relates  'that  his 
Arab  guide  spent  a  fortnight  on  the  Siuaitic 
peninsula  near  mount  Serbal  pasturing  his 
camels,  without  a  drop  of  water  for  himself 
or  them.  He  drank  the  milk  of  the  camels; 
and  they,  as  well  as  sheep  and  goats,  when 
they  have  fresh  pasture,  need  no  water,  some- 
times going  three  or  four  months  without 
it  {Researches  i.  150).  Again,  like  other 
travelers  in  the  desert,  the  Israelites  un- 
doubtedly carried  a  supply  of  water  with 
them,  which  tliey  replenished  at  every  oppor- 
tunity. It  is  evident  from  the  narrative  that 
at  the  beginning  of  their  journey  they  pro- 
vided water  sufficient  for  a  march  of  at  least 
three  days  into  the  wilderness  (Ex.  xv.  22). 
Again,  the  Israelites  discovered  hidden  natu- 
ral supplies.  Frequently  when  the  bed  of 
the  wady  or  the  surface  of  the  plain  is  dry, 
a  stream  flows  or  water  lies  in  a  basin  under- 
ground. According  to  the  geologist  Fraas, 
the  so-called  wells  of  Moses,  which  bubble 
up  in  the  desert  a  short  distance  from  Suez, 
are  fed  by  a  subterranean  stream  which 
flows  from  the  mountains  of  er-Rahah,  10  or 
14  miles  away  (Baedeker,  Lower  Eiiypt,  421). 
In  the  wady  Ghurundel,  which  is  commonly 
identified  with  Elim,  there  is  a  subterranean 
stream  which  the  Arabs  open  when  the 
upper  water  course  is  dry.  Though  the  rains 
fail  for  two  or  three  years,  water  is  always  to 
be  found  by  digging  a  little  below  the  sur- 
face (Robinson,  Researches  i.  69).  Back  of 
Tur,  at  Mabuk,  at  Kubab,  and  elsewhere, 
water  collects  beneath  the  surface  and  may 
be  reached  with  slight  effort  (Ritter,  Ercl- 
kunde  xiv.  161,  IS.!;  Robinson,  Researches  i. 
167).  The  Hebrews  understood  this  fact  and 
took  advantage  of  it  during  their  sojourn  in 
the  wilderness,  as  the  song  of  the  well  testi- 
fies (Num.  xxi.  17,  18).  Again,  if  the  man- 
ner of  travel  was  like  the  migrations  of 
other  large  bodies  of  people,  the  Israelites 
scattered  in  order  to  utilize  for  man  and 
beast  all  the  soil  and  herbage  and  water. 
Again,  the  Israelites  husbanded  the  resources 
of  water.  The  rainfall  is  considerable ;  the 
wadies  bear  evidence  of  the  torrents  which 
at  times  sweep  down  their  courses.  The 
early  Chri.stian  monks  who  dwelt  in  the 
mountains  of  Sinai  and  the  former  inhab- 
itants and  cultivators  of  the  district  about 
Kadesh  built  dams  across  the  ravines  and 
dug  cisterns,  and  thus  secured  water  for 
themselves,  their  cattle,  and  their  gardens. 
Abraham,  I.saac.  and  Jacob,  the  forefathers 
of  these  Isi-aclites  of  the  exodus,  had  like- 
wise liusbanded  the  rainfall,  and  the  de- 
scendants of  these  Israelites  dug  trenches  in 


the  valleys  and  built  reservoirs  for  a  like 
purpose ;  and  doubtless  so  did  the  Israelites 
during  their  sojourn  of  30  and  8  years  in  the 
wilderness.  (2)  A  second  important  con- 
sideration is  the  evidence  that  the  country 
was  better  wooded  in  former  times.  Char- 
coal has  been  made  in  the  peninsula  from 
the  acacia  tree  for  ages,  but  the  improvident 
Arabs  have  never  been  wont  to  replace  the 
destroyed  timber  by  replanting.  Bartlett  in 
1874  mentions  seeing  stumps  where  the 
Arabs  had  burned  down  the  trees,  and  acacias 
with  the  boughs  lopped  off  for  the  camels  to 
eat  (FroiK  E(jypt  to  Palestine,  pp.  225,  300,  301). 
Burckhardt,  one  of  the  earliest  travelers  to 
explore  Sinai,  in  his  journey  acro.ss  the 
country  in  1812  came  across  charcoal  burners 
{Erdkunde  xiv.  183)  ;  and  Riippell  in  1822 
mentioned  the  burning  of  charcoal  for  sale 
in  Egypt  as  an  immemorial  industry  of  the 
Bedouin,  and  ascribed  the  nakedness  of  the 
valle.vs  to  the  neglect  of  the  Arabs  to  replant 
the  ground  which  they  had  denuded  {Erd- 
Icunde  xiv.  274,  342).  A  tribute  in  charcoal 
has  also  been  impo.sed  on  the  Arabs  of  Sinai 
by  Egypt  since  1823.  But  charcoal  burning 
for  domestic  purposes  and  export  has  not 
been  the  only  means  whereby  the  peninsula 
has  been  impoverished  of  wood  ;  mining  and 
smelting  have  also  caused  the  destruction  of 
great  quantities  of  timber.  The  ancient 
Egyptians  worked  copper  mines  in  the  sand- 
stone mountains  of  the  west  intermittently 
from  a  very  early  period,  and  were  still 
operating  them  sulssequently  to  the  exodus. 
Acacia  wood  was  sometimes  used  as  supports 
for  the  roofs  of  the  mines  (Palmer,  Desert  of 
the  Exodus  i.  20."j),  and  the  smelting  opera- 
tions, which  were  of  magnitude,  demanded 
large  quantities  of  timber  for  fuel  (ibid.  26, 
43,  231-235;  Erdkunde  xiv.  786,  787).  One 
should  recall  the  disappearance  of  the  cedars 
of  Lebanon  and  of  wide  stretches  of  forest  in 
America.  It  is  clear  that,  beginning  long 
before  the  exodus  and  continuing  down  to 
the  present  day,  causes  have  been  at  work 
reducing  the  timber  in  the  region  traversed 
by  the  Israelites.  This  fact  has  a  direct 
bearing  on  the  question  of  the  water  supply 
in  earlier  times;  for  the  country  being  better 
wooded,  there  was  a  natural  preservation  of 
the  rainfall.  As  always  where  there  is  vege- 
tation, the  rain  fell  more  regularly ;  the 
water  was  admitted  to  the  wadies  more 
slowly  and  gently ;  soil  and  vegetation  were 
less  ruthlessly  swept  away ;  springs  were 
more  numerous  and  flowed  more  copiously  ; 
and  streams  endured  longer  into  the  dry 
season  and  were  more  frequently  perennial. 
Under  an  energetic,  competent,  and  jn-ovi- 
dent  leader  who  was  acquainted  with  the 
desert  and  its  resources,  by  husbanding  the 
supi)ly,  by  extending  the  iDounds  of  the  en- 
campment, and  by  scattering  from  the  cen- 
tral camji  in  groups  of  various  size,  and  with 
no  failure  of  the  annual  rains,  it  is  not  to  be 
doubted    that  a   large    host   could    have  se- 


Wilderness  of  the  Wandering       777       Wilderness  of  the  Wandering 


cured  a  sufficient  though  scant  supply  of 
water  for  man  and  beast. 

4.  The  Route  of  the  Israelites  through  the 
Wilderness.  Cerfciin  sites  have  been  identified  : 
Succoth  in  Egypt  at  the  beginning  of  the 
journey,  the  river  Arnon  which  was  reached 
at  the  close  of  the  forty  years,  when  the 
wilderness  was  left,  and  the  encampments 
beyond  the  Arnon  which  are  mentioned  in 
the  itinerary ;  Kadesh.  with  which  there  is 
reason  to  believe  Kithmah  was  practically 
equivalent,  where  the  camp  was  twice  pitched, 
and  whence  the  Israelites  expected  to  march 
directly  intt>  the  promised  land,  and  Ezion- 
geber,  where  the  camp  was  located  just  before 
the  second  march  to  Kadesh,  and  near  which 
they  afterwards  passed  on  their  way  to  the 
Arnon.  Mount  Sinai  is  almost  universally 
located  in  the  peninsula,  which  is  accord- 
ingly called  the  peninsula  of  Sinai.  The 
camp  at  Moserah  was  bard  by  mount  Hor, 
on  the  border  of  Edom  ;  and  the  wells  of 
Beue-jaakan  and  Hor-haggidgad  were  also 
near  the  boundary  of  Edom.  Piinon  was 
east  of  Edom  and  northeast  of  Petra.  With 
a  knowledge  of  the  location  of  these  places, 
one  may  readily  trace  the  general  route. 
See  maps,  Abraham,  EciVPT. 

An  itinerary  covering  the  journey  from 
Eameses  and  Succoth  to  the  camp  opposite 
Jericho  was  drawn  up  by  Moses  (Xum. 
xxxiii.).     The  encampments  recorded  in   it 


after  Sinai  represent  the  movements  of  the 
tabernacle.  The  people  were,  however, 
doubtless  often  disjiersed  through  the  wil- 
derness, tending  their  flocks  wherever  herb- 
age and  water  were  found.  When  they  were 
collected  and  encamping  in  a  body,  their 
camp  was  very  large  and,  in  a  settled  coun- 
trj-,  covered  the  distance  between  several 
towns ;  hence  the  same  encampment  may  be 
differently  described  or  designated  (49  with 
XXV.  1).  Besides  the  itinerary  there  is  the 
narrative  of  the  journey  (Ex.  xii.-Num. 
XXV.),  and  there  are  also  scattered  allu.sions 
in  the  address  of  Moses  to  various  incidents 
that  occurred  on  the  way.  It  is  important 
to  remember  that  each  of  these  three  recitals 
was  prepared  for  a  special  purjjo^e  of  its 
own.  The  itinerary  records  formal  encamp- 
ments, and  does  not  mention  every  halting 
place  and  every  place  of  spending  the  night 
(Ex.  XV.  22;  Num.  x.  33).  It  is  doubtful 
whether  it  omits  a  single  encampment  where 
the  tabernacle  was  set  up.  The  narrative  is 
apt  to  mention  an  encampment  or  even  a 
stopping  place  where  an  important  event  oc- 
curred, and  to  pass  over  the  others.  lu  the 
address  events  are  cited  as  illustrations  or  to 
enforce  the  argument ;  and  of  course  they 
are  chosen  at  random,  without  reference  to 
chronological  sequence,  and  they  are  fre- 
quently alluded  to  broadly  and  by  compre- 
hensive statement. 


Itineraky.  I 

From    Rameses  to  mount 
Sinai. 

Rameses.lt  ft  in  Ut  month. 

l.nthday.   .   .  Num.  xxxiii.  3,  5 

Succoth 5  ' 

Etham,  in  the  edge  of  the  ! 

wildfrni'.^s 6 

Pi-hahiroth 7 

Passage  of  the  Red  Sea  .  8 

Went  three  days'  jtmrney 
into  the  wilderness  of 
Etham  and  pitclied  at 

Marah 8 

Elim     9 

By  the  Red  Sea 10 

Wilderness  of  Sin     ...  11 

Dophkah 12 

Alush 13 

Rephidim,  where  was  no 
water  for   the   fieople   to 

drink     14 

Wilderness  of  Sinai  ...  15 

From  mount  Sinai  to  Ka- 
desh-barnea. 

Wilderness  of  Sinai    .   . 
Kibroth-hattaavah     .   .  16 


Nareative. 


Xight  after  14th  day  of  Ut 
mouth  ....  Ex.  xii.  18,  31,  37 

37 

xiii.  20 

xiv.    2 

22 
Went  out  into  the  wilder- 
ness or  Sliur,  and  went 
three  days  in  tlie  wil- 
derness and  came  to 
Marah  xv.  23 


2d  month,  15th  d;'v 


before  the  mount 
in  3d  month  .   .   . 


XIX.    2 
1 


Allusions  in  Moses' 
Address. 


Deut.  xvi.  1 


vi.  16;  XXV.  17 
iv.  10,  11 :  V.  2 


Num.  X.  12  Horeb 

in  2d  year,  2d  month,  through  all 

20th  day     .  11 ;  cp.  i.  1 :  ix.  .5  that  gieat 

Three  days' journey                x.  33  and 

.    .  the  outermost  |>art  of  terrible 

the  camp  wliere  the  fire  wilderness 

devoured  being   called  !•>'  the  way 

Taberah xi.  1,  3,  34  to  the  hill 

Apparently      remained  .  ix.  22                   country 

30  davs    ." 21  I                                   of  the 


Wilderness  of  the  Wandering       778       Wilderness  of  the  Wandering 


Itinerary. 


Hazeroth  .  . 
Rithmah  .   . 


Num.  xxxiii.  17 
18 


From    Kadesli    to    Ezion- 
geber  and  Return,  until 

the    men   uf   tliat    generation 

dieii. 

Rithmali 

Rimmon-perez  ....  19 


Libnah  

Rissah 

Kehelathah        .... 
Mount  Shepher     .... 

Haradah 

Makhelotb 

Tahath  

Terah 

Mithkah 

Hashmonah 

Moseroth 

Bene-jaakan 

Hor-haggidgad  .... 

Jotbathah 

Abronah   

Ezion-geber 

Wildernes.s  of  Ziii,   i.  e. 
Kadesh 


Narrative. 


Num.  xi.  35 

Remained  at  least  7  days  .  xii.  15 
Kadesh,  in  the  wihieruess 

of  Paiun  .   .  .  xii.  16;  xiii.  26 
Aliont   tlie    time  of    the 
fiist  lipe  grapes,  t.  e.  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  5th 

month xiii.  20 

Discouraged  by  the  spies' 
report,  the  Israelites  re- 
fused to  advance.  After 
being  condemned  to 
wander  in  tlie  wilder- 
ness 40  yinirs  and  or- 
dered to  turn  back  into 
the  wilderness  by  the 
way  to  I  he  Red  S'-a,  the 
l)eople  attempted  to  en- 
ter Canaan,  and  went 
up  into  the  mountain, 
but  were  smitten,  even 
unto  Hormah.  Moses 
departed  not  from  the 
camp xiv.  25,  33-45 


20 
211 

22  I 

23  '  In  the  wildernes.s     .   .   .     xv.  32 

24  i 
25 
26  ' 
27 
28 

29  I  In  the  wilderness    .   .      xvi.  13 

30 

311 

32 

H3 

34 

35 


Wilderness  of  Zin  at  Ka- 
desh, in  Isl  month  [of 

40th  year] XX.   1 

Mo^es  and  Aaron  sinned 
against  God  wlien 
smiting  the  rock  .  .  . 
Messengers  were  sent 
to  the  king  of  Edom, 
asking  permis.sion  lor 
Israel  to  cross  his  terri- 
tory         14-17 


Allusions  in  Moses' 
Address. 

Amoiites 
Deut.  xxiv.  9      to 
Kadesh-barnea  ...      .      i. 
It  is  11  days' journey  from 
Horeb   by   the   way  of 
mount  Seir  to  Kadesh- 
barnea     


i.  40-45  ;  ix.  23 


At  Kadesh  many  days  . 
Turned  and  took  their 
journey  into  the  wilder- 
ness by  the  way  to  the 
Red  Sea,  as  God  had 
commanded 


46 


cp.  xxxii.  51 


Conijiassed 


Seir 


From  Kadesh  to  the  Jor- 
dan. 

Kadesh 


Jlount  Hor,  in  the  edge  of 

tlie  land  of  Edom     .    .  37 

I  n  40th  year,  bth  month, 
1st  day  38 

Aaron      ascended      the 
mountain  and  died     .    .  39 

The  kingof  Arad  heard  of 
thecomingof  the  Israel- 
ite-i 40 


Kadesh 22 

.Journey  toward  Edom  by 
the  way  of  Atharim  or 
the  spies xxi.  1 

Mount  Hor,  by  the  border 

of  the  land  of  Edom   xx.  22,  23, 


24-29 

The  kingof  .\rad  heard 
of  their  coming,  fought 
against  them,  and  took 
some  of  them  captive   .   xxi.  1 


2-13      .  iii.  26;  iv.  21 

i 

days,  ii.  2 

until 

tinally 

toward 

Wells  of  Bene-jaakan.    x.  6 
Moserah,  x.  6 

the 

where  Aaron  died.     x.  6 

close 
of  the 


Willow 


779 


WiUow 


Itinerary. 

Nakrative. 

At  mount  Hor  the  Israel- 
ites  probably    received 
the  answer  of  ibe  king 

Allisions  in  Moses' 
Address. 

forty 
years 

of  Kdoni,  and  found  his 

Deut.  ii 

.7 : 

army  drawn   up  to  op- 

xxix.5 

pose   tliem,    wherefore 

they 

Israel     turned      away 

from  liini   .    .   Num.  xx.  18-21 

peace- 

From   mount    Hor    they 

journeyed,  by  the  way 
to  the  Red  Sea,  to  com- 

Gudgodah.   x.  7      fully 

pass  the  land  of  Edom 

xxi.  4 

Jotbathah.    x.  7 

crossed     the     southern 
end     of     Edom,     near 
Elath  and  Ezion-geber, 
and  turned  northward, 

Zalmonah    .   .    Num.  xxxiii 

41 

Fiery  serpents  hereabouts  . 

6-9 

Deut.  Viii.  15             journeying 

Punon 

42 

. 

by  the  way 

Obotli 

43 

10 

of  the  wil- 

lye-abarim, in  the  border 

.    .    .  in  the  wilderness  east 

derness  of 

of  Moab 

44 

of  Moab 

11 

Moab .  ii.  4, 
and 

5,8 

Valley  of  Zered     .... 

12 

Crossed  the  brook  Zerod 
38  years  after  their  coii- 

i:^ 

* 

demnatiun  at  Kadesli- 
barnea  

14 

In  the  V  ililerne>s  on  the 

other,   I.  e.   the   south. 

side  of  the  [upper]  Ar- 

uon 

13 

Crossed  the  [upper]   Ar- 

non,  perhaps  the  tribu- 

tarj-  known  as  wady  es- 

Saideh,  and  so  were  in 

the  neighborhood  of  the 

Ammonites ii.18 

19 

and  on   the  borders  of 

the  Amorite  kingdom   . 

24 

Beer,  in  the  wilderness     . 

16,18 

From      the      wilderness 
which    took    its  name 
from     Kedemoth,     the 
Israelites  sent  messen- 
gers to  Sihon 

26 

Sihon  went  against  Israel 

into  the  wilderness,  and 

the  battle  was  fought  at 

Juhaz     

Mattanah,  not  in  the  wil- 

23 

32 

derness  

18 

Dibon-gad,  the  camp  prob- 

Nahaliel  

19 

ably  e.xteiiding  to  Na- 

haliel 

45 

Almon     to     Diblathaim 

Bamoth     

19 

and  probably  to  Bauioth 

46 

In  the  monntain.s  of  Ab- 

Valley  at  the  top  of  Pis- 

arim,  before  Nebo     . 

47 

gah 

20 

Plains  of  Moab,  opposite 

Jericho,    Ironi    Betli- 

jeshimotb  to  .\bel-sbit- 

tim 48 

49 

sxii.  1 

In  the  valley  over  against 
^    Beth-peor  .   .   .  iii.  2<t ;  iv. 

46 

at  Shittim 

XXV.   1 

1 

In  the  40th  year,  before  the 
11th  month i. 

3 

Wil'low,  Willow  Tree. 

1.  Any  tree  of  tlie  genus  F^alix.  It  was 
called  mphfphah  in  Hebrew  (Ezek.  xvii.  5), 
snfmf  in  Arahic.  Several  species-  are  com- 
mon in  Piile-itine. 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  '"rabah. 
The  Israelites  were  directed  to  take  branches 
from  it,  as  well  as  from  other  trees,  to  make 
booths  at  the  feast  of  tabernacles  (Lev. 
xxiii.  40).  It  grew  beside  brooks  or  water 
courses  (ibid.;  Is.  xliv.  4).  and  afforded  cover 


even  to  the  bulky  behemoth  (Job  xl.  22).  It 
was  the  tree  on  which  the  Hebrews  huug 
their  harps  when  exiles  at  Babylon  (Ps. 
cxxxvii.  2).  The  Septuagint  and  Vulgate 
render  the  Hebrew  word  by  willow,  and 
they  are  followed  by  the  English  version. 
It  may  have  been  the  weeping  willow  (Salix 
hnhylonicn).  which  is  found  abundantly  on 
the  Euphrates,  and  is  cultivated  in  Pales- 
tine. But  leading  interpreters,  following 
Wetzstein,    understand    the    Arabic   gharah. 


Willows,  Brook  of  the 


780 


Wine 


and  consequently  its  etymological  equiva- 
lent, the  Hebrew  '"rabah,  to  denote  the  Eu- 
pliratcau  jjoplar  (Populns  ciqjhratica). 

Willows,  Brook  of  the. 

A  willow-frinjied  brook  in  ^foab  (Is.  xv.  7), 
probably  wady  el-'Ah.sy,  the  uiiper  course  of 
wady  Kurahi,  the  boundary  between  Moah 
and  Edom.  It  may  be  identical  with  the 
brook  of  the  Arabah  (Amos  vi.  14,  K.  V.). 

Wim'ple. 

An  article  of  woman's  attire,  made  of  silk 
or  linen,  and  worn  as  a  covering  for  the 
neck,  chin,  and  sides  of  the  face.  In  A.  V. 
of  Is.  iii.  22,  it  is  the  rendering  of  the  He- 
brew Mitpahhath,  a  shawl  or  mantle  (ibid. ; 
Ruth  iii.' 15,' both  R.  V.). 

Wind. 

The  Hebrews,  who  did  not  define  direction 
with  the  minuteness  customary  in  modern 
times,  recognized  four  winds :  the  east,  the 
west,  the  north,  and  the  south  winds  (Jer. 
xlix.  36;  Ezek.  xxxvii.  9;  Rev.  vii.  1).  God 
created  the  wind  (Amos  iv.  1.3) ;  and  it  stands 
at  his  summons,  is  under  his  control,  and 
performs  his  pleasure  (Job  xxviii.  2.5;  Ps. 
Ixxviii.  26;  cvii.  25;  cxxxv.  7;  cxlviii.  8; 
Mat.  viii.  26).  The  wind  that  blew  from  the 
west,  southwest,  and  northwest  brought  rain 
to  Palestine,  and  accompanied  the  storm  (1 
Kin  xviii.  43-45;  Ps.  cxlvii.  18;  Prov.  xxv. 
23,  R.  v.;  Ezek.  xiii.  13).  Wind  was  often 
destructive  to  houses  and  shipping  (Job  i. 
U) ;  Ps.  xlviii.  7  ;  Mat.  vii.  27).  The  scorch- 
ing wind  dried  up  streams,  and  blasted  vege- 
tation (Gen.  xli.  6  ;  Is.  xi.  15  ;  Ezek.  xix.  12  ; 
.Ion.  iv.  8) ;  see  East  Wind.  The  south  and 
southeast  winds  traversed  the  Arabian  desert, 
and  were  dry  and  hot  (Job  xxxvii.  17;  Luke 
xii.  55).  The  north  wind  was  cooler  (Eccliis. 
xliii.  20),  and  was  favorable  to  vegetation 
(Song  iv.  16).  Wind  was  taken  advantage 
of  by  the  thresher  to  blow  away  the  chaff 
and  broken  straw  (Job  xxi.  18;  Ps.  i.  4) ;  see 
Threshing.  The  mariner  also  availed  him- 
self of  the  wind  (Acts  xxvii.  40).  The  words 
which  are  rendered  whirlwind  in  the  E.  V. 
do  not  denote  a  rotary  wind  specifically,  but 
signify  a  violent  storm  of  any  kind. 

Win'dow. 

An  aperture  especially  in  the  wall  of  a 
building  (Gen.  xxvi.  8;  1  Kin.  vi.  4;  Jer. 
xxii.  14),  which  was  opened  and  closed  at 
convenience  by  means  of  a  movable  shutter 
of  some  sort  (Gen.  viii.  6;  2  Kin.  xiii.  17; 
Dan.  vi.  10),  generallv  a  lattice  (Judg.  v.  28; 
2  Kin.  i.  2;  Prov.  vii.  6;  Song  ii.  9);  but  a 
window  on  the  ground  floor,  that  looked  into 
the  street,  was  doubtless  in  ancient  as  in 
modern  times  small,  high  up  in  the  wall, 
and  strongly  barred.  In  the  better  class  of 
hou.ses  most  of  the  windows  faced  the  court. 
Houses  that  abutted  on  the  town  wall  usually 
had  windows  looking  toward  the  country 
(Josh.   ii.   15;  2  Cor.  xi.  33). 


Wine. 

Wine  was  made  from  grapes.  The  ripe 
clusters  were  gathered  in  baskets  (Jer.  vi.  9), 
carried  to  the  press,  and  thrown  into  it.  The 
press  consisted  of  a  shallow  vat,  built  above 
ground  or  excavated  in  the  rock  (Is.  v.  2)  and, 
through  holes  in  the  bottom,  communicating 
with  a  lower  vat  al.so  frequently  excavated 
in  the  rock  (Joel  iii.  13).  An  upper  vat  meas- 
uring 8  feet  square  and  15  inches  deep  had 
at  times  a  lower  vat  4  feet  square  and  3  feet 
deep.  The  grapes  were  crushed  by  treading 
(Neh.  xiii.  15;  Job  xxi  v.  11),  one  or  more 
men  being  employed  according  to  the  size  of 
the  vat.     In  Egypt,  and  probably  in  Pales- 


Treading  the  Wine  Press  in  Ancient  Egypt. 

tine,  the  treaders  held  to  ropes  overhead  to 
keep  from  falling ;  they  sang  at  their  work 
and  shouted,  doubtless  to  keep  time  (Is.  xvi. 
10 ;  Jer.  xxv.  30 ;  xlviii.  33)  ;  and  the  red 
blood  of  the  grapes  flowed  around  them  and 
stained  their  skin  and  their  garments  (Is. 
Ixiii.  1-3).  From  the  upper  vat  the  juice 
trickled  into  the  lower.  From  this  receptacle 
the  juice  was  put  in  bottles  of  skin  (Job 
xxxii.  19;  Mat.  ix.  17),  or  in  large  earthen- 
ware jars,  where  it  was  allowed  to  ferment. 
When  fermentation  had  proceeded  far  enough 
the  wine  was  drawn  off  into  other  vessels 
(Jer.  xlviii.  11,  12). 

The  juice  of  the  grape  when  expressed 
was  iLsed  in  various  conditions :  as  must, 
fresh  from  the  press;  as  wine,  M'hich  was 
produced  by  vinous  fermentation ;  and  as 
vinegar,  which  resulted  when  the  fermenta- 
tion was  continued  too  long.  Probably  in 
ancient  times,  as  at  the  present  day,  some  of 
the  must  was  reduced  to  a  syrup  or  honey 
by  boiling;  see  Honey.  As  vinegar  it  was 
called  homes,  in  Greek,  oxos ;  see  Vineg.\R. 
Various  names  were  applied  to  it  in  the  other 
states : 

The  Hebrew  tirosh,  that  which  takes  pos- 
session of,  intoxicates  :  or  better,  possession, 
product   of   labor.      The   E.    V.   sometimes 


Wine 


781 


Wine 


renders  this  word  by  vintage  (Num.  xviii. 
12 ;  Xeh.  x.  37,  margin)  ;  and  the  attempt 
has  been  made  by  some  interpreters  to  limit 
the  meaning  to  this  sense,  and  to  deny  that 
it  ever  signifies  new  wine  or  mnst.  It  means 
juice  of  the  grape  or  must  in  Joel  ii.  24  : 
"  The  floors  shall  be  full  of  wheat,  and  the 
fats  shall  overflow  with  wine  and  oil  ;  "  cp. 
iii.  13  :  "Put  ye  in  the  sickle,  for  the  harvest 
is  ripe :  come,  tread  ye  ;  for  the  wine  press 
in  full  [of  grapes],  the  fats  [both  of  them] 
overflow."  It  also  means  juice  of  the  grape 
or  new  wine,  as  it  is  rendered  in  the  E.  Y., 
in  Ht)s.  iv.  11:  "Whoredom  and  wine  and 
new  wine  take  away  the  understanding;" 
for  the  exegesis  is  forced  and  invalid  which 
interprets  this  verse  as  meaning  that  whore- 
dom proceeds  from  the  abuse  of  wine,  and 
wine  is  connected  with  the  abuse,  that  is,  the 
fermentation,  of  tirosh  or  must  The  passage 
aflirms  that  all  three  take  away  the  under- 
standing. There  is  no  need  to  depart  from 
this  meaning  of  tirosh  anywhere,  and  render 
it  vintage  ;  for  example  :  1.  Not  in  Is.  Ixii.  8, 
9:  "Surely  I  will  no  more  give  thy  corn  to 
be  meat  for  thine  enemies;  and  strangers 
shall  not  drink  thy  wine  [on  margin,  vint- 
age], for  the  which  thou  hast  labored:  but 
they  that  have  garnered  it  shall  cat  it,  and 
praise  the  Lord  ;  and  they  that  have  gathered 
it  shall  drink  it  in  the  courts  of  my  sanc- 
tuary "  (R.  v.).  There  is  no  need  to  give 
tirosh  the  meaning  of  vintage  here,  as  the 
R.  y.  shows  by  placing  wine  in  the  text,  as 
the  A.  Y.  did.  It  is  said  indeed  to  be  gath- 
ered ;  but  this  is  a  proleptic  form  of  speech, 
and  elsewhere  wine  and  oil  are  said  to  be 
gathered  (Jer.  xl.  10 ;  the  Hebrew  word  for 
Mine  being  yayin).  2.  Not  in  Is.  Ixv.  8  :  "As 
the  new  wine  is, found  in  the  cluster,  and  one 
saith.  Destroy  it  not,  for  a  blessing  is  in 
it."  Cheyue  renders  "  As  when  [a  few  good] 
grapes  are  found  in  the  cluster,  and  one  saith 
[to  the  other  gleaners]  destroy  it  not,  for  a 
blessing  is  in  it."  But  the  same  meaning 
exactly  is  yielded  by  rendering:  "  As  when 
the  juice  is  found  in  the  cluster,"  etc.  (Alex- 
ander. Delitzsch,  Dillmann).  3.  Not  in  Mic. 
vi.  15 :  "  Thou  shalt  sow,  but  shalt  not  reap  : 
thou  shalt  tread  the  olives,  but  shalt  not 
anoint  thee  with  oil ;  and  the  vintage  [in 
A.  V.  sweet  wine],  but  shalt  not  drink  the 
■wine."  The  Hebrews  spoke  of  treading 
grapes  (Amos  ix.  13)  and  of  treading  wine  (Is. 
xvi.  10 :  yayin  being  u.sed,  and  the  word  "  out " 
not  being  found  in  the  original).  4.  Not 
even  in  those  numerous  passages  where  the 
fruits  of  the  ground  are  mentioned  compre- 
hen.sively  as  corn,  wine,  and  oil  (Num.  xviii. 
12,  K.  Y.  vintage:  Dent.  vii.  13:  xi.  14; 
xii.  17:  Hos.  ii.  8,  22;  Joel  i.  10;  ii.  19,  in 
all  18  times).  In  many  of  these  passages 
the  tithe  of  the  corn,  wine,  and  oil  is  spoken 
of.  Since  yishar  denotes  the  oil  which  is 
found  in  the  olive  (2  Kin.  xviii.  32;  Zech. 
iv.  14),  tirosh  may  denote  the  juice  w"hich  is 
found  in  the  grape  ;  and  as  the  grain  was 


thought  of  as  threshed,  the  tirofih  and  the  oil 
may  be  thought  of  as  expressed.  Indeed  the 
threshed  grain  rather  indicates  that  the  grape 
juice  and  the  oil  were  expressed.  The  only 
(juestion  then  is:  Were  not  firstfruits  and 
tithes  brought  from  the  other  produce  of  the 
vineyard  which  was  not  reduced  to  wine? 
They  were  ;  but  they  are  not  specifically  in- 
cluded in  the  threefold  designation  so  often 
employed.  The  firstfruits  of  all  that  was  in 
the  land  were  presented  to  the  Lord,  as  is 
more  explicitly  stated  in  Num.  xviii.  13 ; 
and  mint  and  anise  were  tithed,  although 
the  threefold  designation  does  not  when 
interpreted  literally  embrace  them.  Grain, 
must,  and  oil  were  prominent  enough  to  stand 
for  all. 

The  Hebrew  'asis,  something  trodden  out; 
hence  grape  juice,  must  (Is.  xlix.  26  ;  Amos 
ix.  13).  It  does  not  denote  the  expressed 
juice  of  the  grape  only,  but  of  other  fruits 
as  the  pomegranate. 

The  Greek  (iJeul-os  is  used  by  Josephus  in 
speaking  of  the  grape  juice  squeezed  into 
Pharaoh's  cup  (Gen.  xl.  11  ;  Antiq.  ii.  5,  2). 
It  is  explained  by  Hesycliius  as  the  juice 
that  flowed  spontaneously  from  the  grapes 
before  the  treading  commenced.  It  was 
drawn  ofl'  and  kept  separate  from  the  juice 
which  flowed  under  pressure.  It  was  with 
this  that  the  apostles  were  accused  of  being 
filled  on  the  day  of  Pentecost  (Acts  ii.  13). 

Must  was  drunk ;  and,  after  fermentation 
had  set  in,  was  intoxicating  (Hos.  iv.  11, 
tirosh;  Acts  ii.  13,  gleukos :  and  probably  Is. 
xlix.  26,  '(isis).  But  although  must  was 
used  as  a  drink,  the  old  wine  was  preferred 
(Ecclus.  ix.  10;  Luke  v.  39).  Pliny  regarded 
must  as  hurtful  to  the  stomach  (Hist.  Nat. 
xxiii.  18). 

The  Hebrew  yayin  is  undoubtedly  the 
same  word  etymologically  as  the  Greek  oinos 
and  the  Latin  riuum.  }l"mar  is  the  Aramaic 
name  for  the  same  thing;  and  hemer  is  the 
etymological  equivalent  of  the  Aramaic 
word,  and  is  occasionally  used  in  Hebrew 
poetry.  When  the  Hebrew  word  yayin  first 
occurs  in  Scripture,  it  is  the  fermented  juice 
of  the  grape  (Gen.  ix.  21),  and  there  is  no 
reason  to  believe  that  it  has  a  different  mean- 
ing elsewhere.  The  Greek  oinos  also  means 
the  fermented  juice  of  the  grape,  except 
when  it  is  qualified  by  the  word  new,  and 
even  then  there  are  not  two  w'ines,  one  fer-  . 
mented  and  the  other  unfermented.  New- 
wine  is  must,  which  only  becomes  wine  by 
fermentation.  An  argument  for  the  u.se  of 
the  term  wine  for  unfermented  grape  juice 
has  been  sought  in  the  fact  that  wine  was 
used  in  later  times  at  the  passover,  and  yet 
leaven  was  strictly  forbidden  during  the 
seven  days  of  the  paschal  festival  ;  hence  the 
term  wine,  it  has  been  argued,  must  have 
been  applied  to  unfermented  juice.  But  the 
reason  is  invalid.  Yinous  fermentation  was 
not  regarded  as  leaven.  During  the  passover 
it  was  fermented  drinks  into  which  grain, 


Wine 


782 


Winnowing 


1 


and  hence  the  leaven  of  bread,  had  entered 
that  the  Jews  would  not  taste  or  touch 
(Mishna,  Pesachoth  ii.).  There  were  numer- 
ous varieties  of  wine  which  diflered  in  body 
and  flavor,  such  as  the  wine  of  Lebanon,  the 
wine  of  Helbon.     See  Vine. 

Fruit  of  the  vine,  the  designation  used  by- 
Jesus  at  the  institution  of  the  Lord's  Supper 
(Mat.  xxvi.  29),  is  the  expression  employed 
by  the  Jews  from  time  immemorial  for  the 
wine  partaken  of  on  sacred  occasions,  as  at 
the  passover  and  on  the  evening  of  the  Sab- 
bath (Mishna,  Berakoth  vi.  1).  The  Greeks 
also  used  the  term  as  a  synonym  of  wine 
which  was  capable  of  producing  intoxication 
(Herod,  i.  211,  212).     The  juice  of  the  grape 


Vintage  iu  Ancient  Egypt. 

which  was  ordinarily  planted  was  red  (Is. 
Ixiii.  2 ;  Kev.  xiv.  19,  20)  and  was  called  the 
blood  of  the  grape  (Gen.  xlix.  11 ;  Dent, 
xxxii.  14;  1  Mac.  vi.  34).  It  was  wine 
(Ecclusr  1.  15). 

Mixed  wine  was  .known  by  the  specific 
names  of  mesek  (Ps.  Ixxv.  8),  mimsak  (Prov. 
xxiii.  30;  Is.  Ixv.  11),  and  meseg  (Song  vii. 
2),  each  of  which  means  mixture  and  de- 
notes wine  mixed  with  spices  to  give  it  a 
pleasant  flavor  (Song  viii.  2 ;  Pliny,  Hist. 
Nat.  xiv.  19,  5),  or  with  water  to  diminish  its 
strength  (Herod,  vi.  84  ;  see  below). 

Wine  differed  from  shekar,  rendered  strong 
drink  in  E.  V.,  in  that  wine  was  made  from 
the  juice  of  the  grape,  and  shekar  from  the 
juice  of  other  fruits  and  of  grain.  It  was 
fermented,  for  it  was  capable  of  producing 
intoxication  (Is.  xxviii.  7;  xxix.  9).  It  was 
prepared  from  barley  (Herod,  ii.  77),  from 
honey,  or  from  dates  (i.  193  ;  ii.  86  ;  Jerome, 
Epist.  ad  Nepotianwn),  or  from  the  lotus 
(Herod,  iv.  177).  The  drink  made  from  dates 
is  wholesome  and  refreshing,  but  in  one  day's 
heat  it  undergoes  rapid  fermentation,  effer- 
vesces, and  produces  intoxication  if  taken 
immoderately.  Shekar  is  once  used  in  a  broad 
sense  for  strong  di'ink  generally  in  distinc- 
tion from  water,  and  refers  to  the  drink 
offering,  which  consisted  of  wine  exclusively 
(Num.  xxviii.  7). 

Other  words  are  .so6e',  a  name  derived  from 
a  root  which  signifies  to  soak  or  drink  to 
excess  (Is.  i.  22;  Nah.  i.  10);  and  sh'marim, 
which  strictly  denotes  the  lees  of  wine  and 
then  is  used  for  wiue  kept  long  on  the  lees, 
and  hence,  old. 

'Wine  was  employed  medicinally  (Prov. 
xxxi.  6 ;  Luke  x.  34 ;  1  Tim.  v.  23) ;  was 
used  in  the  service  of  God  (Ex.  xxix.  39-41 ; 


Lev.  xxiii.  13) ;  and  light  wine  was  a  staple 
article  of  diet  in  Palestine,  as  it  has  been  iu 
other  Mediterranean  lands  from  time  im- 
memorial (Num.  vi.  20;  Deut.  xiv.  26;  2 
Chron.  ii.  1.5 ;  Neh.  v.  18  ;  Mat.  xi.  19  ;  1  Tim. 
iii.  8).  Palestine  was  a  country  where  meat 
was  difficult  to  obtain  and  vegetables  were 
rare  ;  and  wine  supplied  the  lack.  It  would 
be  a  mistake,  however,  to  suppose  that  wine 
was  the  invariable  accompaniment  of  a  meal ; 
many  a  repast  was  partaken  of  without  it ; 
see  Food.  Still  wine  was  in  common  use. 
Bread  and  wine  signified  the  staples  of  life 
(Ps.  civ.  14,  15;  Prov.  iv.  17).  Wine  was 
offered  as  an  ordinary  hospitality  (Gen.  xiv. 
18)  and  was  served  at  festivities  (Job  i.  13, 
18;  John  ii.  3).  The  Hebrew  people 
were,  as  a  rule,  simple  in  their  mode 
of  living,  and  temperate  ;  but  the  dan- 
ger of  excess  in  the  use  of  even  light 
wine,  especially  at  feasts,  was  clearly 
discerned.  Its  use  was  accordingly 
forbidden  to  priests  when  ministering 
at  the  sanctuary  (Lev.  x.  9),  and  was 
declared  to  be  improper  for  those  about 
to  sit  on  the  judgment  seat  (Prov. 
xxxi.  4,  5;  cp.  Ecc.  x.  17;  Is.  xxviii. 
7) ;  and  precautions  were  taken  to  guard 
all  men  against  excess.  The  means  em- 
ployed to  prevent  the  danger  line  from 
being  crossed  were  :  1.  The  weakening  of 
the  wine  with  water  (2  Mac.  xv.  39  ;  Herod, 
vi.  84).  That  this  was  done  further  appears, 
for  example,  in  connection  with  the  kettle 
of  warm  water  and  the  servants  to  mix  the 
wine,  which  were  employed  at  the  passover 
(Mishna,  Pesachbn  vii.  13 ;  x.  2,  4,  7) ;  hence 
in  the  early  Christian  church  it  was  custom- 
ary to  mix  the  sacramental  wine  with  water 
(Justin  Martyr,  Apol.,  i.  65).  2.  The  gover- 
nor of  the  feast  (Ecclus.  xxxii.  1,  2;  John  ii. 
9,  10),  one  of  whose  duties,  at  least  where 
Greek  customs  were  observed,  was  to  fix  the 
proportion  in  which  the  wine  and  water 
should  be  mixed  and  to  determine  how  much 
wine  each  guest  might  drink  ;  see  Meals. 
3.  Warnings  against  the  danger  of  lingering 
over  the  wine,  of  tampering  with  the  cup 
when  it  delights  the  eye,  and  of  making  strong 
intoxicants  were  urgently  given,  and  the 
degradation  of  the  drunkard  was  pointed  out 
by  sad  example  (Gen.  ix.  21 ;  Prov.  xxiii. 
29-35;  Is.  v.  22).  4.  The  folly  of  excess 
even  from  a  worldly  standpoint  was  em- 
phasized and  expressed  in  proverbs,  and  put 
on  record  in  the  religious  literature  of  the 
people  (Prov.  xx.  1 ;  xxi.  17;  xxiii.  20,  21 ; 
Hab.  ii.  5;  Ecclus.  xxxi.  25-31).  5.  The 
sinfulness  of  drunkenness  was  earnestly 
taught  and  the  condemnation  of  the  drunk- 
ard by  God  the  Judge  was  fully  known  (1 
Sam.  i.  14-16;  Is.  v.  11-17;  1  Cor.  v.  11  ;  vi. 
10;  Gal.  V.  21;  Eph.  v.  18;  1  Pet.  iv.  3). 

Wine  Press.    See  Wine. 

Win'now-ing.    See  Threshing. 


Wisdom 


783 


Wolf 


Wis'dom. 

Oue  of  the  three  departments  of  knowl- 
edge among  the  Hebrews,  the  other  two 
being  the  law  and  prophecy.  The  law  jire- 
sents  the  coiumaudmeuLs  and  claims  of  Je- 
hovah to  man  ;  prophecy  passes  judgment 
on  conduct  in  the  light  of  God's  revealed 
will  and  explains  the  object  of  God's  dealings 
with  men  ;  wisdom  seeks  by  observation, 
experience,  and  reflection  to  know  things  in 
their  essence  and  reality  as  they  stand  re- 
lated to  man  and  God.  The  law  and  prophecy 
proceed  directly  from  God,  and  in  the  highest 
sense  are  the  word  of  God.  Wisdom  proceeds 
from  man,  and  is  the  product  of  his  own 
esperience  and  observation.  But  while  it  is 
a  human  etloi-t,  it  recognizes  that  a  good 
understanding  is  the.  gift  of  God,  and  it 
postulates  the  fear  of  God  and  obedience  to 
his  commands  as  its  first  principle  (Ps.  cxi. 
10  ;  Prov.  ix.  10  ;  Ecc.  xii.  l.'Ji.  In  the  earlier 
chapters  of  The  Proverbs,  in  the  Book  of 
Job,  and  in  the  Wisdom  of  Solomon,  wisdom 
is  personified.     See  Philosophy. 

Wisd'om  of  Jesus,  the  Son  of  Siracli. 

The  alternative  title  for  Ecclesiasticus.  See 
Apocrypha. 

■Wis'dom  of  Solomon,  sometimes  curtailed 
into  Wisdom.     See  Apocrypha. 

■WitcL  and  Witch'craft.     See  Sorcerer. 

Wit'ness. 

Evidence  which  could  be  appealed  to  in 
the  future  in  case  a  transaction  should  be 
called  in  question  was  secured  by  a  written 
document,  as  a  deed  or  a  letter  of  divorce 
(Deut.  xxiv.  1,  3;  Jer.  xxxii.  10),  and  when 
writing  was  not  general  or  was  not  available 
for  the  purpose,  by  some  tangible  token  or 
memorial,  as  a  heap  of  stones  (Gen.  xxxi.  46- 
52),  or  by  calling  in  men  to  witness  the 
event  (xxiii.  10-18). 

W^hen  a  person  was  accused  of  a  capital 
crime,  the  concurrent  testimony  of  at  least 
two  witnesses  was  required  under  the  Mosaic 
law  to  establish  his  guilt  (Xum.  xxxv.  30; 
Deut.  xvii.  6;  Heb.  x.  28;  cp.  1  Kin.  xxi.  10, 
13;  Mat.  xxvi.  60);  and  this  principle  was 
extended  and  made  a  general  rule  in  all 
judicial  procedure  (Deut.  xix.  15).  The 
Mo.saic  law  did  not  countenance  coercion, 
did  not  sanction  the  use  of  torture  to  extract 
testimony ;  see  Punishment.  The  witness, 
before  his  testimony  was  given,  was  adjured 
to  tell  the  truth  and  to  conceal  nothing  ;  and 
then  it  was  sin  for  him  to  withhold  evidence 
in  his  possession  (Lev.  v.  1  ;  Prov.  xxix.  24). 
False  witness  bearing  was  denounced  in  the 
decalogue  (Ex.  xx.  16),  and  when  detected, 
it  drew  upon  the  false  witness  the  same 
penalty  that  he  had  attempted  to  get  im- 
posed on  the  accused  (Deut.  six.  16,  19). 
The  witnesses  aided  in  executing  a  sentence 
of  death ;  see  Stoning.  Josephus  asserts 
that  women  and  children  were  excluded 
from  giving  testimony  by  the  Mosaic  law 
(Antiq.  iv.  S,  15).   The  law  itself  says  nothing 


on  the  subject ;  but  the  participation  of  tlie 
witnesses  in  the  execution  of  the  death 
penalty  would  make  the  exclusion  of  women 
and  children  from  witness  bearing  expedient. 
Josephus'  statement  evidently  rejiresents  the 
current  interpretation  of  the  Mosaic  law  in 
his  day. 

That  the  testimony  of  at  least  two  wit- 
nes.ses  should  be  necessary  in  order  to  estab- 
lish the  truth  of  an  accusation  was  soon  seen 
to  be  an  excellent  requirement,  capable  of 
broader  application,  and  worthy  of  being 
made  a  general  rule  to  govern  the  dealings 
of  man  with  man  (Is.  viii.  2  ;  Mat.  xvii.  1,  2  ; 
xviii.  16  ;  John  viii.  17,  18;  1  Tim.  v.  19). 

Those  who  in  the  face  of  danger  and  dis- 
tress testify  to  the  truth  of  God  are  witnesses 
in  the  highest  sense  (Heb.  x.,  xi.  1).  Martyr 
is  a  Greek  word  meaning  witnes,s,  and  it 
came  to  signify  one  who  sealed  his  testimony 
with  his  blood,  as  Stephen  and  Antipas  (Acts 
xxii.  20 ;  Rev.  ii.  13). 

Wiz'ard. 

A  i)rofessed  possessor  of  supernatural 
knowledge  derived,  in  the  form  of  wizardry 
referred  to  in  the  Bible,  from  the  pretended 
ability  to  converse  with  the  spirits  of  the 
dead  (Is.  viii.  19).  The  wizard  chirped  and 
muttered  (ibid.)  in  imitation  of  the  voice  of 
the  spirit  (cp.  xxix.  4).  The  wizard  is  never 
mentioned  alone,  but  always  in  connection 
with  them  that  have  familiar  spirits,  because 
he  belonged  to  the  same  class  of  questioners  of 
the  dead.  The  Canaanites  consulted  wizards 
(Deut.  xviii.  9-12),  so  did  the  Egyptians  (Is. 
xix.  3)  ;  but  for  a  Hebrew  to  go  to  such  an 
oracle  defiled  him,  and  was  apostasy  from 
Jehovah  (Lev.  xix.  31;  xx.  6;  Is.  viii.  19). 
The  oflense  of  wizardry  was  punished  with 
death  (Lev.  xx.  27).  Saul,  and  subsequently 
Josiah,  put  the  law  in  force  (1  Sam.  xxviii.  3, 
9;  2  Kin.  xxiii.  24);  whilst  Manasseh  vio- 
lated it  shamelessly  (2  Kin.  xxi.  6). 

"Wolf. 

1.  A  carnivorous  animal,  wild  and  fierce 
(Is.  xi.  6;  Hab.  i.  8),  that  kills  sheep  and 
other  small  domestic  animals  (Ecclus.  xiii. 
17  ;  John  x.  12),  and  is  accustomed  to  remain 
in  hiding  by  day  and  seek  its  prey  in  the 
eveniTig  (Zeph.  iii.  3).  In  Hebrew  it  was 
called  z''eh,  in  Greek  liil^os.  As  Judah  was 
compared  to  the  courageous  lion,  so  Ben- 
jamin was  compared  to  the  smaller,  yet  fierce 
and  dreaded,  wolf  (Gen.  xlix.  9,  27 ;  c]).  the 
warrior  Zeeb).  But  comparison  with  the 
wolf  was  not  always  intended  as  an  honor. 
Violent  princes  who  prey  upon  the  helpless 
are  likened  to  ravening  wolves  (Ezek.  xxii. 
27) ;  and  so  are  fal.se  teachers  (Mat.  vii.  15; 
Acts  XX.  29),  and  enemies  of  the  flock  of 
God  (Mat.  X.  16).  The  wolf  of  Palestine  is  a 
variety  of  the  European  species  (Cnnis  Ivpus), 
and  is  diflfused  throughout  the  country. 
Owing  to  the  ea.se  with  which  food  is  ob- 
tained and  the  mildness  of  the  winter,  they 


Woman 


784 


World 


do  not  hunt  in  packs,  as  in  the  colder  north, 
but  prowl  alone. 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  'lyyim, 
howling  creatures  (Is.  xiii.  22  ;  xxxiv.  14  ; 
Jer.  1.  39 ;  in  A.  V.  everywhere  wild  beasts 
of  the  islands).  The  wolf  belongs  to  the 
same  genus  as  the  dog  ;  but  it  cannot  bark, 
it  can  only  howl. 

Worn 'an. 

Tlie  counterpart  of  man,  made  to  be  his 
helpmeet  and  social  equal  (Gen.  ii.  21-24  ; 
see  Eve)  ;  and  monogamy,  or  the  marriage 
of  one  man  and  one  woman,  was  the  Crea- 
tor's intention ;  see  Makri.\ge. 

The  younger  women  of  the  family,  espe- 
cially in  the  earlier  times  and  among  the  no- 
mads, tended  the  sheep  (Gen.  xxix.  6  ;  Ex. 
ii.  16),  and  they  went  to  the  harvest  field  and 
gleaned  (Ruth  ii.  3,  8)  ;  but  the  main  duties 
of  women  were  about  the  household.  They 
brought  water  from  the  well  (Gen.  xxiv.  13 ; 
John  iv.  7),  ground  the  grain  for  daily  use 
(Mat.  xxiv.  41),  prepared  the  meals  (Gen. 
xviii.  0  ;  2  Sam.  xiii.  8;  Luke  x.  40),  spun 
wool  and  made  clothing  (1  Sam.  ii.  19 ;  Prov. 
xxxi.  1.3.  19  ;  Acts  ix.  36-39),  taught  the 
children  religious  truth  (Prov.  i.  8 ;  xxxi.  1  ; 
cp.  2  Tim.  iii.  1.")),  and  directed  the  house- 
hold (Prov.  xxxi.  27  ;  1  Tim.  iii.  12). 

The  Mosaic  law  and  apparently  public 
opinion  among  the  Hebrews  did  not  suffer 
woman  to  be  degraded  in  Israel  to  the  posi- 
tion which  she  had  come  to  occupy  among 
some  of  the  contemporary  nations.  The  law 
mitigated  evils,  and  it  secured  to  women  the 
enjoyment  of  many  rights;  see  Concubine, 
Divorce,  Marri.^ge.  Marriage  was  re- 
garded by  the  Hebrews  as  a  sacred  relation 
(Mai.  ii.  14-16).  The  wife  was  spoken  of 
with  respect  and  accorded  honor  (Prov.  v. 
18;  xviii.  22;  xxxi.  10-12;  Ecc.  ix.  9).  To 
the  mother  honor  was  due,  and  her  law  had 
authority  (Ex.  xx.  12;  Prov.  i.  8).  The  capa- 
ble woman  was  highly  praised  (xxxi.  10-31), 
and  examides  of  noble  womanhood  were 
freely  and  purposely  admitted  to  the  sacred 
writings.  The  spirit  of  the  N.  T.  was  equally 
hostile  to  woman's  degradation.  It  insisted 
that  man  and  woman  shall  occupj^  their  re- 
spective spheres  as  indicated  by  the  Creator 
in  mutual  respect  and  dependence  (Mark  x. 
6-9 ;  Eph.  V.  31 ;  1  Tim.  ii.  12-15).  The  sanc- 
tity and  permanence  of  the  marriage  relation 
were  taught,  and  divorce  permitted  only  for 
extreme  causes  (Mat.  xix.  8,  9 ;  1  Cor.  vii. 
15;  Eph.  V.  22-33).  Woman  was  made  the 
recipient  of  the  same  grace  as  man,  and  heir 
of  the  same  promises  (Gal.  iii.  28) ;  she  was 
accorded  honorable  position  in  the  church, 
and  her  services  in  the  cause  of  Christ  were 
fully  appreciated  and  acknowledged  (Rom. 
xvi.  1-4,  6,  12).  The  practical  precepts  in 
the  epistles  were  calculated,  whether  ad- 
dres.sed  to  saints  generally  or  to  woman  in 
particular,  to  refine  and  ennoble  her,  and  to 
bring  her  best  qualities  into  exercise  (1  Tim. 
ii.  9,  10;  iii.  11). 


Wool.     See  Sheep,  Spinning,  Weaving. 
World. 

The  world  as  known  in  the  Mosaic  age  was 
small  (Gen.  x.).  On  the  south  it  extended 
from  the  mountains  east  of  the  Persian  Gulf 
to  the  Kile  ;  and  on  the  north,  from  the  Cas- 
pian Sea  to  the  Grecian  islands :  in  other 
words,  it  measured  about  1500  miles  from 
east  to  west,  and  900,  or  including  southern 
Arabia  about  1500,  miles  from  north  to  south. 
The  area  was  about  2,250,000  square  miles  ; 
but  a  large  part  of  the  surface  was  occupied 
by  sea,  so  that  the  land  was  scarcely  two- 
thirds  of  the  extent  of  the  United  States,  ex- 
cluding Alaska.  The  history  which  is  re- 
corded in  the  Bible,  and  the  great  events  .of 
the  world's  history,  were  enacted  in  the 
northern  portion  of  this  region,  in  an  area 
about  one-third  that  of  the  United  States. 

During  O.  T.  times  these  limits  remained 
essentially  unchanged,  although  the  geo- 
graphical horizon  widened  a  little.  Media 
and  Persia  rose  to  importance  before  the 
close  of  this  period,  making  themselves 
known  as  never  before  and  taking  the  first 
place  among  the  nations.  India  became  a 
boundarj'  (Esth.  i.  1).  The  existence  of  the 
Sinim  was  known  (Is.  xlix.  12).  In  the  west 
Africa  was  circumnavigated  during  the  reign 
of  Pharaoh-necho,  but  without  increasing 
geographical  knowledge.  The  navigators  did 
not  realize  the  meaning  of  their  achievement. 
They  had  spent  more  than  two  years  on  the 
voyage,  and  what  appeared  most  noteworthy 
to  them  was  that  the  sun,  which  rose  upon 
their  left  hand  when  they  sailed  south  from 
Egypt,  rose  on  their  right  before  they  re- 
turned (Herod,  iv.  42,  43).  In  Italy  and  on 
the  opposite  coast  of  Africa  population  was 
increasing  and  civilization  was  slowly  devel- 
oping ;  but  these  facts  seldom  reached  the 
ears  of  men  in  the  east,  and  then  only 
through  the  reports  of  traders.  Almost  at 
the  close  of  the  O.  T.  period  Greece  emerged 
from  obscurity  by  the  vigorous  resistance 
which  it  oflered  to  the  Persians. 

Alexander  the  Great  conquered  the  world. 
He  extended  its  eastern  limits,  and  added 
immensely  to  geographical  knowledge,  by 
carrying  his  arms  across  the  Oxus  into  mod- 
ern Turkestan,  eastward  beyond  the  bounds 
of  modern  Afghanistan,  and  southward  into 
northern  India.  The  Romans  followed  him. 
In  the  time  of  Christ  the  world,  as  currently 
thought  of  by  men,  extended  from  Spain  and 
Britain  to  the  plateau  of  Iran  and  India,  and 
from  the  desert  of  Sahara  on  the  south  to  the 
forests  of  Germany  and  the  steppes  of  Russia 
and  Siberia  on  the  north.  Knowledge  of  in- 
habited regions  beyond  these  limits  existed  ; 
but  there  was  little  contact  with  this  outside 
world,  it  seldom  engaged  men's  attention, 
and  the  ideas  of  its  geography  were  confused. 

World  is  frequently  put  for  the  inhabitants 
of  the  world  (Ps.  ix.  8;  Is.  xiii.  11;  John 
iii.  16  ;  vii.  7  ;  Rimi.  iii.  19).  and  in  the  N.  T. 
for  that  which  pertains  to  the  earth  and  this 

c 


Worm  7 

present  state  of  existence  merely  (1  Cor.  vii. 
31 ,  Gal.  vi.  14  ;  Eph.  ii.  2 ;  .las.  1.  27  ;  iv.  4 ; 
1  John  ii.  15). 

Worm. 

Any  small,  ci-eeping  animal,  whose  body  is 
boneless  and  consists  of  a  number  of  movable 
joints  or  rings,  and  which  has  no  Hml)s  or 
only  verj'  short  ones.  It  was  generically 
called  tota'ath  or  tole'uh  in  Hebrew,  skolex  in 
Greek  ;  and  it  is  mentioned  as  destroying 
grapes  and  the  gourd  vine  (Deut.  xxviii.  39  ; 
Jonah  iv.  7),  being  bred  over  night  in  manna 
(Ex.  xvi.  20),  consuming  the  corpse  (Is.  xiv. 
11 ;  cp.  Ixvi.  24  with  Mark  ix.  i^),  and  caus- 
ing death  to  the  living  (Acts  xii.  23).  Man 
as  feeble  and  despised  is  likened  to  a  worm 
(Job  XXV.  6  ;  Is.  xli.  14). 

Specific  worms  referred  to  are  : 

1.  Maggots,  in  Hebrew  a  collective  term 
rimmah,  putridity  and  the  worm  bred  in  it. 
They  feed  on  corpses  (Job  xxi.  26  ;  xxiv.  20; 
Is.  xiv.  11),  and  might  be  cxijected  in  putrid 
manna  (Ex.  xvi.  24).  Man  as  very  small  and 
despicable  is  likened  to  the  maggot  (Job  xxv. 
tj).  In  all  these  passages  the  E.  V.  uses  the 
general  term  worm. 

2.  The  larva  of  the  moth,  in  Hebrew  sas 
(Is.  11.  8)  ;  see  Moth. 

3.  The  coccus  worm,  tola'ath  shani,  which, 
however,  is  not  a  worm,  but  an  insect,  ac- 
<?ording  to  modern  classification ;  see  Scar- 
let. 

The  Hebrew  word  sahal,  creeper,  denotes 
something  that  crawls  on  the  ground,  and  is 
rendered  by  worm  in  A.  V.  (Mic.  vii.  17  ;  in 
K.  V.  crawling  things). 

Worm'wood. 

A  plant,  ranked  with  gall,  having  very 
bitter  juice  (Deut.  xxix.  18;  Prov.  v.  4),  un- 
]ialatable  and,  when  exclusively  drunk,  nox- 
ious (Eev.  viii.  11);  called  in  Hebrew  la'"- 
nah,  in  Greek  of  X.  T.  apMnthos.  It  is  used 
figuratively  for  injustice  (Amos  v.  7;  vi.  12  ; 
in  latter  pa.ssage  rendered  hemlock  in  A.  V.), 
for  sore  punishment  (Jer.  ix.  1,5),  for  bitter 
suffering  (Lam.  iii.  19)  with  which  one  is 
sated,  not  intoxicated  (15).  It  seems  to  be 
some  species  of  the  great  composite  genus 
Artemisia.  About  180  species  are  known. 
Post  enumerates  five  species  and  several 
varieties  as  occurring  in  Palestine  or  the 
adjacent  regions.  The  type  is  the  common 
wormwood  (Artemisia  absinthium),  cultivated 
in  gardens. 

Wor'ship. 

Ees])ect  and  honor  shown  to  a  person 
(Luke  xiv.  10,  in  R.  V.  glory).  This  sense 
of  the  word  worship  has  become  obsolete. 
Respect  which  implies  that  the  object  there- 
of possesses  divine  attributes  (Mat.  xiv.  33 ; 
XV.  25;  Rev.  xiv.  7).  Man  is  forbidden  to 
give  this  worship  to  anj^  but  God  alone  (Ex. 
xxxiv.  14  ;  Mat.  iv.  10 ;  Acts  x.  25  ;  Rev. 
xix.  10).  The  same  outward  act  may  be 
civility  shown  to  man,  as  when  people  bowed 
down  to  Esau,  to  Joseph,  or  to  the  king 
50 


Writing 


Wormwood  (Artemisia  absiidhiuin). 

(Gen.  xxxiii.  3  ;  xlii.  6  ;  2  Sam.  xxiv.  20),  or 
worship  rendered  to  God  (Gen.  xxiv.  52,  R. 
V.  ;  Ps.  xcv.  (}),  the  same  Hebrew  word  be- 
ing used  in  all  these  passages.  The  perform- 
ance of  this  outward  act  to  idols  was  strictly 
forbidden  (Ex.  xx.  5). 

For  public  worship  in  apostolic  times  see 
Church. 

Writ'ing. 

The  Hebrews,  or  rather  some  of  them, 
were  able  to  write  (Ex.  xvii.  14;  xxiv.  4; 


Writing  Materials. 

Num.  xxxiii.  2).  The  art  had  been  practiced 
in  Babylonia  centuries  before  Abraham  left 
Ur  of  the  Chaldees,  and  in  Egypt  centuries 


0PP 


Yarn 


786 


Year 


before  the  Israelites  sojourned  on  the  Nile. 
It  was  in  use  in  the  towns  of  Canaan  before 
the  conquest  of  the  country  by  the  Hebrews. 
It  is  recorded  that  the  Hebrews  at  the  time 
of  the  exodus  wrote  documents  (ibid.  ;  Deut. 
xxxi.  24),  inscribed  the  law  on  the  plaster  of 
an  altar  (xxvii.  4,  8  ;  Jo.sh.  viii.  32),  and  en- 
graved words  on  gems  aud  metallic  plates  ( Ex. 
xxxix.  14,  30).  The  ancient  inscriptions  of 
Babylonia  were  impressed  on  soft  clay,  after- 
wards baked ;  and  were  engraven  on  stone 
tablets,  on  the  surface  of  stone  statues,  on 
metal,  and  on  the  gem  of  which  the  seal  was 
made.  The  letters  sent  from  Canaan  to  Pha- 
raoh previous  to  the  exodus  were  written  on 
clay  tablets.  The  Egyptians,  long  before  the 
sojourn  of  the  Israelites  among  them,  cut 
records  in  stone  and  wrote  on  papyrus.  See 
Book,  Ink-horn,  Papyrus,  Parchment, 
Tile. 


Y. 


Yarn.    See  Linen  6. 
Year. 

The  year  of  the  Hebrews  consisted  of  twelve 
months  (1  Kin.  iv.  7;  1  Chron.  xxvii.  1-15). 
These  appear  to  have  been  lunar  (see  Month), 
and  the  year  would  accordingly  contain 
354  days,  8  hours,  48  minutes,  32.4  seconds. 


The  annual  festivals  were  inseparably  con- 
nected with  the  agricultural  seasons.  A 
strictly  lunar  year  would  cause  these  festi- 
vals, as  lixed  by  the  calendar,  to  constantly 
recede  from  their  appropriate  season.  It  was 
necessary  to  ))ring  the  lunar  year  into  corre- 
spondence with  the  solar  year  of  365  days. 
This  was  doubtless  accomplished  by  the  in- 
tercalation of  an  additional  month  every 
three  or  four  years,  although  the  custom  is 
not  mentioned  in  the  Bible.  The  year  began 
with  the  month  Abib  or  Nisan  (Ex.  xii.  2 ; 
xxiii.  15;  Eslh.  iii.  7),  with  the  new  moon 
next  before  or  next  after  the  vernal  equinox, 
when  the  sun  is  in  Aries  (Antiq.  iii.  8,  4 ;  10, 
5) ;  but  there  was  from  the  earliest  times  a 
civil,  or  rather  agricultural,  year  which  be- 
gan in  the  autumn  (cp.  Ex.  xxiii.  16 ;  xxxiv. 
22  ;  Lev.  xxv.  4,  9,  seq.).  It  was  convenient 
for  a  people  devoted  to  horticulture  and  agri- 
culture to  begin  the  year  with  the  season  of 
plowing  and  sowing,  and  to  close  it  with 
harvest.  In  pi-actice  they  frequently  pre- 
ferred to  indicate  the  time  of  year  by  the 
particular  harvest  or  agricultural  occupation 
than  by  the  number  or  name  of  the  month 
(e.  g.  Num.  xiii.  20  ;  Ruth  i.  22).  Sometime 
after  the  exile  the  new  moon  of  the  seventh 
month  came  to  be  kept  as  new  year's  day. 
The  custom  was  probably  not  started  by  the 
events  recorded  in  Ezra  iii.  6  and  Neh.  viiL 
2,  but  was  yet  favored  by  them. 


Month. 

Approxi- 
mation. 

Festival. 

Season. 

1.  Abib  or  Nisan. 

April. 

Latter  or  spring  rains. 

Ex.  xxiii.  15; 

Flax  harvest  at  Jericho  (Josh. 

Neh.    ii.    1; 

ii.  6). 

Autiq.  iii.  10, 

14. 

Passover  (Ex.  xii.  18,  19;  xiii. 

Jordan  at  flood  (Josh.  iii.  15). 

5. 

3-10),  introducing 

15-21.  Feast  of  Unleavened  Bread 

Barley  harvest  in  the  maritime 

(Lev.  xxiii.  6). 

plain. 

16. 

Sheaf  of  firstfruits  of  the  har- 
vest presented  (Lev.  xxiii. 
10-14  :  cp.  Josh.  V.  11 ;  Autiq. 
iii.  10,  5). 

Wheat  ripe  in  hot  Jordan  val- 
ley. 
Pods  on  the  carob  tree. 

Dry  season  begins,  continuing  to 

early  October,  with   prevail- 

2. Ziv  or  lyar. 

May. 

ing  wind  from  the  northwest. 

1  Kin.  vi.  1,37; 

14. 

Passover  for  those  who  could 

Barley  harvest  in  uplands. 

Antiq.  vili.3. 

not  keep  regular  one  (Num. 

Wheat  harvest  in  lowlands. 

1. 

ix.  10,11). 

3.  Sivan. 

June. 

6. 

Pentecost,  or  Feast  of  Weeks 

Apples  on  sea  coast. 

Esth.  viii.  9. 

or    of   Harvest,  or    Day  of 
Firstfruits.    Loaves  as  first- 
fruits  of  gathered  harvest 
presented    (Ex.    xxiii.    16  ; 
xxxiv.  22;  Lev.  xxiii.  17,  20; 
Num.  xxviii.  26;  Deut.  xvi. 
9, 10). 

Early  figs  general. 
Oleander  in  bloom. 
Almonds  ripe. 
Intense  heat  (War  iii.  7,  32). 

4.  Tammuz. 

July. 

Wheat  harvest  in  high  moun- 
tains. 
First  grapes  ripe. 

Yoke 


787 


Zabbai 


Month. 

Approxi- 
mation. 

Festival. 

Season. 

5.Ab. 

August. 

Antiq.  iv.  4,7. 

Olives  in  lowlands. 

6  ElUl. 

September. 

Dates  and  summer  figs. 

Neh.  vi.  15. 

Vintage  general. 

7.  Etbanim  or 

October. 

1.  Memorial  of  Trumpetblowing 

Tishri. 

(Num.  xxix.  1). 

1  Kin.  viii.  2; 

10.  Day  of  Atonement  (Lev.  xvi. 

Pomegranates  ripe. 

Antiq.  viii.4, 

29). 

Season  changing  to   the   winter 

1. 

15-21.  Feast  of  Ingathering  or  Tab- 

(Antiq. iii.  10,  4)  or  rainy  sea- 

ernacles.  Firstfruitsofwine 

S(m,    with    prevailing    wind 

and  oil  (Ex.  xxiii.  16;  Lev. 

from  west  and  southwest. 

xxiii.  34;  Deut.  xvi.  13). 

Former  or  early  rains. 

22.  Solemn  Assembly  (Lev.  xxiii. 

Pistachio  nuts  ripe. 

36;    Num.    xxix.  35;    Neh. 

Plowing. 

viii.   18;  cp.  John  vii.  37). 

8.  Bul    or    Mar- 

November. 

Barley  and  wheat  sown. 

cheshvan. 

1  Kin.  vi.  38; 

Olives   gathered    in    northern 

Antiq.  i.  3,  3. 

Galilee. 

9.  CMslev. 

December. 

Winter  figs  on  trees. 

Zech.    vii.    1; 

25.  Feast  of  Dedication  (1  JIac. 

Rainfall  increases  (cp.  Ezra  x.  9, 

ep.    Antiq. 

iv.  52;  Johnx.  22). 

13). 

xii.  5,  4;  7,  6. 

10.  Tebeth. 

January. 

Hail;  snow  on  higher  hills  and 

Estli.    ii.    16; 

occasionally  at  Jerusalem. 

Anticj.  xi.  5, 

In  lowlands  grain    fields   and 

4. 

pastures  green,  wild  flowers 
abundant. 

11.  Shebat. 

February. 

Zech.  i.  7;    1 

Almond  trees  in  blossom. 

Mac.  xvi.  14. 

Appearance  of  young  fruit,  or 

rather  blossorii,  of  the  fig. 
Carob  tree  in  blossom. 

12.  Adar. 

March. 

Oranges  and  lemons  ripe  in  the 

Esth.     iii.    7 ; 

14, 15.  Feast  of  Purim  (Esth.  ix. 

lowlands.    Storax  blossoming 

Antiq.  iv.  8, 

21-28). 

and    pomegranates    showing 

49. 

their  first  flowers. 
Barley  harvest  at  Jericho. 

Yoke. 

A  small  transverse. bar  of  timber,  generally 
with  two  jjortions  of  the  lower  surface  hol- 
lowed so  as  to  rest  on  the  necks  of  two  oxeu, 
n.sed  to  draw  a  cart  or  a  plow  (Num.  xix.  2)  ; 
see  illustration,  Plow.  Two  oxen  thus  held 
together  were  al.so  called  a  yoke  (1  Kin.  xix. 
19),  and  so,  figuratively,  was  any  burden  im- 
posed on  one  as  a  token  and  means  of  sub- 
jection (xii.  4;  Mat.  xi.  30;  Acts  xv.  10). 


Z. 


Za-a-na'im.    See  Zaanannim. 

Za'a-nan  [place  of  flocks]. 

A  town  (Mic.  i.  11),  perhaps  the  same  as 
Zenan. 

Za-a-nan'nim,  in  A.  V.  once  Zaanaim 
(Judg.  iv.  11),  the  Hebrew  text  being  pre- 
ferred to  the  traditional  reading  [departures]. 

A  frontier  town  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  xix.  33), 
near  Kedesh  (Judg.  iv.  11).  Conder  follows 
Septuagint  which  has  Besemiin.  having  made 
one  word  of  "in  Zaanannini "  (so  Josh.  xix. 
33,  R.  V.  margin),  and  he  believes  it  to  have 
probably  been  near  Bessum,  on  the  table-land 
west  of  the  sea  of  Galilee. 


Za'a-vah,  in  A.  Y.  once  Zavan  [unquiet]. 
A  son  of  Ezer  the  Horite  (Gen.  sxxvi.  27; 
1  Chrou.  i.  42). 

Za'bad  [he  hath  given  or  endowed]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Ephraim,  family  of 
Shuthelah  (1  Chron.  vii.  21). 

2.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Hezron, 
house  of  Jerahmecl.  descended  through  She- 
shan,  and  a  great-grandson  of  Ahlai  (1  Chron. 

II.  31, 34-37).    Possibly  he  was  David's  mighty 
man  of  this  name  (xi.  41 '. 

3.  Corrupt  form  of  Jozacar  (2  Chron.  xxiv. 
26) ;  see  Jozacar. 

4.  5,  <).  Three  Hebrews,  each  of  whom  was 
Induced  bv  Ezra  to  put  awav  his  foreign  wife 
(Ezra  X.  27,  33,  43). 

Zab-a-dse'ans,  in  A.  V.  Zabadeans. 

An  Arabian  tribe  which  dwelt  bctw-een  the 
river  Eleutherus,  Hamath,  and  Damascus 
(1  Mac.  xii.  30-32;  cp.  25),  and  hence  prob- 
ably occupied  that  part  of  the  Anti-Lebanon 
mountains  where  the  villages  of  Zebedani 
and  Zebad  are  situated,  on  the  route  from 
Ba'al-bek  to  Damascus. 

Zab'bai  [humming]. 

A  son  of  Bebai.  He  was  induced  by  Ezra 
to  put  away,  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  28). 
He  was  the  father  of  a  certain  Baruch  (Neh. 

III.  20). 


Zabbud 


788 


Zadok 


Zab'bud  [endowed]. 

He;id  of  a  family  among  the  sons  of  Bigvai, 
who  acconii)anied  Ezra  from  Babylon  (Ezra 
viii.  14). 

Zab'di  [gift  of  (Jehovah)]. 

1.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Zerah,  and 
founder  of  a  house  (Josh.  vii.  1).  Called  in 
1  Chron.  ii.  6  Zimri.  For  the  confusion  of  b 
and  m,  d  and  r,  see  Beth,  Daleth. 

2.  A  Benjamite  (1  Chron.  viii.  19). 

3.  A  Shiphmite,  David's  officer  over  the 
increase  of  the  vineyards  for  the  wine  cellars 
(1  Chron.  xxvii.  27). 

4.  A  Levite,  .son  of  Asaph  (Neh.  xi.  17) ; 
see  ZicHRi  5. 

Zata'di-el  [gift  of  God]. 

1.  Eather  of  Jashobeam  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  2). 

2.  Son  of  Haggedolim  (Neh.  xi.  14),  or  one 
of  the  great  men  (A.  V.  and  margin  of  R.  V.). 

3.  An  Arabian  prince  who  treacherously 
decapitated  Alexander  Balas  and  sent  the 
head  to  Ptolemy  Philometor  (1  Mac.  xi.  17; 
Antiq.  xiii.  4,  8).  He  is  probably  the  person 
referred  to  by  Diodorus  Sictilus  as  Diodes, 
ruler  of  Abse,  to  whose  care  Alexander  com- 
mitted his  infant  son,  and  while  sojourn- 
ing with  whom  Alexander  was  murdered  by 
two  of  his  own  officers. 

Za'bud  [given,  endowed]. 

Son  of  Nathan  and  chief  minister  in  Solo- 
mon's reign  (1  Kin.  iv.  5,  R.  V.  margin). 

Zab'u-lon.     See  Zebulun. 

Zac'cai  [pure,  innocent]. 

Founder  of  a  family,  members  of  which 
returned  with  Zerubbabel  from  the  captivity 
(Ezra  ii.  9  ;  Neh.  vii.  14). 

Zac-chse'us  [Greek  from  Hebrew  Zitkkny, 
pure] . 

A  wealthy  man  of  Jericho  who  farmed  the 
revenue  for  the  Roman  government.  Hebe- 
came  a  disciple  of  Christ  (Luke  xix.  1-10). 

Zac'cur,  in  A.  V.  once  Zaccliur  (1  Chron. 
iv.  26)  [mindful]. 

1.  A  Reubenite  (Num.  xiii.  4). 

2.  A  Simeonite,  descended  through  Mishma 
(1  Chron.  iv.  2f)). 

3.  A  Merarite  Levite,  a  son  of  Jaaziah  (1 
Chron.  xxiv.  27). 

4.  A  Ger.shonite  Levite,  a  son  of  Asaph, 
and  head  of  a  course  of  musicians  in  David's 
reign  (1  Chron.  xxv.  2,  10;  Neh.  xii.  35). 
See  ZiCHRi  .5. 

5.  A  son  of  Imri.  who  helped  to  rebuild 
the  walls  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  2). 

6.  A  Levite,  who  sealed  the  covenant  (Neh. 
X.  12). 

7.  Son  of  Mattaniah  and  father  of  Hanan 
(Neh.  xiii.  13). 

•  Zach-a-ri'as,  in  R.  V.  twice  Zachariah 
(Mat.  xxiii.  '.i^:  Luke  xi.  51)  [Greek  form 
of  the  Hebrew  Z'knri/ah,  Jehovah  hath  re- 
membered] 

1.  Father  of  the  captain  Joseph  (1  Mac. 
V.  18). 


2.  Father  of  John  the  Baptist.  He  was 
a  priest  of  the  course  of  Abijah  (Luke  i. 
5) ;  sec  Abijah.  He  and  his  wife  were  godly 
people,  and  she  was  related  to  Mary  of 
Nazareth  (6,  36).  Their  home  was  in  the 
hill  country  of  Judaea  (39,  40.)  It  was 
customary  to  allot  to  the  members  of  the 
course  on  duty  at  the  sanctuary  the  several 
parts  to  be  performed  in  the  daily  min- 
istrations. When  Zacharias'  course  assem- 
bled at  Jerusalem  the  lot  fell  to  him  to  burn 
incense;  and  while  he  was  discharging  this 
service  at  the  hour  of  prayer,  an  angel  ap- 
peared to  him  and  announced  that  his  sup- 
plication was  heard.  His  old  prayer  f(jr 
a  son,  although  long  abandoned  as  deiiied 
by  God  (18),  and  the  prayer  which  he  con- 
tinually oti'ered  for  the  advent  of  the  Mes- 
siah (68-75),  were  heard;  and  he  was  told 
that  his  wife  should  bear  a  .son  who  should 
go  before  the  face  of  the  Lord  to  make  ready 
for  the  Lord  a  people  pre[)ared  for  him  (13- 
17).  Zacharias  questioned  the  promise  on 
account  of  the  advanced  age  of  himself  and 
his  wife,  and  asked  for  a  sign.  The  sign  was 
granted  in  the  form  of  a  punishment.  Zach- 
arias was  smitten  with  dumbness  until  the 
promise  was  fulfilled  (18-22;  62-64).  When 
the  child  was  born,  not  only  was  the  tongue 
of  Zacharias  released  from  its  speechlessness, 
but  he  himself  was  filled  with  the  Spirit  and 
prophesied  in  words  of  thanksgiving  and 
praise  (67-79). 

3.  A  righteous  man  who  was  murdered  in 
the  court  of  the  temple,  between  the  sanctu- 
ary and  the  house  (Mat.  xxiii.  35 ;  Luke  xi. 
51)  ;  see  Zechariah  11. 

Za'cher.     See  Zechariah  1. 

Za'dok  [just,  righteous]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Eleazar,  the  son  of 
Aaron  (1  .Chron.  xxiv.  3).  He  was  the  son 
of  Ahitub  (2  Sam.  viii.  17).  He  was  doubt- 
less the  young  man,  mighty  of  valor,  who 
went  with  the  chief  men  of  the  tribes  of  Is- 
rael to  David  at  Hebron  to  turn  the  kingdom 
of  Saul  unto  him  (1  Chron.  xii.  27,'  28). 
Early  in  David's  reign  he  was  joint  high 
priest  with  Abiathar  (2  Sam.  viii.  17).  Dur- 
ing the  rebellion  of  Absalom  the  two  col- 
leagues joined  in  David's  flight  from  Jerusa- 
lem, carrying  with  them  the  ark,  but  the 
king  desired  them  to  return  to  the  capital, 
and  there  await  the  issue  of  the  contest  (xv. 
24-29).  After  the  death  of  Absalom,  a  mes- 
sage, on  which  they  acted,  was  sent  by  David 
to  Zadok  and  Abiathar,  requesting  them  to 
suggest  to  the  people  that  the  king  should  he 
called  back  (xix.  11).  When,  in  David's  old 
age,  Adonijah  ]>li)tted  to  usurp  the  throne, 
Zadok  remaiiu'd  faithful,  while  his  colleague 
Abiathar  went  with  the  usurper  (1  Kin.  i.  7,  8). 
When  the  plot  was  discovered  to  David, 
Zadok,  with  Nathan  the  prophet,  received 
instructions  immediately  to  anoint  Solomon 
king  (32-45).  Abiathar  was  deposed  from 
the  priesthood,  and  Zadok  was  the  sole  occu- 


Zaham 


789 


Zareth-shahar 


pant  of  tlie  bigli  office  till  bis  death,  durinj^ 
the  reign  of  the  new  monarch  (ii.  26.  27  ;  cj). 
iv.  4).  The  ofiice  of  the  high  priest  was  thus 
restored  to  the  line  of  Eleazar;  see  High 
Priest. 

2.  A  i)riest  in  the  line  of  liigh  priests, 
father  of  Shalluni  (1  C'hron.  vi.  12).  He  was 
descended  from  the  second  Ahitub  (ibid.  ; 
Ezra  vii.  2)  through  the  second  Meraioth  (1 
Chron.  ix.  11  ;  Neb.  xi.  11). 

3.  Father  of  Jerusha,  king  Uzziah's  mother 
(2  Kin.  XV.  33). 

4.  A  son  of  Baana.  He  repaired  part  of 
the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  4),  and  was 
perhaps  the  person  of  the  name  who  sealed 
the  covenant  (x.  21). 

5.  A  priest,  son  of  Immer.  He  repaired 
the  city  wall  opposite  to  his  house  (Neh.  iii. 
29),  and  was  perhaps  the  scribe  who  was  made 
a  treasurer  (xiii.  13). 

Za'ham  [loathing]. 

A  son  of  Eehoboam  (2  Chron.  xi.  19). 

Za'in. 

The  .seventh  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet. 
English  Z,  which  bad  the  same  origin,  repre- 
sents it  in  Hebrew  names  in  the  English 
version.  It  stands  at  the  bead  of  the  seventh 
section  of  Ps.  cxix.  in  several  versions,  in 
which  section  each  verse  begins  with  this 
letter. 

For  possibility  of  confusing  it  with  other 
letters,  see  Vau. 

Za'ir  [little]. 

A  place  in  or  near  Edom,  where  king 
Joram,  of  Judah,  encamped  before  making 
a  night  attack  on  the  Edomitcs  (2  Kin.  viii. 
21  ;  cp.  the  different  text  in  2  Chron.  xxi.  9). 
Conder  proposes  Zuwera,  a  double  town 
near  the  Dead  Sea,  on  the  road  from  the 
southern  end  of  the  sea  to  Hebron. 

Za'laph  [fracture]. 

Father  of  a  certain  Hanun  (Neh.  iii.  30). 

Zal'mon,  in  A.  V.  once  Salmon  (Ps.  Ixviii. 
14)  [shady]. 

1.  An  Ahohite,  one  of  David's  mighty  men 
(2  Sam.  xxiii.  28).  Also  called  Ilai  (1  Chron. 
xi.  29). 

2.  A  wooded  mountain  near  Shechem 
(Judg.  ix.  48;  cp.  Ps.  Ixviii.  14). 

Zal-mo'iiali  [shady]. 

A  station  of  the  Lsraelites  in  the  wilderness 
(Num.  xxxiii.  41,  42).  Not  identified.  It 
may  have  been  west  or  east  of  Edom. 

Zal-mun'na  [perhaps,  shelter  is  denied]. 

One  of  the  two  kings 'of  Midian  whom 
Gideon  slew  (Judg.  viii.  4-28 ;  Ps.  Ixxxiii. 
11). 

Zam'bri.     See  Zimri  2. 

Zam-zum'mim,  in  A.  V.  Zamzummims 
[murmurers,  makers  of  noise]. 

A  tribe  of  Repbaim,  who  in  ancient  times 
inhabited  the  region  east  of  the  Jordan, 
afterwards  occupied  by  the  Ammonites  (Dent. 
ii.  20) ;  probably  the  same  as  the  Zuzim. 


Za-no'ah  [foul  water]. 

1.  \  town  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  34).  It  was  inhabited  after  the  captivity 
(Neh.  xi.  30),  and  seems  to  have  been  the 
Zanoah  whose  inhabitants  restored  the  val- 
ley gate  of  Jerusalem  (iii.  13).  liobinson 
plausibly  identified  it  with  Zanua,  nearly  3 
miles  .southeast  by  south  of  Ikth-shemesh. 

2.  A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  50  ;  and  probably  1  Cliron.  iv.  IH). 
Zanuta  about  12^  miles  southwest  by  south  of 
Hebron,  2i  south  of  Shuweikeh,  and  5  south- 
west by  west  of  es-Semua,  is  scarcely  the 
site  ;  for  it  belongs  to  the  group  of  Josh.  xv. 
48-51  rather  than  to  that  of  55-57. 

Zaph'e-nath-pa-ne'ah,  in  A.  V.  Zaph- 
natL-paaneah  [(Jod  sjieaks,  he  lives  (Stein- 
dorfl")].  From  the  sound  of  the  name,  the 
Jews  guessed  that  the  name  meant  revealer 
of  secrets  (Targum  Onkelos,  Antiq.  ii.  6,  1). 

The  name  given  by  Pharaoh  to  Joseph 
after  he  had  interpreted  the  king's  dreams 
(Gen.  xli.  45). 

Za'phon  [concealment,  north]. 

A  town  of  the  Gadites  in  the  Jordan  val- 
ley (Josh.  xiii.  27  ;  cp.  Judg.  xii.  1,  E.  V. 
margin).  The  Talmud  calls  it  'Amatho.  If 
this  is  correct,  it  is  Amathus  (Antiq.  xiii.  13, 
5;  xiv.  5,  4),  and  its  site  is  Tell  Ammete,  in 
the  Jordan  valley,  east  of  the  river  and  Smiles 
north  by  east  of  the  mouth  of  the  Jabbok. 

Za'ra  and  Zarab.    See  Zekah. 

Za're-ah.     See  Zorah. 

Za're-ath-ite.     See  Zorathite. 

Za'red.     See  Zered. 

Zar'e-phath,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Sarepta 
(Luke  iv.  26)  [perhaps,  smelting  furnace]. 

A  town  belonging  to  Sidon  (1  Kin.  xvii.  9; 
Luke  iv.  26;  Antiq.  viii.  13,  2).  Thither 
Elijah  repaired  when  the  brook  Cheritb  dried 
up,  and  there  he  miraculously  multiplied 
the  widow's  oil  and  meal,  and  raised  her 
child  from  the  dead  (1  Kin.  xvii.  8-24).  It 
is  the  predicted  limit  in  one  direction  of  the 
Israslites  (Obad.20).  The  name  still  lingers 
in  the  form  of  Surafend,  a  large  village  on  a 
hill  near  the  sea,  14  miles  north  of  Tyre, 
and  8  south  of  Sidon.  The  ancient  city 
was,  however,  on  the  shore,  where  consider- 
able ruins,  extending  for  a  mile  or  more, 
point  out  the  old  site. 

Zar'e-than,  in  A.  V.Zaretan  (Josh.  iii.  16), 
and  Zartanah  (1  Kin.  iv.  12),  and  Zartbao. 
(1   Kin.  vii.  46). 

A  village  beneath  Jezreel  and  near  the 
towns  of  Beth-shean  and  Adam  (Josh.  iii.  16; 
1  Kin.  iv.  12).  In  the  marly  soil  between  it 
and  Succoth  the  bronze  work  for  Solomon's 
temple  was  cast  (1  Kin.  vii.  46).  The  name 
is  probably  another  form  of  Zeredab  (q.  V.). 
The  site  has  not  been  identified,  the  name 
not  corresponding  with  Kurn  Sartabeh,  a 
peak  southwest  of  the  ford  Damieh. 

Za-reth-sha'har.    See  Zereth-shahab. 


Zarhite 


790 


Zebulun 


Zar'hite,  in  R.  V.  ZeraWte. 

A  person  helougini?  to  the  family  of 
Zerah.  There  was  a  family  of  this  name  in 
the  tribe  of  Simeon  and  another  in  Judah 
(Num.  xxvi.  13,  20;  Josh.  vii.  17  ;  cp.  1;  1 
C'liron.  xxvii.  11,   13). 

Zar'ta-nah.     See  Zakethan. 

Zar'than.     See  Zarethan. 

Zat'tu,  in  A.  V.  once  Zatthu  (Neh.  x.  14). 

Founder  of  a  family,  members  of  which 
returned  from  the  captivity  (Ezra  ii.  8  ;  Neh. 
vii.  13).  Some  of  them  were  induced  by 
Ezra  to  put  away  their  foreign  wives  (Ezra 
X.  27).  The  representtitive  of  the  family 
sealed  the  covenant  (Neh.  x.  14). 

Za'van.     See  Zaavan. 

Za'za  [movement,  abundance]. 

A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Hezron,  house 
of  Jerahnieel  (1  Chron.  ii.  33). 

Zeal'ot,  in  A.  V.  Zelotes  [zealous  one]  ; 
Greek  equivalent  of  Canansean  (q.  v.). 

A  member  of  a  Jewish  patriotic  party 
(War  iv.  3,  9;  vii.  8,  1).  Simon  the  apostle 
was  distinguished  from  Simon  Peter  and 
others  by  this  epithet  (Luke  vi.  15  ;  Acts  1. 
13).  The  party  was  started  into  being  by 
Judas  the  Galilsean  in  the  time  of  Cyrenius 
to  resist  Roman  aggression.  Its  increasing 
fanaticism  contributed  to  provoke  the  Roman 
war.  Ultimately  it  degenerated  into  a  body 
of  mere  assassins,  called  Sicarii  (Antiq.  xviii. 
1,  1  and  6  ;  War  ii.  8,  1  ;  17,  8 ;  iv.  3,  9  seq.). 

Zeb-a-di'ah  [Jehovah  hath  given  or  en- 
dowed]. 

1.  A  Benjamite,  of  the  house  of  Beriah  (1 
Chron.  viii.  15,  K?). 

2.  A  Benjamite,  descended  from  Elpaal  (1 
Chron.  viii.  17,  18). 

3.  A  son  of  Jeroham  of  Gedor.  He  joined 
David  at  Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  7). 

4.  Son  of  Asahel,  Joab's  brother  (1  Chron. 
xxvii.  7). 

5.  A  Korhite  Levite,  a  sou  of  Meshelemiah, 
in  David's  reign  (1  Chron.  xxvi.  1,  2). 

6.  A  Levite,  one  of  those  employed  by 
Jehoshaphat  to  teach  in  the  cities  of  Judah 
(2  Ohron.  xvii.  8). 

7.  A  prince  of  Judah,  who  was  the  chief 
judicial  functionary  for  civil  cases  in  the 
court  which  Jehoshaphat  established  at  Jeru- 
salem (2  Chron.  xix.  11). 

8.  A  descendant  of  Shephatiah.  He  was 
one  of  those  who  accompanied  Ezra  from 
Babylon  (Ezra  viii.  8). 

9.  A  priest  of  the  house  of  Immer.  He 
was  induced  by  Ezra  to  putawav  his  foreign 
wife  (Ezra  X.  20). 

Ze'bah  [slaughter,  sacrifice]. 

( )ne  of  the  two  kings  of  Midian  pursued 
and  slain  by  (xideon  (Judg.  viii.  4-28;  Ps. 
Ixxxiii.  11).* 

Ze-ba'im.     See  Pochereth-hazzebaim. 
Zeb'e-dee  [Greek  form  of  Hebrew  Z'bad- 
yiih,  Jehovah  hath  endowed]. 


The  husband  of  Salome  (q.  v.),  and  father 
of  James  and  John.  Like  his  sons,  he  was  a 
fisherman  on  the  sea  of  Galilee  (Mat.  iv.  21, 
22),  and  was  a  man  of  some  substance,  for  he 
had  hired  servants  (Mark  i.  19,  20).  He 
raised  no  obstacle  to  his  sous  following  Jesus. 

Ze-bi'dab,  in  A.  V.  Zebudab,  the  tradi- 
tional pronunciation  [given,  bestowed]. 

A  daughter  of  Pedaiah  of  Rumah,  and 
mother  of  king  Jehoiakim  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  36). 

Ze-bi'na  [acquired]. 

A  descendant  of  Nebo.  He  was  induced 
by  Ezra  to  put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra 
X.  43). 

Ze-boi'im  and  Zeboim,  I.  [gazelles].  In 
Hebrew  text  and  R.  V.  the  first  foi'ni  is  used 
in  the  Pentateuch,  the  second  in  Ho.sea. 

One  of  the  five  cities  of  the  plain  (Gen.  x. 
19).  Its  king  was  defeated  by  Chedorlaomer 
(xiv.  2,  8,  10).  It  was  destroyed  with  the 
other  cities  of  the  jdain  by  fire  from  heaven 
(xix.  17-29  ;  Deut.  xxix.  23;  Hosea  xi.  8j. 

Ze-bo'im,  II.  [hyenas]. 

1.  A  valley  in  the  territory  of  Benjamin, 
between  Michmash  and  the  wilderness  on 
the  east  (1  Sam.  xiii.  16-18).  A  cliff  just 
above  the  Jordan  jjlain,  near  Jericho,  is 
called  Shukh  ed-Duba,  lair  of  the  hyena, 
and  perhaps  indicates  the  locality. 

2.  A  town  occupied  by  Benjamites  after 
the  captivity  (Neh.  xi.  34).  It  is  evidently 
to  be  sought  in  the  hills  bordering  the  plain 
of  Sharon,  near  Lydda. 

Ze-bu'dah.     See  Zebidah. 

Ze'bul  [habitation]. 

The  governor  of  the  city  of  Shechem  in 
the  time  of  Abimelech,  to  whom  he  showed 
unswerving  fidelity  (Judg.  ix.  28,  36-39). 

Zeb'u-lon-ite.     See  Zebulunite. 

Zeb'u-lun,    in   A.   V.   of   N.   T.  Zabulon 

[habitation,  dwelling]. 

1.  The  tenth  son  of  Jacob,  and  the  sixth 
by  Leah  (Gen.  xxx.  19,  20).  He  went  down 
with  his  father  into  Egypt  (Ex.  i.  3).  He 
had  three  sons :  Sered,  Elon,  and  Jahleel 
(Gen.  xlvi.  14).  Jacob,  in  his  farewell  ad- 
dress, blessing  his  sons,  pictured  Zebulun  as 
dwelling  at  the  haven  of  the  sea,  being  a 
haven  of  ships,  and  having  his  border  on 
Zidon  (xlix.  13).  This  picture  was  real- 
ized in  its  essentials,  but  not  in  its  details. 
Zebulun  was  allotted  territory  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  sea,  and  enjoyed  the  mai'kets  of  the 
towns  on  the  coast;  but  it  was  itself  sepa- 
rated from  the  sea  of  Galilee  by  Naphtali 
and  Issachar,  and  from  the  Mediterranean 
Sea  and  the  city  of  Zidon  l)y  the  tribe  of 
Asher.  This  lack  of  agreement  between  the 
picture  drawn  in  Jacob's  address  and  the 
actual  state  of  the  tribe  in  Palestine  is  a 
strong  argument  that  the  address  was  not 
composed  after  the  settlement  of  the  tribes, 
but  is  genuine. 

2.  The  tribe  of  which   Zebulun  was  the 


Zebulun 


191 


Zechariah 


profreiiitor.  From  his  three  sons  sprang  the 
great  families  into  \vhich  the  tribe  was  di- 
vided (Num.  xxvi.  26,  27).  The  prince  of 
the  trihe  early  in  the  wilderness  wanderings 
w-as  Eliab,  son  of  Helon  (i.  9;  x.  16),  and  at 
a  later  period  Elizaphan,  son  of  Parnach, 
was  a  ]irinee  (xxxiv.  25).  The  spy  from 
the  tribe  was  Gaddiel,  son  of  Sodi  (xiii.  10). 
At  the  first  census  it  contained  57,400  fight- 
ing men  (i.  30,  31) ;  at  the  second  60,500 
(xxvi.  27).  It  was  one  of  the  six  tribes  the 
representatives  of  which  stood  on  mount 
Ebal  to  pronounce  cur.ses  on  transgressors 
(Deut.  xxvii.  13;  cp.  Josh.  viii.  32-35). 
Moses  before  his  departure,  associating  the 
two  brothers,  later  sons  of  Leah,  and  with 
the  prophecy  of  Jacob  in  mind,  thus  in- 
dicated their  future  history.:  "  Eejoice,  Zebu- 
hiu,  in  thy  going  out;  and,  Issachar,  iu  thy 
tents.  They  shall  call  the  peoples  unto  the 
mountain  ;  there  they  shall  offer  sacrifices 
of  righteousness :  for  they  shall  suck  the 
abundance  of  the  seas,  and  the  hidden  treas- 
ures of  the  sand  "  (Deut.  xxxiii.  18,  19,  K.  Y.). 
In  the  mountain  of  Jehovah's  inheritance 
(Ex.  XV.  17),  where  he  will  establish  his  chosen 
people,  Zebulun  and  Issachar  will  hring 
rich  offerings  to  their  bountiful  Benefactor. 
After  the  conquest  of  Canaan,  Zebulun  was 
allotted  territorj'  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
country.  It  lay  north  of  Issachar,  east  of 
Asher,  and  south  and  west  of  Naphtali 
(Josh.  xix.  27,  34).  Its  southern  boundary 
ran  by  Daberath  on  the  western  foot  of 
mount  Tabor,  passed  Chisloth-tabor,  and 
after  skirting  the  plain  of  Esdraelon  and 
then  crossing  it  reached  the  brook  that  is 
before  Jokneam  (11,  12),  probably  the  wady 
el-Milh,  a  southern  tributary  of  the  Kishon. 
Its  eastern  boundary  went  to  Gatli-hepher, 
which  was  probably  3  miles  north  by  east  of 
Kazareth,  and  on  to  Rimmon,  6  miles  almost 
due  north  of  Nazareth  (13.  R.  V.).  At  the 
northwestern  corner  of  the  territory  was  the 
valley  of  Iphtah-el  (14),  probably  about  9 
miles  north  by  west  of  Nazareth,  and  leaving 
the  fertile  plain  of  el-Buttauf  within  the 
bounds  of  Zebulun.  Since  Bethlehem,  7 
miles  west-northwest  of  Nazareth,  belonged 
to  Zebulun  (15),  the  western  boundary  was 
doubtless  in  part  the  wady  el-Khalladiyeh. 
The  region  posses.sed  by  Zebulun  was  fer- 
tile. It  embraced  a  part  of  the  mountainous 
country  of  lower  Galilee  and  the  north- 
western corner  of  the  plain  of  Esdraelon. 
The  Zebulunites  constituted  an  important 
part  of  Barak's  force  in  the  fight  with  Sisera 
(Judg.  iv.  6-10;  v.  14,  18 1.  and  of  Gideon's 
army  in  the  war  with  Midian  (vi.  35).  Deb- 
orah sang  that  there  were  in  the  tribe  they 
that  handle  the  marshal's  staff,  or  the  staff 
of  the  scribe  (v.  14,  R.  V.  text  and  margin), 
meaning  the  scribes  who  gathered  and  mus- 
tered the  army  (2  Kin.  xxv.  19).  The  judge 
Elon  was  a  member  of  the  tribe,  exercised  his 
office,  died,  and  was  buried  at  Aijalon,  within 
its  territory  (Judg.  xii.  12).     Fifty  thousand 


warriors  of  the  tribe,  with  skillful  and  faith- 
ful commanders,  went  with  the  other  tribes 
to  Hebron  to  make  David  king  (1  Cliroii.  xii. 
33,  40).  Ishmaiah  was  the  ruler  of  the 
Zebulunites  in  David's  reign  (xxvii.  19). 
The  tribe  with  the  rest  of  Galileo  suffered 
severely  during  the  As.syrian  wars,  but 
Isaiah  prophesied  that  it  would  obtain  com- 
pensatory blessings  in  Messianic  times  (Is. 
ix.  1,  2;  Mat.  iv.  12-16).  Some  men  of  the 
tribe  accepted  Hezekiah's  invitation  to  come 
to  Jerusalem  for  his  great  passover  (2  Chron. 
XXX.  10,  11,  18).  Ezekiel,  of  course,  a.ssigns 
a  gate  for  the  Zebulunites  in  the  Jerusalem 
which  he  describes  (Ezek.  xlviii.  33),  and  of 
the  tribe  there  were  sealed  iu  the  apocalyptic 
vision  the  normal  number  12,000  (Rev.  vii.  8). 

Zeb'u-lun-ite,  in  A.  V.  iu  Judges  Zebu- 
lonite. 

One  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Zebulun,  or 
resident  within  its  territory  (Num.  xxvi.  27; 
Judg.  xii.  11,  12). 

Zech-a-ri'ali,  in  A.  V.  four  times  Zacha- 
riah  (2  Kin.  siv.  29;  xv.  8,  11;  xviii.  2) 
[Jehovah  hath  remembered]. 

1.  A  Benjaniite  of  the  family  of  Jeiel  of 
Gibeon  (1  Ghron.  ix.  37)  :  called  in  1  Chron. 
viii.  31  Zecher  (in  A.  V.  Zacher).  If  the 
traditional  vocalization  is  correct,  Zecher  is 
a  synonymous  name  meaning  memory.  Per- 
haps, however,  it  was  an  abbreviation  of 
Zechariah,  as  Ahaz  is  of  Ahaziah,  and  was 
pronounced  Zachar,  meaning  he  hath  re- 
membered. 

2.  A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath,  house  of 
Izhar,  descended  through  Ebiasaph.  He  was 
the  eldest  son  of  Mcshelemiah.  He  was 
porter  of  the  door  of  the  tent  of  meeting  in 
David's  reign  (1  Chron.  ix.  21,  22;  xxvi.  2). 
He  was  a  discreet  counselor  (14). 

3.  A  Levite  of  the  second  degree  who  played 
a  psaltery  iu  the  procession  that  escorted  the 
ark  to  Jerusalem,  and  afterwards  was  per- 
manently employed  in  the  tabernacle  which 
David  pitched  for  the  ark  (  1  Chron.  xv.  18. 
20;  xvi.  5).  It  is  doubtful  whether  the  word 
doorkeepers  (xv.  18)  is  intended  to  include 
bim. 

4.  A  priest  who  blew  a  trumpet  when  the 
ark  was  brought  up  from  the  house  of  Obed- 
edom  (1  Chron.  xv.  24). 

5.  A  Levite,  faniilj-  of  Kohath,  house  of 
Uzziel.  He  was  a  son  of  Isshiah  and  lived  in 
the  reign  of  David  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  25). 

6.  A  Levite,  family  of  Merari,  and  fourth 
.son  of  Hosah.  He  was  one  of  the  doorkeej)- 
ers  in  David's  reign  (1  Chron.  xxvi.  11). 

7.  A  Manassite  of  Gilead  and  father  of 
Iddo,  who  lived  in  David's  reign  (1  Chron. 
xxvii.  21). 

8.  A  Levite,  of  the  sons  of  Asaph,  and 
hence  of  the  family  of  Gershom  (2  Chron. 
XX.  14). 

9.  One  of  the  princes  whom  Jehoshaphat 
sent  to  teach  the  people  of  Judah  (2  Chron. 
xvii.  7). 


Zechariah 


792 


Zechariah 


10.  Fourth  son  of  king  Jelioshaphat  (2 
Chron.  xxi.  2). 

11.  Sou  of  Jehoiada.  the  high  priest,  and  a 
righteous  man  like  Ids  father.  He  lived  in 
the  reign  of  king  Joash  of  Judah.  The  Spirit 
of  (xod  came  upon  him  and  he  remonstrated 
with  the  people  on  their  apostasy  from 
Jehovah  which  ensued  on  the  death  of  Je- 
hoiada. At  the  instance  of  the  king  he 
was  stoned  to  death  in  the  court  of  the 
temple  (2  Chron.  xxiv.  20-22).  It  is  com- 
monly believed  that  he  is  referred  to  by 
our  Lord  when  speaking  of  the  righteous 
blood  shed  on  earth,  from  the  blood  of 
Abel  unto  the  blood  of  Zechariah,  who  per- 
ished between  the  altar  and  the  sanctuary 
{Luke  xi.  51).  Zechariah,  son  of  Jehoiada,  is 
the  only  person  mentioned  in  Scripture  as 
being  thus  slain;  his  violent  death  was  mem- 
orable and  was  familiar  to  succeeding  genera- 
tions ;  and  he  is  the  last  of  the  righteous 
men  wickedly  slain,  as  Abel  was  the  first, 
who  are  mentioned  in  the  Hebrew  Scriiitures, 
("hronicles  being  the  last  book  in  tlu'  Hebrew 
Bible.  He  is  called  the  son  of  Barachiah  in 
the  parallel  passage  (Mat.  xxiii.  35,  in  A.  V. 
Barachias),  which  naturally  identifies  him 
with  the  well-known  prophet  who  lived  after 
the  exile.  But  this  explanatory  clause  in 
Matthew  is  not  improbably  a  gloss  which  was 
written  on  the  margin  by  a  reader  and  after- 
wards crept  into  the  text. 

12.  A  man  who  had  understanding  in  the 
vision  of  God,  and  gave  wise  counsel  to  king 
Uzziah,  which  for  a  time  he  followed  (2 
Chron.  xxvi.  5). 

13.  A  king  of  Israel  and  last  ruler  of  the 
dynasty  of  Jehu.  He  came  to  the  throne  of 
Samaria  in  the  thirty-eighth  year  of  Azariah, 
king  of  Judah,  and  reigned  six  months,  about 
749  B.  c.  He  was  the  son  of  Jeroboam  11. , 
and  was  murdered  by  Shall um,  who  suc- 
ceeded him  as  king  (2  Kin.  xiv.  29;  xv. 
8-12).  By  his  occupancy  of  the  throne  the 
prediction  was  fulfilled  that  the  fourth  gen- 
eration of  Jehu's  sons  should  sit  on  the  throne 
(x.  30). 

14.  A  Eeubenite  chief  (1  Chron.  v.  7). 

15.  Son  of  Jeberechiah.  He  was  a  witness 
that  Isaiah  wrote  certain  enigmatical  words 
about  a  year  before  their  meaning  was  ex- 
plained by  a  prophecy  (Is.  viii.  2). 

16.  Maternal  grandfather  of  Hezekiah  (2 
Kin.  xviii.  2). 

17.  A  Levite  descended  from  Asaph.  He 
took  part  in  the  cleansing  of  the  temple  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Hezekiah  (2  Chron.  xxix.  13). 

18.  A  Kohathite  Levite,  overseer  of  the 
workmen  employed  to  repair  the  temple  in 
Josiah's  reign  (2  Chron.  xxxiv.  12). 

19.  A  ruler  of  the  house  of  God  in  Josiah's 
reign  and  doubtless  a  priest  (2  Chron.  xxxv. 
8). 

20.  Aman  of  Judah,  familj'  of  Shelah  (Neh. 
xi.  5). 

21.  A  man  of  .Tudah,  family  of  Perez  (Neh. 
xi.  4). 


22.  A  priest  descended  from  Pashhur  of  the 
house  of  Malchijah  (Neh.  xi.  12). 

23.  A  descendant  of  Parosh.  He  returned 
from  Babylon  with  a  party  along  with  Ezra 
(Ezra  viii.  3). 

24.  A  son  of  Bebai  who  did  likewise  (Ezra 
viii.  11.) 

25.  One  of  the  chief  men  whom  Ezra  sent 
to  secure  Le  vites  and  Nethinim  to  accompany 
the  returning  exiles  (Ezra  viii.  16). 

26.  One  of  the  men,  probably  priests,  who 
stood  beside  Ezra  at  the  public  reading  of  the 
law  (N-eh.  viii.  41). 

27.  A  sou  of  Elam,  induced  by  Ezra  toi)ut 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  26). 

28.  A  Levite,  son  of  Jonathan,  and  a  de- 
scendant of  Asaph.  He  led  a  division  of 
Levitical  musicians  at  the  dedication  of  the 
rebuilt  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  xii.  35,  36). 

29.  A  priest  who  blew  a  trumpet  at  the 
dedication  of  the  rebuilt  wall  of  Jerusalem 
(Neh.  xii.  41). 

30.  A  priest,  head  of  the  father's  house  of 
Iddo  in  the  days  of  the  high  priest  Joiakim 
(Neh.  xii.  16).     See  the  following. 

31.  A  prophet,  son  of  Berechiah,  and  grand- 
son of  Iddo  (Zech.  i.  1).  His  first  recorded 
prophecy  was  delivered  in  the  second  year  of 
Darius  Hystaspis,  520  B.  c.  (ibid.,  Ezra  iv.  24 
with  V.  1.).  He  was  a  contemporary  of 
Zerubbabel  the  governor,  Jeshua  the  high 
priest,  and  Haggai  the  prophet  (Zech.  iii.  1  ; 
iv.  6;  vi.  11;  Ezra  v.  1,  2),  and  united  with 
Haggai  in  exhorting  the  leaders  of  the  Jew- 
ish colony  to  resume  work  on  the  house  of 
God.  It  scarcely  admits  of  question  that  he 
was  born  in  Babylonia,  for  the  exiles  had 
been  back  in  Palestine  eighteen  years  only 
and  Zechariah  hardly  began  to  prophesy  be- 
fore he  was  eighteen.  Not  improbably 
Zechariah  belonged  to  the  tribe  of  Levi,  and, 
like  Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel,  Avas  a  priest  as 
well  as  a  prophet;  for,  according  to  Nehe- 
miah  (Neh.  xii.  1,  4,  7)  Iddo  was  head  of  a 
priestly  family  and  one  who  returned  from 
Babylonia  with  Zerubbabel  ;  and  a  descend- 
ant of  his,  Zechariah  by  name,  was  bead  of  the 
priestly  house  of  Iddo  during  the  high-priest- 
hood of  Joiakim,  sou  of  Jeshua  (10,  12,  16). 
It  is  true  that  the  lineage,  which  is  involved 
in  Nehemiah's  statements,  may  be  quite  dis- 
tinct from  the  genealogy  of  the  prophet, 
although  it  contains  the  same  names  in  the 
same  order,  but  the  theory  wliich  identi- 
fies the  two  has  not  a  little  confirmation. 
1.  Since  Iddo  had  attained  to  the  head- 
ship of  a  priestly  family,  he  is  riglitly  judged 
to  have  been  an  elderly  man  in  the  year  of 
the  return,  .'S,38  b.  c.  His  descendant,  Zech- 
ariah, attained  to  the  same  ])osition  in  the 
next  generation,  which  would  naturally  in- 
involve  his  being  of  such  an  age  in  .520  B.  c. 
that  he  could  he  called  a  young  man.  The 
prophet  Zechariah  is  called  a  young  man 
(though  by  an  angel  it  is  true),  in  the  year 
.520  b.  c.  (Zech.  ii.  4).  2.  Assuming  that  the 
prophet's  father  Berechiah  was  the  son  of  the 


Zechariah 


793 


Zechariah 


])riest  Iddo  and  died  prior  to  520,  without  at- 
taining to  the  headship  of  the  family,  tlieu 
the  i)ro])het  Zechariali  was  left  next  in  the 
line  t>f  succession,  and  this  would  lead  Kzra 
to  call  him  the  son  of  Iddo,  naming  him  both 
as  descendant  and  successor  of  Iddo.  I5ut 
even  if  Berechiah  were  alive,  his  name 
might  be  omitted  ;  for  it  was  only  neces- 
sary to  name  the  father's  house  to  which 
a  man  belonged,  in  order  to  locate  him 
among  the  tribes  and  families  of  Israel. 
The  assumption  of  Bcrechiah's  death  would 
also  account  for  the  fact  that  in  the  genera- 
tion after  the  return,  Zechariah  was  head  of 
the  father's  hotise.  3.  The  theory  that  the 
prophet  Zechariah  was  a  priest  accounts  for 
his  familiarity  with  priestly  functions  and 
ideas  (iii. ;  iv.). 

Another  view  is  that  favored  by  Kimchi. 
According  to  him,  the  term  prophet  in  i.  1 
and  7  refers  to  Iddo  (for  position  of  the  title, 
cp.  Ezra  vii.  5),  and  the  latter  is  the  seer  who 
prophesied  in  the  reign  of  Kehoboam  (2 
Chron.  xii.  15;  xiii.  22).  The  theory  is  im- 
probable, but  it  is  not  to  be  rejected  because 
four  centuries  intervened  between  the  seer 
Iddo  and  the  prophet  Zechariah. 

The  book  of  Zechariah  is  the  eleventli  of 
the  minor  prophets.  It  may  be  divided  as 
follows : 

I.  Introduction  to  the  book  and  a  series 
of  eight  visions.  The  introduction  (i.  1-6) 
strikes  the  keynote,  not  to  these  visions 
only,  but  to  the  whole  book.  Learn  the  les- 
son of  the  past :  "  Eeturn  unto  me  and  I 
will  return  unto  you.''  Vision  1 :  the  drove 
of  horses  (7-17),  fleet,  tireless  messengers. 
By  thispictui-e  it  is  shown  that  God  is  watch- 
ing the  events  of  earth  ;  there  is  no  sign  of 
relief  for  God's  peoi)Ie  or  of  the  punishment 
of  their  oppressors ;  the  nations  are  at  rest. 
Yet  God  is  jealous  for  Zion  and  sore  dis- 
pleased with  its  oppressors  ;  therefore,  he  is 
returned  to  Jerusalem  with  mercies;  his 
house  and  his  city  shall  be  built,  the  land 
shall  greatly  prosper.  The  first  vision  is  in- 
troductory to  the  seven  that  follow.  Vision 
2 :  the  four  horns  and  the  four  smiths  (18- 
21).  The  vision  means  that  for  each  of  the 
horns,  i.  e.  nations  that  scattered  Judah,  de- 
struction is  appointed.  Vision  3  :  the  man 
with  a  measuring  line  (ii.).  The  comfort- 
able message  of  the  first  vision  is  unfolded, 
namely,  the  rebuilding  of  the  city.  The 
idea  is  expanded,  however.  Jerusalem  shall 
not  be  measured,  as  cities  usually  are,  by  the 
extent  of  its  walls;  for,  enjoying  unbounded 
prosperity,  it  shall  spread  abroad  without 
walls.  It  will  not  be  insecure,  however  ;  Je- 
hovah will  be  a  wall  of  fire  about  it.  Vision 
4  :  Joshua,  the  high  priest  (iii.).  The  priest- 
hood, although  human  and  defiled,  a  brand 
consuming  in  the  fire  of  God's  wrath,  is  by 
grace  plucked  forth,  cleansed,  and,  on  condi- 
tion of  obedience,  promised  continuance. 
Then  the  fact  is  emphasized  that  the  priests 
are  types  of  the  Messiah,  and  bj'  a  symJjolical 


action  it  is  declared  that  God  has  a  purpose 
which  he  will  accomplish  ;  the  one  typified 
will  be  raised  uj).  Vision  5  :  the  golden  can- 
dlestick and  the  two  olive  trees  (iv.).  It 
seems  as  though  the  light  of  the  church 
burning  feebly  after  the  exile  must  needs  go 
out;  not  so,  God  has  provided  an  abundant, 
unlailing,  self-furnishing  supjily  of  oil.  Vi- 
sion (j :  the  flying  roll  (v.  1—1).  God  has  pro- 
nounced a  curse  for  the  destruction  of  wick- 
edness. Vision  7  :  the  dejiarting  ephah  (5- 
11).  This  is  the  sequel  of  the  sixth  vision. 
Wickedness,  personified  as  a  woman  and  im- 
prisoned, is  removed  from  the  land.  Vision 
8 :  the  four  chariots  issuing  from  the  pres- 
ence of  the  Lord  of  all  the  earth  (vi.  1-8). 
The  four  chariots  are  declared  to  represent 
the  four  winds,  which  commonly  denote  the 
unseen  power  of  God ;  and  the  vision  is  a 
promise  that  the  eutii-e  plan  outlined  in  the 
preceding  series  will  be  executed  by  the  Lord 
of  all  the  earth. 

II.  Symbolic  action  :  crowning  of  the  high 
priest  (vi.  9-15).  This  procedure  is  expressly 
declared  to  belong  to  the  future  and  to  relate 
to  the  well-known  Branch  who  was  the  ex- 
pected king  of  David's  line. 

III.  Deputation  from  Bethel  to  inquire 
whether  the  fasts  shall  still  be  kept,  now  that 
the  disasters  which  they  commemorated  have 
been  in  part  retrieved,  and  the  prophet's  four 
answers  (vii.;  viii.).  1.  Fasts  terminate  on 
the  faster  ;  they  do  not  affect  God  ;  obedience 
is  the  one  thing  God  requires  (vii.  4-7).  2. 
Justice  and  truth  are  the  will  of  God,  which  is 
to  be  obeyed.  The  desolation  of  the  land  and 
dispersion  of  the  i)eople  were  not  a  calamity  to 
be  bewailed  ;  they  were  a  punishment  for 
disobedience  and  intended  to  work  reform 
(8-14).  3.  God  returns  to  Zion  in  jealousy, 
and  will  secure  truth  and  holiness  (viii.  1-17). 
4.  The  fasts  will  become  festivals  (18-23). 

IV.  Burdens  naturally  follow  the  visions 
w'hich  revealed  God's  purpose  to  destroy  the 
oppressors  of  Judah  and  bring  many  nations 
into  the  kingdom.  Burden  1  :  Jehovah's 
overthrow  of  the  enemies  of  God's  kingdom. 
Punishments  are  impending  which  shall 
bring  the  surrounding  nations  low.  A  rem- 
nant of  Philistia,  however,  shall  he  incor- 
porated in  God's  kingdom  ;  and  Jeru.salem 
shall  be  safe  amid  the  widespread  desolation, 
for  God  shall  encamp  about  Judah  and  Ju- 
dah's  king  shall  come  (ix.).  Ej)isode  :  ex- 
hortation to  look  to  the  Lord  for  ])romi.sed 
blessings ;  and  not  to  idols  and  soothsayers, 
who  only  cause  the  flock  to  err  (x.  1,  2).  Re- 
sumption of  the  prophecy.  The  I^ord,  how- 
ever, as  already  said,  hath  visited  his  flock, 
and  because  of  liis  wrath  will  make  it  as  his 
goodly  horse  in  battle,  free  Judah  from  all 
oppressors,  gather  both  Judah  and  Ephraim, 
and  make  Ephraim  joyful  in  his  former  hab- 
itation (3-12).  These  promised  blessings, 
however,  will  not  be  enjoyed  for  some  time 
to  come.  Desolation  to  the  land !  is  the 
prophet's  cry  (xi.  1-3).     The  reason  for  this 


Zechariah 


794 


Zechariah 


desolation  is  explained  by  the  parable  of  the 
rejected  shepherd  (4-17)  :  because  of  the  con- 
tinued rejection  of  God's  righteous  govern- 
ment, the  covenant  with  the  nations  is 
broken,  and  Israel  is  open  to  desolation  ;  be- 
cause of  the  same  sin,  the  unity  of  Judah 
and  Ephraim  remains  unaccorajjlished,  and 
weakness,  discord,  and  desolation  result. 
Burden  2  :  the  couHict  and  final  triumph  of 
the  kingdom  of  God.  The  nations  of  the 
earth  are  arrayed  against  Jerusalem  and  Ju- 
dah, which  at  the  time  of  the  prophet  Zech- 
ariah were  coextensive  with  the  visible 
church  of  Jehovah  ;  but  Jehovah  makes  it  a 
cup  of  reeling  and  a  burdensome  stone  to  the 
nations,  smiting  the  enemy  with  madue.ss, 
and  revealing  the  fact  that  the  citizens  of 
Zion  ai-e  strong  in  the  Lord  (xii.  1-8).  The 
preparation  of  Jerusalem  (9-xiv.  5)  :  God 
will  prepare  .Jerusalem,  first,  by  gracious 
spiritual  change  wrought  by  God  (xii.  10- 
xiii.  6)  ;  second,  by  purifying  chastisement 
(7-xiv.  5').  The  final  triumph  (5*'-21).  The 
Lord  shall  come  ;  it  shall  be  a  time  of  dark- 
ness and  judgment,  both  for  the  church  and 
the  nations ;  but  at  a  time  appointed  of 
God,  at  eventide  there  shall  be  light.  The 
church  shall  flourish,  and  a  remnant  of  the 
nations  shall  go  up  from  year  to  year  to  wor- 
ship Jehovah,  the  king.  Then  shall  the  idea 
of  the  kingdom  of  God  be  realized,  the 
church  shall  be  holy.  , 

The  first  to  hint  that  the  book  of  Zechariah 
did  not  proceed  in  its  entirety  from  the  pen 
of  the  prophet  whose  name  it  bears  was 
Joseph  Mede,  of  Christ  Church  college,  Cam- 
bridge, in  1653.  He  ai'gued  that  chapters  ix. 
to  xi.  were  written  by  Jeremiah,  because 
Matthew  in  quoting  Zechariah  xi.  1.3  re- 
fers it  to  Jeremiah  (Mat.  xxvii.  9).  This 
argument  has  no  longer  weight  in  the  esti- 
mation of  critics.  Some  would  say  that  the 
mention  of  .Jeremiah  is  an  error  by  Matthew, 
while  others  believe  that  it  is  probably  an 
early  corruption  of  Matthew's  text.  It  has 
even  been  suggested  that  since  the  Hebrews 
in  their  arrangement  of  the  Scriptures  at 
one  time  began  the  latter  prophets  with 
Jeremiah,  observing  the  sequence  Jeremiah, 
Ezekiel,  Isaiah,  instead  of  the  present  order, 
Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel  (see  Canon),  this 
prophetic  section  was  sometimes  referred  to 
as  Jeremiah,  just  as  The  Psalms  and  The 
Proverbs  are  referred  to  as  the  Psalms  of 
David  and  the  Proverbs  of  Solomon,  al- 
though David  was  not  the  sole  author  of  The 
Psalms  nor  Solomon  of  The  Proverbs.  Since 
Mede's  day  many  critics  have  held  that  in  the 
present  book  of  Zechariah  there  are  the  writ- 
ings of  two,  three,  or  more  prophets.  The 
principal  views  are  :  1.  Chapters  ix.  to  xi.  were 
written  shortly  before  the  fall  of  Samaria  in 
722  B.  c,  and  chapters  xii.  to  xiv.  shortly  be- 
fore the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  in  ,587  B.  c. 
2.  Chapters  ix.  to  xiv.  were  written  in  the 
late  Persian  period  more  than  a  century  and 
a  half  after  the  death  of  Zechariah,  or  in  the 


Maccabsean  period.  3.  Chapters  ix.  to  xiv.,  as 
well  as  chapters  i.  to  viii,  proceeded  from 
Zechariah.  The  debate,  it  will  be  seen,  con- 
cerns chapters  ix.  to  xiv.  only.  All  critics 
confess  that  Zechariah  wrote  the  first  eight 
chapters.  The  debated  section  contains  the 
two  burdens.  What  then  is  the  date  of  these 
burdens?  In  regard  to  the  first  burden, 
when  it  was  written  the  house  of  the  Lord 
was  standing  (ix.  15;  xi.  13)  :  but  from  this 
fact  no  argument  as  to  the  date  of  the  burden 
can  be  drawn  ;  for  Solomon's  temple  was 
standing  down  to  the  exile,  and  the  new  tem- 
ple, built  after  the  return,  was  in  use  after  the 
year  515  B.  c.  The  reference  in  x.  10,  11  has 
been  cited  to  prove  that  Egypt  and  Assyria 
were  great  powers  at  the  time  that  this 
prophecy  was  delivered,  and  it  was  deliv- 
ered after  Israel  had  been  carried  captive 
(6),  hence  after  the  capture  of  Samaria  but 
before  the  fall  of  Nineveh,  about  606  B.  c. 
But  a  prophet  after  the  exile,  as  well  as  a 
I)rophet  of  an  earlier  date,  could  foretell  that 
the  Israelites  would  be  restored  to  the  lands 
j  from  which  they  had  been  carried,  namely, 
from  Egypt  and  Assyria  ;  and  although  As- 
syria had  succumbed  to  a  later  world  empire, 
he  could  still  say  that  the  pride  of  Assyria, 
the  power  by  which  the  Israelites  were  still 
kept  in  captivity,  should  be  brought  down  ; 
or  Assyria  may  be  used  of  a  geographical 
region,  including  Babylonia,  just  as  the  term 
is  employed  by  Ezra  (Ezra  vi.  22),  although 
the  region  was  then  under  the  government 
of  Persia.  Accordingly,  the  first  burden 
may  have  been  delivered  either  before  the 
fall  of  Nineveh,  while  Assyria  was  still  a 
power,  or  else  after  the  exile  when  the  As- 
syrian empire  had  given  place  to  other  em- 
pires, and  since  the  temple  is  standing,  after 
the  sixth  year  of  Darius  king  of  Persia. 
Another  datum  which  contributes  to  the 
solution  of  this  question  is  obtained  from 
the  statement  that  God  will  break  the 
brotherhood  between  Judah  and  Israel 
(Zech.  xi.  14).  The  brotherhood  existed 
until  the  reign  of  Rehoboam,  when  it  was 
broken  by  the  refusal  of  the  northern  tribes 
to  render  further  allegiance  to  the  throne 
of  David.  It  might  also  be  said  to  have  been 
broken  when  Samaria  fell,  and  the  northern 
tribes  were  scattered.  The  brotherhood  existed 
once  more  after  the  Babylonian  exile.  Now 
this  burden  was  pronounced  after  the  fall  of 
Samaria  and  the  captivity  of  Ephraim  (x.  6) ; 
and  therefore  it  properly  dates  from  the  time 
after  the  exile,  when  the  current  conception 
was  that  Ephraim  and  .Judah  were  reunited 
in  the  brotherhood.  In  point  of  fact  they 
were  reunited  :  many  members  of  the  ten 
tribes  had  joined  themselves  to  .Judah  ;  and 
the  existing  nation  was  universally  regarded 
as  the  representative  of  the  twelve  tribes, 
and  in  Ezra's  day  accordingly  twelve  goats 
were  otfered  as  a  sin  otfering  at  the  dedica- 
tion of  the  temple,  and  a  second  sin  offering 
of  twelve  bullocks  was  made  for  all  Israel 


Zechariah 


795 


Zedekiah 


(Ezra  vi.  17  ;  viii.  35  ;  cp.  Mat.  xix.  28  ;  Luke 
ii.  36;  Acts  iv.  3tJ ;  xsvi.  7  ;  Phil.  iii.  5).  It 
is  true  that  tlie  prophet  frequently  uses  the 
old  terms  Judah  and  Ephraiiu,  and  this  fact 
has  been  urged  to  i)rove  that  the  prophecy 
■was  uttered  loug  before  the  time  of  Zecha- 
riah,  but  many  people  living  after  the  exile 
used  the  old  terms.  Zechariah  himself  in 
the  first  eight  chapters  emi)loys  them.  He 
addresses  the  "house  of  Judah  and  house 
of  Israel"  (Zech.  viii.  13).  It  is  to  this  post- 
exilic  period  accordingly  that  the  references 
to  the  brotherhood  of  Ephraim  and  Judah 
point.  There  is  a  further  mark.  It  is  de- 
clared that  God  will  raise  up  Judah  against 
the  distant  sous  of  Javan,  or  the  Greeki>  (ix. 
13).  It  will  be  observed  that  the  Greeks  are 
chosen  for  two  reasons :  (1)  Because  the 
prophet  descries  the  conflict  of  the  church 
with  the  most  distant  nations  of  the  world. 
Javan  and  the  i.sles  were  at  this  time  within 
the  geographical  horizon  of  the  Hebrews,  and 
they  were  used  as  types  of  the  remotest 
heathen  nations  (Gen.  x.  4,  5  ;  Is.  xli.  .5 ;  lix. 
18  ;  Ixvi.  19 ;  Ezek.  xxvii.  13).  (2)  The  novel 
feature  here  is  that  Javan  looms  up  as  the 
world  power  of  heathenism.  The  earliest  date 
when  the  coming  power  of  Greece  became 
evident  to  observers  in  the  Persian  empire 
was  during  the  years  from  500  to  479  B.  c, 
and  the  coming  greatness  of  Greece  as  the 
successful  antagonist  of  Persia  was  clearly 
evident.  Greece  had  successfully  checked 
the  advance  of  Persian  arms,  and  the  Grecian 
cities  of  Asia  Minor  were  in  open  revolt 
against  their  Persian  lords  during  the  years 
500  to  495  B.  c. ;  the  Persians  were  defeated 
at  Marathon  in  490  and.  after  their  victory 
at  Thermopylfe,  were  crushingly  defeated  by 
the  Greeks  at  Salamis,  480,  Platsea  and 
Mycale.  479.  Zechariah,  there  is  reason  to 
believe  on  considerable  and  varied  evidence, 
was  a  young  man,  say  twenty  or  twenty-five, 
when  in  .520  B.  c.  he  exhorted  Zerubbabel  to 
the  work  of  rebuilding  the  temple,  and  con- 
sequently these  stirring  events  which  re- 
vealed the  unsuspected  greatness  of  Greece 
and  opened  the  prospect  that  it  would  suc- 
cessfully intermeddle  in  oriental  affairs  oc- 
curred during  the  years  which  were  Zech- 
ariah's  prime  of  life. 

The  second  burden,  chapters  xii.  to  xiv.,  is 
also  shown  by  its  contents  to  belong  to  the 
post-exilic  period.  The  writer  refers  to  the 
terror  of  the  people  when  the  earthquake  in 
the  days  of  Uzziah  occurred.  He  refers  to  it 
as  an  event  living  vividly  in  the  conscious- 
ness of  the  people.  It  was  vivid  to  them 
either  because  of  recent  occurrence  or  be- 
cause it  had  made  a  lasting  impression  on 
their  minds.  It  certainly  had  made  this 
lasting  impression ;  it  is  treated  as  an  epoch 
hy  the  people  of  the  generation  in  which  it 
occurred  (Amos  i.  1),  and  in  the  first  century 
of  the  Christian  era  it  was  still  remembered 
as  a  solemn  and  striking  event  (Antiq.  ix. 
10,  4).     There  is  another  historical  mark  in 


this  second  burden,  the  reference  to  the 
mourning  of  Hadadrimmon  in  the  valley  of 
iSIegiddon  (Zech.  xii.  II).  The  only  natural 
reference  here  is  to  the  killing  of  Josiah  who 
opposed  Pharaoh-necho  at  Megiddo,  was  mor- 
tally wounded  there  and  soon  died,  and  his 
death  was  mourned  by  the  singing  men  and 
singing  women,  and  a  lamentation  was  com- 
posed by  the  prophet  Jeremiah.  Accordingly 
the  second  burden  was  delivered  not  earlier 
than  the  eve  of  the  exile. 

Not  only  do  the  historical  references  in 
the  two  burdens  point  to  late  times,  but  the 
literary  characteristics  of  tliese  burdens  pro- 
claim them  to  have  proceeded  from  the  same 
source  as  the  first  eight  chapters.  This  is 
strenuously  denied  by  certain  critics.  It  is 
urged  that  a  difi"erence  of  style  is  discernible 
between  the  burdens  and  the  visions.  This 
is  true,  but  it  is  a  cardinal  doctrine  of  lit- 
erary criticism  that  the  style  of  an  author 
diflfers  at  various  periods  of  his  literary 
career,  and  when  he  essays  diflTereut  forms 
of  literature.  Zechariah's  style  naturally  un- 
derwent change  during  a  period  of  thirty  or 
forty  years  and  differed  when  he  depicted 
visions  and  symbolical  actions  from  the  style 
in  which  he  set  forth  solemn  warnings. 
Still,  in  the  i)arable  or  the  symbolic  repre- 
sentation of  the  good  shepherd,  there  are 
traces  of  the  same  literary  hand  as  that 
which  portrayed  the  visions  and  the  crown- 
ing of  the  high  priest.  And  the  more  subtle 
marks  of  the  same  hand  are  seen  in  the 
unique  usage  of  certain  words  and  expres- 
sions which  characterize  the  first  eight  chap- 
ters in  common  with  the  last  six.  A  few  of 
these  are  the  Qal  of  yasluih  in  a  ])assive  sense 
(ii.  8;  ix.  5;  xii.  6),  me'oher  lanhhshab  (vii. 
14  ;  ix.  8),  'ehad  for  the  indefinite  article  (v. 
7;  xii.  7),  'al-yamhi  u"al-s'mol  (iv.  11  ;  xii.  6), 
'"damah  (ii.  16;  ix.  1(5;  xiii.  5).  The  employ- 
ment of  the  same  word  in  diflerent  senses  is 
also  a  characteristic  both  of  the  section  which 
is  acknowledged  to  be  genuine  and  of  the  sec- 
tion which  is  disputed.  These  reasons  afford 
proof  that  Zechariah  was  the  author  of  the 
entire  book,  and  that  his  mature  life  was 
pas.sed  between  the  years  520  and  479  B.  c. 

Ze'cher.    See  Zechariah  1. 

Ze'dad. 

A  place,  probably  a  tower,  on  the  northern 
boundary  line  of  Palestine  (Num.  xxxiv.  8  ; 
Ezek.  xivii.  15).  Sudud  or  Sadad,  in  the 
desert  east  of  the  road  from  Damascus  to 
Hums,  is  believed  by  many  to  be  the  site. 

Zed-e-ki'ah,  in  A.  V.  once  Zidkijah  (Neh. 
X.  1)  [righteou.sness  of  Jehovah]. 

1.  A  son  of  Chenaanah.  Having  joined 
with  other  false  prophets  in  encouraging 
Ahab  to  attempt  the  capture  of  Kamoth- 
gilead,  and  having  predicted  that  Ahab 
would  defeat  the  Syrians,  he  was  so  excited 
when  Micaiah,  a  prophet  of  Jehovah,  made  a 
contrary  prediction,  that  he  struck  the  man 
of  God  upon  the  cheek,  accompanying  the 


Zedekiah 


796 


Zemarite 


blow  with  words  of  insult.  Micaiah  told  him 
that  he  would  have  cause  to  acknowledge  his 
error  (1  Kiu.  xxii.  11-25). 

2.  A  lying  and  immoral  prophet,  the  son 
of  Maaseiah.  Jeremiah  predicted  that  Neb- 
uchadnezzar would  roast  him  in  the  fire 
(Jer.  xxix.  21-23). 

3.  A  son  of  Hananiah.  He  was  a  prince 
of  Judah  in  the  reign  of  Jehoiakim  (Jer. 
xxxvi.  12). 

4.  The  name  given  by  Nebuchadnezzar  to 
Mattaniah,  one  of  Josiah's  sons,  on  appoint- 
ing him  vassal-king  of  Judah  in  the  room  of 
liis  nephew,  Jehoiachiu  (2  Kin.  xxiv.  17;  1 
Chron.  iii.  15).  In  2  Chron.  xxxvi.  10  he  is 
called  Jehoiachin's  brother,  i.  e.,  kinsman 
of  the  .same  ancestry ;  see  Brother.  He 
was  the  younger  of  Josiah's  two  sons  by 
Hamutal  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  31  with  xxiv.  18). 
He  was  twenty-one  years  old  when  he  as- 
cended the  throne,  and  I'eigned  eleven  years, 
from  about  598  to  587  b.  c.  Neither  he  nor 
his  people  gave  heed  to  the  word  of  the 
Lord  which  was  spoken  by  Jeremiah  (2 
Chron.  xxxvi.  12;  Jer.  xxxvii.  2).  The 
temple  was  polluted  with  idolatry  (2  Chron. 
xxxvi.  14),  and  justice  was  not  executed 
(Jer.  xxi.  11,  12).  A  strong  party  in  the 
state,  assisted  by  false  prophets,  urged  the 
king  to  throw  off  the  foreign  yoke  (xxvii. 
12-22).  At  the  beginning  of  Zedekiah's 
reign  (1,  R.  V.  margin)  messengers  from 
Edom,  Moab,  Ammon,  Tyre,  and  Zidon  came 
to  him  at  Jerusalem  to  plan  a  united  revolt 
from  the  king  of  Babylon  ;  but  Jeremiah 
was  divinely  instructed  to  condemn  the  pur- 
pose (2-11).  Zedekiah  sent  an  embassy  to 
Nebuchadnezzar,  probably  to  assure  the  great 
king  of  his  fidelity  (xxix.  3),  and  in  his 
fourth  year  he  himself  visited  Babylon  (li. 
59).  Ultimately  he  was  rash  enough  to  rebel. 
On  the  tenth  day  of  the  tenth  month,  in  the 
ninth  year  of  Zedekiah's  reign,  the  Baby- 
lonian monarch  took  post  against  Jerusalem, 
and  began  to  erect  forts  around  the  city.  It 
was  too  strong  to  be  taken  by  assault ;  and 
the  Babylonians  held  it  in  siege.  The  ad- 
vance of  the  Egyptians  compelled  the  Baby- 
lonians to  withdraw  for  a  time  (Jer.  xxxvii. 
5),  but  they  soon  returned.  By  the  ninth 
day  of  the  fourth  month,  in  the  eleventh 
year  of  Zedekiah's  reign,  the  food  in  the  be- 
leagured  capital  was  exhausted.  That  night 
Zedekiah,  with  all  the  men  of  war,  secretly 
quitted  the  stronghold,  and,  passing  as  noise- 
lessly as  possible  between  the  Babylonian 
forts,  fled  in  an  easterly  direction  toward 
the  Jordan.  On  learning  that  the  king  was 
gone,  the  Babylonian  army  pursued  and 
overtook  him  in  the  i)lain  of  Jericho,  his 
soldiers  having  fled  in  all  directions,  leaving 
him  nearly  alone.  He  was  brought  a  prisoner 
to  Nebuchadnezzar,  who  had  retired  to  Rib- 
lah,  a  little  north  of  Palestine.  There,  after 
he  had  been  tried  and  condemned,  his  sons 
were  put  to  death  in  his  presence,  and  his 
own  eyes  put  out ;  after  which  he  was  bound 


in  fetters,  carried  to  Babylon  (2  Kin.  xxiv. 
17-20 ;  XXV.  1-7 ;  2  Chron.  xxxvi.  11-21 ; 
Jer.  xxxix.  1-14),  and  put  in  jirison  till  the 
day  of  his  death  (Jer.  Hi.  11).  Jeremiah 
prophesied  during  the  whole  of  Zedekiah's 
reign. 

5.  A  high  official  who  set  his  seal  to  the 
covenant  immediately  after  Nchemiah  the 
governor  (Neh.  x.  1). 

Zeeb  [wolf]. 

A  Midianite  prince  captured  and  put  to 
death  by  Gideon.  He  was  slain  at  a  wine 
press,  which  was  afterwards  called  that  of 
Zeeb  (Judg.  vii.  25).  Its  exact  .situation  is 
unknown,  but  it  was  doubtless  west  of  the 
Jordan,  near  the  river. 

Ze'la,  in  A.  V.  Zelah  and  so  once  in  R.  V. 
erroneously  (Josh,  xviii.  28)  [rib,  side]. 

A  town  allotted  to  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii. 
28).  There  the  bodies  of  Saul  and  .Jonathan 
were  buried  after  the  men  of  Jabesh-gilead 
had  taken  them  down  from  the  wall  of 
Beth-shean  (2  Sam.  xxi.  14).  Site  uniden- 
tified. 

Ze'lek  [a  cleft]. 

An  Ammonite,  one  of  David's  mighty  men 
(2  Sam.  xxiii.  37;  1  Chron.  xi.  39). 

Ze-lo'phe-had. 

A  Manassite,  family  of  Machir,  subfamily 
of  Gilead,  house  of  Hepher.  He  had  no 
sons,  but  five  daughters  (Num.  xxvi.  33). 
This  condition  of  affairs  gave  occasion  for 
enacting  the  law  that  if  a  man  die  and  have 
no  son  the  inheritance  pass  to  his  daughter 
(xxvii.  1-8).  The  law  was  soon  afterwards 
developed  by  the  addition  of  the  provision 
that  the  daughter  must  marry  within  her 
father's  tribe  in  order  that  no  jiart  of  the 
tribal  possession  be  transferred  to  another 
tribe  (xxxvi.  1-12).  The  inheritance  of  the 
family  was  east  of  the  Jordan  (Josh.  xvii. 
1-6). 

Ze-lo'tes.     See  Zkalot. 

Zel'zah  [perhaps,  shadow  in  the  heat  of 
the  sun], 

A  frontier  town  of  Benjamin,  near  Rachel's 
sepulcher  (1  Sam.  x.  2).  Exact  situation  un- 
known. 

Zem-a-ra'im  [two  cuttings]. 

1.  A  town  of  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii.  22). 
Es-Sumrah,  a  large  ruined  village  about  3 
miles  west  of  the  river  Jordan,  and  4  north- 
northeast  of  Jericho,  and  less  a]i])ropriately 
the  ravine  es-Sunira,  about  5^  miles  west  of 
Jericho  on  the  road  to  Jerusalem,  have  been 
suggested. 

2.  A  mountain  in  the  hill  countiy  of 
Ephraim,  on  which  Abijah,  king  of  Judah, 
stood  to  address  the  ten  tribes  before  en- 
countering them  in  battle  (2  Chron.  xiii.  4). 
Perhaps  it  was  south  of  Bethel  (19).  Prob- 
ably it  lay  not  far  from  the  city  of  Zema- 
raim. 

Zem'a-rite. 

A  Canaanite  tribe  (Gen.  x.  18 ;  1  Chron.  i. 


Zemirah 


797 


ZeraMah 


16).  They  are  cuunierated  hctwccu  the  Ar- 
vadite  and  Hamathite ;  and  were  the  in- 
habitants of  Siinura,  Sumura,  now  Sunira, 
on  the  coast  between  Arvad  and  Tripolis. 

Ze-mi'rah,  in  A.  V.  Zemira  [melody,  a 
song]. 

A  Benjamite,  family  of  Becher  (1  Chron. 
vii.  8). 

Ze'nan  [point  or,  perhaps,  a  place  of 
flocks]. 

A  town  in  or  west  of  the  lowland  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  37).  Perhaps  the  same  as  Zaanau 
(Mic.  i.  11).     Site  unknown. 

Ze'nas  [contraction  of  Greek  Zcnodoros, 
gift  of  Zeus]. 

A  lawyer,  journeying  in  Crete  with  Apol- 
los,  whom  Titus  was  enjoined  by  Paul  to  set 
forward  on  their  journey  (Titus  iii.  13). 

Zeph-a-ni'ah  [Jehovah  has  hidden]. 

1.  A  Levite  of  the  family  of  Kohath  and 
house  of  Izhar  (1  Chron.  vi.  3f)-38). 

2.  A  priest,  the  son  of  Maaseiah.  He  was 
one  of  those  who  carried  messages  between 
Zedekiah  and  Jeremiah  (Jer.  xxi.  1 ;  xxxvii. 
3).  A  certain  false  prophet  who  dwelt  in 
Babylon,  Shemaiah  by  name,  having  sent 
him  letters  directing  him  to  punish  Jeremiah 
for  his  discouraging  predictions,  he  showed 
the  missive  to  the  prophet  (xxix.  24-32). 
He  had  the  oversight  of  the  temple,  and  was 
second  priest  under  the  chief  priest  Seraiah. 
After  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Baby- 
lonians, Zephaniah  was  put  to  death  at  Eib- 
lah  (2  Kin.  xxv.  18-21  ;  Jer.  Iii.  24-27). 

3.  A  man  who!5e  son  Josiah  lived  in  the 
days  of  Zerubbabel  and  the  prophet  Zecha- 
ria'h  (Zech.  vi.  10,  14). 

4.  A  prophet,  whose  descent  is  traced 
through  four  degrees  to  Hezekiah  (Zeph.  i. 
1).  This  ancestor  is  probably  the  king,  from 
the  fact  that  so  remote  a  descent  is  traced 
and  because  the  time  suits.  The  prophet 
himself  lived  and  labored  in  the  reign  of 
Josiah  (ibid.). 

The  book  of  Zephaniah  is  the  ninth  among 
the  minor  prophets.  The  date  given  in  its 
title  (i.  1)  is  confirmed  by  the  omission  of 
Gath  in  the  enumeration  of  Philistine  cities 
(ii.  4),  by  Nineveh  being  still  in  existence 
(13),  and  by  the  absence  of  allusion  to  the 
Chaldeans.  The  subject  of  the  prophecy  is 
God's  universal  judgment  and  its  result. 
1.  A  universal  judgment  (i.  2,  3).  (1)  It  per- 
tains particularly  to  the  wicked  of  Judah 
and  Jerusalem;  and  will  be  a  day  of  .sacrifice 
and  wrath  (4-18).  (2)  A  call  to  repentance  as 
the  only  po.ssible  means  of  escape  (ii.  1-3) ; 
enforced  by  the  certainty  that  God  will 
punish  other  nations  for  their  wickedness 
(4-15),  and  Jerusalem  shall  not  escape,  for  it 
does  not  repent  and  the  Lord  in  the  midst  of 
her  is  righteous  (iii.  1-8).  2.  The  blessed  re- 
sult of  the  judgment.  The  nation  shall  turn 
to  the  Lord  (9-10),  the  remnant  of  Israel  shall 
trust  in  the  Lord  and  be  holy  (11-13),  and 
the   Lord   shall  reign  gloriously  and  benefi- 


cently as  king  in  the  midst  of  his  pcojde 
(14-18).  wiio  shall  be  gathered  from  cap- 
tivity and  be  a  praise  in  the  earth  (l!)-20). 
Perhaps  the  prophecy  was  delivered  before 
Jo.siah  commenced  the  great  religious  refor- 
mation in  the  twelfth  and  eighteenth  years 
of  his  reign  (2  Kin.  xxii.  3;  2  Chron.  xxxiv. 
3,  8). 

Ze'phath  [watchtower]. 

A  Canaanite  town  in  the  south  country 
toward  the  border  of  Edom,  assigned  to  the 
tribe  of  Simeon.  The  Himeonites,  assisted 
by  their  brethren  of  Judah,  captured  the 
place  and  changed  its  name  to  Ilormah  (Judg. 
i.  17)  ;  see  Hokm.^h.  Robinson  suggested 
that  the  name  is  perhaps  retained  in  es- 
Sufah,  the  name  of  a  pass  leading  up  from  the 
Arabah  to  the  soutli  of  Judah  ;  but  the  gener- 
al opinion  is  in  favor  of  Si)aitH,  discoveied 
by  Rowlands  and  rediscovered  by  Palmer, 
24  miles  north  by  east  of  Kadesh-barnea, 
and  26^  south  by  west  of  Beer-sheba.  The 
ruins  cover  an  area  of  1500  yards.  The 
identification  is  philologically  doubtful. 

Zeph'a-thah  [watchtower]. 

A  valley  near  Mareshah,  in  the  tribe  of 
Judah  (2  Chron.  xiv.  10).  Conder  projioses 
the  wady  Safieh,  whicli,  commencing  aliout 
a  mile  northeast  of  Mareshah,  near  Beit 
Jibrin,  runs  for  a  short  distance  in  that  di- 
rection. 

Ze'pM  and  Zepho  [watch]. 

A  son  of  Eli]diaz,  and  grandson  of  Esau. 
He  founded  a  tribe  (Gen.  xxxvi.  11,  15;  1 
Chron.  i.  36).  For  the  diflfereuce  in  spelling 
see  Yau. 

Ze'phon  [watching,  expectaticm.] 

A  son  of  Gad.  and  founder  of  a  tribal  family 
(Num.  xxvi.  15).  Called  in  Gen.  xlvi.  16 
Ziphion,  a  synonym  having  the  form  usually 
as.sumed  by  similar  derivatives. 

Zer  [flint.] 

A  fortified  city  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  xix.  35). 
Site  unidentified. 

Ze'rah,  in  A.  V.  twice  Zarah  (Gen.  xxxviii. 
.30;  xlvi.  12 1 ;  once  Zara  (Mat.  i.  3)  [spring- 
ing up  of  light,  dawn]. 

1.  A  duke  of  Edom  descended  from  Esau 
and  also  from  Ishmael  (Gen.  xxxvi.  3,  4,  13, 
17;  1  Chron.  i.  37.) 

2.  One  of  twins  borne  to  Judah  byTamar, 
and  the  founder  of  a  tribal  family  (Num. 
xxvi.  20;  Josh.  vii.  1,  17). 

3.  A  son  of  Simeon,  and  founder  of  a  tribal 
family  (Num.  xxvi.  13).  He  is  called  in 
Gen.  xlvi.  10  and  Ex.  vi.  15  Zohar,  which 
means  dazzling  whiteness  or  brightne.s.s. 

4.  A  Levite,  of  the  familv  of  (iershom  (1 
Chron.  vi.  21,  41). 

.5.  An  Ethio]iian  who  led  a  vast  army  to 
attack  king  Asa,  but  was  defeated  with  great 
slaughter  in  a  battle  at  Mareshah  (2  Chron. 
xiv.  8-15).     See  PHARO.\n  4. 

Zer-a-M'ah  [the  Lord  is  risen  (cp.  Is.  Ix. 
1,  2)]. 


Zered 


798 


Zeruiah 


1.  A  priest,  son  of  Uzzi,  and  a  descendant 
of  Phinehas  (1  Chron.  vi.  6,  51 ;  Ezra  vii.  4). 

2.  One  of  the  children  of  Pahath-moab 
(Ezra  viii.  4). 

Ze'red,  in  A.  V.  once  Zared  (Num.  xxi.  12) 
[exuberant  growth]. 

A  brook  and  valley,  which  the  Israelites 
crossed  38  years  after  being  turned  back  into 
the  wilderness  at  Kadesh  from  Moab,  and 
constituting  the  farthest  limit  of  the  wander- 
ings in  the  wilderness  (Num.  xxi.  12  ;  Deut.  ii. 
13,  14).  It  was  south  of  the  Arnon  ;  not,  how- 
ever, on  the  southern  boundary  of  Moab,  but 
somewhere  along  its  eastern  border  (Num. 
xxi.  11,  13).  Hence  not  the  wady  el-'Ahsy, 
which  was  the  boundary  between  Moab  and 
Edom.  It  may  be  either  the  Sail  Sa'ideh,  a 
southeastern  branch  of  the  Arnon,  or  the 
upper  course  of  the  wady  Kerek. 

Zer'e-dali,  in  A.  V.  Zereda,  and  with  the 
unaccented  vowel  of  the  old  case-ending 
Ze-red'a-thah  [cooling,  coolness]. 

A  village  whence  came  Nebat,  an  Ephraim- 
ite,  the  father  of  Jeroboam,  and  apparently 
also  Jeroboam  himself  (1  Kin.  xi.  20).  It  was 
not  far  from  Succoth.  In  the  clay  ground 
between  Succoth,  east  of  the  Jordan,  and  Zere- 
dah,  west  of  the  river,  Solomon  cast  vessels 
for  the  temple  (2  Chron.  iv.  17).  The  cast- 
ing place  must  have  been  west  of  the  Jordan 
as  the  opposite  eastern  bank  is  reported  to 
have  scarcely  any  level 'ground  at  all.  Zere- 
dah  is  probably  the  place  elsewhere  called 
Zarethan  (1  Kin.  vii.  46).  Oonder  doubtfully 
suggests  for  its  site  Surdah,  2|  miles  north- 
west of  Bethel ;  and  the  Septuagint  actually 
locates  it  in  the  hill  country  of  Ephraim  (1 
Kin.  xii.  24).  But  the  Septuagint  i)roliably 
confuses  it  with  Tirzah,  and  Zeredah  was  al- 
most certainly  in  the  Jordan  valley. 

Zer'e-rah,  in  A.  V.  Zererath,  as  in  the 
present  Hebrew  text. 

Apparently  the  same  place  as  Zeredah  and 
Zarethan,  whether  the  second  r  should  be 
read  d,  as  in  the  Arabic  and  Syriac  versions, 
or  whether  the  two  r's  are  blended  in  Zare- 
than (Judg.  vii.  22  with  1  Kin.  iv.  12). 

Ze'resh  [pi-obably,  gold]. 

The  wife  of  Hanian  (Esth.  v.  10  ;  vi.  1.3). 

Ze'reth  [perhaps,  fissure  or  brightness]. 

A  son  of  Ashhur,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah, 
by  his  wife  Helah  (1  Chron.  iv.  5-7). 

Ze-reth-sba'har,  in  A.  V.  Zareth-shahar 
[brightness  of  the  dawn]. 

A  town  of  Reuben,  on  a  mountain  which 
overlooks  a  valley,  doubtless  that  of  the 
Dead  Sea  (Josh.  xiii.  19).  Seetzen  suggested 
Sara,  or  Zara,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Zerka 
Ma'in.  The  name.s,  however,  are  not  iden- 
tical. 

Ze'ri. 

A  son  of  Jeduthun  (1  Chron.  xxv.  3).  In 
ver.  11  he  is  called  Izri,  which  is  doubtless 
the  correct  form,  the  initial  jod  having  been 
lost  in  course  of  tran.scription. 


Ze'ror  [a  bundle]. 

A  Benjamite,  an  ancestor  of  king  Saul 
(1  Sam.  i'x.  1). 

Ze-ru'ah  [smitten,  leprous]. 

The  mother  of  Jeroboam  I.  (1  Kin.  xi.  26). 

Ze-rub'ba-toel,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Zorobabel 
[probably,  begotten  in  Babylon]. 

A  son  of  Pedaiah,  and  heir  to  the  throne 
of  Judah  (1  Chron.  iii.  17-19).  But  he  is 
constantly  called  the  son  of  Shealtiel,  who 
was  the  brother  of  Pedaiah,  quite  improbably 
his  son  (Ezra  iii.  2,  8  ;  Neh.  xii.  1 ;  Hag.  i.  1, 
12,  14  ;  ii.  2,  23  ;  Mat.  i.  12,  13  ;  Luke  iii.  27). 
Shealtiel  doubtless  died  childless  ;  and  either 
his  nephew  was  his  legal  heir,  and  hence 
called  his  son  (Ex.  ii.  10),  or  else  Pedaiah  mar- 
ried his  widow,  in  which  case  the  first  child 
would  be  considered  that  of  the  deceased 
brother  (Deut.  xxv.  5-10,  etc.).  When  Cyrus, 
after  the  conquest  of  Babylon,  adopted  the 
wise  political  policy  of  allowing  the  Jews  to 
return  to  their  own  land,  he  appointed  Ze- 
rubbabel,  as  the  legal  successor  to  the  throne, 
Persian  governor  of  Judah  (Ezra  i.  8  ;  Hag. 
ii.  21).  In  the  royal  decree  he  is  called  by 
his  Babylonian  name  Sheshbazzar  (Ezra  i.  8, 
cp.  11;  V.  14-16).  Supported  by  the  high 
priest  Jeshua,  and  other  dignitaries,  Zerub- 
babel  led  the  returning  captives  from  Baby- 
lon to  their  own  country  in  538  B.  c.  (Ezra 
ii.  ;  Neh.  vii. ;  xii.  1-9).  They  reared  an 
altar,  restored  the  feasts,  and  set  the  Levites 
again  to  their  appropriate  work  (Ezra  iii. 
1-9).  They  next  laid  the  foundations  of  the 
temple,  but  adversaries,  after  failing  to  make 
Zerubhabel  stop  proceedings,  acted  on  suc- 
cessive Persian  kings,  so  that  building  opera- 
tions ceased  till  the  .second  year  of  Darius 
Hystaspis  (iv.  1-24).  In  this  year  the 
prophet  Haggai,  speaking  in  the  name  of  the 
Lord,  strongly  counseled  the  resumption  of 
the  work  (Hag.  i.  2-11).  Zerubhabel  and 
his  advocates  gave  heed  to  the  exhortation 
and  recommenced  the  erection  of  the  holy 
house,  the  prophets  Haggai  and  Zechariah 
giving  them  great  spiritual  encouragement 
in  the  enterprise  (Ezra  v.  1,  2 ;  Hag.  i.  12-ii. 
23;  Zech.  iv.  1-14;  cp.  also  iii.).  The  build- 
ing was  completed  515  b.  c.  From  the  office 
Zerubhabel  held  when  the  second  temple 
was  built,  and  the  personal  interest  he  took 
in  its  erection,  it  is  often  called  Zerulibabel's 
temple.  His  governorship  continued  at  least 
till  515  B.  c.  How  much  longer  it  lasted  is 
unknown.  Zerubhabel  was  in  his  day  the 
representative  of  the  Davidic  monarchy  (Hag. 
ii.  20-23).  He  was  also  in  the  direct  line  of 
ancestry  of  our  Lord  (Mat.  i.  12.  13;  Luke 
iii.  27).' 

Ze-ru'iah  [cleft,  divided]. 

A  sister  of  David  (1  Chron.  ii.  16),  but 
probably,  like  her  sister  Abigail,  not  a 
daughter  of  Jesse,  but  a  daughter  of  David's 
mother  by  an  earlier  marriage  with  Nahash  (2 
Sam.  xvii.  25).  She  was  the  mother  of  Abishai, 
Joab,  and  Asahel  (ii.  18 ;  1  Chron.  ii.  16). 


Zetham 


799 


Ziklag 


Ze'tbam. 

A  Gei-jslioiiite  Levite,  house  of  Laadan  and 
soil  ofJehiel  (1  Chrou.  xxiii.  8  and  xxvi.  '2"^). 

Ze'than  [olive  tree  or  place  of  olives]. 

A  l>»  iijamite,  family  of  Jediael  (1  Chron. 
vii.  10). 

Ze'tLar. 

A  chamlierlaiu  at  the  court  of  Ahasuerus 
(Esth.  i.  lOJ. 

Zi'a  [motion,  terror]. 

A  Cladite,  probably  head  of  a  father's 
house  (1  Chron.  v.  13j. 

Zi'ba. 

A  servant  or  slave  of  king  Saul's.  He  had 
been  set  free  (Anticj.  vii.  5,  5),  perhaps  at  the 
time  of  Saul's  overthrow  by  the  Philistines, 
and  he  was  father  of  a  large  family  and  had 
acquired  slaves  (2  Sam.  ix.  10).  David  made 
him  and  his  sons  and  slaves  servants  to 
Mephibushcth,  Saul's  son,  and  ordered  them 
to  till  Meidiil.osheth's  lands  (9-12).  When 
David  was  compelled  to  flee  from  Jerusalem 
because  of  Absalom's  rebellion,  Ziba  ai)peared 
with  a  couple  of  asses  laden  with  provisions 
for  the  king,  and  stated  that  Mephiboshcth 
was  expecting  that  Israel  would  restore  Saul's 
kingdom  to  him.  Thereupon  David  trans- 
ferred Mephibosheth's  estates  to  Ziba  (xvi. 
1-4).  After  the  death  of  Absalom,  when  the 
king  was  returning  to  Jerusalem,  among 
those  who  went  to  the  Jordan  to  welcome 
him  back  was  Ziba  with  his  sons  and  slaves 
(xix.  17).  Jlephibosheth  also  went  to  meet 
the  king.  He  had  neglected  his  person,  as  a 
sign  of  sorrow,  during  the  king's  absence. 
and  now  he  declared  that  he  had  ordered 
his  ass  to  be  saddled  in  order  to  accompany 
David  on  his  flight;  but  Ziba  had  disobeyed 
his  orders  and  had  also  slandered  him  to  the 
king,  and  he  asked  David  to  do  what  seemed 
right.  David  replied  somewhat  crustily,  and 
ordered  half  of  the  estates  to  be  restored  to 
Mephibosheth.  and  the  rest  left  in  the  pos- 
session of  Ziba  (24-30). 

Zib'e-on  [dyed  or,  perhaps,  seizing  prey]. 

A  Hivite  (Gen.  xxxvi.  2  ;  if  the  text  should 
not  be  amended  to  Horite),  who  perhaps 
migrated  with  his  family  to  mount  Seir  and 
became  a  Horite  tribe  (20,  24),  organized 
under  a  chief  (29).  He  was  ancestor  of  a 
wife  of  Esau  (2,  25). 

Zib'i-a  [a  female  gazelle]. 

A  Benjamite,  son  of  Shaharaim  and  head 
of  a  father's  house  (1  Chron.  viii.  9). 

Zib'i-ah  [a  female  gazelle]. 

A  woman  of  Beer-sheba,  wife  of  Abaziah, 
and  mother  of  Jehoash,  king  of  Judah  (2 
Kin.   xii.  1). 

Zich'ri  [mindful,  famous]. 

1.  A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath,  house  of 
Izhar  (Ex.  vi.  21).  Zithri  in  this  verse  in 
many  editions  of  the  A.  Y.  is  a  modern  mis- 
print. 

2.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Shimei  (1  Chron. 
viii.  19). 


3.  A  Benjamite,  sou  of  Shashak  (1  CLron. 
viii.  23). 

4.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Jeroham  (1  C'bron. 
viii.  27). 

5.  A  Levite,  son  of  Asaph  (1  Chron.  ix.  15). 
In  all  probability  he  is  the  person  called 
Zaccur,  a  synonymous  name,  in  xxv.  2,  10; 
Neh.  xii.  35 ;  and  also  the  jier.sou  called 
Zabdi  in  xi.  17,  in  the  latter  instance  the 
letters  k,  anglicized  ch,  and  r  having  been 
misread  as  1)  and  d  ;  see  Bkth,  Dalktii. 

a.  A  Levite,  descended  from  Moses'  son, 
Eliezer  (1  Chron.  xxvi.  25). 

7.  A  Eeubeuite  (1  Chrou.  xxvii.  16). 

8.  A  man  of  Judah,  and  father  of  Aniasiah, 
a  captain  in  the  army  of  Jehoshaiihat  (2 
Chron.  xvii.  If!),  and  quite  possil)ly  of 
Elishaphat  who  aided  Jehoiada  in  overthrow- 
ing Athaliah  (2  Chrou.  xxiii.  1). 

9.  A  valiant  Ephraimite  in  Pekah's  army, 
who  slew  Maaseiab,  a  royal  prince,  and  two 
of  Ahaz'  chief  officers  (2  Chron.  xxviii.  7). 

10.  A  Benjamite  (Neh.  xi.  9). 

11.  A  priest,  head  of  the  father's  hou.se  of 
Abijah.  He  lived  in  the  days  of  the  high 
priest  Joiakim  (Neh.  xii.  17). 

Zid'dim  [sides]. 

A  fenced  city  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  xix.  35). 
The  Talmud  calls  the  place  Kefar  Chittai, 
which  has  led  to  locating  it  at  Hattin,  about 
5|  miles  west  by  north  of  Tiberias,  and  less 
than  a  mile  north  of  the  celebrated  Horns 
of  Hattin. 

Zid-ki'jah.     See  Zedekiah. 

Zi'don.     See  Sidon. 

Zif.     See  Ziv. 

Zi'ha  [sunniness,  drought]. 

Founder  or  possibly  only  the  liead  of  a 
family  of  Netliinim,  members  of  which  re- 
turned from  the  captivity  (Ezra  ii.  43  :  Neh. 
vii.  46 >.  If  he  was  identical  with  Ziba,  an 
overseer  of  the  Xethinim,  who  is  named  in 
Neh.  xi.  21,  the  family  was  of  recent  origin 
among  the  Nethinim,  and  small,  or  else  it 
was  an  older  family  named  from  its  present 
chief. 

Zik'lag. 

A  city  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  31),  as.signed  to  the  Simeonites 
(xix.  5;  1  Chron.  iv.  30).  In  tlie  time  of 
Saul  it  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Pliilistines, 
and  at  one  time  David  lield  it  as  the  vassal 
of  their  king,  Achisb  (1  Sam.  xxvii.  6  ;  1 
Chron.  xii.  1-22).  It  was  captured,  plun- 
dered, and  burnt  by  the  Amalckites.  but 
David  pursued  them,  recovered  the  spoil, 
and  sent  portions  of  it  to  many  other  towns 
(1  Sam.  XXX.  1-31  ;  2  Sam.  i.  1  ;  iv.  10).  The 
connection  of  David  with  Ziklag  detached 
it  permanently  from  the  Philistines,  and 
placed  it  under  the  kings  of  Judah  (1  Sam. 
xxvii.  6).  It  was  inhal)ited  after  the  captivity 
(Neh.  xi.  28).  Not  identified  ;  unless  its  site 
is  Zuheilikah,  a  ruin  discovered  by  Conder 
11  miles  east-southeast  of  Gaza.     Identifica- 


ZUlah 


800 


Ziph 


tion  with  'Asluj,  32  miles  south  of  Gaza,  has 
nothing  in  its  favor. 

Zillali  [a  shadow]. 

One  of  Lamech's  wives,  and  the  mother  of 
Tubal-oaiu  (Gen.  iv.  19,  22,  23). 

Zil'le-thai,  in  A.  V.  Zilthai. 

1.  A  Beujamite,  son  of  Shimei  (1  Chron. 
viii.  20). 

2.  A  Manassite,  captain  of  a  thousand 
men,  who  joined  t)avid  at  Ziklag  (1  Chron. 
xii.  20). 

Zil'pah  [dropping,  a  drop]. 

A  maidservant,  given  by  Laban  to  Leah 
on  her  marriage  with  Jacob  (Gen.  xxix.  24). 
At  Leah's  request,  she  became  his  secondary 
wife,  and  bore  to  him  Gad  and  Asher  (xxx. 
9-13). 

Zil'thai.     See  Zillethai. 

Zim'mah  [counsel,  device]. 

A  Gershonite  Levite,  son  of  Shimei,  and 
grandson  of  Jahath  (1  Chron.  vi.  20,  42,  43 ; 
and  perhaps  2  Chrou.  xxix.  12). 

Zim'ran  [probably  connected  with  the 
name  for  antelope]. 

A  son  or  rather  tribe  descended  from 
Abraham  and  Keturah  (Gen.  xxv.  2;  1 
Chron.  i.  32).  An  echo  of  the  name  has  been 
surmised  either  in  Zabram,  a  town  west  of 
Mecca,  on  the  Eed  Sea  (Ptol.  vi.  7,  5),  or  in 
Zamareni,  an  Arabian  tribe  (Pliny,  Hist. 
Nat.  vi.  32,  5). 

Zim'ri  [pertaining  to  an  antelope]. 

1.  Son  of  Zerah,  and  grandson  of  Judah  (1 
Chron.  ii.  6) ;  called  in  Josh.  vii.  1,  17,  18 
Zabdi  (q.  v.). 

2.  A  prince  of  the  tribe  of  Simeon.  He  was 
slain  at  Shittim  for  participating  with  the 
Midianites  in  licentious  idolatry  (Num.  xxv. 
14 ;  1  Mac.  ii.  26,  in  A.  V.  Zambri). 

3.  A  Benjamite,  a  descendant  of  Jonathan, 
Saul's  son  (1  Chron.  viii.  36;  ix.  42). 

4.  A  military  officer  who  commanded  half 
the  chariots  of  Elah,  king  of  Israel,  whom 
he  assassinated,  fulfilling  the  denunciation 
against  Baasha's  house  by  extirpating  it. 
Then  he  setup  for  himself  as  king  in  Tirzah. 
Israel  at  once  proclaimed  Omri,  the  comman- 
der-in-chief, king.  He  marched  against  the 
usurper,  and  captured  his  capital,  Tirzah. 
When  Zimri  saw  that  the  city  was  taken  he 
set  the  place  on  fire  and  perished  in  the 
flames.  His  reign,  which  lasted  only  a  week, 
fell  within  the  year  885  B.  c.  (1  Kin.  xvi. 
8-20).  It  has  been  suggested  that  he  may 
have  been  Saul's  descendant  (1  Chron.  viii. 
36),  seeking  to  regain  the  throne. 

5.  A  people  (Jer.  xxv.  25),  not  otherwise 
known.  They  may  have  been  descended 
from  Zimran,  but  there  is  no  certainty  in 
the  case. 

Zin  [dwarf  palm]. 

A  wilderness  traversed  by  the  Israelites  on 
their  way  to  Canaan.  It  was  close  to  the  south- 
ern boundary  of  that  land  (Num.  xiii.  21). 
Kadesh-barnea  was  within  its  limits  (xx.  1 ; 


xxvii.  14  ;  xxxiii.  36  ;  Dent,  xxxii.  51).  It  con- 
stituted the  limit  of  Edom  on  the  west  and 
of  Judah  on  the  southeast  (Josh.  xv.  1-3). 
It  was  either  a  part  of  the  wilderness  of 
Paran  or  marched  on  that  wilderness  at 
Kadesh.  It  is  not  the  same  place  as  the 
wilderness  of  Sin,  the  Hebrew  words  for  the 
two  being  quite  different. 

Zi'na.     See  Zizah. 

Zi'on  ;  in  Maccabees  Sion,  and  so  in  A.  V. 

of  N.  T.  always,  and  in  O.  T.  once  (Ps.  Ixv.  1) 
[a  dry,  .sunny  place  or  a  mound  or  even  a 
defense] . 

1.  Cue  of  the  hills  on  which  Jerusalem 
stood.  It  is  first  mentioned  in  the  O.  T.  as 
the  seat  of  a  Jebusite  fortress.  David  cap- 
tured this  stronghold  and  changed  its  name 
to  the  city  of  David  (2  Sam.  v.  7;  1  Chron. 
xi.  5).  Hither  he  brought  the  ark,  and  the 
hill  from  that  time  forth  became  sacred  (2 
Sam.  vi.  10-12).  The  ark  was  afterwards  re- 
moved by  Solomon  to  the  temple  which  he 
erected  on  mount  Moriah  (1  Kin.  viii.  1;  2 
Chron.  iii.  1 ;  v.  2).  From  the  last  two  of 
these  passages  it  is  plain  that  Zion  and 
Moriah  were  distinct  eminences.  For  the 
question  which  hill  was  known  as  Zion  see 
Jerusalem,  paragraph  on  topography. 

2.  After  the  building  of  the  temple  on 
mount  Moriah  and  the  transfer  of  the  ark  to 
it,  the  name  Zion  was  extended  to  compre- 
hend the  temple  (Is.  viii.  18 ;  xviii.  7  ;  xxiv. 
23;  Joel  iii.  17;  Mic.  iv.  7).  This  accounts 
for  the  fact  that  while  Zion  is  mentioned 
between  one  hundred  and  two  hundred  times 
in  the  O.  T.,  mount  Moriah  is  named  only 
once  (2  Chron.  iii.  1),  or  at  most  twice  (Gen. 
xxii.  2). 

3.  Zion  is  often  used  for  the  whole  of  Jeru- 
salem (2  Kin.  xix.  21  ;  Ps.  xlviii. ;  Ixix.  35; 
cxxxiii.  3  ;  Is.  i.  8  ;  iii.  16  :  iv.  3  ;  x.  24  ;  Iii.  1 ; 
Ix.  14). 

4.  In  the  Maccabfean  period  the  hill  on 
which  the  temple  stood,  as  distinct  from  the 
city  of  David  (1  Mac.  vii.  32,  33). 

5.  The  Jewish  church  aud  polity  (Ps. 
cxxvi.  1 :  cxxix.  5  ;  Is.  xxxiii.  14  ;  xxxiv.  8  ; 
aHx.  14;'  Iii.  8). 

6.  Heaven  (Heb.  xii.  22 ;  cp.  Eev.  xiv.  1). 

Zi'or  [smallness]. 

A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah,  near 
Hebron  (Josh.  xv.  54).  Robinson  suggested 
Sia'ir,  4|  miles  north-northeast  of  Hebron. 

Ziph. 

1.  A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  24).     Site  unknown. 

2.  A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  55),  near  a  wilderness  (1  Sam. 
xxiii.  14).  It  was  fortified  by  Rehoboam  (2 
Chron.  xi.  8).  Robinson  identified  it  with 
Zif,  a  ruin  on  a  low  ridge  between  two  small 
valleys,  4  miles  south  by  east  of  Hebron. 
The  wilderness  is  east  of  the  town,  and 
Tristram  says  that  it  is  very  hilly,  with 
narrow  valleys  of  rich  loam.     The  wood  ex- 


Ziphah 


801 


Zoar 


isted  as  late  as  the  time  of  the  f'rusaders, 
but  only  a  few  straggling  trees  now  reniaiu. 

3.  A  man  of  Judah,  house  of  Jehallelel  (1 
C'hri)n.  iv.  16). 

Zi'phah. 

A  mau  of  Judah,  house  of  Jahallelel  (1 
Chron.  iv.   16). 

Ziph'lms.     See  Ziphite. 

ZipL'i-on.     See  Zephox. 

Ziph'ites,  in  A.  Y.  once  ZipMms  (Ps.  liv. 
title). 

Natives  or  inhabitants  of  Ziph  2  (1  Sam. 
xxiii.  19;  xxvi.  1 ;  Ps.  liv.  title). 

Ziph'ron  [fragrance]. 

A  place  on  the  northern  boundary  line  of 
the  promised  laud  (Num.  xxxiv.  9).  Not 
identified. 

Zip'por  [a  small  bird,  a  sparrow]. 

Father  of  Balak,  king  of  Moab  (Num. 
xxii.  4,  10). 

Zip'po-rah  [a  small  bird,  a  sparrow]. 

A  daughter  of  Jethio.  priest  of  Midian. 
She  became  the  wife  of  Moses  (Exod.  ii.  21, 
22).  She  evidently  opposed  the  circumcision 
of  their  second  son  ;  but  when  the  family 
was  journeying  to  Egypt  and  her  husband's 
life  was  in  danger  on  account  of  that  breach 
of  the  covenant,  she  acquiesced  (Ex.  iv.  18- 
26) ;  see  Moses.  She  may  have  returned 
with  her  sons  to  her  father  at  this  time  ;  but 
quite  probably  they  accompanied  Moses  to 
Egypt,  and  after  the  exodus,  when  the  host 
of  Israel  was  slowly  approaching  mount  Sinai, 
were  sent  forward  to  visit  Jethro  and  in- 
form him  of  all  that  God  had  done  for  Moses 
and  for  the  Israelites,  how  that  the  Lord  had 
brought  Isi-ael  out  of  Egypt  (Ex.  xviii.  1). 
Jethro  returned  with  them  to  the  camp  at 
Eephidim  (2-6). 

Zith'ri.     See  Sithri  and  Zichri  1. 

Ziv,  in  A.  V.  Zif  [splendor  (of  flowers  in 
bloom)]. 

The  second  month  of  the  Jewish  year  (1 
Kin.  vi.  1,  37),  approximately  May.  Later  it 
was  commonly  called  lyar.     See  Ye.\e. 

Ziz  [brightness,  burnished  plate,  flower]. 

A  cliff  or  ascent  by  which  the  Moabites 
and  Ammonites  ascended  from  En-gedi 
toward  the  wilderness  of  Jeruel  and  Tekoa 
(2  Chron.  xx.  16;  cp.  2,  20).  Eobinson  be- 
lieves it  to  be  the  pass  up  from  En-gedi ; 
Tristram  and  Condcr  the  table-land  west  of 
En-gedi.  to  which  the  jiass  leads  up,  and  by 
which  it  is  commanded. 

Zi'za  [plenty,  fertility]. 

1.  A  Simeonite,  descended  from  Shemaiah 
(1  Cliron.  iv.  37). 

2.  A  son  of  Eehoboam,  bv  his  queen  Maacah 
(2  Chron.  xi.  20), 

Zi'zah  [plenty,  fertility]. 

A  Levite.    family  of   Clershom,    house  of 
Shimei  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  11).     In  ver.  10  the 
name  is  mistranscribed  Zina. 
51 


Zo'an    [Egyptian    T'a,   early  changed  to 

T'dti]. 

An  Egyptian  city  of  the  eastern  part  of 
the  delta,  on  the  Tanitic  branch  of  the  Nile, 
near  the  31st  degree  of  north  latitude.  It 
was  built  seven  years  later  than  Hebron, 
which  was  in  existence  in  Abraham's  life- 
time (Num.  xiii.  22).  Zoan  cxi.sted  at  least 
as  early  as  Kameri  IVpi  of  the  sixth  dynasty, 
whose  pyramid  remains.  The  earliest  kings 
of  the  twelfth  dynasty  made  it  their  capital 
in  order  to  check  invasions  from  the  east. 
The  shepherd  kings  fortified  it  and  retained 
it  as  the  capital.  After  their  expulsion  the 
city  was  neglected  for  several  centuries  ;  but 
it  was  again  raised  to  importance  by  Kamses 
II.  and  other  kings  of  the  nineteenth 
dynasty,  who  erected  buildings  and  fre- 
quently held  court  there.  The  new  town 
which  thus  grew  up  adjacent  to  the  ancient 
fortress  was  called  Pa-Ramses,  that  is  the  city 
of  Eamses.  Zoan  was  the  jdace  of  meeting 
between  Moses  and  Pharaoh  (Ps.  Ixxviii.  12, 
43).  It  was  still  an  important  city  in  the 
time  of  Isaiah  and  also  of  Ezekiel  (Is.  xix. 
11,  13;  cp.  xsx.  4;  Ezek.  xxx.  14).  Between 
the  days  of  Isaiah  and  Ezekiel,  it  was  cap- 
tured by  the  Assyrians.  The  city  was  known 
to  the  Greeks  as  Tanis.  It  has  lingered  on 
to  modern  times,  and  is  now  called  San. 
The  site  has  been  explored  under  the  aus- 
pices of  the  Egyptian  Exploration  Fund. 
The  remains  consist  of  a  temple  surrounded 
by  a  great  ring  of  mounds.  A  colossal  statue 
of  Eamses  II.  was  exhumed. 

Zo'ar  [littleness,  smallness  (Gen.  xix.  20, 
22)]. 

One  of  the  cities  of  the  plain,  and  appar- 
ently the  smallest  of  the  five  (Gen.  xix.  20, 
22).  The  plain  was  visible  from  mount  Nebo 
as  far  as  Zoar  (Dent,  xxxiv.  3).  Its  original 
name  was  Bela,  and  it  had  a  king,  one  of 
those  defeated  by  Chedorlaomer  (Gen.  xiii. 
10;  xiv.  2,  8).  When  threatened  judgment 
w'as  about  to  descend  on  the  guilty  cities.  Lot 
successfully  interceded  for  Zoar,  and  fled 
thither  from  the  catastrophe  (xix.  20-23).  A 
mountain  (or  at  least  high  laud)  rose  imme- 
diately behind  it,  with  a  cavern,  in  which 
Lot  aiid  his  two  daughters  dwelt  for  a  time 
(30).  Zoar  still  existed  in  the  days  of  Isaiah 
and  in  those  of  Jeremiah,  and,  from  their 
mentioning  it  in  connection  witli  Jloab.  it 
may  be  presumed  that  it  was  on  the  Moabite 
or  eastern  side  of  the  Dead  Sea  (Is.  xv.  5; 
Jer.  xlviii.  34  ;  cp.  also  Gen.  xix.  37).  In  the 
Maccabsean  period  it  belonged  to  an  Arabian 
kingdom  of  which  Petra  was  tlie  capital 
(Antiq.  xiii.  15,  4  ;  xiv.  1,  4).  It  stood  at 
the  southern  end  of  the  Dead  Sea  (War  iv. 
8,  4).  In  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  an  impor- 
tant point  on  the  road  from  Elath  to  Jerusa- 
lem, three  days'  journey  from  the  latter  city 
via  Hebron.  These  data  indicate  that  the 
site  was  not  on  a  spur  of  mount  Nebo 
(Tristram)  nor  even  on  the  Lisan,  the  penin- 


Zobah 


802 


Zuzim 


sula  which  projects  into  the  southern  waters 
of  the  Dead  Sea  (Robinson).  They  are  satis- 
fied by  assuming  that  Zoar  was  situated  near 
where  the  wady  el-'Alisy  opens  through  the 
Moabite  mountains  into  tlie  phiin,  about  2 
miles  from  the  southern  end  of  the  sea 
(Wetzstein). 

Zo'bah,  in  A.  V.  and  Hebrew  text  twice 
Zoba  (2  Sam.  x.  G,  8) ;  see  Aram  2  (3). 

Zo-be'bah  [gentle  movement]. 

Son  of  Hakkos,  a  man  of  Judah  (1  Chron. 
iv.  8). 

Zo'har  [brightness,  whiteness]. 

1.  Father  of  Ephron  the  Hittite  (Gen. 
xxiii.  8). 

2.  Son  of  Simeon  (Gen.  xlvi.  10).  Called 
also  Zerah  (Num.  xxvi.  13)  ;  see  Zerah. 

3.  A  man  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  iv.  7,  R.  V. 
margin) ;  see  Izhar. 

Zo'he-leth  [a  serpent  or  other  creeper]. 

A  stone  beside  En-rogel  (1  Kin.  i.  9).  Not 
identified.  Clermont-Ganneau  pointed  out 
that  the  ledge  of  rocks,  on  which  the  village 
of  Silwan  stands,  is  called  by  the  Arabs  Zeh- 
wele  or  Zahweileh,  which  is  like  an  altered 
form  of  Zoheleth.  But  the  Arabic  and  He- 
brew words  have  no  real  affinity,  it  is  ques- 
tionable whether  the  term  stone  would  have 
been  applied  to  a  clitf,  and  the  distance  of 
the  ledge  from  En-rogel  seems  too  great. 

Zo'hetb. 

A  son  of  Ishi,  registered  with  the  tribe  of 
Judah  (1  Chron.  iv.  20). 

Zo'phah  [expanse,  a  flask]. 

An  Asherite,  son  of  Helem  (1  Chron.  vii. 
35,  .36). 

Zo'phai.     See  Zuph. 

Zo'phar  [chirper]. 

A  Naamathite,  one  of  Job's  friends  (Job  ii. 
11;  xi.  1  ;  XX.  1;  xlii.  9). 

Zo'phim  [watchers]. 

A  field  on  the  top  of  Pisgah,  from  which 
Balaam  could  see  a  part  of  the  encampment 
of  the  Israelites  at  Shittim  (Num.  xxiii.  14). 
Conder  places  it  at  Tal'at  es-Safix,  in  the 
valley  separating  the  southeastern  point  of 
Pisgah  from  Luhith. 

Zo'rah,  in  A.  V.  once  Zoreah  (Josh.  xv. 
33),  once  Zareab  (Neh.  xi.  29)  [perhaps, 
stroke  or  scourge]. 

A  town  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv. 
33),  inhabited  by  the  Danites  (xix.  41). 
Manoah,  Samson's  father,  belonged  to  the 
place  (Judg.  xiii.  2),  and  Samson  was  buried 
near  the  town  (xvi.  31).     Some  of  the  five 


Danite  spies  and  of  the  warriors  who  subse- 
quently took  Laish  were  from  Zorah  (xviii. 
2,  8,  11).  The  town  was  fortified  by  Reho- 
boam  (2  Chron.  xi.  10).  It  was  inhabited 
after  the  captivity  (Neh.  xi,  29).  Its  site  is 
doubtless  Sur'ah,  on  the  north  side  of  the 
valley  of  Sorek,  2  miles  west-southwest  of 
Eshtaol. 

Zo'rath-ite,  in  A.  V.  once  Zareathite  (1 
Chron.  ii.  53). 

A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Zorah  (1  Chron. 
ii.  53;  iv.  2). 

Zo're-ah.     See  Zorah. 
Zo'rite. 

Either  tlie  same  as  Zorathite,  or  a  citizen 
of  some  unknown  place  (1  Chron.  ii.  54). 
Zo-rob'a-bel.    See  Zerubbabel. 

Zu'ar  [smallness]. 

Father  of  that  Netbaneel  who  was  prince 
of  the  tribe  of  Issachar  in  the  wilderness 
(Num.  i.  8;  ii.  5;  vii.  18,  23;  x.  15). 

Zuph  [honeycomb]. 

1.  A  Levite,  descended  from  Kohath.  and 
an  ancestor  of  the  prophet  Samuel  (1  Chron. 
vi.  35).  A  variant  form,  of  similar  meaning, 
is  Zophai  (26). 

2.  A  district  beyond  the  borders  of  Benja- 
min and  apparently  Ij-ing  to  the  south  of 
the  territory  of  that  tribe  (1  Sam.  ix.  4-6  ; 
X.  2).  It  may  have  received  its  name  from 
the  settlement  of  the  family  of  Zuph  there. 
See  further  in  connection  with  Ramah  2. 

Zur  [a  rock] . 

1.  A  king  of  Midian,  ally  or  vassal  of 
Sihon,  and  the  father  of  the  woman  Cozbi 
(Num.  XXV.  15).  He  was  killed  in  the  war 
of  extermination  waged  by  Moses  against 
the  Midianites  for  their  seduction  of  the  Is- 
raelites to  licentious  idolatry  (Num.  xxv.  15, 
18;  xxxi.  8;  Josh.  xiii.  21). 

2.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Jeiel  (1  Chron.  viii. 
30). 

Zu'ri-el  [God  is  a  rock] . 
A  Levite,  chief  of  the  Merarites  in   the 
wilderness  (Num.  iii.  35,  R.  V.). 

Zu-ri-shad'dai  [the  Almighty  is  a  rock]. 

Father  of  the  prince  of  the  Simeonites  in 
the  wilderness  (Num.  i.  6  ;  ii.  12  ;  vii.  36,  41 ; 
X.  19). 

Zu'zlm,  in  A.  V.  Zuzims. 

A  tribe  occupying  a  district  called  Ham, 
east  of  the  Jordan,  conquered  by  Chedorla- 
omer  (Gen.  xiv.  5).  Apparently  the  same  as 
Zanizummim. 


sA 


Mi 


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